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rr. 


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^  Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


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ANNUAL    REPORT 


OF 


THE   BOARD   OF   REGENTS 


OF  THE 


SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION, 


SHOWINO 


THE  OPERATIONS,  EXPENDITURES,  AND  CONDITION  OF  THE  INSTITUTION 

FOR  THE  YEAR  1867. 


WASHINGTON: 

OOYEBNMENT   PEINTINO   OFFIOK. 

1872. 


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'        LIBRARY        ^ 

OF    THE 

LELAND  STANFORD  JUNIOR 
UNIVERSITY.       . 


IN  THE  SENATE  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES, 

M4T  30.  1868. 
Resolved,  That  five  thousand  additional  copies  of  the  report  of  the  Smithsonian  Insti- 
tution for  the  year  eighteen  hundred  and  Axtj-seven  be  printed— three  thousand  for  the  use 
of  the  Senate,  and  two  thousand  for  the  Institution;  and  that  said  report  be  stereotyped: 
Provided^  That  the  aggregate  number  of  pages  of  said  report  shall  not  exceed  four  hundred 
and  fiflj,  without  illustrations  except  those  mmished  by  the  Institution. 


IN  THE  HOUSE  OF  REPRESENTATIVES, 

June  6, 1866. 
Resolved,  That  there  be  printed  five  thousand  extra  copies  of  the  report  of  the  Smithsonian 
Institution — three  thousand  for  the  use  of  the  House,  and  two  thousand  for  the  Institution-- 
and  that  the  same  be  stereotyped  at  the  expense  heretofore  provided  for. 


Congress  of  the  United  States,  in  the  House  of  Representatives, 
Forty-second  Congress,  Second  Session,  May  20,  1872. 
The  following  resolution,  originating  in  the  House  of  Representatives  on  the  23d 
instant,  has  this  day  been  concurred  in  by  the  Senate: 

Resolvedy  (tke  Senate  concurring,)  That  two  thousand  extra  copies  each  of  the  reports 
of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  of  which  the  stereotype-plates  are  now  in  the  Con- 
gressional Printing-office,  be  printed  for  distribution  by  the  Smithsonian  Institution 
to  libraries,  colleges,  and  public  establishments. 
Attest:  EDW.  McPHERSOX, 

Clerk, 


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LETTER 

OF  TBE 

SECRETARY  OF  THE  SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION, 

COMMUNICATING 

THE  ANNUAL  REPORT  OF  THE  OPERATIONS,  EXPENDITURES,  AND  CON- 
DITION OF  THE  INSTITUTION  FOR  THE  YEAR  1867. 


Smithsonian  Institution, 

Washington,  May  29,  1868. 
Sib  :  In  behalf  of  the  Board  of  Regents,  I  have  the  honor  to  sub- 
mit to  the  Congress  of  the  United  States  the  annual  report  of  the 
operations,  expenditures,  and  condition  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution 
for  the  year  1867. 

I  have  the  honor  to  be,  very  respectfully,  your  obedient  servant, 

JOSEPH  HENRY, 
Secretary  Smithsonian  Institution. 
Hon.  B.  P.  Wade, 

President  of  the  Senate. 
Hon.  S.  Colfax, 

Speaker  of  the  House  of  Representatives. 


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ANNUAL  REPORT  OF  THE  BOARD  OF  REGENTS 


OF  THE 


SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION, 

SHOWING 

THE  OPERATIONS,  EXPENDITURES,  AND  CONDITION  OF  THE  INSTITUTION 

FOR  THE  YEAR  1867. 


To  the  Senate  and  House  of  Bepresentatives : 

In  obedience  to  the  act  of  Congress  of  August  10,  1846,  establish- 
ing the  Smithsonian  Institution,  the  undersigned,  in  behalf  of  the 
Regents,  submit  to  Congress,  as  a  report  of  the  operations,  expendi- 
tures and  condition  of  the  Institution,  the  following  documents: 

1.  The' Annual  Report  of  the  Secretary,  giving  an  account  of  the 
operations  of  the  Institution  during  the  year  1867. 

2.  Reports  of  the  Executive  and  Building  Committees. 

3.  Proceedings  of  the  Board  of  Regents. 

4.  Appendix. 

Respectfully  submitted. 

S.  P.   CHASE,  Chancellor. 
JOSEPH  HENRY,  Secretary. 


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OFFICERS  OF  THE   SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION. 

MAY,  186& 


ANDREW  JOHNSON,  President  of  the  United  States,  ex  qffieio  presiding  officer  of 

the  Institution. 
SALMON  P.  CHASE,  ChanceUor. 

JOSEPH  HENRY,  Secretary. 
SPENCER  F.  BAIRD,  Assistant  Secretary. 
WILLIAM  J.  RHEES,  Chief  Clerk. 

RICHARD  WALLACH,     1 

RICHARD  DELAFIELD,  >  Executive  Committee. 

PETER  PARKER.  J 


REGENTS  OF  THE  INSTITUTION, 


B.  F.  WADE,  Vice-President  of  the  United  States. 

S.  P.  CHASE,  Chief  Justice  of  the  United  States. 

R.  WALLACH,  Mayor  of  the  city  of  Washington. 

L.  TRUMBULL,  member  of  the  Senate  of  the  United  States. 

G.  DAVIS,  member  ot  the  Senate  of  the  United  States. 

W.  P.  FESSENDEN,  member  of  the  Senate  of  the  United  States^ 

J.  A.  GARFIELD,  member  of  the  House  of  Representatives. 

L.  P.  POLAND,  member  of  the  House  of  Representatives. 

J.  V.  L.  PRUYN,  member  of  the  House  of  Representative^. 

WILLIAM  B.  ASTOR,  citizen  of  New  York. 

THEODORE  D.  WOOLSEY,  citizen  of  Connecticut. 

LOUIS  AGASSIZ,  citizen  of  Massachusetts. 

JOHN  MACLEAN,  citizen  of  New  Jersey. 

RICHARD  DELAFIELD,  citizen  of  Washington. 

PETER  PARKER,  citizen  of  Washington. 


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MEMBERS  EX-OFFICIO  OF  THE  INSTITUTIOH. 


ANDREW  JOHNSON,  President  of  the  United  States. 
B.  F.  WADE,  Vice-President  of  the  United  States. 
W.  H.  SEWARD,  Secretary  of  State. 
H.  Mcculloch,  Secretary  of  the  Treasury. 

Secretary  of  War. 
G.  WELLES,  Secretary  of  the  Navy. 
A.  W.  RANDALL,  Postmaster  General. 

Attorney  Gteneral. 
S.  P.  CHASE,  Chief  Justice  of  the  United  States. 

Commissioner  of  Patents. 
R.  WALLACH,  Mayor  of  Washington. 
O.  H.  BROWNING,*  Secretary  of  the  Interior. 

•Bonoraiy  member. 


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PROGRAMME  OP  ORGANIZATION 


SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION. 


[PEESENTED  IN  THE  FIRST  ANNUAL  REPORT  OF  THE  SECRETARY,  AND 
ADOPTED  BY  THE  BOARD  OF  REGENTS,  DECEMBER  13,  1847.] 


INTRODUOn:iON. 


General  coTisiderationa  which  should  serve  as  a  guide  in  adopting  a  Plan 

of  Organization. 

1.  Will  op  Smithson.  The  property  is  bequeathed  to  the  United 
States  of  America,  '*  to  found  at  Washington,  under  the  name  of  the 
Smithsonian  Institution,  an  establishment  for  the  increase  and  diflFu- 
sion  of  knowledge  among  men." 

2.  The  bequest  is  for  the  benefit  of  mankind.  The  government 
of  the  United  States  is  merely  a  trustee  to  carry  out  the  design  of 
the  testator. 

3.  The  Institution  is  not  a  national  establishment,  as  is  frequently 
supposed,  but  the  establishment  of  an  individual,  and  is  to  bear  and 
perpetuate  his  name. 

4.  The  objects  of  the  Institution  are,  1st,  to  increase,  and,  2d,  to 
diffuse  knowledge  among  men. 

5.  These  two  objects  should  not  be  confounded  with  one  another. 
The  first  is  to  enlarge  the  existing  stock  of  knowledge  by  the  addition 
of  new  truths;  and  the  second,  to  disseminate  knowledge,  thus  in- 
creased, among  men. 

6.  The  will  makes  no  restriction  in  favor  of  any  particular  kind  of 
knowledge;  hence  all  branches  are  entitled  to  a  share  of  attention. 

7.  Knowledge  can  be  increased  by  different  methods  of  facilitating 
and  promoting  the  discovery  of  new  truths;  and  can  be  most  exten- 
sively diffused  among  men  by  means  of  the  press . 

8.  To  effect  the  greatest  amount  of  good,  the  organization  should 
be  such  as  to  enable  the  Institution  to  produce  results,  in  the  way  of 
increasing  and  diffusing  knowledge,  which  cannot  be  produced  either 
at  all  or  so  eflSciently  by  the  existing  institutions  in  our  country. 

9.  The  organization  should  also  be  such  as  can  be  adopted  provi- 
sionally; can  be  easily  reduced  to  practice;  receive  modifications,  or 
be  abandoned,  in  whole  or  in  part,  without  a  sacrifice  of  the  funds. 


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8  PEOGEAMME   OP   OEGANIZATION. 

10.  Id  order  to  compensate^,  in  some  measure,  for  the  loss  of  time 
occasioned  by  the  delay  of  eight  years  in  establishing  the  Institution, 
a  considerable  portion  of  the  interest  which  has  accrued  should  be 
added  to  the  principal. 

11.  In  proportion  to  the  wide  field  of  knowledge  to  be  cultivated, 
the  funds  are  small.  Economy  should,  therefore,  be  consulted  in  the 
construction  of  the  building;  and  not  only  the  first  cost  of  the  edifice 
should  be  considered,  but  also  the  continual  expense  of  keeping  it  in 
repair,  and  o^  the  support  of  the  establishment  necessarily  connected 
with  it.  There  should  also  be  but  few  individuals  permanently  sup- 
ported by  the  Institution. 

12.  The  plan  and  dimensions  of  the  building  should  be  determined 
by  the  plan  of  the  organization,  and  not  the  converse. 

13.  It  should  be  recollected  that  mankind  in  general  are  to  be 
benefited  by  the  bequest,  and  that,  therefore,  all  unnecessary  expend- 
iture on  local  objects  would  be  a  perversion  of  the  trust. 

14.  Besides  the  foregoing  considerations,  deduced  immediately  from 
the  will  of  Smithson,  regard  must  be  had  to  certain  requirements  of 
the  act  of  Congress  establishing  the  Institution.  These  are,  a  library, 
a  museum,  and  a  gallery  of  art,  with  a  building  on  a  liberal  scale  to 
contain  them. 

SECTION  I. 

Plan  of  organization  of  the  Institution  in  accordance  tvith  the  foregoing 
deductions  from  the  toill  of  Smithson, 

To  INCREASE  KNOWLEDGE.      It  is  propOSCd — 

1.  To  stimulate  men  of  talent  to  make  original  researches,  by  offer- 
ing suitable  rewards  for  memoirs  containing  new  truths;  and, 

2.  To  appropriate  annually  a  portion  of  the  income  for  particular 
researches,  under  the  direction  of  suitable  persons. 

To  DIFFUSE  KNOWLEDGE.     It  is  proposed — 

1.  To  publish  a  series  of  periodical  reports  on  the  progress  of  the 
different  branches  of  knowledge;  and, 

2.  To  publish  occasionally  separate  treatises  on  subjects  of  general 
interest. 

DETAILS  OF  THE  PLAN  TO  INCREASE  KNOWLEDGE. 
I.  By  stimulating  researches. 

1.  Facilities  afforded  for  the  production  of  original  memoirs  on  all 
branches  of  knowledge. 

2.  The  memoirs  thus  obtained  to  be  published  in  a  series  of  vol- 
umes, in  a  quarto  form,  and  entitled  Smithsonian  Contributions  to 
Knowledge. 

3.  No  memoir  on  subjects  of  physical  science  to  be  accepted  for 
publication  which  does  not  furnish  a  positive  addition   to  human 


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PEOGEAMMB   OF   ORGANIZATION,  9 

knowledge,  resting  on  original  research;  and  all  unverified  specula- 
tions to  be  rejected . 

4.  Each  memoir  presented  to  the  Institution  to  be  submitted  for 
examination  to  a  commission  of  persons  of  reputation  for  learning  in 
the  branch  to  which  the  memoir  pertains  ;  and  to  be  accepted  for 
publication  only  in  case  the  report  of  this  commission  is  favorable. 

5.  The  commission  to  be  chosen  by  the  oflScers  of  the  Institution, 
.nd  the  name  of  the  author,  as  far  as  practicable,  concealed,  unless 
a  favorable  decision  is  made. 

6.  The  volumes  of  tbe  memoirs  to  be  exchanged  for  the  trans- 
actions of  literary  and  scientific  societies,  and  copies  to  be  given  to 
all  the  colleges  and  principal  libraries  in  this  country.  One  part  of 
the  remaining  copies  may  be  oflFered  for  sale,  and  the  other  carefully 
preserved,  to  form  complete  sets  of  the  work,  to  supply  the  demand 
from  new  institutions. 

7 .  An  abstract,  or  popular  account,  of  the  contents  of  these  memoirs 
to  be  given  to  the  public  through  the  annual  report  of  the  Regents  to 
Congress. 

II.  By  appropriating  a  part  of  the  iricome^  annually^  to  special  objects 
of  research^  under  the  direction  of  suitable  persons. 

1.  The  objects  and  the  amount  appropriated,  to  be  recommended 
by  counsellors  of  the  Institution. 

2.  Appropriations  in  different  years  to  different  objects;  so  that  in 
course  of  time  each  branch  of  knowledge  may  receive  a  share. 

3.  The  results  obtained  from  these  appropriations  to  be  published, 
with  the  memoirs  before  mentioned,  in  the  volumes  of  the  Smith- 
sonian Contributions  to  Knowledge. 

4.  Examples  of  objects  for  which  appropriations  may  be  made. 
(1.)  System  of  extended  meteorological  observations   for  solving 

the  problem  of  American  storms. 

(2.)  Explorations  in  descriptive  natural  history,  and  geological, 
magnetical,  and  topographical  surveys,  to  collect  materials  for  the 
formation  of  a  Physical  Atlas  of  the  United  States. 

(3.)  Solution  of  experimental  problems,  such  as  a  new  determina- 
tion of  the  weight  of  the  earth,  of  the  velocity  of  electricity,  and  of 
light;  chemical  analyses  of  soils  and  plants;  collection  and  publica- 
tion of  scientific  facts  accumulated  in  the  oflBces  of  government. 

(4.)  Institution  of  statistical  inquiries  with  reference  to  physical, 
moral,  and  political  subjects. 

(5.)  Historical  researches,  and  accurate  surveys  of  places  cele- 
brated in  American  history. 

(6.)  Ethnological  researches,  particularly  with  reference  to  the 
different  races  of  men  in  North  America  ;  also,  explorations  and  ac- 
curate surveys  of  the  mounds  and  other  remains  of  the  ancient  people 
of  our  country. 


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10  PROGRAMME    OF   OROANIZATIOlf. 

DETAILS  OF  THE  PLAN  FOR  DIFFUSING  KNOWLEDGE. 

I.  By  the  publication  of  a  series  of  reports^  giving  an  a^ccount  of  the  new 
discoveries  in  science,  and  of  the  changes  made  from  year  to  year  in 
all  branches  of  knowledge  not  strictly  professional. 

1.  These  reports  will  diffuse  a  kind  of  knowledge  generally  in- 
teresting, but  which,  at  present,  is  inaccessible  to  the  public.  Some 
of  the  reports  may  be  published  annually,  others  at  longer  intervals, 
as  the  income  of  the  Institution  or  the  changes  in  the  branches  of 
knowledge  may  indicate. 

2.  The  reports  are  to  be  prepared  by  collaborators  eminent  in  the 
different  branches  of  knowledge. 

3.  Each  collaborator  to  be  furnished  with  the  journals  and  publi- 
cations, domestic  and  foreign,  necessary  to  the  compilation  of  his 
report  ;  to  be  paid  a  certain  sum  for  his  labors,  and  to  be  named  on 
the  title-page  of  the  report. 

4.  The  reports  to  be  published  in  separate  parts,  so  that  persons 
interested  in  a  particular  branch  can  procure  the  parts  relating  to  it 
without  purchasing  the  whole. 

5.  These  reports  may  be  presented  to  Congress,  for  partial  distri- 
bution, the  remaining  copies  to  be  given  to  literary  and  scientific  in- 
stitutions, and  sold  to  individuals  for  a  moderate  price. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  subjects  which  may  be  embraced  in 
the  reports:* 

I.  PHYSICAL  CLASS. 

1.  Physics,  including  astronomy,  natural  philosophy,  chemistry, 
and  meteorology. 

2.  Natural  history,  including  botany,  zoology,  geology,  Ac. 

3.  Agriculture. 

4.  Application  of  science  to  arts. 

II.  MORAL  AND  POLITICAL  CLASS. 

5.  Ethnology,  including  particular  history,  comparative  philology, 
antiquities,   &c. 

6.  Statistics  and  political  economy. 

7.  Mental  and  moral  philosophy. 

8.  A  survey  of  the  political  events  of  the  world;  penal  reform,  &c. 

in.  LITERATURE  AND  THE  FINE  ARTS. 

9.  Modern  literature. 

10.  The  fine  arts,  and  their  application  to  the  useful  arts. 

11.  Bibliography. 

12.  Obituary  notices  of  distinguished  individuals. 

II.  By  the  publication  of  separate  treatises  on  subjects  of  general  interest. 

1 .  These  treatises  may  occasionally  consist  of  valuable  memoirs 
translated  from  foreign  languages,  or  of  articles  prepared  under  the 

*  This  part  of  the  plan  has  been  but  partially  carried  out. 

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PROORAMME   OF   ORGANISATION.  1] 

direction  of  tbe  InetitntioD,  or  procured  by  offering  premiums  for  the 
best  exposition  of  a  given  subject. 

2.  The  treatises  should,  in  all  cases,  be  submitted  to  a  commission 
of  competent  judges,  previous  to  their  publication. 

3.  As  examples  of  these  treatises,  expositions  may  be  obtained  of 
the  present  state  of  the  several  branches  of  knowledge  mentioned  in 
the  table  of  reports. 

SECTION  II. 

Plan  of  organization^  in  accordance  tvith  the  terms  of  the  resolutions  of 
the  Board  of  Begents  providing  for  the  two  modes  of  increasing  and 
diffusing  knowledge, 

1.  The  act  of  Congress  establishing  the  Institution  contemplated 
the  formation  of  a  library  and  a  museum  ;  and  the  Board  of  Regents, 
including  these  objects  in  the  plan  of  organization,  resolved  to  divide 
the  income*  into  two  equal  parts. 

2.  One  part  to  be  appropriated  to  increase  and  diffuse  knowledge 
by  means  of  publications  and  researches,  agreeably  to  the  scheme 
before  given.  The  other  part  to  be  appropriated  to  the  formation 
of  a  library  and  a  collection  of  objects  of  nature  and  of  art. 

3.  These  two  plans  are  not  incompatible  with  one  another. 

4.  To  carry  out  the  plan  before  described,  a  library  will  be  re- 
quired, consisting,  Ist,  of  a  complete  collection  of  the  transactions 
and  proceedings  of  all  the  learned  societies  in  the  world;  2d,  of  the 
more  important  current  periodical  publications,  and  other  works 
necessary  in  preparing  the  periodical  reports. 

5.  Tbe  Institution  should  make  special  collections,  particularly  of 
objects  to  illustrate  and  verify  its  own  publications. 

6.  Also,  a  collection  of  instruments  of  research  in  all  branches  of 
experimental  science. 

7.  With  reference  to  the  collection  of  books,  other  than  those 
mentioned  above,  catalogues  of  all  the  different  libraries  in  the 
United  States  should  be  procured,  in  order  that  the  valuable  books 
first  purchased  may  be  such  as  are. not  to  be  found  in  the  United 
States. 

8.  Also,  catalogues  of  memoirs,  and  of  books  and  other  materials, 
should  be  collected  for  rendering  the  Institution  a  centre  of  biblio- 
graphical knowledge,  whence  the  student  may  be  directed  to  any 
work  which  he  may  require. 

9.  It  is  believed  that  the  collections  in  natural  history  will  increase 
by  donation  as  rapidly  as  the  income  of  the  Institution  can  make  pro- 
vision for  their  reception,  and,  therefore,  it  will  seldom  be  necessary 
to  purchase  articles  of  this  kind. 

10.  Attempts  should  be  made  to  procure  for  the  gallery  of  art 
casts  of  the  most  celebrated  articles  of  ancient  and  modern  sculpture, 

*  The  amoant  of  the  Smithsonian  bequest  received  into  the  Treasury  of  the 

United  States  is $515,169  00 

Interest  on  the  same  to  July  1,  1846,  (devoted  to  the  erection  of  the  building)    242, 129  00 
Anmtal  income  from  the  bequest 30,910  14 


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12  PROGRAMME   OF   ORGANIZATION. 

11.  The  arts  may  be  encouraged  by  providing  a  room,  free  of  ex- 
pense, for  the  exhibition  of  the  objects  of  the  Art-Union  and  other 
similar  societies. 

12.  A  small  appropriation  should  annually  be  made  for  models  of 
antiquities,  such  as  those  of  the  remains  of  ancient  temples,  &c. 

1.3.  For  the  present,  or  until  the  building  is  fully  completed,  be- 
sides the  Secretary,  no  permanent  assistant  will  be  required,  except, 
one,  to  act  as  librarian. 

14.  The  Secretary,  by  the  law  of  Congress,  is  alone  responsible  to 
the  Regents.  He  shall  take  charge  of  the  building  and  property, 
keep  a  record  of  proceedings,  discharge  the  duties  of  librarian  and 
keeper  of  the  museum,  and  may,  with  the  consent  of  the  Regents, 
employ  assistants. 

15.  The  Secretary  and  his  assistants,  during  the  session  of  Con- 
gress, will  be  required  to  illustrate  new  discoveries  in  science,  and 
to  exhibit  new  objects  of  art.  Distinguished  individuals  should  also 
be  invited  to  give  lectures  on  subjects  of  general  interest. 


This  programme,  which  was  at  first  adopted  provisionally,  has  be- 
come the  settled  policy  of  the  Institution  The  only  material  change 
is  that  expressed  by  the  following  resolutions,  adopted  January  15, 
1855,  viz: 

Resdved^  That  the  7th  resolution  passed  by  the  Board  of  Regents, 
on  the  26th  of  January,  1847,  requiring  an  equal  division  of  the 
income  between  the  active  operations  and  the  museum  and  library, 
when  the  buildings  are  completed,  be,  and  it  is  hereby,  repealed. 

Resolved^  That  hereafter  the  annual  appropriations  shall  be  appor- 
tioned specifically  among  the  diflFerent  objects  and  operations  of  tne 
Institution,  in  such  manner  as  may,  in  the  judgment  of  the  Regents, 
be  necessary  and  proper  for  each,  according  to  its  intrinsic  import- 
ance and  a  compliance  in  good  faith  with  the  law. 


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REPORT 

OP 

THE  SECEETAET,  PEOEESSOR  HEMT, 

FOR 

18  6  7. 


To  the  Board  of  BegerUa  of  the  Smithsonian  InstittUion : 

Gentlemen:  The  close  of  the  year  1866  completed  thd  second  de- 
cade of  the  actual  operations  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution.  It  was 
chartered  in  August,  1846;  though  but  little  more  was  accomplished 
daring  that  year  than  a  discussion  of  plans,  and  the  appointment  of 
the  Secretary,  the  principal  executive  officer. 

On  thus  commencing  a  new  decade  in  the  history  of  the  Institu- 
tion, we  may  pause  a  few  moments  to  recall  some  facts  relative  to 
the  character,  the  acceptance,  and  the  administration  of  the  endow- 
ment of  Smithson,  which  it  is  important  always  to  keep  in  view.  This 
will  be  evident  when  we  reflect  on  the  changeable  character  of  the 
bodies  constituting  the  guardians  of  the  trust.  Not  a  single  Regent 
on  the  list  of  those  originally  appointed  is  now  a  member  of  the  board, 
and  indeed,  with  perhaps  one  single  exception,  all  the  members  of 
Congress  and  the  principal  officers  of  the  general  government  have  been 
changed,  and  in  some  cases  many  times  in  succession.  Under  these 
circumstances  it  becomes  desirable  that  frequent  reference  should  be 
had  to  the  original  principles  on  which  the  Institution  was  founded, 
as  well  as  to  those  on  which  its  affairs  are  now  conducted. 

The  endowment  was  one  of  no  ordinary  character;  it  was  confided 
to  our  government  not  by  one  of  its  own  citizens,  but  by  a  distin- 
guished foreigner,  the  scion  of  an  ancient  house  renowned  for  its 
achievements  in  English  history.  It  was  not  given  in  trust  to  our 
government  to  be  disposed  of  for  the  exclusive  benefit  of  a  portion 
of  our  own  people,  or  even  for  that  of  the  whole  nation,  but  in  behalf 
of  the  general  family  of  mankind,  for  the  benefit  of  men  of  all  coun- 

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14  REPORT  OP  THE   SECEETARY. 

tries  and  of  all  times.  It  was  not  restricted  in  eflfect  to  the  diflTusion 
of  a  knowledge  of  old  truths,  but  primarily  designed  for  the  exten- 
sion of  the  boundaries  of  thought  by  the  promotion  of  the  discovery 
of  new  powers  of  nature,  of  new  principles  and  new  laws  of  the  uni- 
verse. Nor  was  the  acceptance  of  the  trust  an  ordinary  occurrence. 
It  became  a  constitutional  question  whether  the  Congress  of  the 
United  States  was  legally  authorized  to  assume  the  responsibility  and 
discharge  the  duty  of  a  trustee  for  such  a  purpose;  nor  was  it  until 
after  the  expression  of  many  doubts  as  to  the  result,  that  the  accept- 
ance was  finally  resolved  on.  Again,  one  of  our  most  distinguished 
citizens,  Hon.  Richard  Rush,  who  had  previously  represented  our 
government  at  the  court  of  St.  James,  was  chosen  as  the  agent  to 
effect  a  transfer  of  the  funds  to  this  country,  and  this  he  was  enabled 
to  do  without  the  delay  of  protracted  legal  proceedings,  through  the 
courtesy  of  the  court  of  chancery  in  granting  a  decree  to  that  effect, 
after  a  mere  formal  suit  to  satisfy  the  requirements  of  law. 

A  trust  of  so  novel  a  character,  confided  by  a  prominent  citizen  of 
England,  not  to  his  own  government,  but  to  that  of  the  United  States, 
could  not  fail  to  attract  general  attention  and  place  in  a  conspicuous 
light  before  the  world,  the  integrity,  intelligence  and  executive 
ability  of  the  party  accepting  an  office  of  so  much  responsibility  and 
difficulty  as  that  of  the  trustee  of  this  endowment. 

The  obligation  became  more  impressive  in  consideration  of  the 
fact  that  the  trust  was  accepted  after  the  decease  of  him  by  whom  it 
was  confided,  and  who  could,  therefore,  give  no  further  indications  of 
his  intentions  than  those  expressed  in  the  terms  of  his  will .  It  was, 
consequently,  of  thefirstimportance  that  these  terms  should  be  critically 
studied,  logically  interpreted,  and  the  intentions  deduced  from  them 
be  strictly  followed.  Unfortunately,  however,  at  the  time  the  be- 
quest Was  accepted,  the  public  at  large  were  so  little  acquainted  with 
the  distinctions  of  science,  or  so  little  regardful  of  the  precise  ideas 
to  be  attached  to  the  terms  which  it  employs,  that  it  is  scarcely  a 
matter  of  surprise  that  the  intention  of  Smithson,  as  expressed  by  the 
words  **for  the  increase  and  diffusion  of  knowledge  among  men'' 
should  have  been  misinterpreted,  and  that  the  act  of  Congress  organ- 
izing the  Institution  should  include  provisions  which  have  since  been 
generally  recognized  as  incompatible  with  the  leading  objects  of  the 
bequest. 

It  ie,  however,  a  sacred  duty  on  the  part  of  the  government, 
which  it  owes  to  its  own  character  for  candor  and  equity,  to  cor- 
rect, as  far  as  possible,  any  errors  which  misapprehension  or  inad- 


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BEPOBT   OF  THE   SECBETABT.  15 

vertence  may  have  engrafted  on  its  legislation,  and  to  remove  any 
burdens  which  may  have  been  injuriously  imposed  on  the  endow- 
ment; and  we  doubt  not  from  what  has  been  done  in  the  last  few 
years,  that  Congress  will  in  due  time  fully  vindicate  the  integrity  of 
its  purposes,  and  enable  the  legacy  of  Sraithson  to  perform  all  the 
good  which  his  most  ardent  desire  could  have  anticipated. 

It  has  been  evident  from  the  first  that  it  was  the  intention  of  Con- 
gress to  deal  not  only  justly  but  liberally  with  the  Institution.  It 
restored  the  fund  with  interest  when  temporarily  lost  by  a  loan  to 
one  of  the  western  States,  and  provided  for  its  subsequent  security 
by  declaring  it  forever  a  deposit  in  the  treasury  of  the  United  Stales, 
on  which  six  per  cent,  interest,  payable  semi-annually,  should  be 
allowed.  It  furnished  from  the  public  domain  grounds  for  a  spacious 
park,  as  well  as  a  site  for  a  large  building;  and  to  increase,  as  it  was 
thought,  its  popularity,  the  new  Institution  was  made  the  custodian  of 
the  national  museum.  These  acts,  though  prompted  by  a  liberal 
spirit,  proceeded  on  the  erroneous  idea  then  prevalent,  that  the  inten- 
tions of  Smithson  could  be  properly  carried  out  by  an  institution  con- 
sisting of  objects  of  a  material  and  local  character.  Fortunately,  how- 
ever. Congress  did  not  restrict  the  expenditure  of  the  income  of  the 
fund  to  these,  but  allowed  the  Regents  at  their  discretion  to  devote  a 
porti.on  of  it  in  such  other  manner  as  in  their  opinion  might  be  best 
fitted  to  carry  out  the  intentions  of  the  donor. 

After  much  deliberation,  with  a  view  to  reconcile  conflicting  opin- 
ions, an  arrangement  was  effected  by  which  two  distinct  systems 
were  provisionally  adopted.  The  first  of  these  which  was  included 
in  the  law  of  organization,  contemplated  the  expenditure  of  the  in- 
come in  the  formation  and  embellishment  of  an  extensive  park,  or 
pleasure  ground,  in  which  rare  and  ornamental  trees  and  shrubs  of 
difierent  species  should  be  cultivated;  in  the  erection  and  mainte- 
nance of  a  castellated  building,  which,  from  its  dimensions  and  im- 
posing architectural  design,  should  be  an  ornament  to  the  city  and  a 
monument  to  the  founder;  in  the  formation  of  a  gallery  of  art  in  which 
should  be  exhibited  choice  specimens  of  painting,  sculpture  and  en- 
graving; in  the  establishment  of  a  library  consisting  of  works  on  all 
subjects;  and,  finally,  in  the  support  of  a  national  museum  containing 
the  collections  of  the  United  States  Exploring  Expedition,  and  all  the 
specimens  that  might  be  accumulated  from  other  sources  for  the  illus- 
tration of  all  branches  of  natural  history,   geology,  ethnology,  etc. 

The  objects  included  in  this  system  are  all  in  themselves  highly 
interesting  and  very  desirable  for  the  embellishment  and  intellectual 
improvement  of  the  capital  of  the  United  States,  but  they  are  not  in 


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16  REPORT   OF  THE   8ECBETABT« 

accordance  with  the  will  of  Smithson,  and  fail  entirely  to  realize  his 
higher  and  more  comprehensive  conceptions.  They  do  not  serve  to 
•increase  knowledge,"  or,  in  other  words,  to  add  new  truths  to  the 
existing  stock;  nor  do  they  **diflfu8e  knowledge  among  men,"  since 
they  are  local  in  character,  and  fail  to  promote  the  general  welfare 
of  mankind.  Neither  could  they  all  be  properly  supported  from  the 
limited  income  of  the  Smithson  bequest.  A  library,  and  more 
especially  a  museum,  worthy  of  the  nation,  would,  either  of  them, 
in  time,  absorb  the  whole  of  the  annual  income. 

The  other  system,  above  referred  to,  or  that  which  has  been 
denominated  the  system  of  active  operations,  was  suggested  by  the 
desire  to  strictly  realize  the  intentions  of  Smithson,  both  as  regards 
the  increase  and  the  diflFusion  of  knowledge;  and  this  it  was  proposed 
to  eflfect  by  instituting  experiments  or  researches  in  all  departments 
of  science;  by  making  explorations  relative  to  geology,  natural  his- 
tory, ethnology,  and  meteorology,  and  by  diflFusing  an  account  of  the 
results  of  all  these,  through  the  press,  to  every  quarter  of  the  globe. 
It  further  includes  in  its  design  the  collection  and  labelling  of  large 
numbers  of  duplicate  specimens,  to  illustrate  the  branches  above 
mentioned,  not  merely  to  be  deposited  in  a  national  museum,  but, 
also,  to  be  distributed  to  colleges,  academies,  and  other  establish- 
ments, for  educational  purposes;  and,  lastly,  embraces  in  its  plan  an 
extended  arrangement  for  international  exchanges,  through  which 
the  discoveries  of  science  and  the  products  of  literature  of  the  old 
and  new  worlds,  become  the  common  elements  of  intellectual  pro- 
gress. This  system,  which  is  immediately  suggested  to  those  familiar 
with  scientific  language,  by  the  terms  of  the  bequest,  is  a  living, 
active  organization,  calculated  to  produce,  unceasingly,  results  of 
which  the  value  will  everywhere  be  known  and  be  properly  appre- 
ciated. It  was  not,  however,  adopted,  even  provisionally,  as  a 
prominent  feature  of  the  organization  without  strenuous  opposition, 
particularly  on  the  part  of  the  advocates  of  the  proposition  to  apply 
the  Smithson  endowment  to  found  a  national  library.  Indeed  the 
ideas  which  it  involved  were  in  advance  of  the  times.  That  an 
institution  could  be  established  which  might  have  an  important  bear- 
ing on  the  welfare  of  the  world  without  the  adventitious  aid  of  pal- 
pable objects,  was  not  generally  comprehended. 

But  though  restricted  in  its  operations  by  limited  resources  and 
subjected  to  popular  opposition,  the  system  has  proved  in  its  opera- 
tion to  be  eminently  practical,  and  has  established  for  the  Institution 
a  reputation  as  wide  as  civilization  itself.  It  has  connected  the  name 
of  Smithson  with  the  progress  of  almost  every  branch  of  science,  and 


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BEPOBT  OP  THE   8ECEETARY.  17 

has  thus  furnished  the  means  of  perpetuating  his  memory  far  more 
effectually  than  could  be  done  by  architectural  or  other  local  monu- 
ments, however  ample  in  dimensions  or  comprehensive  in  desrgn. 

Instead  of  being,  as  has  been  supposed,  adverse  or  neutral  as 
regards  the  interests  of  the  city  of  Washington,  it  has  given  it  a 
reputation  as  a  centre  of  scientific  operations,  and  has  led  to  a  series 
of  improvements  which,  in  time,  cannot  do  otherwise  than  promote 
its  renown  and  add  to  its  prosperity.  It  does  not  oppose  an  antago- 
nism to  the  local  objects  before  mentioned,  but  seeks  to  establish 
them  on  a  more  liberal  scale  by  other  instrumentalities.  While  it  has 
distributed  its  publications  and  specimens  with  unprecedented  liber- 
ality, it  has  been  fully  repaid  with  articles  of  a  similar  character. 
Through  its  exchanges  it  has  collected  a  library  of  scientific  refer- 
ence superior  to  an}^  in  this  country,  and  equal  to  any  wliich  can  be 
found  abroad .  As  soon  as  Congress  shall  furnish  the  means  of  support- 
ing a  national  museum,  it  will  supply  this  with  all  the  foreign  and 
domestic  specimens  necessary  for  comparison  and  illustration. 

The  two  systems,  at  first  carried  on  harmoniously,  though  in  a 
limited  way  and  not  without  mutual  embarrassment,  were  soon 
found  in  practice  to  be  radically  incompatible  with  each  other.  As 
it  was  impossible  suitably  to  control  the  expenditure  on  the  local 
objects,  it  has  been  the  constant  policy  of  the  Directory  of  the  Insti- 
tution to  obtain  relief  from  these  burdens.  It  was  in  accordance  with 
this  that  the  government  was  solicited  to  resume  the  care  of  the 
grounds,  on  which  had  been  expended  annually  a  considerable  por- 
tion of  the  income,  and  to  make  these  grounds  part  of  a  general 
park  extending  from  the  Capitol  to  the  Potomac.  It  was  for  this 
purpose  that  the  Institution  was  instrumental  in  procuring  the  ser- 
vices of  Mr.  Downing,  whose  plan  of  the  grounds  in  question  would 
have  been  completed  had  not  the  work  been  interrupted  by  his  un- 
timely death.  This  work,  we  trust,  will  soon  be  resumed  under 
more  favorable  auspices. 

It  was  also  in  accordance  with  the  policy  under  consideration  that 
the  valuable  library  which,  from  its  rapid  increase  by  exchanges,  had 
already  exceeded  the  means  at  the  disposal  of  the  Institution  for  its 
support,  was  incorporated  with  that  of  Congress. 

Happily  the  necessity  for  supporting  a  gallery  of  art  has  been  ob- 
viated by  the  enlightened  munificence  of  a  citizen  of  Washington,  W. 
W.  Corcoran,  esq.,  who  has  erected  a  building  and  made  provision 
for  the  support  of  such  an  establishment  to  which  the  collections  in 
this  department  already  formed  by  the  Institution  may  be  trans- 
ferred. 

2s6T 

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18  EEPORT  OP  THE   SECRETARY. 

The  next  important  desideratum  is  the  relief  of  the  fund  of  Smith- 
son  from  the  greatest  of  all  the  burdens  which  have  been  imposed 
upon  it,  that,  namely,  of  the  expense  involved  in  the  care  and  exhibition 
of  the  national  museum.  For  carrying  on  the  active  operations  a 
building  not  to  exceed  a  cost  of  seventy -five  thousand  dollars  would 
have  been  amply  sufficient,  both  in  regard  to  the  accommodations  neces- 
sarily required  and  the  architectural  embellishments  which  might  be 
thought  requisite  for  such  a  structure;  while  the  present  building,  the 
erection  of  which  was  especially  urged  on  the  ground  of  the  necessity  of 
providing  accommodations  on  a  liberal  scale  for  a  national  museum 
and  library,  has  cost  to  the  present  time  $450,000,  or,  in  other  words, 
besides  the  $240,000  of  accrued  interest  originally  appropriated  to 
the  building,  an  outlay  of  not  less  than  ten  thousand  dollars  annually 
for  twenty  years  has  been  devoted  to  the  same  purpose,  and  this  ex- 
penditure must,  without  the  relief  desired,  be  not  only  continued 
but  increased  for  years  to  come. 

Though  great  advances  have  been  made  in  the  favor  with  which 
the  Institution  is  regarded  by  the  public,  and  the  increased  facilities 
which  have  been  aCForded  by  the  transfer  of  the  objects  we  have 
mentioned  to  the  care  of  government,  yet  the  absorption  of  the  income 
by  the  museum  and  the  building  is  so  great  and  accelerative  that 
unless  Congress,  in  justice  to  the  trust,  takes  upon  itself  the  charge 
of  these  objects  or  provides  for  their  maintenance  the  active  opera- 
tions must  be  greatly  diminished  in  efficiency,  if  not  ultimately 
abandoned.  The  reputation  of  the  Institution  and  of  the  country  is 
however  too  much  involved  in  the  continuance  of  the  active  operations 
to  allow  them  to  be  abolished  or  even  restricted.  Every  academy,  every 
college,  every  lyceum  in  the  United  States,  as  well  as  all  the  literary 
and  scientific  institutions  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  even  those  of  Africa 
and  Australia,  are  interested  in  the  continued  success  of  the  system. 
Furthermore,  it  be  truly  said  that  to  devolve  the  care  of  a  national 
museum  on  the  Smitbson  fund  is  not  only  an  act  of  injustice  to  the 
bequest,  but  is  at  once  injurious  to  the  reputation  of  the  institution 
and  that  of  the  government,  since  the  means  which  the  former  can 
devote  to  this  purpose  after  defraying  other  expenses  are  entirely  inade- 
quate to  the  support  of  a  museum  entitled  to  the  name  of  ^'national." 
A  public  museum,  properly  organized  as  a  means  of  popular  educa- 
tion, or  as  an  aid  to  the  advancement  of  science,  should  not  only  be 
furnished  with  extensive  apartments  for  the  proper  accommodation 
and  exhibition  of  the  articles,  to  be  increased  from  time  to  time,  but 
it  should  also  be  provided  with  several  professors,  each  learned  in  a 
special  branch  of  general  natural  history.     So  extended  have  these 

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BEPOBT  OF  THE  8ECBETABT.  19 

departments  of  science  become  that  no  one  individual  can  be  profoundly 
acquainted  with  more  than  one  or  two  of  them;  hence,  in  order  that 
a  director  should  properly  perform  the  duties  of  a  curator  of  an 
establishment  of  this  kind,  he  should  have  a  corps  of  learned  assistants. 
For  example,  for  the  preservation  and  practical  use  of  an  herbarium,  the 
constant  attendance  and  supervision  of  a  botanist  is  requisite,  whose 
duty  it  will  be  to  classify  the  specimens,  to  render  them  unassailable 
by  insects,  to  arrange  them  for  study  or  exhibition,  and  to  be  always 
present  to  assist  those  who  may  desire  to  examine  them,  either  for  ele- 
mentary study  or  original  research.  Without  a  number  of  assistants  in 
the  line  of  natural  history,  a  museum  must  principally  consist  of  mere 
articles  of  curiosity,  of  comparatively  little  use  in  the  way  of  valuable 
instruction.  It  is  evident,  however,  that  a  corps  of  such  assistants, 
supported  on  permanent  salaries,  in  addition  to  the  other  expenses  of 
the  museum,  would  soon  absorb  the  whole  of  the  Smitbson  income. 

What  has  been  said  has  reference  merely  to  the  impropriety  of 
attempting  to  maintain  a  museum  worthy  of  the  nation  at  the  expense 
of  the  Smitbson  fund,  and  is  not  intended  to  disparage  the  value 
of  a  complete  representation  of  the  natural  products  of  America,  with 
Buch  foreign  specimens  as  may  be  required  for  comparison  and  gene- 
ralization. This  we  think  of  great  importance,  particularly  as  a 
means  of  developing  and  illustrating  our  industrial  resources,  as  well 
as  of  facilitating  the  study  of  the  relations  of  our  geology,  mineralogy, 
flora  and  fauna  to  those  of  the  old  world :  and,  indeed,  the  wants  of  the 
government  appear  to  demand  a  collection  of  this  kind,  since  the  Med- 
ical Department,  the  Agricultural  Department,  and  the  General  Land 
Office  are  each  rapidly  accumulating  articles  of  illustration,  and  find 
the  necessity  for  the  permanent  employment  of  persons  well  skilled  in 
the  branches  to  which  their  specimens  pertain.  With  these  the 
national  museum,  of  a  general  character,  would  maintain  relations  of 
co-operation  and  mutual  assistance. 

It  will  be  seen  in  previous  reports,  that  from  the  first,  in  order  to 
compensate  in  some  degree  for  the  great  outlay  on  local  objects, 
measures  were  adopted  for  the  increase  of  the  capital  of  the  endow- 
ment. These  principally  consisted  in  deferring  the  completion  o'' 
the  building  for  a  series  of  years,  and  in  the  meanwhile  investing 
the  money  appropriated  for  its  construction,  as  well  as  a  portion  of 
the  annual  income,  saved  by  judicious  and  economical  management, 
in  government  and  State  stocks.  These  stocks,  however,  were  not 
permanently  secured,  and  were  in  danger  of  being  disposed  of  inju- 
diciously, upon  casual  or  inadequate  considerations.    It  has,    there- 


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20  REPORT   OP   THE   8ECRETART. 

fore,   been  a  matter  of  solicitude  to  obtain  for  them  a  permanent 
investment. 

In  view  of  this,  a  petition  was  presented  to  Congress  by  the  board 
of  regents,  asking  permission  to  make  additions  to  the  principal  of  the 
Smithson  fund.  This  petition  was  granted  by  the  act  of  February  8, 
1867,  allowing  the  regents  to  increase  the  principal  in  the  treasury 
of  the  United  States,  by  savings,  donations,  and  otherwise,  to  any 
sum  not  exceeding  a  million  dollars,  the  additions  to  be  subject  to 
the  same  conditions  as  the  original  bequest.  In  accordance  with  this 
law  the  regents  authorized  the  sale  of  all  the  stocks  owned  by  the 
Institution,  excepting  those  of  Virginia,  and  the  application  of  the 
proceeds  to  the  increase  of  the  principal  to  $650,000,  which  amount 
is  now  the  permanent  fund  of  the  Institution.  In  addition  to  this  the 
Institution  has  $72,500  in  Virginia  State  bonds,  the  marketable  value 
of  which  is  about  $30, 000. 

The  fund  first  paid  into  the  treasury  from  the  Smithson  bequest 
was  $515,169;  the  remainder  of  the  legacy,  which  had  been  left  in 
England  as  the  principal  of  an  annuity  to  the  mother  of  the  nephew  of 
Smithson,  was  $26,210  63,  making  in  all,  from  the  bequest  of  Smith- 
son,  $541,379  63.  The  capital  has,  therefore,  been  increased 
more  than  a  hundred  thousand  dollars,  notwithstanding  the  expendi- 
ture of  $450,000  on  the  building. 

It  will  be  seen  by  the  reports  of  the  building  committee  and  archi- 
tect, that  the  main  building  of  the  Institution,  which  consists  of  a 
large  central  edifice,  200  feet  long,  50  feet  wide,  with  two  projecting 
towers  and  a  middle  space  in  front,  and  a  single  large  tower  in  the 
rear,  to  which  portions  the  damage  by  fire  was  principally  confined,  will 
be  entirely  restored  in  the  course  of  a  few  months,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  large  hall  in  the  second  story.  These  parts  of  the  building, 
in  which  it  is  proposed  to  deposit  the  more  valuable  collections,  are 
entirely  of  fire-proof  materials.  The  cost  of  this  reconstruction  will 
amount  to  $125,000,  exclusive  of  that  of  the  fitting  up  of  the  large 
room  just  mentioned.  The  accommodations  which  will  be  afforded  are 
amply  suflScient  for  the  active  operations  of  the  Institution  for  all 
coming  time,  and  also  for  the  museum,  provided  but  few  additions  be 
made  to  the  number  of  specimens  exhibited;  but  if  the  increase  bo 
continued — and  it  is  almost  impossible  to  prevent,  even  if  desired, 
the  growth  of  an  establishment  of  this  kind — the  completion  of  the 
main  hall  and  the  fitting  it  up  with  cases  will  become  necessary,  at 
an  expense  of  at  least  $50,000.  The  other  parts  of  the  building, 
namely,  the  two  wings  and  conneoting  ranges,  with  six  towers,  will 


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HEPOBT   OF   THE   SECfBETART.  21 

also  require,  in  time,  for  rendering  them  fire-proof,  a  further  cost  of 
Dot  less  than  $50,000. 

The  question  then  occurs,  from  what  sources  are  the  funds  neces- 
sary for  this  purpose  to  be  derived?  Fortunately  the  permanent 
capital  of  the  Institution  is  now  secure  and  cannot  be  expended.  The 
income,  however,  which,  in  justice  and  good  faith,  ought  to  be  applied 
to  the  ''increase  and  diffusion  of  knowledge  among  men,''  should  not 
be  mortgaged,  as  it  were,  for  years  to  come,  in  providing  accommoda- 
tions for  the  government  collections.  Surely  the  intelligence  of  the 
general  public  and  the  moral  sense  of  the  community  will  justify 
Congress  in  making  seperate  provision,  on  a  proper  scale,  for  the 
support  and  extension  of  a  government  museum. 

The  large  drafts  upon  the  income  since  the  fire  and  the  high  prices 
of  labor  and  materials  have  interfered  with  as  vigorous  a  prosecu- 
tion of  the  active  operationsas  was  exemplified  in  previous  years,  and 
have  induced  us  to  discontinue  some  enterprises  in  which  we  were 
engaged,  and  to  postpone  others  until  a  more  favorable  opportunity. 
It  will  be  seen,  however,  by  the  following  report  of  the  operations 
of  the  Institution  for  the  past  year  that  much  has  been  accomplished 
in  the  way  of  sustaining  and  advancing  the  reputation  of  the  estab- 
lishment: 

Publications. — The  greater  part  of  the  expenditures  on  publica- 
tions during  the  past  year  has  been  for  the  printing  and  paper  of 
an  edition  from  the  stereotype  plates  of  volume  XIV  of  the  Contribu- 
tions to  Knowledge,  and  volumes  VI  and  VII  of  the  Miscellaneous 
Collections.  These  volumes  had  been  published  in  previous  years  in 
a  sufficient  number  of  copies  to  supply  foreign  exchanges,  but  owing 
to  the  large  demands  on  the  income  of  the  funds  on  account  of  the 
repair  of  the  building,  we  were  unable  at  the  time  to  distribute 
copies  to  American  libraries.  The  edition  which  has  now  been 
printed  will,  however,  serve  to  make  up  all  our  deficiencies  in  this 
respect. 

The  articles  contained  in  volume  XIV  of  the  Contributions  are: 

1.  Discussion  of  the  Magnetic  and  Meteorological  Observations 
made  at  the  Girard  College,  Philadelphia,  by  Prof.  A.  D.  Bache. 
Parts  7-12. 

2.  On  the  Construction  of  a  Silvered-glass  Telescope,  fifteen  and 
a  half  inches  in  aperture,  and  its  use  in  Celestial  Photography,  by 
Prof.  Henry  Draper. 

3.  Palaeontology  of  the  Upper  Missouri,  by  P.  B.  Meek  and  P.  V. 
Hay  den.     Part  1. 


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22  BEPOBT  OF  THE  8ECRETABT. 

4.   Cretaceous  Reptiles  of  the  United  States,  by  Dr.  Joseph  Leidy. 
The  contents  of  volume  VI  of  the  Miscellaneous  Collections   are: 

1.  Monograph  of  the  Diptera  of  North  America,  by  H.  Loew. 
Edited  by  Baron  R,  Ostensacken.  Parts  1  and  2. 

2.  List  of  the  Coleoptera  of  North  America,  by  Dr.  Jno.  L.  Lo 
Conte.     Part  1. 

3.  New  Species  of  North  American  Coleoptera,  by  Dr.  Jno.  L. 
Le  Conte. 

Volume  VII,  Miscellaneous  Collections,  contains: 

1.  Monograph  of  the  Bats  of  North  America,  by  H.  Allen,  M.  D. 

2.  Land  and  Fresh-water  Shells  of  North  America.  Part  2.  Pul- 
monata,  Limnophila,  and  Thalassophila,  by  W.  G.  Binney. 

3.  Land  and  Fresh- water  Shells  of  North  America.  Part  3.  Am- 
pullariidas,  Valvatida),  Viviparida3,  Fresh-water  Rissoidse,  Cyclo- 
phorida3,  TruncatellidaB,  Fresh-water  Neritid»,  HelicinidaB.  By  W. 
G.  Binney. 

4.  Researches  upon  the  Hydrobimad  and  allied  forms.  By  Dr. 
Wm.  Stimpson. 

5.  Monograph  of  American  Corbiculadae,  recent  and  fossil.  By 
Temple  Prime. 

6.  Check-list  of  the  Invertebrate  Fossils  of  North  America,  Eocene 
and  Oligocene.     By  T.  A.  Conrad. 

7.  Check-list  of  Fossils,  Miocene.    By  F.  B.  Meek. 

8.  Check-list  of  Fossils,  Cretaceous  and  Jurassic.     By  F.  B.  Meek. 

9.  Catalogue  of  Minerals,  with  their  formulas,  etc.  By  T.  Egle- 
Bton. 

10.  Dictionary  of  the  Chinook  Jargon  or  Trade  Language  of  Or- 
egon.    By  Geo.  Gibbs. 

11.  Instructions  for  Research  relative  to  the  Ethnology  and  Phi- 
lology of  America.     By  Geo.  Gibbs. 

12.  List  of  Works  published  by  the  Smithsonian  Institution. 

Of  the  two  works  mentioned  in  the  last  report  as  being  in  the 
press,  the  first,  entitled  **  Astronomical,  Magnetic,  Tidal,  and  Me- 
teorological Observations  within  the  Arctic  Circle,  by  Isaac  I.  Hayes, 
M.  D.,''  has  been  completed  and  a  small  edition  printed.  A  full 
description  of  this  paper  was  given  in  the  report  for  1865.  It 
forms  a  quarto  volume  of  283  pages,  illustrated  with  six  charts 
and  fifteen  wood-cuts.  The  principal  chart  shows  the  discoveries, 
tracks  and  surveys  of  the  Arctic  expedition  of  1860  and  1861,  pro- 
jected on  a  scale  of  1  to  1,200,000.  Another  chart  shows  the  vi- 
cinity of  Port  Poulke,  the  winter-quarters  in  1860  and  1861  of  the 


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BEPORT   OP  THE   SECRETARY.  23 

expedition,  projected  on  a  scale  of  1  to  170,000;  a  third  gives  the 
Iso-magnetic  lines  in  the  vicinity  of  Smith's  strait,  and  three  other 
plates  illustrate  the  series  of  tides  at  Port  Foulke. 

The  second  work  published  during  the  year  is  **  Results  of  Me- 
teorological Observations  made  at  Brunswick,  Maine,  between  1807 
and  1859,  by  Parker  Cleaveland,  L.L.D.,  Professor  in  Bowdoin 
College."  Another  quarto  work  in  press,  and  nearly  ready  for  dis- 
tribution, is  entitled:  ^*  Results  of  Meteorological  Observations  made 
at  Marietta,  Ohio,  between  1826  and  1859,  inclusive,  by  S.  P.  Hil- 
dretb,  M.  D. ;  to  which  are  added,  results  of  observations  at  Ma- 
rietta, by  Mr.  Joseph  Wood,  between  1817  and  1823,"  which  have 
been  reduced  and  discussed  at  the  expense  of  the  Institution,  by 
Charles  A.  Schott.  For  an  account  of  these  works  see  the  part  of 
this  report  relative  to  meteorology. 

Additional  copies  of  the  following  works  have  been  printed  during 
the  year  from  the  ^stereotype  plates:  Draper's  Telescope  ;  Whittle- 
sey's Drift;  Meek' s  Check  list  of  Fossils;  Catalogue  of  Birds;  Chi- 
nook Jargon  ;  List  of  Coleoptera  ;  Review  of  American  Birds;  List  of 
Publications  ;  List  of  Foreign  Correspondents. 

The  following  are  the  rules  of  distribution  of  the  Smithsonian  pub- 
lications: 

1.  They  are  presented  to  all  learned  societies  of  the  first  class 
which  publish  transactions,  and  give  copies  of  these,  in  exchange,  to 
the  Institution. 

2.  To  all  foreign  libraries,  of  the  first  class,  provided  they  give  in 
exchange  their  catalogues  and  other  publications,  or  an  equivalent, 
from  their  duplicate  volumes. 

3.  To  permanently  endowed  colleges  in  actual  operation  in  this 
country,  provided  they  furnish  in  return  meteorological  observations, 
catalogues  of  their  libraries  and  of  their  students,  and  all  other  pub- 
lications issued  by  them  relative  to  their  organization  and  history . 

4.  To  all  States  and  Territories,  provided  they  give  in  return 
copies  of  all  documents  published  under  their  authority. 

5.  To  all  incorporated  public  libraries  in  this  country,  not  included 
in  any  of  the  foregoing  classes,  now  containing  10,000  volumes,  and 
to  smaller  libraries  where  a  whole  State  or  large  district  would  be 
otherwise  unsupplied. 

Institutions  devoted  exclusively  to  the  promotion  of  particular 
branches  of  knowledge  receive  such  articles  published  by  the  Insti- 
tution as  relate  to  their  objects.  Portions  of  the  series  are  also  given 
to  institutions  of  lower  grade  not  entitled  under  the  above  rules  to 


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24  REPORT  OF  THE  SECRETARY. 

the  fall  series,  and  also  to  the  meteorological  correspondeDts  of  the 
Institution. 

For  the  purpose  of  collecting   materials  for  the  preparation  of  a 
report  on  the  present  condition  of  school  architecture,  a  letter  was 
addressed  to  the  oflScers  of  public  instruction  in  our  principal  cities, 
requesting   the  use  of  the   architectura  illustrations  of  their  most 
approved  school-houses.     This   request  was  readily  complied  with, 
and  a  considerable  number  of  wood  cuts  had  been  received,  when 
Congress  organized  the  Department  of  Education,  to  which  it  was 
thought  proper  to  transfer  them,  with  the  understanding  that  they 
should  be  used  in  the  report  to  be  published  under  the  direction 
of  the    Commissioner.     The  thanks  of  the   Institution  are  due    to 
Messrt.  Philbrick,  of  Boston;  Shippen,  of  Philadelphia;  Van  Bok- 
kelen,  of  Baltimore;  Swett,  of  San  Francisco;  Pickard,  of  Chicago; 
Randall,  of  New  York;  Brooks,  of  Springfield,  Illinois;  and  Hart,  of 
Trenton,  New  Jersey,  for  the  promptness  of  their  compliance  with 
our  request,  as  well  as  for  the  illustrations  actually  furnished. 

The  report  for  the  year  1866,  with  the  appendix,  was  printed  by 
order  of  Congress,  and  the  usual  number  of  ten  thousand  extra 
copies  struck  off  for  distribution,  4,000  by  the  Institution  and 
6,000  by  the  members  of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives. 
It  is  believed  that  few,  if  any,  of  the  government  documents  are 
more  in  demand  by  the  public  than  this  report,  and  it  has  become 
impossible  to  supply  all  who  make  application  for  it.  Unless  a 
larger  number  be  ordered  by  Congress,  the  distribution  must  in 
future  be  more  strictly  conformable  to  the  rules  which  have  been 
adopted,  viz: 

1st.  To  colleges,  libraries  and  societies'  publishing  transactions* 

2d.  To  contributors  to  the  library,  museum  or  meteorological  de- 
partment of  the  Institution. 

3d.  To  persons  engaged  in  teaching  or  in  special  research,  and 
to  collaborators  of  the  Institution. 

The  changes  in  the  population  of  the  country  are  so  rapid  that  we 
cannot  be  guided  by  a  permanent  list.  As  a  general  rule,  the  dis- 
tribution can  only  be  made  to  those  who  make  special  application 
for  each  volume,  excepting  donors  to  the  museum  and  meteorological 
observers. 

The  volume  for  1866  contains,  in  addition  to  the  report  of  the 
Secretary,  giving  an  account  of  the  operations,  expenditures  and 
condition  of  the  Institution  for  the  year,  and  the  proceedings  of  the 
Board  of  Regents  to  February  22,  1867,  the  following  articles: 

A  sketch  of  the  services  of  the  late  Hon.  W.  W.  Seaton,  in  con- 


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BEPOBT  OF  THE   SECRETARY.  25 

nectioD  with  the  Smithsonian  Institntion,  and  some  notices  of  bis  life 
and  personal  character.     A  memoir  of  Magendio,  by  M.  Flourens, 
secretary  of  the  French  Academy  of  Sciences.     A  translation  from 
the  German  y  on  the  senses  of  taste,  hearing,  and  sight.     A  lecture 
on  the  results  of  spectrum  analysis  applied  to  the  heavenly  bodies, 
by  W.  Hnggins,  of  England.     A  translation  from  the  German  of  an 
article  on  the  external  appearance  of  the  sun's  disk,  and  one  from 
the   French  on  accidental  or  subjective  colors,  by  Abb6  Moigno.     A 
continuation  of  the  series  of  articles,  by  Plateau,  on  the  figures  of 
equilibrium  of  a  liquid  mass  withdrawn  from  the  action  of  gravity. 
The  annual  report  of  transactions  of  the  Society  of  Physics  and  Natu- 
ral History,  of  Geneva.     Original  communications  relative  to  the  Tin- 
Deh  or  Chepewyan  Indians,  of  British  and  Russian  America,  by  Messrs. 
B.  R.  Boss,  W.  L.  Hardisty,  and  S.  Jones,   of  the  Hudson's  Bay 
Company,  by  Geo.  Gibbs.  esq.     An  article  on  the  aboriginal  Ameri- 
can migration,  by  F.  Von  Hellwald,     An  original  paper  on  Indian 
pottery,  by  Chas.  Ran,  esq.     An  original  article  on  artificial  shell 
deposits  of  the  United  States,  by  Dr.  D.  G.  Brinton.     A  sketch  of 
ancient  earthworks,  by  I.  Dille,  of  Ohio.     The  pile-work  antiquities 
of  Olmutz,  translated  from  a  Vienna  periodical.     An  account  of  anti- 
quities on  the  banks  of  the  Mississippi  river  and  Lake  Pepin,  by  Dr. 
L.  G.  Estes.     Communications  on  a  physical  atlas  of  North  America, 
by  Geo.  Gibbs,  esq.,  and  on  ethnological  research,  by  Dr.  E.  H. 
Davis,  with   tables   of    measurements,   by   Scherzer   and   Schwarz. 
Translation  of  the  prize  questions  of  the  International  Archaeologi- 
cal Congress.     An  article  on  vitality,  by  Rev.  H.  H.  Higgins,     In- 
structions for  collecting  land  and  fresh-water  shells,  by  James  Lewis, 
esq.     Instructions  for  collecting  myriapods,  phalangid®,  etc.,  by  Dr. 
H.  C.  Wood.    Notes  on  a  plan  of  a  research  upon  the  atmosphere, 
by  Professor  C.  M.  Wetherill.     An  account  of  the  cryolite  of  Green- 
land, by  Messrs.  Lewis  and  sons.    Extracts  from  the  meteorological 
correspondence  of  the  Institution,  with  remarks  by  the  secretary, 
Professor  Henry.     On  horary  variations  of  the  barometer,  by  Mar- 
shal Vaillant,  with  note  by  the  secretary.     On  the  formation  of  ice 
at  the  bottom  of  rivers,  by  Mr.  Engelhardt.     An  account  of  the 
earthquake  in  eastern  Mexico  on  2d  January,  1866,  by  Dr.  C.  Sar- 
torius.    Statistics  relative  to  Norwegian  mountains,  lakes,  and  the 
snow-line,  by  0.  E.  Dreutzer. 

These  articles  embrace  a  wide  range  of  subjects,  and,  with  a  single 
exception,  were  either  prepared  expressly  for  the  Institution  or 
translated  from  foreign  journals  not  readily  accessible  to  the  Ameri- 
can reader.     The  illustrations,  seventy  in  number,  were  prepared  at 


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26  REPORT  OF  THE   8E0RETART. 

the  expense  of  the  Institution.  The  translations  continue  to  be  made 
with  spirit  and  fidelity  by  G.  A.  Alexander,  A.  M.,  of  Washington, 
whose  services  in  this  connection  for  many  years  have  been  frequently 
referred  to  in  previous  reports. 

Meteorology. — In  order  to  advance  those  branches  of  science 
which  depend  especially  upon  instrumental  observations,  two  kinds 
of  labor  are  necessary;  that  which  is  devoted  to  the  making  and 
recording  observations,  and  that  which  is  expended  in  reducing  and 
discussing  them.  The  first,  which  frequently  requires  a  large  num- 
ber  of  observers,  as  in  the  case  of  simultaneous  meteorology,  fortu- 
nately  can  be  performed  by  persons  having  a  limited  amount  of  scien- 
tific training,  although  the  precision  and  value  of  their  observations 
are  much  enhanced  by  a  critical  knowledge  of  the  principles  upon 
which  the  observations  depend;  while  the  discussion  and  reduction 
require  a  knowledge  of  mathematical  analysis,  possessed  by  compara- 
tively few;  and  hence  it  is  not  surprising  that  the  accumulation  of 
crude  observations  should  be  far  in  advance  of  their  philosophic  dis- 
cussion, or  that  at  the  present  time  the  great  desideratum  in  meteo- 
rology is  a  full  discussion,  on  a  general  plan,  of  all  the  series  of  obser- 
vations which  have  been  recorded.  If  this  were  properly  executed,  we 
should  be  prepared  to  commence  a  new  era  in  this  branch  of  science, 
and  to  direct  attention  to  now  points  of  investigation,  from  indica- 
tions furnished  by  the  discussions. 

In  consideration  of  this  state  of  meteorological  data  we  have  con- 
cluded, in  view  of  the  improvement  of  the  funds,  to  resume  the  gen- 
eral discussion  of  the  material  which  the  Institution  has  already  ac- 
cumulated. We  have  accordingly  commenced  this  work  by  the 
reduction  and  discussion  of  all  the  observations  on  the  rain-fall  of  the 
North  American  continent,  the  results  of  which  are  much  called  for 
on  account  of  their  agricultural,  manufacturing,  commercial,  and  san- 
itary applications.  Observations  from  upwards  of  twelve  hundred 
localities  are  now  in  the  hands  of  the  computers,  and  it  is  expected 
that  the  results  will  be  ready  for  publication  towards  the  close  of 
1868.  After  having  discussed  all  the  observations  which  have  been 
previously  recorded,  we  shall  then  be  prepared  to  commence  a  new 
and  more  extended  series  relative  to  precipitation,  and  for  this  pur- 
pose we  have  had  prepared  a  large  number  of  measuring  scales,  con- 
sisting of  slips  of  box  wood  graduated  to  the  tenth  of  an  inch,  to 
be  distributed  very  generally  over  the  country,  with  instructions  for 
the  observation  and  record  of  rain-fall.  After  carefully  considering  the 


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REPORT   OF  THE   SECRETARY.  27 

several  forms  of  rain  gauges,  we  have  decided  to  recomraend  the 
general  adoption  of  a  simple  cylindrical  vessel  of  three  or  four  inches 
in  diameter  and  nine  inches  high,  the  depth  to  be  measured  by 
plunging  to  the  bottom  a  small  slip  of  soft  wood  on  which  the  water 
mark  can  be  distinctly  observed,  and  measuring  this  by  the  scale 
before  mentioned,  the  depth  being  recorded  to  the  quarter  of  a  tenth 
of  an  inch.  Special  instructions  will  be  given  that  the  rain  be  meas- 
ured immediately  after  the  fall  or  before  any  sensible  evaporation 
has  taken  place.  We  hare  adopted  the  simple  cylinder  of  uniform 
diameter  as  being  less  liable  to  errors  of  observation  than  any  other 
form. 

Although  the  separate  observations  are  not  read  with  the  same 
minuteness  as  in  the  case  of  gauges  in  which  the  depth  of  rain  is  mag- 
nified by  a  receiver  of  less  diameter  than  the  orifice  of  the  gauge,  yet 
the  average  we  find  from  experience  in  the  case  of  a  long  series  gives 
equally  reliable  results  with  those  in  which  instruments  of  apparently 
greater  precision  are  employed . 

After  the  completion  of  the  rain  tables,  our  computers  will  com- 
mence the  discussion  of  the  temperature  of  the  North  American  con- 
tinent. Were  our  funds  sufiBcient,  we  should  be  glad  to  include  in 
the  investigation  all  the  observations  made  on  this  continent  during 
the  various  expeditions  to  the  arctic  regions,  undertaken  by  the  Brit- 
ish government,  few  of  which  have,  as  yet,  received  that  thorough 
examination  necessary  to  obtain  from  them  the  general  truths  which 
constitute  real  contributions  to  science. 

We  have  mentioned  in  previous  reports  that  the  meteorological  sys- 
tem of  the  U.  S.  army  was  about  to  be  reorganized  under  the  Surgeon 
General.  This  work  has  been  carried  on  during  the  year,  and  a  series 
of  standard  instruments  has  been  constructed  by  James  Green,  of 
New  York,  under  the  direction  of  Dr.  Craig,  for  distribution  to  the 
various  posts.  Fifty  barometers  and  one  hundred  and  fifty  thermom- 
eters and  rain  gauges  will  be  substituted  for  those  now  in  use. 

The  number  of  Smithsonian  observers  during  the  year  1867  was 
385,  and  this  will  probably  be  increased  during  the  year  1868, 
so  that  a  more  rapid  and  accurate  accumulation  of  data  relative  to 
the  meteorology  of  this  country  will  be  obtained  than  at  any  time 
heretofore. 

The  Department  of  Agriculture  has  continued  during  the  past  year 
to  publish  the  monthly  bulletin  of  meteorological  observations,  which 
is  still  received  with  much  interest  by  farmers,  as  well  as  by  meteo- 
rological observers.    The  preparation  of  the  meteorological  notes  for 


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28  BEPORT   OF  THE   SECBETABT. 

the  present,  as  for  previous  years,  has  been  in  charge  of  Mr.  Wm.  Q. 
Force. 

The  importance  of  meteorological  observations  in  their  connection 
with  agriculture  is  becoming  better  appreciated  by  the  public,  and 
we  think  it  probable  that  in  due  time  our  government  will  follow  the 
example  of  foreign  countries  in  maintaining  a  more  perfect  series  of 
observations  than  has  as  yet  been  established.  The  average  temper- 
ature of  the  year  and  of  the  different  seasons,  the  amount  and  fre- 
quency uf  rain,  the  time  of  early  and  late  frosts,  the  length  of  the 
**growing  summers''  and  the  recurrence  of  years  of  abnormal  drought 
or  of  low  temperature,  are  all  elements  of  great  value  in  comparing 
the  relative  capacity  of  diflferent  parts  of  the  country  for  special 
productions. 

We  have  repeatedly  stated  in  previous  reports  that  our  eastern  sea- 
board is  far  more  favorably  situated  in  regard  to  the  prediction  of 
the  occurrence  of  storms  than  the  western  coast  of  Europe,  since  it 
has  been  conclusively  shown  that  the  principal  disturbances  of  the 
atmosphere  in  the  temperate  zone  move  from  west  to  east.  During 
the  past  year  the  attempt  has  been  made  by  the  Institution  to 
resume  with  tho  co-operation  of  the  telegraph  lines  the  system  of 
telegraphic  indications  of  the  weather  which  was  interrupted  by 
the  war.  We  have,  however,  been  unsuccessful,  and  indeed  it  can 
scarcely  be  expected  that  without  some  remuneration  to  the  companies, 
the  use  of  the  telegraphic  wires  and  the  time  of  the  operators  should 
be  given  for  the  purpose. 

The  discussion  and  reduction  of  long  series  of  observations  of  the 
weather  at  particular  places  have  been  continued.  The  contributions 
of  this  kind  completed  during  the  past  year  are  deductions  from  the 
meteorological  observations  made  at  Brunswick,  Maine,  and  Marietta, 
Ohio.  The  discussions  and  reductions  were  made  at  the  expense  of 
the  Institution  by  Mr.  Charles  A.  Schott,  on  the  same  plan  as  that 
adopted  in  the  discussion  of  the  observations  in  the  Arctic  Regions 
by  Kane,  McGlintock  and  Hayes. 

Between  the  years  1807  and  1859  inclusive,  meteorological  records 
were  made  with  great  regularity  by  the  late  Professor  Parker  Cleave- 
land,  of  Bovvdoin  college,  at  Brunswick,  Maine,  and  after  his  death 
were  consigned  to  this  Institution  for  reduction  and  publication.  The 
observations,  though  not  intended  by  their  author  to  be  of  a  strictly 
scientific  character,  were  yet  found  sufficiently  valuable  to  warrant 
the  expenditure  of  considerable  labor  in  preparing  them  for  the  press. 

Brunswick  is  on  the  Androscoggin  river,  about  25  miles  N.  40^  E. 


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BEPORT   OP  THE  SECRETARY,  29 

from  Portland,  Maine,  in  latitude  43°  54'  5,  longitude  69^  57'  4,  and 
74  feet  above  high  water.  The  observations  were  made  at  7  a.  m., 
1  p.  m.  and  6  p.  m.,  and  relate  to  indications  of  the  thermometer  and 
barometer,  direction  of  the  wind,  state  of  the  weather,  amount  of 
rain  and  snow,  character  of  clouds,  occurrence  of  thunder-storms, 
fc^8,  frost  and  hail,  earthquakes,  auroras,  etc. 

From  these  observations  the  mean  temperature  of  each  day  of  each 
month  is  deduced  and  arranged  in  tables.  The  mean  temperatures, 
however,  require  a  small  correction  in  order  to  reduce  them  to  the 
mean  temperature  of  the  day  which  would  be  given  from  twenty-four 
or  hourly  observations  instead  of  only  three  observations.  In  the  dis- 
cussion of  the  temperature  the  correction  applied  on  account  of  the 
irregular  hours  was  deduced  from  a  series  of  observations  taken  at 
every  hour  of  the  twenty-four  at  Toronto  and  Montreal,  which  are. 
found  to  have  been  subjected  to  the  same  fluctuation  of  temperature 
as  Brunswick.  To  understand  this,  perhaps  the  following  expla- 
nation is  necessary:  By  adding  all  the  temperatures  observed  at 
each  hour  of  the  day,  for  example  all  at  6  o'clock,  into  one  sum,  and 
dividing  these  by  the  whole  number  of  observations  at  this  hour,  we 
obtain  the  average  or  mean  temperature  of  that  hour,  and  by  repeat- 
ing the  process  for  every  other  hour  we  obtain  a  series  for  each  hour 
of  the  twenty-four;  also,  by  adding  together  all  the  average  tempera- 
tares  of  each  hour  of  the  day  and  dividing  by  twenty-four,  we  obtain 
the  mean  temperature  of  the  day.  If  the  mean  temperature  of  the 
day  be  compared  with  the  mean  temperature  of  each  hour,  some  of 
the  latter  will  be  a  little  above  and  others  a  little  below  the  former; 
and  as  these  differences  are  found  to  be  the  same  over  a  large  extent 
of  country,  we  may  apply  them  to  observations  made  at  one,  two,  or 
three  hours,  so  as  to  get  the  same  result  which  would  be  obtained  had 
the  observations  been  made  at  every  hour  during  the  twenty-four. 
Thus  it  has  been  found,  from  several  series  of  hourly  observations  in 
different  parts  of  the  United  States,  that  those  made  at  7  a.  m.,  2 
and  9  p.  m.,  give  a  nearer  approximation  to  the  mean  temperature  of 
the  day  than  those  made  at  any  other  hours.  We  dwell  some- 
what on  this  point  because  the  idea  has  been  prevalent  that  the  best 
times  for  determining  the  mean  temperature  are  at  sunrise,  noon  and 
sunset.  But  since  sunrise  and  sunset  are  variable  hours,  it  is  obvious 
that  corrections  similar  to  those  we  have  mentioned  above  cannot  be 
readily  applied  to  them. 

The  observations  at  Brunswick,  having  been  duly  corrected  in  the 
way  we  have  mentioned,  present,  during  a  period  oi  fifty -two  years, 


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30 


BEPOBT   OF  THE   SECBETABT. 


a  mean  temperature  of  44^  4'  Fahrenheit,  which  reduced  to  the  level 
of  the  sea  becomes  44°  6'. 

The  lowest  mean  temperature  for  any  year  occurred  in  1859,  and 
wp«  40^.31,  and  the  highest  was  in  1840,  51^.60,  giving  a  range  of 
11^.29,  which  is  considerably  larger  than  at  places  farther  south  in 
the  United  States.  A  table  is  given  of  the  fluctuations  of  the  annual 
mean  temperatures,  which,  with  others  of  a  similar  character,  is 
directly  available  for  the  study  of  the  secular  changes  of  the  tempera- 
ture; or,  in  other  words,  for  ascertaining  whether  within  the  period 
of  instrumental  observations  the  annual  temperature  has  undergone 
any  sensible  variation.  No  indications  of  this,  however,  have  been 
found.  On  the  contrary,  it  appears  from  the  observations  made 
between  1807  and  1832,  inclusive,  that  the  annual  temperature 
was  44^.10,  and  between  1833  and  1859,  inclusive,  it  was  44^.70, 
a  diflference  readily  accounted  for  from  errors  of  observation  and 
change  of  instruments,  and  too  insignificant  to  substantiate  a  change 
in  climate.  It  has  been  observed  in  other  parts  of  the  earth  that 
the  annual  temperature  undergoes  a  periodical  change  at  certain 
seasons  of  the  year,  and  in  this  country  it  has  been  supposed  that  a 
similar  change  occurs,  viz.,  a  cold  period  about  the  end  of  May,  and 
a  warm  one  in  October.  The  discussion  of  the  observations  for  52 
years  does  not  indicate  any  such  periodical  fluctuation  at  these  times. 

According  to  the  average  of  52  years,  the  warmest  day  falls  on  the 
22d  of  July,  or  31  days  after  the  summer  solstice,  and  has  a  mean 
temperature  of  67^.7. 

The  coldest  day  on  an  average  is  the  18th  of  January,  or  28  days 
after  the  winter  solstice,  having  a  temperature  of  19^.9  Fahrenheit. 
On  an  average,  the  20th  of  April  and  the  24th  October  have  the  same 
temperature  as  the  mean  of  the  entire  year.  The  lowest  record  for 
the  whole  time  is  30^  below  zero,  and  the  highest  102^  above. 

The  northwest  wind  on  an  average  reduces  the  temperature  4^.6. 
The  north  lowers  it  3^.  1,  and  the  northeast  3^.8.  The  southwest 
wind,  on  the  contrary,  elevates  the  temperature  above  its  normal 
value  2^.6.  In  summer  the  effect  of  rain  and  fog  is  to  lower  the 
temperature  6^.5.  In  winter,  snow,  sleet  or  rain  increases  the  tem- 
perature 4^.3.  From  54,097  observations,  the  following  is  the  pro- 
portional number  of  winds  in  l,000r 


South. 

North. 

West. 

East 

8.W. 

N.E. 

N.W. 

S.E. 

39 

40 

51 

29 

3J1 

143 

320 

77 

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BEPORT  OF  THE   SECRETABT.  31 

From  tbis  it  results  that  the  most  frequent  are  the  northwest  and 
southwest,  the  former  in  winter  and  the  latter  in  summer.  The 
least  number  of  days  in  which  rain  fell  was  in  February,  the  greatest 
in  May,  The  greatest  number  of  days  in  which  snow  fell  was  in  Jan- 
uary. The  earliest  snow  occurred  on  the  26th  September,  1808,  and 
the  latest  on  the  8th  of  June,  1816.  On  an  average,  snow  falls  in 
Brunswick  on  some  day  in  May  once  in  five  years,  and  in  October  once 
every  other  year.  The  average  numberof  rainy  days  is  64.  The  average 
number  of  snowy  days  is  30.  The  average  amount  of  rain  and  snow  is 
44.68  inches.  The  greatest  amount  of  rain  during  any  one  day  was  8^ 
inches,  November  4,  1845.  The  greatest  fall  of  snow  was  on  the  10th 
of  March,  1819,  and  measured  30  inches.  The  greatest  numberof 
rainfalls  occur  while  the  wind  is  from  the  northeast,  and  the  least 
nunaber  while  it  is  from  the  west.  The  northeast  wind  in  winter  is 
almost  constantly  accompanied  by  rain  or  snow,  while  in  summer  the 
southeast  surpasses  it  as  a  vehicle  of  rain,  a  result  evidently  due  to 
the  position  of  the  place  of  observation  with  respect  to  the  ocean. 
The  number  of  storms  of  thunder  and  lightning  recorded  during  51 
years  is  472,  or  about  9  a  year.  The  greatest  number  occurred  in 
July  and  August,  the  least  in  January  and  February.  The  total  num- 
ber of  fogs  is  1, 135,  or  22  in  a  year,  the  most  dense  of  which  occur  in 
ummer,  the  least  dense  in  winter. 

July  itt  the  only  month  in  which  no  frost  is  recorded.  The  earliest 
frost  observed  was  August  3d,  and  the  latest  June  19th.  On  an 
average,  the  spring  frost  ceases  after  the  first  week  in  June,  and  the 
autumn  frost  commences  after  the  first  week  in  September.  There 
were  34  hail  storms — the  greatest  number  in  January,  the  least  in 
August.  The  records  notice  the  occurrence  of  seven  earthquakes 
and  86  auroras,  the  greatest  number  of  the  latter  in  September  and 
October. 

The  aurora  also  exhibits  a  maximum  and  a  minimum.  The  maxi- 
mum occurred  in  1808,  1818,  1830,  1838,  1848,  1857,  giving  differ- 
ences of  10,  12,  8,  10,  and  9  years.  This  indicates  an  average 
period  of  about  10  years.  Unfortunately  the  temperature  of  the 
barometer  is  not  given,  and  therefore  a  reduction  on  account  of 
the  expansion  of  the  mercury  is  not  possible,  and  consequently  the 
only  use  which  has  been  made  of  the  record  has  been  to  exhibit  the 
monthly  extreme  values,  together  with  their  annual  variations. 

The  barometric  maxima  reach  their  greatest  value  in  December 
and  their  least  value  in  June.  The  minima  occur  in  August.  The 
monthly  range  is  the  greatest  at  the  period  of  greatest  cold,  in  Jan- 
uary, and  the  least  range  at  the  period  of  greatest  heat,  in  July. 


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32  BEPOBT  OP  THE   SECRETARY. 

The  observations  at  Marietta,  Ohio,  extend  from  1817  to  1823, 
by  Mr.  Joseph  Wood,  and  from  1826  to  1859,  inclusive,  by  Dr.  S.  P. 
Hildreth,  the  whole  presenting  an  almost  unbroken  series  of  40 
years.  Marietta,  the  oldest  town  in  the  State  of  Ohio,  is  situated  at 
the  junction  of  the  Muskingum  and  Ohio  rivers,  in  latitude  39°  25', 
longitude  81°  29'  west,  about  580  feet  above  tide-water. 

The  registers  embrace  rec6rds  of  temperature,  wind,  pressure  of 
the  atmosphere,  face  of  the  sky,  cloudiness,  and  precipitation  in  snow 
and  rain.  The  observations  of  Mr.  Wood  were  made  at  sunrise,  2 
p.  m.  and  sunset,  and  by  Dr.  Hildreth  generally  at  6  a.  m.,  2  and  9 
p.  m.,  in  summer,  and  7  a.  m.,  2  and  9  p.m.,  in  winter.  Deviations 
in  both  series  from  these  hours  are  noted  and  corrections  applied 
in  the  reductions. 

Unfortunately  a  small  portion  of  the  manuscripts  was  lost  by  the 
fire  which  destroyed  a  part  of  the  Smithsonian  building  in  January, 
1865.  This  loss  was  partly  supplied  by  the  monthly  means  which 
had  been  published  by  Dr.  Hildreth  in  Silliman's  Journal. 

During  the  40  Marietta  years  a  mean  temperature  is  shown  of  52°.46. 
The  mean  temperature  of  1828,  the  warmest  year  during  the  whole 
period,  was  55°.38,  and  that  of  the  coldest,  1856,  was49°.  71,  show- 
ing a  range  or  variation  of  temperature  of  5°.  67,  which  is  about 
the  usual  range  of  annual  temperature,  as  indicated  by  shorter  periods 
in  our  latitude.  The  discussion  indicates  no  change  of  annual  tern- 
perature  during  the  whole  period  of  40  years,  the  mean  temperature 
of  the  first  20  years  being  the  same  as  of  the  last  20  years.  Neither 
do  these  observations  indicate  any  change  in  the  temperature  of 
summer  or  winter  by  comparing  the  first  20  with  the  second  20 
years.  We  think  it  probable,  however,  that  a  fall  discussion  of  all 
the  records  collected  by  the  Institution  would  show  some  slight  change 
in  the  average  temperature  of  summer  and  winter  due  to  the  exposure 
of  the  surface  by  the  clearing  away  of  trees,  although  no  indications 
of  a  similar  kind  may  be  given  in  the  mean  temperature  of  the  year. 

The  greatest  fluctuation  of  temperature  is  in  February,  and  the 
least  in  July  and  August.  The  lowest  temperature  during  the  whole 
period  was  23  degrees  below  zero,  Fahrenheit,  at  7  o'clock  a.  m., 
January  20,  1852;  the  extreme  highest  102  degrees  at  3  p.  m.,  July 
14, 1859.  These  observations  give  an  extreme  range  of  temperature 
of  125  degrees,  which,  when  compared  with  that  of  Europe,  may  be 
considered  excessive,*  but,  compared  with  that  of  other  parts  of 
America  and  Asia,  is  not  unusual.  From  all  the  observations  it  appears 
that,  on  an  average,  the  warmest  day  of  the  year  is  the  23d  of  July, 
and  the  coldest  the  15th  of  January,  while  the  days  which  have  the 


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BEPOBT  OF  THE  SECBETART.  33 

same  temperature  as  the  mean  of  the  whole  year  are  the  14th  of 
April  and  the  15th  of  October. 
The  average  temperatures  of  the  seasons  are  as  follows! 

o 

Spring 62.88 

Summer 71.51 

Autumn ••^ 52.78 

Winter 33.01 

There  have  been  observed  by  the  meteorologists  of  Europe  varia- 
tions in  the  ordinary  march  of  the  change  of  temperature.  Of  these 
there  is  one  about  the  beginning  of  December,  and  another  about  the 
middle  of  May,  which  are  most  conspicuous.  The  cause  of  such 
abnormal  change  of  temperature  must  be  either  local  or  general;  if 
the  latter,  its  influence  must  be  felt,  perhaps,  with  some  modification 
in  all  parts  of  the  globe.  The  observations  were  examined  in  regard 
to  these  abnormal  changes;  but  though  they  indicate  a  normal 
temperature  about  the  beginning  of  December,  they  show  a  remarka- 
ble depression  of  temperature  between  the  25th  and  28th  of  Novem- 
ber, which  is  preceded  by  an  elevation  on  the  22d.  A  similar  de- 
pression, however,  is  not  observed  in  the  series  for  Brunswick. 

The  direction  of  the  wind  is  recorded  for  27  years  to  eight  points 
of  the  compass,  and  the  result  as  to  the  relative  frequency  of  each 
in  proportion  to  1,000  is  shown  in  the  following  table: 


& 

N. 

W. 

B. 

8.W. 

N.E. 

N.W. 

aE. 

173 

217 

135 

52 

213 

39 

S7 

8*     . 

From  this  it  appears  that  the  majority  of  the  winds  are  from  the 
north  and  southwest,  while  the  northeast  and  east  winds  are  the  least 
frequent.  The  south  wind  is  more  frequent  in  summer,  and  the  west 
and  northwest  in  winter.  This  differs  slightly  from  the  winds  in 
Brunswick,  Maine,  where  the  wind  of  the  greatest  frequency  is  that 
from  the  northwest,  and  next  from  the  southwest.  The  difference  is 
probably  due  principally  to  the  configuration  of  the  surface. 

The  result  of  another  investigation  indicates  an  apparent  secular 
change  in  the  direction  of  the  wind,  similar  to  the  one  noted  at  Bruns- 
wick; but  as  the  epochs  are  different,  the  subject  requires  the  discus- 
sion of  more  extended  observations  at  different  places. 

The  discussion  of  the  connection  of  the  direction  of  the  wind  with 


3  867 


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34  REPORT   OF  THE   SECRETARY. 

the  temperature,  from  observations  of  2,340  days,  exhibits  the  fact 
that  the  warmest  winds  are  from  the  southeast,  south  and  southwest, 
all  others  being  cold;  the  extreme  difference  being  15  degrees  in  win- 
ter and  8i  in  summer.  The  comparison  of  the  direction  of  the  wind 
and  rain  shows  that  the  southwest  wind  in  summer  and  the  southeast  in 
winter  are  accompanied  by  the  greatest  amount  of  precipitation,  and 
that  fair  weather  generally  attends  northerly  winds  throughout  the 
entire  year.  In  summer  the  easterly  and  in  winter  the  westerly 
winds  are  also  attended  with  fair  weather.  The  average  annual 
quantity  of  rain  and  melted  snow  is  42^  inches;  the  least  amount 
observed  in  anyone  year  is  32^.46,  and  the  greatest  61^.84,  varyini? 
much  less  than  is  recorded  of  Brunswick .  The  greatest  amount  of  rain 
in  any  one  month  is  in  June,  and  the  least  in  January.  The  average 
number  of  rainy  days  in  a  year  is  86.  The  quantity  of  rain  is  more 
equally  distributed  throughout  the  year  than  at  Brunswick.  The 
greatest  fall  of  rain  recorded  on  any  one  day  was  4.25  inches,  on  the 
3d  July,  1844.  The  largest  fall  of  snow,  15  inches,  was  on  the  4th 
of  December,  1833. 

The  indications  of  the  barometer  show  a  regular  progression  in  the 
weight  of  the  atmosphere,  which  attains  its  greatest  value  in  January 
and  its  least  between  July  and  August. 

Ethnology. — ^The  subject  of  ethnology  has,  during  tne  past  year, 
continued  to  occupy  a  considerable  share  of  the  attentionof  the  Institu- 
tion. Renewed  efforts  have  been  made,  by  means  of  circulars  and 
correspondence,  to  increase  the  collection  of  specimens  illustrative 
of  the  different  races  of  men  inhabiting  or  who  have  inhabited  this 
continent. 

Tho  very  extensive  collections  of  ethnological  articles  from  almost 
every  part  of  the  world,  made  by  the  United  States  exploring  ex- 
pedition under  Captain  (now  Admiral)  Wilkes,  having  been  placed  in 
charge  of  the  Institution,  not  only  afford  a  basis  for  a  comparison  of 
-the  different  modes  of  life  and  stages  of  advancement  among  exist- 
ing tribes,  but  an  important  means  of  determining  the  ethnological 
relations  of  the  natives  of  the  present  day  to  those  whose  ancient 
remains  lie  thickly  strewn  over  our  whole  continent.  For  example, 
implements  of  stone  and  of  bone  are  almost  everywhere  found,  the 
workmanship  of  races  that  have  long  since  disappeared,  and  of  which 
the  use  would  be  difficult  of  determination,  were  not  similar  imple- 
ments as  to  form  and  material  found  in  actual  use  at  the  present  day 
among  savages,  particularly  those  inhabiting  the  various  islands  of  the 
Pticific  ocean.     Our  object  is  to  collect  well-characterized  specimens, 


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EBPORT  OP   THE   SECRETABY.  35 

illustrative  of  the  remains  of  ancient  industry;  first,  for  the  formation 
of  a  collection  as  perfect  as  possible  to  be  preserved  in  the  national 
museum;  and  second,  for  duplicates  to  present  to  other  institutions, 
with  which  we  maintain  relations  of  reciprocity.  It  may  be  observed 
that,  in  making  exchanges  of  specimens,  the  object  is  not  alone  to 
enrich  our  museum,  but  to  furnish  the  means  throughout  the  world 
of  a  more  comprehensive  comparison,  and  consequently  to  facilitate 
the  study  of  the  various  stages  of  the  development  of  human  inven- 
tion. 

During  the  past  year  large  and  valuable  collections  have  been 
received  from  the  northwest  coast  and  from  within  the  Arctic  Circle, 
illustrative  of  the  Indians  and  Esquimaux  of  these  regions.  We 
have  been  particularly  desirous  to  awaken  an  interest  in  the  explo- 
ration of  the  shell-heaps  which  have  been  found  at  various  points 
along  our  coast.  These  are  now  known  to  be  of  an  artificial  character, 
and^are  frequently  rich  in  specimens  of  the  industry  of  the  earlier 
inhabitants  of  this  country.  As  to  the  archsDological  value  of  these 
shell-mounds,  considerable  difference  of  opinion  prevails.  They  are 
even  regarded  by  some  as  the  work  of  known  tribes  of  Indians,  con- 
cerning whom  we  possess  other  and  better  sources  of  information; 
but,  even  if  this  be  so,  they  would  serve  to  illustrate  peculiarities  of  | 
customs,  and  should,  in  all  cases,  be  explored  and  the  materials 
found  in  them  carefully  preserved.  From  the  specimens  derived 
from  the  shell-deposits  on  the  coast  of  Norway,  the  Scandinavian 
archaeologists  were  enabled  to  divide  the  stages  of  civilization  into 
three  principal  periods,  namely:  the  stone  age,  the  bronze  or  transi- 
tion age,  and  the  iron  age.  These  divisions  have  been  generally 
admitted  as  characteristic  of  the  principal  stages  of  human  develop- 
ment, though  they  are  not  regarded  as  successive  periods  in  the 
general  advancement  of  the  world,  since  the  inhabitants  of  one  country 
may  be  in  the  condition  of  the  stone  age,  while  those  of  others  are  in 
the  full  enjoyment  of  all  the  advantages  of  the  iron  epoch. 

This  division  furnishes  a  ready  means  of  classifying  the  various 
archaeological  objects,  so  as  to  exhibit  the  comparative  civiliza- 
tion in  different  places  at  the  same  or  at  different  epochs,  and, 
though  it  may  be  superseded  by  a  more  philosophic  classification,  it 
forms  an  important  step  in  the  gradual  advancement  of  a  new  sci- 
ence. Indeed,  it  has  lately  been  proposed  to  divide  the  stone  age 
into  two — the  palaDolithic,  or  first  stone  age,  and  the  neolithic,  or 
second  stone  age;  and  from  the  discoveries  which  have  been  made 
of  late,  and    which    have   been    so    cumulative,  we   can    scarcely 


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36  BEPOBT  OF  THE  SECRETABT. 

question  the  coDclasions  to  which  they  all  seem  to  point,  namely: 
that  though  the  remains  of  man  are  found  in  a  very  recent  geologi- 
cal period,  yet,  in  a  historical  point  of  view,  the  antiquity  of  these 
remains  is  much  greater  than  was  formerly  supposed.  Those  which 
belong  to  the  palsdolithic  age  are  usually  found  in  beds  of  gravel 
and  loam,  extending  along  river  valleys  and  reaching  a  height  some- 
times of  200  feet  above  the  present  water  level.  That  these  beds 
were  not  deposited  by  the  sea  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  the 
remains  which  occur  in  them  are  those  of  fresh  water,  and  not  of 
marine  animals.  These  deposits  contain  fragments  of  such  rocks  only 
as  occur  in  the  area  drained  by  the  river  itself,  and  consequently 
at  the  time  the  deposit  was  formed  the  topography  of  western 
Europe  could  not  have  been  very  different  from  what  it  ia  at  present 
That  the  climate,  however,  was  much  more  severe  than  it  is  now 
is  shown  by  the  character  of  the  animals  of  which  the  bones  are 
found  in  abundance,  namely:  the  musk-ox,  the  woolly-haired  rhi- 
noceros, the  lemming,  and  the  reindeer — all  arctic  animals.  The 
great  antiquity  of  the  period  is  inferred  from  several  indications. 
The  extinction  of  the  large  animals  must  have  been  a  work  of  time, 
and  neither  in  the  earlier  writings,  nor  in  popular  traditions,  do 
we  find  any  indication  of  their  presence.  Again  the  beds  of  gravel 
and  loam,  which  in  most  cases  are  deposited  in  regular  strata,  would 
require  a  long  succession  of  seasons,  since  we  see  how  little  effect 
is  produced  at  the  present  time  in  the  course  of  a  number  of  years. 

In  these  deposits  mingled  with  the  regular  strata  are  found  stone 
implements  indicating  the  presence  of  reasoning  beings  previous  to 
the  time  at  which  the  strata  were  deposited.  According  to  Sir  John 
Lubbock,  about  3,000  flint  implements  have  been  found  in  what  he 
denominates  the  palsaolithic  age,  in  northern  France  and  southern 
England,  but  no  traces  of  pottery,  nor  evidence  of  the  use  of  metals, 
nor  even  of  polished  stone  implements,  have  yet  been  met  with. 

The  neolithic  age  commences  with  a  knowledge  of  a  higher  degree 
of  art,  at  a  period  when  polished  axes,  chisels,  gouges,  and  other 
implements  of  stone,  as  well  as  hand-made  pottery,  were  extensively  used 
in  western  Europe.  The  objects  peculiar  to  this  period  do  not  occur 
in  the  river  drift  gravel  as  in  the  previous  period,  except  some  of  the 
simpler  ones*  The  implements  are  remarkably  numerous  in  Den- 
mark and  Sweden,  while  the  palaeolithic  types  are  absolutely 
unknown  there.  It  has  hence  been  inferred  that  these  northern 
countries  were  not  inhabited  by  man  during  the  earlier  periods.  The 
Danish  shell-mounds  belong  to  this  period,  as  well  as  those  of  our  own 

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REPORT   OP  THE   SECRETARY.  37 

couDtry,  and  hence  it  becomes  an  important  object  of  inquiry  to 
determine  whether  any  real  types  of  the  palaeolithic  age  exist  in  North 
America.  The  two  stone  ages,  however,  are  characterized  by  the 
use  of  stone  or  bone,  to  the  exclnsion  of  metal. 

It  is  evident,  from  the  specimens  which  have  been  collected,  that 
there  was  a  period  when  bronze  was  extensively  nsed  for  arms  and 
implements.  This  is  particularly  manifest  in  the  examination  of 
tomuli,  in  which  stone  and  bronze  implements  are  found  existing 
together.  Some  of  the  bronze  axes,  in  many  cases,  appear  to  be 
mere  copies  of  those  of  stone,  as  indeed  is  the  iron  axe  used  by  the 
pioneers  in  clearing  the  American  forest. 

The  bronze  age  is  also  distinguished  from  the  stone  age  by  the  bones 
of  animals  which  are  found  mingled  with  the  implements.  Those 
of  wild  beasts  prevail  in  the  former,  while  those  of  tame  beasts  are 
most  numerous  in  the  latter.  No  articles  of  bronze  have  been  found  in 
this  country,  though  those  of  copper,  showing  a  less  advance  in  art, 
are  frequently  found  in  ancient  mounds. 

The  iron  age  appeared  when  the  metal  was  first  used  for  weapons 
and  cutting  instruments,  and  gradually  extends  into  the  twilight  of  his- 
tory. From  all  the  remains  which  have  been  found,  it  is  evident  that 
neither  bronze  nor  stone  implements  were  used  in  northern  Europe 
at  the  commencement  of  the  Christian  era,  and  that  the  inhabitants 
of  these  regions  were  not  as  low  in  the  scale  of  civilization  as  the 
accounts  of  their  conquerors  would  seem  to  place  them. 


Exchanges. — ^The  system  of  international  scientific  and  literary 
exchanges,  to  facilitate  the  correspondence  between  learned  institu- 
tions and  individuals  of  the  Old  and  New  World,  has  been  fully  main- 
tained during  the  past  year,  1,083  boxes  and  packages  having  been 
sent  out,  and  782  received  since  the  date  of  the  last  report,  most  of 
them  with  a  large  number  of  sub-parcels  enclosed. 

These  packages,  as  in  former  years,  contain  the  publications  of 
institutions,  public  documents,  transactions  of  societies,  scientific 
works  presented  by  individuals,  specimens  of  natural  history,  eth- 
nology, &c.  This  part  of  the  operations  of  the  establishment  has 
found  much  favor  with  the  public.  **  We  have  nothing  of  the  kind," 
says  a  recent  English  publication,  '*  in  this  country,  and  the  difficulty 
in  exchanging  books  and  specimens  is  much  felt.  The  comparative 
cheapness  of  freight  is  more  than  made  up  by  the  complicated 
agencies  and  other  extra  charges,  which  can  scarcely  be  avoided  even 
by  those  initiated  in  the  secrets  of  the  business.     The  sending  one 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


38  BEPOET   OP  THE   SECRETART. 

or  two  volames  or  a  small  packet  of  specimens  into  Germany  is  often 
prevented  by  the  difficulties  and  expense  attending  it." 

At  stated  periods  the  following  circular  is  distributed  to  institu- 
tions and  individuals  in  America  : 

'*Tbe  Smithsonian  Institution  is  now  making  preparations  to  send 
copies  of  its  publications  to  the  different  libraries  and  societies  in 
Europe  and  other  parts  of  the  world  with  which  it  is  in  correspond-, 
ence.  As  in  previous  years,  it  will  undertake  the  transmission  and 
safe  delivery  of  the  publications  of  other  American  institutions  on 
the  following  conditions  : 

"1st.  The  volumes  or  publications  to  be  put  up  in  compact  packages, 
enveloped  separately  for  each  particular  address.  They  must  not  be 
sealed,  although  they  can  be  pasted  up  or  tied.  Unsealed  letters 
relating  to  the  contents  of  the  package  may  be  placed  inside  or  sent 
separately.  In  no  case  taiU  sealed  letters  or  packages  be  forvxxrded  hy 
the  Institution. 

*'2d.  The  packages  must  be  addressed  legibly,  in  full,  (if  German, 
they  must  be  in  Roman  character,)  and  the  name  of  the  donor  must 
be  indorsed  on  each. 

*  *  3d.  The  parcels  must  be  delivered  in  Washington  free  of  expense  to 
the  Smithsonian  Institution. 

*'4th.  A  detailed  and  full  invoice  of  all  the  addresses  on  the  par- 
cels must  be  sent  separately,  in  advance,  by  mail. 

'*5th.  The  parcels  should  conform  as  nearly  as  possible  in  length 
and  breadth  to  the  corresponding  dimensions  of  the  Smithsonian 
Contributions  to  Knowledge,  if  in  quarto,  or  to  half  this  size,  if  octavo. 
Octavo  pamphlets  should  not  be  folded.  No  single  package  should 
exceed  six  inches  in  thickness. 

' '  6th.  No  charge  will  be  made  for  the  expenses  of  sending  from 
Washington,  if  the  parcels  be  of  moderate  bulk.  In  any  case  the 
proportion  of  actual  expenses  wilb  only  be  called  for. 

'*If  desired,  the  Smithsonian  Institution  will  make  the  selection 
of  the  most  suitable  recipients  of  any  publications.  In  this  case 
nothing  but  the  name  of  the  donor  need  be  marked  on  the  parcels. 

*'The  next  transmission  of  packages  from  the  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion will  take  place  about  the  1st  June. 

**  Parcels  should  be  in  hand  a  month  earlier,  and  the  lists  sent  by 
mail  at  the  earliest  possible  moment.  These  will  be  wanted  con- 
siderably in  advance  of  the  parcels,  in  order  to  make  out  the  com- 
plete invoices  for  each  different  address  before  commencing  to  pack 
the  boxes. 


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BEPORT  OF  THE   SECBETABY.  39 

**  Unless  the  above  conditions  are  severally  and  strictly  observed 
the  parcels  cannot  be  forwarded. 

The  cost  of  this  system  would  far  exceed  the  means  of  the  Institu- 
tion, were  it  not  for  important  aid  received  from  various  parties 
interested  in  facilitating  international  intercourse  and  the  promotion 
of  friendly  relations  between  distant  parts  of  the  civilized  world. 
The  liberal  aid  extended  by  the  steamship  and  other  lines,  men- 
tioned in  previous  reports,  in  carrying  the  boxes  of  the  Smithson 
exchanges  free  of  charge,  has  been  continued,  and  several  other 
lines  have  been  added  to  the  number  in  the  course  of  the  year.  The 
names  of  this  class  of  patrons  of  the  Institution  are  given  in  the  fol- 
lowing list : 

Pacific  Mail  Steamship  Company,  North  German  Lloyd  Steamship 
Company,  Hamburg  American  Steamship  Company,  General  Trans- 
Atlantic  Steamship  Company,  Inman  Steamship  Company,  Cunard 
Steamship  Company,  Pacific  Steam  Navigation  Company,  Panama 
railroad,  California  and  Mexico  Steamship  Company. 

Important  favors  have  also  been  conferred  during  the  year  by  the 
Adams,  the  Harnden,  and  the  Wells  &  Fargo  Express  Companies; 
Mr.  S.  Hubbard,  of  San  Francisco,  and  Mr.  George  Hillier,  of  the 
New  York  custom-house. 

As  in  previous  years,  the  agents  of  the  Institution  are:  Dr.  Felix 
Flugel,  inLeipsic;  Mr.  Gustavo  Bossange,  in  Paris;  Mr.  Wm.  Wesley, 
in  London;  Mr.  Fred  Miiller,  in  Amsterdam. 

In  view  of  the  delays  incident  to  the  transmission  of  packages  to 
Italy,  the  Institution  has  embraced  a  proposal  from  the  Royal  Insti- 
tute of  Milan,  conveyed  through  the  friendly  intervention  of  tho 
American  minister,  Hon.  G.  P.  Marsh,  to  take  charge  of  the  ex- 
changes with  that  country,  and  a  number  of  boxes  have  accordingly 
been  shipped  to  Milan,  via  Genoa,  during  the  year. 

Besides  these  agents,  our  countryman,  Mr.  James  Swaim,  now  resid- 
ing in  Paris,  has  kindly  consented  to  act  as  a  special  agent  in^ super- 
intending the  construction  of  such  articles  of  philosophical  apparatus 
as  the  Institution  may  require. 

During  the  session  of  1866-67  an  act  was  passed  by  Congress  pro- 
viding for  the  reservation  of  fifty  complete  sets  of  all  the  works  pub- 
lished at  the  expense  of  the  United  States,  to  be  placed  provisionally 
in  the  hands  of  the  Joint  Library  Committee  of  Congress,  in  order  to 
be  exchanged,  through  the  Smithsonian  agency,  for  corresponding 
publications  of  other  nations.  The  object  in  this  was  to  secure  regu- 
larly and  systematically,  at  the  least  possible  expense,  all  reports  and 


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40  BEPORT   OF  THE   SECRETARY. 

other  documents  relative  to  the  legislation,  jurisprudence,  statistics, 
internal  economy,  technology,  &c.,  of  all  nations,  so  as  to  place  the 
material  at  the  oommand  of  the  committees  and  members  of  Con- 
gress, heads  of  bureaus,  &o.  No  appropriation  was  made  for  meet- 
ing the  necessary  expenses,  which,  of  course,  could  not  be  borne  by 
the  Smithsonian  fund,  since  all  the  returns  were  to  belong  to  the 
Library  of  Congress;  but  as  a  year  would  necessarily  elapse  before 
any  documents  would  be  ready  for  distribution,  it  was  thought  proper 
to  defer  further  action  until  the  present  season.  In  the  mean  time, 
however,  a  circular  was  issued  by  the  Institution  with  the  view  of 
ascertaining  what  governments  would  enter  into  the  proposed  arrange- 
ment, and  already  replies  have  been  received  from  a  large  number, 
all  embracing  the  opportunity  offered  of  procuring  the  national  pub- 
lications of  the  United  States,  and  proffering  complete  series  of  their 
own  in  return.  Some  of  these,  indeed,  have  already  sent  large  pack- 
ages of  their  works  without  awaiting  further  action  on  the  part  of 
our  government.  Among  them,  one  large  box  of  books  from  the 
government  of  Victoria,  Australia,  has  been  received  and  the  contents 
deposited  in  the  Congressional  Library. 

In  view  of  the  great  importance  of  securing  the  foreign  works 
in  question,  we  regret  to  learn  that  a  difficulty  has  arisen  in 
reference  to  the  fifty  sets  referred  to.  The  Public  Printer  does  not 
consider  himself  authorized  to  furnish  thom  without  further  legisla- 
tion, since  the  distribution  of  the  regular  edition  is  already  directed 
by  law,  and  he  cannot  supply  the  fifty  sets  in  question  unless  the 
regular  edition  be  increased  by  that  number.  The  attention  of  the 
Library  Committee  has  been  called  to  this  subject,  and  it  is  probable 
that  they  will  give  it  due  consideration,  as  well  as  that  of  an  appro- 
priation to  meet  the  necessary  expenses. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  governments  which  have  responded 
favorably  to  the  proposed  international  exchanges  of  documents,  Ac. : 

Prance,  Belgium,  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  Switzerland,  Spain, 
Costa  Rica,  Netherlands,  Chile,  Denmark,  Argentine  Confederation, 
United  States  of  Colombia,  Wurtemburg,  Finland,  Hamburg,  Baden, 
Sweden. 

At  the  suggestion  of  Hon.  John  Bigelow,  late  American  minister 
to  Prance,  a  request  was  made  by  the  Institution  that  some  of  the  prin- 
cipal publishers  of  school-books  in  this  country  would  furnish  copies  of 
their  elementary  text-books,  in  order  that  these  might  be  presented 
to  Professor  B.  Laboulaye,  of  the  College  of  France,  for  examination, 
with  a  view  to  the  application  of  some  of  their  peculiar  features  to 


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HEPOBT   OF  THE   SECBETABY.  41 

the  purposes  of  instruction  in  his  own  country.  The  character  of 
this  distinguished  professor,  and  his  known  admiration  of  American 
institutions,  secured  for  this  request  the  prompt  and  liberal  response 
of  several  publishers,  a  list  of  whom,  with  the  number  of  works  con- 
tributed, is  as  follows : 

Harper  &  Brothers,  New  York 62  volumes. 

A.  S.  Barnes  &  Co.,         •'  • 26  volumes. 

Oakley  &  Mason,  *'  *• ••• 10  volumes. 

C.  Scribner^  •*  •  • •  • 3  volumes. 

H.  Cowperthwait  &  Co.,  Philadelphia 10  volumes. 

U.  Hunt  &  Son,  **  12  volumes. 

E  .C.  &  J.  Biddle,  •* 12  volumes. 

A.  S.  Davis  &  Co.,  Boston 6  volumes. 

Sargent,  Wilson  &  Hinkle,  Cincinnati  •  • 33  volumes. 

Professor  Laboulaye,  in  acknowledging  the  receipt  of  these  174 
volumes,  says  :  **  These  books  form  the  admiration  of  all  who  take  an 
interest  in  education,  and  I  hope  that  France  will  profit  by  this 
example.  We  have  excellent  things  at  home  by  which  you  in  turn 
might  profit,  but  we  have  seen  nothing  comparable  to  your  readers, 
your  object-lessons,  your  graphics,  and  your  geographical  series." 

Explorations  and  CoUeciions. — The  system  of  explorations  mentioned 
in  the  preceding  reports  has  been  continued  as  in  previous  years,  with 
the  co-operation,  in  some  cases,  of  other  institutions  and  of  persons 
interested  in  special  branches  of  natural  history.  The  objects  of 
these  explorations  are  to  collect  information  and  illustrations  of  the 
natural  history,  the  ethnology,  meteorology,  and  physical  geography 
of  the  various  parts  of  the  continent  of  North  America.  The  organ- 
ization of  these  expeditions  has  been  specially  in  charge  of  Professor 
Baird,  who  has  devoted,  with  his  wonted  zeal,  a  large  amount  of 
labor  to  the  preparation  of  outfits  and  to  the  care  and  arrangement 
of  the  specimens  obtained.  We  shall  give  an  account  of  these  sev- 
eral explorations  under  the  names  of  the  districts  within  which  they 
have  been  prosecuted. 

British  and  Russian  America. — In  previous  reports  a  statement  has 
been  given  relative  to  the  scientific  department  of  the  expedition  organ- 
ized by  the  Western  Union  Telegraph  Company,  for  the  purpose  of 
effecting  an  electric  communication  between  the  United  States  and 
Europe,  across  Behring's  Straits,  and  we  have  now  to  express  our 
regret  that  the  enterprise  has  been  nbandoned.  We  have,  too,  to 
deplore  the  sudden  death  of  Mr.  Eennicott,  the  director  of  the  natu- 


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42  REPORT   OF  THE   SECRETARY. 

ral  history  department  of  the  expedition,  which  took  place  in  May, 
1866,  at  Nulato,  on  the  lower  Yukon.  In  this  dispensation  of  Provi- 
dence, science  has  lost  an  ardent  and  successful  votary,  and  the  Insti- 
tution one  of  its  most  valued  collaborators.  It  is  to  him  that  we  owe 
our  introduction  to  the  most  important  sources  of  information  relative 
to  the  fur  countries,  and  it  is  principally  through  his  exertions  that 
the  museum  of  the  city  of  Chicago,  of  which  he  was  the  director, 
received  its  endowment  end  organization. 

After  the  death  of  Mr.  Kennicott,  Mr.  W.  H.  Dall  succeeded  him 
as  chief  of  the  scientific  corps,  and  has  since  been  occupied  in  ex- 
ploring the  Yukon  river  from  Port  Yukon  to  its  mouth.  He  is  still 
engaged  in  this  work,  but  will  probably  return  in  the  autumn  of  1868. 

To  the  co-operation  of  Col.  Bulkley,  the  chief  of  the  survey,  and 
of  Messrs.  Scammon,  Ketchum,  Fisher,  Smith,  and  others  mentioned 
in  the  list  of  donors  to  the  collections,  much  of  the  success  of  the  oper- 
ations relative  to  natural  history  is  due.  The  collections  themselves 
were  made  principally  by  Messrs.  Kennicott,  Dall,  Bischoflf,  Bannister, 
and  Elliott.  Since  the  return  of  the  surveying  parties  all  the  maps 
and  reports  relating  to  the  geographical  part  of  the  work  have  been 
placed  in  possession  of  this  Institution,  with  a  view  to  their  being 
elaborated  in  the  form  of  a  memoir  for  publication. 

The  explorations  under  the  auspices  of  the  telegraph  company 
were  made  partly  in  Nicaragua  during  the  transit  of  the  scientific 
corps  across  the  Isthmus,  partly  in  the  vicinity  of  San  Francisco  while 
the  expedition  was  in  process  of  being  organized,  partly  in  Kam- 
tschatka  and  in  British  Cv.1umbia,  but  chiefly  in  the  island  of  Sitka 
and  on  Norton  Sound  and  the  Yukon  river. 

The  collections  from  the  Yukon  and  Norton  Sound  region,  as  well 
as  those  from  both  sides  of  Behring^s  Straits,  are  very  extensive  and 
valuable.  Among  the  results  most  interesting  to  the  naturalist  is 
the  discovery  at  Norton  Sound  and  at  Nulato  of  three  genera  of  birds* 
previously  supposed  peculiar  to  the  Old  World. 

The  collections  of  the  telegraph  expedition  at  Sitka  were  made 
by  Mr.  Ferdinand  Bischoflf,  during  a  stay  of  about  fourteen  months, 
and  are  of  great  extent  and  value.  Desirous  of  having  a  collection  of 
specimens  from  Kamtschatka  for  comparison  with  those  from  the 
shores  of  Russian  America,  the  Institution,  conjointly  with  the  Chicago 
Academy  of  Sciences,  engaged  the  services  of  Mr.  Bischoflf  for  that 
purpose,  and  furnished  him  with  a  complete  outfit,  while  the  Pacific 
Mail  Steamship  Company,  in  its  usual  spirit  of  liberality  as  regards 

*  Spedes  of  Budytes,  Fhyllopneuflte,  and  PTrrhola. 

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BEPOBT   OP  THE   SECEETAEY.  43 

the  interests  of  science,  gave  him  a  free  passage  to  San  Francisco. 
Thence  he  sailed,  still  free  of  expense,  in  one  of  the  vessels  of  the 
Bossian  Telegraph  Company,  but  no  stop  being  made  at  Kamtscbatka, 
he  was  obliged  to  proceed  to  Plover  Bay,  the  telegraphic  depot  on 
the  Asiatic  side  of  the  straits,  where  he  failed  not  to  make  some  inter- 
esting collections.  Returning  with  the  vessel  to  San  Francisco  in  Octo- 
ber, he  was  directed  to  proceed  to  Mazatlan,  and  there,  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  valued  correspondent  of  the  Institution,  Colonel  Grayson, 
he  is  now  engaged  in  prosecuting  his  researches,  but  intends  to  return 
in  the  spring  and  proceed  to  Kodiak,  where  he  will  probably  remain 
for  a  year,  collecting  specimens  and  exploring  the  country.  It  is 
proper  to  mention  that  he  was  also  provided  with  a  free  passage  to 
Mazatlan,  through  the  kindness  of  Mr.  Halliday,  on  the  vessels  of  the 
Mexican,  Oregon,  and  California  line . 

It  was  known  that  the  Institution  had  for  several  years  been  dili- 
gently engaged  in  gathering  specimens  and  collecting  information  to 
illustrate  the  character  of  the  northwest  portion  of  the  American  conti- 
nent, and  consequently,  when  the  question  of  the  acquisition  of  Alaska 
by  the  United  States  came  under  discussion,  it  was  to  the  Institution 
that  reference  was  chiefly  made  by  the  State  Department  and  the  Sen- 
ate for  information  in  regard  to  the  country.  Two  of  our  collaborators, 
then  on  a  visit  to  the  Institution,  Mr.  Henry  Bannister,  who  had  spent 
a  year  in  Norton  Sound,  and  Mr.  Bischoff,  who  had  passed  the  same 
length  of  time  at  Sitka,  were  called  upon  to  give  evidence  before  the 
Committee  on  Foreign  Relations,  and  were,  in  eflfect,  the  only  persons 
examined  who  were  acquainted  with  the  region  from  personal  observa- 
tion. Professor  Baird  also  gave  valuable  information  as  to  the  zoology 
of  the  country,  from  the  materials  which  had  previously  been  collected 
by  the  Institution. 

For  the  purpose  of  obtaining  additional  information  relative  to  the 
new  Territory  of  Alaska,  an  expedition  was  organized  by  the  Treas- 
ury Department,  under  the  charge  of  Captain  W.  A.  Howard  of  the 
revenue  service,  and,  at  the  request  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury, 
instructions  for  research  into  the  physical  and  natural  history  of  the 
country  were  furnished  by  the  Smithsonian  Institution.  The  expedi- 
tion left  San  Francisco  on  the  revenue  steamer  Lincoln,  under  command 
of  Captain  T.  W.  White,  during  the  summer  of  1867,  and  spent  several 
months  in  its  explorations.  It  was  accompanied  by  a  special  party 
from  the  Coast  Survey  under  charge  of  Mr.  George  B.  Davidson,  who 
has  since  communicated  a  valuable  memoir  on  the  country  to  the 
Superintendent  of  the  Coast  Survey,  which  has  been  printed  by  Con- 
gress.    Important  collections  in  natural  history  and  ethnology  have 

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44  BEPOBT  OF  THE   SECRETART. 

been  supplied  to  the  Institution  by  Captains  Howard  and  White, 
and  Mr.  Davidson. 

The  oflBcers  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  especially  at  posts  in 
the  Mackenzie  river  district,  have  continued  during  the  past  year  to 
make  contributions  in  the  way  of  information  and  specimens.  Prom- 
inent among  these  may  be  mentioned,  as  in  previous  years,  Mr.  B. 
McFarlane  of  Fort  Anderson,  to  whom  we  are  indebted  for  an  almost 
exhaustive  collection  of  materials  from  the  Arctic  coast;  Messrs.  James 
Lockhart,  Strachan  Jones,  C.  P.  Gaudet,  W.  Brass,  J.  and  A.  Flett, 
R.  McDonald,  J.  McDougall,  and  James  Sibbiston.  To  Mr.  B.  E, 
Ross  the  Institution  owes  a  valuable  contribution  from  Hudson's  bay, 
embracing  the  first  specimens  of  a  large  bird,  the  bernida  leticopsis, 
known  to  have  been  found  in  North  America.  It  is  intended  to 
embody  the  result  of  the  observations  of  our  correspondents  in  Arctic 
America  in  a  memoir,  which  will  form  an  interesting  addition  to  the 
ethnology,  natural  history  and  physical  geography  of  the  country. 

It  may  be  said  to  the  honor  of  the  oflScers  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  and 
Northwest  Companies,  that  though  secluded  for  years  from  civilized 
society,  they  manifest  in  general  no  want  of  interest  in  subjects  which 
pertain  to  a  wide  range  of  human  culture;  and  it  may  be  claimed  on 
the  other  hand  for  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  that  it  has  been  not 
slightly  efficient  in  enlivening  their  isolated  and  monotonous  life  by 
the  incitements  and  facilities  it  has  afforded  them  for  the  study  and 
observation  of  the  phenomena  and  objects  of  nature. 

Mr.  Donald  Gunn,  our  veteran  correspondent  in  the  Red  River  set- 
tlement, has  made,  at  our  request,  an  expedition  to  the  lakes  west  of 
Lake  Winnipeg,  and  obtained  some  rare  and  valuable  specimens  not 
previously  in  our  collection.  An  account  of  his  journey  is  given  in 
the  appendix  to  this  report,  and  will,  we  doubt  not,  be  read  with  inter- 
est, if  only  as  the  production  of  a  man  who  has  spent  his  life  far 
removed  from  the  centres  of  refined  civilization. 

Among  the  collections  received  through  the  telegraph  expedi- 
tion was  a  valuable  series  of  specimens  gathered  on  the  northern 
end  of  Vancouver's  island  by  Mr.  A.  W.  Heisen,  an  American  resi- 
dent, these  being  the  first  ever  received  from  that  region. 

Western  America. — Mr.  J.  G.  Swan,  of  Neaah  Bay,  Washington 
Territory,  whom  we  have  mentioned  as  favoring  the  Institution  with 
an  interesting  memoir  on  the  Makah  Indians,  has  continued  his  valua- 
ble contribution  of  marine  animals  and  ethnological  specimens.  Ex- 
tensive series  of  marine  invertebrates  and  eggs  of  birds  have  been 
received  from  Dr.  P.  A.  Canfield,  of  Monterey,  and  Dr.  Cooper  has 
furnished  some  rare  eggs  and  nests.     The  remainder  of  a  large  col- 


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REPORT  OF  THE   SECRETARY.  45 

lection  made  by  Dr.  CoQes  in  the  vicinity  of  Prescott,  Arizona,  has 
also  come  to  hand.  BeportB  forming  valuable  contributions  to  the 
general  natural  history  of  the  Territory  have  been  published  by  Dr. 
Cones  in  the  proceedings  of  the  Philadelphia  Academy  of  Natnral 
Sciences,  and  in  the  American  Naturalist,  based  on  the  specimens  in 
the  Smithsonian  collection.  Dr.  B.  Palmer,  formerly  associated  with 
Dr.  Cones  in  collecting  in  the  vicinity  of  Prescott,  and  devoting 
himself  while  there  especially  to  the  plants  and  insects,  has  since 
spent  some  time  in  southern  Arizona  at  Camp  Grant,  and  procured 
copious  collections  in  all  branches  of  natural  history,  as  well  as  full 
series  of  objects  made  or  used  by  the  Apache  Indians,  which  he 
has  presented  to  the  Institution. 

Interior  mountain  regions. — Dr.  C.  Wernigk  has  made  explorations 
in  Colorado  and  Montana,  and  presented  specimens  to  the  Institution 
for  determination  and  addition  to  the  collections.  * 

During  the  summer  of  1867,  Dr.  F.  V.  Hayden  was  engaged  in  a 
geological  snrvey  of  Nebraska,  under  the  direction  of  the  Commis- 
sioner of  the  Land  Office,  and  made  extensive  collections  of  fossils  and 
other  specimens,  which  Mr.  Meek,  of  the  Institution,  is  now  engaged 
in  determining.  Dr.  Minor,  of  the  Winnebago  reserve,  has  supplied 
many  specimens  of  ethnology  and  zoology.  To  Mr.  Allan  Mudge  and 
Dr.  Crocker,  of  Kansas,  we  are  also  indebted  for  important  contri- 
butions from  the  last-named  State,  During  the  past  year  an  explo- 
ration of  the  geology  of  the  region  along  the  40th  parallel  of  latitude, 
and  eastward  from  California,  was  authorized  by  Congress  at  the 
request  of  the  War  Department,  and  the  expedition  was  placed  by 
the  Secretary  of  War  under  the  charge  of  Mr.  Clarence  King,  who, 
for  several  years,  had  been  the  assistant  of  Professor  Whitney  in  the 
geological  survey  of  California.  On  application  by  Mr.  King,  the 
Institution  took  charge  of  the  preparation  of  the  natural  history  outfit 
of  the  expedition,  made  arrangements  to  receive  all  its  collections,  and 
to  give  such  necessary  facilities  for  working  up  the  results  as  are 
usually  aflforded  to  the  scientific  parties  of  the  government.  Besides 
the  regular  assistants,  Mr.  King  is  accompanied  by  Mr.  Robert  Bidg- 
way  as  zoologist,  and  Mr.  Bailey  as  botanist.  The  collections  already 
received  are  of  much  interest.  The  labors  of  the  survey  have  so  far 
been  devoted  to  the  examination  of  the  celebrated  Comstock  lode 
of  Nevada. 

Eastern  and  Southern  States. — Collections  of  more  or  less  extent 
have  been  received  from  various  contributors  east  of  the  Mississippi 
river,  which  will  be  found  detailed  in  the  list  of  donations.  Dr.  H. 
B.  Butcher  has  completed  his  explorations  in  the  vicinity  of  Laredo, 


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46  BEPOBT  OF  THE   SECRETARY* 

Texas,  and  has  furnished  a  series  of  specimens,  of  which  the  collec- 
tion of  birds  is  especially  valuable  as  throwing  light  on  the  distribu- 
tion of  species. 

West  Indies. — In  connection  with  explorations  in  the  West  Indies, 
the  Smithsonian  Institution  has  to  deplore  the  loss  of  Dr.  Henry 
Bryant,  of  Boston,  one  of  its  most  highly  prized  coadjutors  in  the 
work  of  American  explorations.  Not  alone  did  he  freely  contribute 
of  his  abundant  means,  but  he  gave  his  personal  services  indefat- 
igably  to  the  extension  of  knowledge  in  the  field  of  natural  history. 
In  both  these  respects  the  Institution  had  enjoyed  his  uniform 
co-operation  as  it  shared  the  fruits  of  his  successful  labors.  These 
labors  had  been  principally  conducted  in  Labrador,  and  on  the  Gulf 
of  St.  Lawrence,  in  Florida,  in  the  Bahamas,  in  Cuba,  and  in  Jamaica; 
and  it  was  while  pursuing  his  researches  in  Porto  Rico  that  he  met 
with  ^n  untimely  death,  occasioned  probably  by  excessive  exertion 
in  an  insalubrious  climate.  He  died  2d  January,  1867,  at  the  lit- 
tle village  of  Arecibo,  in  the  last-named  island.  Dr.  Bryant  contem- 
plated a  memoir  on  the  birds  of  the  West  Indies,  and  was,  at  the 
time  of  his  death,  engaged  in  the  prosecution  of  this  object.  His 
entire  collection  of  the  birds  of  the  West  Indies  has  been  intrusted 
to  Prof.  Baird  for  determination,  and  after  this  has  been  effected  it  is 
the  design  of  Mrs.  Bryant  to  present  a  series  of  each  species  to  the 
principal  museums  at  home  and  abroad,  in  conformity  with  the  in- 
tention of  her  lamented  husband. 

From  Jamaica  collections  have  been  sent  by  Mr.  W.  T.  March,  in 
continuation  of  many  previous  contributions,  and  from  Cuba  by  Mr. 
Bishop.  Mr.  A.  E.  Younglove  spent  several  months  in  Hayti,  and 
obtained  a  valuable  series  of  birds  and  reptiles,  embracing  several 
new  species.  Mr.  E.M.  Allen,  United  States  consul  at  Bermuda, 
has  also  given  attention  to  the  birds  and  marine  animals  of  the  islands, 
and  has  sent  specimens. 

Towards  the  close  of  the  year  an  appropriation  was  made  for  a 
special  exploration  relative  to  the  geology  of  the  island  of  Petite 
Anse,  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  near  Vermillion  bay,  and  the  adjoining 
region,  by  Professor  E.  W.  Hilgard,  of  the  University  of  Mississippi. 
The  immediate  inducement  for  this  exploration  was  the  discovery  of 
a  stratum  of  rock  salt  on  this  island,  together  with  the  remains  of 
extinct  animals  associated  with  specimens  of  human  industry.  The 
exploration  was  commenced  too  late  in  the  season  to  be  fully  prosecuted. 
The  weather,  however,  proved  unusually  favorable,  the  sugar-cane 
having  bloomed  on  the  Louisiana  coast  for  the  first  time  in  27  years. 
The  exploration  suggested  many  new  questions,  which  can  only  bo 


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REPORT  OP  THE  SECRETARY.  47 

answered  by  fnrtber  investigatioD.     The  following  is  an  abstract  of 
the  results  already  obtained  : 

"  The  Port  Hudson  deposit  described  by  Carpenter,  Lyell,  and  others, 
is  the  cypress  swamp  equivalent  of  the  '  bluff  formation,'  just  as  the 
existing  cypress  swamps  correspond  to  the  Mississippi  alluvium.  The 
three  islands,  (out  of  the  chain  of  five,)  which  were  examined,  con- 
sist of  outliers  of  'orange  sand,'  which  has  resisted  denudation; 
on  and  around  which,  strata  precisely  similar  to  those  of  Port  Hud- 
son have  subsequently  been  deposited.  The  rock-salt  of  Petite 
Anse  island  underlies  the  orange  sand,  and  is,  therefore,  anterior  to 
the  drift,  and  it  may  probably  be  reached  at  points  much  higher 
above  tide  level  than  has  been  supposed,  obviating  the  chief  diffi- 
culty (that  of  drainage)  heretofore  experienced  in  working  the 
deposit,  the  lowest  part  of  which  only  has  thus  far  been  explored. 
While  the  precise  position  of  the  deposit,  as  regards  the  inferior 
formations,  cannot  now  be  determined,  the  results  of  the  boring  of  the 
New  Orleans  artesian  well  render  the  conclusion  almost  unavoidable, 
in  view  of  the  absence  of  all  signs  of  disturbance  on  the  coast,  that 
the  salt  deposit  is  of  an  age  corresponding  to  that  of  the  strata  pen- 
etrated in  this  boring,  which  there  is  reason  to  believe  are  post-ter- 
tiary. Apart  from  all  these  comparatively  ancient  deposits,  the  entire 
delta  is  underlaid  at  or  near  tide  levels  by  a  cypress  swamp  deposit, 
as  it  would  seem,  of  later  date  ;  and  beneath  these,  as  well  as  the 
more  ancient  deposits  of  a  similar  nature,  there  are  beds  of  gravel  of 
a  composition  similar  to  that  of  the  main  or  Mississippi  branch  of  the 
great  stream  of  the  orange  sand  epoch,  which  here  appears  to  have 
divided  into  two  branches,  one  reaching  the  gulf  in  the  region  of 
Vermillion  bay,  the  other  on  or  near  the  Sabine.  Important 
information  was  obtained  concerning  the  formations  of  northern  Lou- 
isiana, which,  while  of  course  corresponding  in  general  to  those  of 
Mississippi,  differ  so  far  as  to  promise  a  ready  determination  of 
the  age  of  the  grand  gulf  groups,  which  thus  far  remains  in  doubt, 
notwithstanding  that  those  groups  cover  nearly  half  of  the  State  of 
Mississippi,  filling  the  space  between  the  eocene  and  postpleiocene 
deposits.  All  that  is  known  of  it,  is,  that  during  its  formation,  palms 
flourished  on  the  borders  of  an  immense  lake  or  everglade,  which 
either  bordered,  or  itself  represented,  the  present  gulf  of  Mexico. 
After  what  has  been  observed  in  Louisiana,  there  is  less  difficulty 
in  accounting  foi  the  total  absence  of  animal  fossils  from  this  forma- 
tion in  Mississippi."  But  the  problem  to  be  solved  regarding  its  age, 
extent,  and  relations  to  the  eocene  and  quaternary  shores  of  the  gulf 
is  one  of  so  much  interest  that  while  in  Louisiana  Mr.  Hilgard  was 


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48  BEPORT  OP  THE  SECRETARY. 

impressed  with  the  importance  of  a  more  extended  exploration  than 
was  at  first  contemplated,  which,  starting  from  the  northern  border 
of  the  marine  eocene,  above  Vicksbnrg,  should  proceed  diagonally 
across  to  the  locality  where  petroleum  has  been  found  on  the  bor- 
ders of  Texas.  So  great  was  the  interest  manifested  in  regard  to 
these  matters  wherever  he  went  in  Louisiana,  that,  were  the  affairs 
of  the  country  at  all  settled,  he  has  no  doubt  it  would  be  easy  to  pro- 
cure an  appropriation  or  even  subscription  for  the  purpose. 

Mexico. — The  regular  correspondents  of  the  Institution  in  this 
country  have  continued  their  co-operation.  Colonel  ^  ^Grayson,  of 
Mazatlan,  has  furnished  specimens  from  the  vicinity  of  that  city, 
and  from  other  points  in  Western  Mexico.  At  the  joint  expense  of 
the  Smithsonian  Institution  and  the  Boston  Society  of  Natural  History, 
he  visited,  last  spring,  the  island  of  Socorro,  one  of  the  Bevilligideo 
group,  some  hundreds  of  miles  southwest  of  Cape  San  Lucas,  and 
made  an  exploration  of  its  natural  history,  obtaining  several  new 
species  of  birds.  Returning  via  San  Bias,  he  met  with  a  severe  loss 
in  that  city  by  the  death  of  his  son,  the  companion  of  his  scientific 
labors,  jvho  was  murdered  by  some  unknown  persons.  The  result  of 
Colonel  Grayson's  investigations  will  shortly  be  published  in  the  pro- 
ceedings of  the  Boston  Society  of  Natural  History. 

Professor  Sumichrast  and  Mr.  Botteri,  of  Orizaba,  and  Dr.  Sarto- 
rious,  of  Mirador,  have  continued  their  valuable  contributions,  the 
latter  gentleman  in  addition  furnishing  meteorological  records. 

Central  Amerioa. — ^The  collaborators  in  this  part  of  the  continent 
still  continue  active.  From  Guatemala  Mr.  Henry  Hague  has  sent 
large  collections  of  birds  and  mammals,  and  Dr.  Van  Patten,  of  ver- 
tebrata  generally.  From  Costa  Rica,  the  contributions  of  Dr.  A.  Von 
Frantzius,  Mr.  Endres,  Jo86  Zeledon,  and  Mr.  Juan  Cooper  embrace 
ample  series  in  certain  branches  of  zoology,  while  Mr.  F.  Lehmann 
has  furnished  an  interesting  collection  of  fossils  and  minerals. 

The  last  of  the  collections  made  in  Yucatan  by  Dr.  Arthur  Schott, 
during  the  exploration  of  that  country  instituted  by  Governor  Salazar, 
have  reached  the  Institution,  and  with  the  first  portions  received, 
furnish  an  excellent  idea  of  the  natural  history  of  the  northern  part 
of  the  peninsula,  the  southern  part  of  which  will  be  illustrated  by 
Dr.*  Berendt's  researches. 

As  mentioned  in  a  preceding  report.  Dr.  H.  Berendt,  who  has 
been  many  years  one  of  our  collaborators,  undertook  an  exploration  of 
the  little-known  interior  of  the  Peninsula  of  Yucatan,  under  the* 
auspices  of  the  Institution,  and  at  the  expense  partly  of  subscrip- 
tions by  various  societies  and  individuals.     He  first  passed  up  the 

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BEPORT   OP  THE  SECRETARY.  49 

Balize  river,  and  thence  to  the  region  about  Lake  Peten,  where  he 
remained  until  the  summer  of  1867,  making  collections  in  natural 
history,  and  prosecuting  researches  in  anthropology  and  geography. 
He  visited  the  United  States  towards  the  end  of  the  year,  but  will 
return  shortly  to  Guatemala  to  complete  his  labors  and  to  bring  back 
his  extensive  collections. 

An  important  collection  of  antiquities  has  been  presented  by  the 
Hon.  C.  N.  Biotte,  late  United  States  minister  to  Costa  Rica.  Mr. 
Geo.  N.  Lawrence,  of  New  York,  a  collaborator  of  the  Institution,  is 
at  present  occupied  in  preparing  a  catalogue  of  the  birds  of  Costa 
Rica,  based  chiefly  upon  the  Smithson  collection,  which  will  prob- 
ably include  500  species .  To  Dr.  Yon  Frantzius  the  acknowledgments 
of  the  Institution  are  especially  due  for  his  valuable  scientific  cor- 
respondence and  intelligent  aid  and  supervision  in  conducting  the 
explorations  of  the  Institution  in  his  adopted  country. 

Mr*  Hardiman,  of  San  Salvador,  has  contributed  the  first  collection 
of  birds  received  from  that  country.  Mr.  Osbert  Salvin  has  presented 
a  series  of  the  birds  of  Yeragua,  collected  by  his  correspondent, 
Mr.  Arcd.  Dr.  Kluge,  of  Aspinwall,  and  Captain  J.  M.  Dow,  of 
Panama,  have  also  continued  their  aid.  The  services  of  the  latter  in 
attending  to  the  interests  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  on  the  Isth- 
mus of  Panama  and  the  west  coast  of  Central  America,  in  issuing 
supplies,  receiving  and  forwarding  collections,  &c.,  are  of  great  value, 
and  deserve  the  special  acknowledgments  of  the  Board  of  Regents. 

South  America. — ^The  principal  exploration  in  South  America  under 
the  auspices  of  the  Institution  has  been  that  of  Prof.  James  Orton, 
of  Rochester  University,  undertaken  especially  in  the  interest  of  the 
Lyceum  of  Natural  History  of  Williams  College,  Massachusetts. 
The  Institution  lent  the  scientific  instruments,  supplied  a  considerable 
portion  of  the  outfit,  and  took  charge  of  the  transportation  and  recep- 
tion of  the  collections.  Two  parties  were  organized.  The  one  under 
the  immediate  direction  of  Prof.  Orton  proceeded  to  Guayaquil  via 
Panama,  the  other  under  Mr.  W.  B.  Gilbert  went  to  Yenezuela.  The 
party  under  Prof.  Orton,  after  remaining  some  time  at  Guayaquil, 
where  most  of  them  were  taken  sick  with  yellow  fever,  finally  arrived 
at  Quito.  Here  they  had  the  misfortune  to  lose  one  of  their  mem- 
bers, Colonel  Phineas  Stanton,  a  gentleman  of  many  accomplish- 
ments, who  volunteered  to  accompany  the  expedition  as  an  amateur 
artist.  After  exploring  in  Pechincha  and  other  localities  on  the 
plateau  of  Ecuador,  they  crossed  to  the  head-waters  of  the  Amazon, 
descending  by  MaraSon  to  Para,  and  thence  returned  home.  The 
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50  REPORT  OP  THE   SECRETARY. 

Venezuela  division  prosecuted  their  researches  for  a  time  in  the 
district  of  Caraccas,  and  then  returned  via  the  Orinoco  river.  All 
the  collections  of  both  parties  have  been  sent  to  the  Institution 
for  identification,  and  have  been  distributed  for  that  purpose  among 
the  naturalists  of  the  country. 

A  collection  principally  of  birds  and  butterflies,  made  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Bogota,  was  conveyed  to  the  Institution  through  the 
attentive  care  of  Hon.  A.  A.  Burton,  late  United  States  minister. 
Many  of  the  species  are  new  as  regards  that  locality.  From  Chile  there 
has  been  received  a  collection,  nearly  complete,  of  birds  prepared  and 
determined  by  Prof.  A.  R.  Phillippi,  Director  of  the  National  Museum 
at  Santiago.  The  series  is  of  special  value  as  containing  types  of 
many  of  the  new  species  described  by  Prof.  Phillippi  and  his  asso- 
ciate, Dr.  Landbeck. 

An  important  Smithsonian  exploration  has  been  made  during  the 
last  year  in  the  Province  of  Buenos  Ayres  by  Mr.  W.  H.  Hudson, 
who  has  transmitted  large  collections  of  birds,  which  have  been 
referred  to  Mr.  P.  L.  Sclater  and  Mr.  Osbert  Salvin,  of  London,  for 
examination,  these  gentlemen  having  been  especially  occupied  in 
the  study  of  South  American  birds.  Mr.  A.  de  Lacerda,  of  Bahia, 
has  continued  his  valued  contributions  from  that  portion  of  Brazil. 

With  the  exceptidn  of  the  Russian  telegraph  expedition  at  Plover 
bay,  and  on  the  Asiatic  side  of  Behring's  straits,  the  explorations  we 
have  enumerated  have  been  confined  to  the  American  continent  and 
its  islands.  This  is  in  accordance  with  a  settled  policy  of  the  Insti- 
tution, to  the  effect  that  the  natural  and  physical  history  of  the  Old 
World  shall  be  relinquished  to  the  explorers  of  Europe. 

The  following  remarks  by  George  Bentham,  esq.,  president  of  the 
Linnean  Society  of  London,  present  the  scientific  importance  of 
explorations  in  this  country  in  so  clear  a  light  that  I  may  be 
excused  for  quoting  them  at  length :  ''The  peculiar  condition 
of  the  North  American  continent  requires  imperatively  that  its 
physical  and  biological  statistics  should  be  accurately  collected 
and  authentically  recorded,  and  that  this  should  be  speedily  done. 
Vast  tracts  of  land  are  still  in  what  may  be  called  almost  a 
primitive  state,  unmodified  by  the  effects  of  civilization,  uninhab- 
ited, or  tenanted  only  by  the  remnants  of  ancient  tribes,  whose 
unsettled  life  never  exercised  much  influence  over  the  natural  pro- 
ductions of  the  country.  But  this  state  of  things  is  rapidly  passing 
away ;  the  invasion  and  steady  progress  of  a  civilized  population, 
while  changing  generally  the  face  of  nature,  is  obliterating  many  of 
the  evidences  of  a  former  state  of  things.     The  larger  races  of  wild 


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BEPOBT   OP  THE   SECRETARY.  51 

animals  are  dwindling  down,  like  the  aboriginal  inhabitants,  under 
the  deadly  inflnence  of  civilized  man.  Myriads  of  the  lower  orders 
of  animal  life,  as  well  as  of  plants,  disappear  with  the  destruction  of 
forests,  the  drainage  of  swamps,  and  the  gradual  spread  of.  cultiva- 
tion, and  their  places  are  occupied  by  foreign  invaders.  Other  races, 
no  doubty  without  actually  disappearing,  undergo  a  gradual  change 
under  the  new  order  of  things,  which,  if  perceptible  only  in  the 
course  of  successive  generations,  require  so  much  the  more  for  future 
proof  an  accurate  record  of  their  state  in  the  still  unsettled  condition 
of  the  country.  In  the  Old  World  almost  every  attempt  to  compare 
the  present  state  of  vegetation  or  animal  life  with  that  which  existed 
in  uncivilized  times  is  in  a  great  measure  frustrated  by  the  absolute 
want  of  evidence  as  to  that  former  state  ;  but  in  North  America  the 
change  is  going  forward,  as  it  were,  close  under  the  eye  of  the  observer. 
This  consideration  may  one  day  give  great  value  to  the  reports  of  the 
naturalists  sent  by  the  government,  as  we  have  seen,  at  the  instance 
of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  and  other  promoters  of  sciejice,  to 
accompany  the  surveys  of  new  territories.'' 

The  total  number  of  contributors  to  the  collections  of  the  Institution 
in  1867  was  163.  The  total  number  of  primary  boxes  or  packages 
received  was  320.  The  general  character  of  these  additions  will  be 
learned  from  the  table  at  the  end  of  the  report;  they  vary  from 
single  specimens  to  boxes  filled  with  a  variety  of  objects,  the  latter 
being  far  the  most  numerous.  Among  the  most  important  may  be 
mentioned  the  collections  of  the  Russian  telegraph  expedition,  those 
of  Dr.  Butcher,  of  Mr.  Garmiol,  of  Colonel  Grayson,  of  Professor 
Sumichrast,  of  Dr.  Hayden,  of  Mr.  Hudson,  and  of  Dr.  Palmer. 

To  the  Zoological  Garden  of  Hamburg,  Dr.  W.  H.  Sigel,  director, 
the  Institution  is  indebted  for  the  present  of  a  number  of  European 
house  sparrows,  which  had  been  asked  for  with  the  view  of  natural- 
izing them  in  Washington  and  vicinity,  in  order  to  secure  the  aid  of 
these  nimble  and  voracious  birds  in  ridding  the  fruit  and  shade  trees 
of  this  region  from  noxious  insects.  Although  300  were  embarked, 
only  five  reached  the  Institution  (in  August  last)  alive.  These  were 
immediately  liberated  and  have  remained  in  the  proximity  of  the 
building  during  the  winter.  For  further  notice  of  these  sparrows  see 
general  correspondence. 

The  Institution  is  indebted  to  Mr.  T.  A.  Randall,  of  Warren,  Pa., 
fer  a  large  number  of  living  menopoma  dOegheniensia  from  the  Allegheny 
river.  Such  of  these  as  survived  were  sent  to  several  of  the  Zoologi- 
cal  Gardens  of  Europe,  and  others  will  probably  be  transmitted  in  the 
ensuing  spring. 


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52  BBPOBT  OF  THE  SECBETART. 

Investigattona. — As  in  previous  years,  the  natural  history  material 
collected  by  the  Smithsonian  Institution  has  been  freely  distributed 
to  special  investigators  for  examination  and  description,  among  whom 
are  the  following: 

Thomas  Bland,  New  York  ;  univalve  shells  from  Mexico  ard  Bogota. 
D.  E.  R.  Beadle,  Philadelphia  ;  shells  of  various  portions  of  the  globe. 
Dr.  T.  M.  Brewer,  Boston  ;  nests  and  eggs  of  North  American  birds, 
to  be  included  in  Part  2,  North  American  Oology.  Dr.  P.  P.  Carpen- 
ter, Montreal ;  mounted  chitons  and  British  shells,  shells  of  Puget 
Sound,  Santa  Barbara,  California,  and  Nicaragua.  John  Cassin, 
Philadelphia ;  all  the  Icteridce,  Bhamphastidce,  and  TrogonUke  of  the 
Smithsonian  collection,  for  monographing;  birds  collected  in  Ecuador, 
and  on  the  Upper  Amazon.  Professor  E.  D.  Cope,  Philadelphia ;  rep* 
tiles  from  Mexico,  New  Grenada,  Navassa,  Vancouver  island,  Sitka, 
&c. ;  entire  Smithsonian  collection  of  salamanders  for  a  monograph  ; 
recent  and  fossil  bones  of  cetaceans  and  sauriaus.  Dr.  Elliot  Coues, 
U.  S.  A.,  Columbia,  S.  C;  entire  Smithsonian  collection  of  cdcicUB 
for  a  monograph.  Thomas  Davidson,  London ;  types  of  fossils  for 
comparison.  W.  H.  Edwards,  Newburgh,  N.  Y.;  lepidoptera  of 
Mexico,  Colombia,  and  western  North  Ajnerica.  D.  G.  EUidt,  New 
York  ;  North  American  birds  to  be  figured  in  his  work  on  Birds  of 
America.  Professor  T.  Egleston,  New  York ;  specimens  of  minerals 
from  various  parts  of  the  world.  John  Gould,  London  ;  types  of  new 
and  rare  species  of  humming  birds,  described  by  Mr.  Lawrence,  from 
the  collection  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution.  George  N.  Lawrence, 
New  York  ;  various  collections  of  humming  birds,  and  general  col- 
lections of-  birds  of  Costa  Rica,  Bogota,  and  western  l((exico.  Isaac 
Lea,  Philadelphia;  unionidda  from  various  portions  of  North  America* 
Dr.  Joseph  Leidy,  Philadelphia ;  fossil  remains  of  vertebrata  from 
Colorado,  &c.  F.  B.  Meek,  Washington  ;  invertebrate  fossils,  from 
Nebraska,  &c.  Lewis  H.  Morgan,  New  York  ;  skulls  of  American 
and  European  beaver.  Baron  B.  Ostensacken ;  diptera  of  Mexico, 
&C.,  insect  galls  from  Plover  bay.  Northeast  Siberia.  Tryon  Beak* 
irt,  Philadelphia ;  lepidoptera  of  Colombia.  Dr.  I.  T.  Bothrock; 
plants  collected  in  Russian  America.  S.  H.  Scudder,  Boston  ;  orthop* 
tera  of  Mexico  and  other  parts  of  North  America.  IJr.  W.  Stimpson, 
Chicago  ;  marine  invertebrata  collected  by  Perd.  feischoff,  W.  H. 
Dall  and  others,  on  the  northwest  coast  of  North  America.  Dr.  P. 
L.  Sclater,  London  ;  collection  of  birds  made  about  Conelutas,  Buenos 
Ayres,  by  W.  H.  Hudson.  Dr.  John  Torrey,  New  York  ;  collections 
of  plants  of  various  parts  of  the  world.  P.  R.  Uhler,  Baltimore  ; 
hemiptera  of  Mexico  and  America  getferally.     Dr.  H.  C.  Wood,  jr.. 

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REPORT  OF  THE   SECRETARY.  53 

Philadelphia  ;  general  coUectioDs  of  myriapoda.  Professor  Jeffries 
WymaD,  Cambridge  ;  skulls  of  Pacific  coast  Indians.  The  insecla  have 
been  sent  to  the  Entomological  Society  of  Philadelphia  to  be  iden- 
tified and  preserved. 

Professor  Baird  has  continued ,  as  other  duties  would  permit,  his 
in?estigations  in  regard  to  the  birds  of  America,  of  which  450  pages 
have  already  been  printed,  under  the  title  of  *' Review  of  American 
Birds  in  the  Museum  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution."  The  object  of 
this  work  is  to  define  the  absolute  and  comparative  characters  of  the 
birds  of  America,  and  especially  to  trace  with  minute  detail  their 
distribution  during  the  breeding  season,  and  the  extent  and  character 
of  their  migrations.  He  has  tilso  been  engaged  in  digesting  and  col- 
lating for  publication  by  the  Institution  the  mass  of  original  notes 
coutriboted  by  Mr.  Eennicott,  Mr.  MaeFarlane,  Mr.  Boss,  and  others, 
relative  to  the  natural  history  of  the  regions  north  of  the  United 
States,  wbich  are  believed  to  embody  much  original  information. 

The  records  of  the  Institution  have  also  |;>een  largely  drawn  upon 
for  materials  required  by  part  2  of  the  North  American  Oology  of 
Dr.  Brewer.  As  explained  in  previous  reports,  the  object  of  this  work 
alao  is  to  present,  in  addition  to  the  description  of  the  nests  and  eggs 
of  the  species,  a  complete  account  of  their  habits  and  geographic^ 
distribution  during  the  breeding  season. 

For  the  promotion  of  these  objects,  circulars  and  pamphlets  con- 
tuning  the  necessary  instruction  to  collectors  have  been  issued  for 
several  years  past,  and  large  returns  obtained,  which  will  greatly 
extend  our  present  knowledge.  The  notes  containing  information 
attached  to  the  specimens  received  by  the  Institution  have  been 
carefully  transcribed,  and  systematically  arranged,  so  as  to  supply 
conveniently  any  information  required  on  the  subjects  referred  to. 

In  all  cases  in  which  specimens  have  been  presented  or  lent  to 
investigators  for  facilitating  their  researches,  or  enabling  them  to 
pursue  certain  lines  of  investigation,  it  is  required  that  full  credit  for 
the  favor  conferred,  as  far  as  the  facts  may  justify  it,  shall  be  given 
to  the  Institution  by  the  authors  in  their  resulting  publications.  In 
most  cases  this  recognition  has  been  fully  complied  with,  but  in  a 
few  we  are  sorry  to  say  the  acknowledgments  have  not  been  of  the 
character  or  extent  to  which  the  Institution  was  entitled. 

The  distribution  of  the  duplicate  specimens  of  the  collections  has 
been  carried  on  as  rapidly  as  practicable  during  the  year.  The  most 
important  series  sent  off  have  consisted  of  skins  and  eggs  of  arctic  birds, 
skids  of  mammals,  shells,  minerals,  and  ethnological  specimens.     The 


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54  REPORT  OF  THE   SECRETARY. 

rainerals  were  arranged  aud  labelled  for  the  purpose  by  Professor 
Egleston,  the  shells  by  Dr.  P.  P.  Carpenter,  the  ethnological  objects 
by  Dr.  E.  Foreman.  As  the  collections  generally  become  reduced  to 
order,  identified,  and  duplicates  eliminated,  further  distributions  will 
will  take  place.  According  to  the  account  of  Professor  Baird,  nearly 
^a  quarter  of  a  million  of  diflferent  specimens  have  thus  been  sent 
away  to  places  where  they  are  likely  to  be  of  use.  It  should  be 
borne  in  mind  that  in  nearly  every  instance  these  specimens  had  pre- 
viously been  identified  and  labelled  by  the  highest  authorities,  and 
in  fact  served  as  types  or  standards  of  special  reference. 

The  foregoing  account  of  the  disposition  of  the  specimens  collected 
by  the  Institution  will  serve  to  illustrate  the  spirit  and  policy  of  the 
establishment,  as  well  as  the  working  of  the  system  of  active  opera- 
tions in  its  relation  to  the  advancement  of  natural  history.  The 
same  policy,  but  with  more  eflSciency,  would  be  continued,  were  Con- 
gress to  take  charge  of  the  museum,  or  make  separate  provision  for 
its  maintenance. 

Besides  the  investigations  in  the  line  of  natural  history,  several 
others  have  been  commenced,  at  the  charge  and  under  the  direction 
of  the  Institution  and  are  still  in  progress.  George  Gibbs,  esq.,  has 
been  engaged  in  collating  and  arranging  for  publication  all  the  Indian 
vocabularies  which  have  been  collected  by  the  Institution.  An 
appropriation  has  been  made  for  a  systematic  exploration  of  mounds 
and  ancient  remains  in  certain  localities,  of  which  an  account  will  be 
given  in  the  next  report.  As  is  seen  under  the  head  of  meteorology, 
the  labors  of  Mr.  Schott  have  been  continued  in  the  reduction  and 
discussion  of  observations.  An  appropriation  has  been  made  to  assist 
Prof.  Wm.  Ferrel  in  a  series  of  investigations  relative  to  the  tides; 
and  another  to  Prof.  Newcomb,  of  the  National  Observatory,  to  defray 
the  expense  of  numerical  calculations  for  his  discussion  of  the  obser- 
vations of  the  planet  Neptune ,  The  Secretary,  in  connection  with 
General  Poe,  of  the  Light-house  Board,  devoted  a  part  of  his  summer 
vacation  to  investigations  in  regard  to  the  penetration  of  sound,  in 
its  relation  to  fog-signals.  The  remainder  of  the  same  vacation,  as 
well  as  a  considerable  amount  of  other  time,  was  devoted  to  the 
examination  of  subjects  referred  to  him  by  the  government,  as  pre- 
siding officer  of  the  National  Academy  of  Sciences. 

In  addition  to  the  collaborators  in  natural  history  already  mentioned, 
the  Institution  during  the  past  year  has  been  favored  with  the  gratui- 
tous services  of  a  number  of  other  gentlemen  in  reporting  upon  ques- 
tions proposed  for  solution, in  examining  memoirs,  and  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  articles  for  the  report.     Among  these  may  be  mentioned  Prof. 


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BEPORT  OP   THE   SECRETARY.  55 

G.J.  Brash,  of  Yale  College;  Dr.  Gray,  of  Harvard;  Profa.  Newcomb 
and  Harkness,  of  the  Naval  Observatory;  Drs.  Woodward  and  Craig, 
of  the  Surgeon  General's  Office;  Prof.  SchaeflFer  and  Mr.  Taylor,  of 
the  Patent  OflSce;  Mr.  Gibbs,  of  Washington;  Mr.  0.  Ran,  of  New 
York;  Prof.  Chace,  of  Brown  University. 

National  Museum. — Much  time  has  necessarily  been  consumed  dur- 
ing the  past  year  in  repairing  the  damage  sustained  by  the  specimens 
and  the  gallery  of  exhibition  in  consequence  of  the  conflagration  of 
the  upper  part  of  the  building  in  1865.  The  defective  state  of  the 
temporary  roof  permitted  a  large  amount  of  moisture  to  enter  the 
walls,  which  kept  the  hall  in  a  constant  state  of  dampness,  covering 
the  specimens  with  mould.  The  entire  collection  has,  however,  been 
examined,  dried,  and  cleaned;  the  shelves  and  the  interior  of  the 
cases,  with  the  stands  of  the  specimens,  whitened;  the  ceilings  and 
walls  frescoed,  and  new  paint  applied  to  most  of  the  woodwork. 

The  most  important  work  connected  with  the  museum  has  been  the 
labelling  and  preliminary  arrangement  of  the  extensive  collection  of 
ethnological  objects,  and  the  separation  of  the  duplicates.  All  the 
collections  of  vertebrata  as  received  have  been  catalogued  and  put  in 
place;  many  osteological  specimens  cleaned;  bottles  of  alcoholic  speci- 
mens washed,  &c.  The  labelling  and  registering  of  the  collection  has 
been  continued  as  rapidly  as  possible,  13,221  entries  having  been 
made  during  the  year. 

This  museum  is  principally  made  up  of  the  type  specimens  of  the 
collections  made  by  the  various  expeditions  organized  by  the  govern- 
ment, as  well  as  those  projected  and  supported  by  the  Smithsonian 
Institution  itself,  and  owes  but  little  to  donations,  and  still  less  to 
purchases.  There  is,  however,  a  large  debt  due  the  Institution  from 
foreign  museums,  in  the  way  of  exchange,  which  we  have  no  doubt  will 
be  cheerfully  discharged  as  soon  as  they  are  informed  that  Congress 
has  made  provision  for  the  support  of  a  museum  on  a  more  extended 
scale  than  that  which  the  Smithsonian  is  able  to  maintain.  Besides 
the  increase  of  the  museum  from  the  addition  of  type  specimens 
derived  from  the  various  collections  examined  and  described  during 
the  year,  a  number  of  foreign  donations  have  been  received,  among 
which  are  specimens  of  the  products  of  the  iron  mines  and  man- 
ufactures of  Sweden,  presented  by  Hon.  G.  V.  Pox,  late  Assistant 
Secretary  of  the  Navy,  and  from  the  same  donor  large  and  beautiful 
specimens  of  graphite  from  eastern  Siberia,  both  rough  and  wrought, 
as  well  as  exemplifications  of  the  rocks  associated  with  it. 

It  may  be  recollected  that  when  the  government  museum  was 
transferred  to  the  Institution,  it  was  stipulated  that  an  appropriation 


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56  BEPOBT  OF  THE  SECRETARY. 

should  be  aDnnally  made  for  it  in  this  new  depository,  equivalent  to 
the  cost  of  its  support  while  in  the  Patent  Office;  and  the  appropria- 
tion for  this  purpose  had  been  limited  until  the  last  session  of  Congress 
to  the  sum  of  $4,000.  But  this  sum,  on  account  of  the  rapid  increase 
of  the  collections  and  the  great  advance  in  prices,  is  not  now  nearly 
sufficient  even  for  the  preservation  of  the  specimens,  to  say  nothing 
of  the  equitable  claim  which  the  Institution  might  rightfully  advance 
for  interest  on  the  money  which  it  has  expended  in  providing  tho 
accommodations  for  this  museum.  It  is  but  just  to  say  that,  in  view 
of  the  peculiar  condition  of  our  affiiirs,  the  appropriation  was,  last 
year,  temporarily  increased  to  110,000;  but  even  were  this  con- 
tinued, it  would  be  still  quite  inadequate  to  the  suitable  maintenance 
of  a  national  museum. 

Ncdianal  Library. — ^Tbe  transfer  of  the  library  of  the  Institution  to 
the  care  of  Congress,  authorized  in  1866,  was  completed  during  the 
last  year.  The  reasons  for  making  this  transfer  were  given  in  full 
in  the  last  report,  but  it  may  be  proper  briefly  to  recapitulate  some 
of  the  leading  points. 

First.  The  collection  and  support  of  a  large  library  is  not  in  strict 
conformity  with  the  will  of  Smithson,  as  now  generally  interpreted. 

Second.  The  whole  of  the  income  would  in  time  not  be  more  than 
sufficient  to  meet  the  wants  of  a  rapidly  growing  library,  the  tendency 
being  to  absorb  more  and  more  of  the  funds  with  the  increase  of  the 
number  of  the  books,  and  hence  even  a  library  adequate  to  the  wants 
of  the  various  departments  of  government  can  only  be  properly 
supported  by  the  appropriations  of  Congress.  The  government  has 
already  commenced  such  a  library,  and  even  if  there  were  no  objec- 
tions to  expending  the  income  of  the  bequest  of  Smithson  in  the  pur- 
chase of  books  and  the  maintenance  of  a  library,  it  would  be  unneces- 
sary to  establish  two  libraries  in  such  close  proximity. 

Third.  By  combining  the  two  libraries  in  one,  the  expense  of 
accommodation,  of  care  and  of  management  will  be  much  diminished, 
and  a  greater  facility  as  to  consulting  the  works  afforded. 

Fourth.  The  portion  of  the  Smithsonian  building  in  which  the  library 
was  deposited  is  not  fire-proof,  and  was  filled  to  overflowing,  while  fur- 
ther accommodations  and  protection  could  not  be  afforded  without 
encroachment  on  the  funds  which  had  been  set  apart  as  the  perma- 
nent capital. 

Fifth.  By  the  terms  of  the  transfer^  the  cataloguing,  binding,  and 
entire  care  and  management  of  the  books  are  at  the  expense  of  tho 


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REPORT  OF  THE  SECRETARY.  57 

government,  and  consequently  an  important  portion  of  the  income  is 
made  ayailable  for  active  operations. 

Sixth.  The  transfer  has  fartbermore  tended  to  awaken  an  interest 
in  the  library  of  Congress,  which  cannot  fail  to  render  it,  under 
the  energetic  superintendence  of  the  librarian,  Mr.  Spofford,  worthy 
of  the  nation.  At  the  last  session  of  Congress  an  appropriation  of 
$100,000  was  made  for  the  purchase  of  the  library  of  Mr.  Peter  Force, 
consisting  of  books  relating  to  America,  and  with  these  additions  the 
library  of  Congress  is  the  largest  in  the  United  States,*  and  may  even 
DOW  with  propriety  be  denominated,  as  we  have  ventured  to  call  it, 
the  National  Library. 

By  the  law  authorizing  the  transfer,  the  Institution  is  at  liberty  to 
draw  any  books  it  may  require  for  its  use  either  from  its  own  collec* 
tion  or  from  those  of  Congress.  It  is  proposed,  as  soon  as  the 
regents'  room  is  properly  provided  with  cases,  to  keep  in  the  Institu- 
tion such  books  as  are  most  frequently  required  for  consultation  in  its 
operations,  and  fortunately  a  considerable  number  of  these  are  dupli- 
cates in  the  two  libraries. 

Seventh.  The  books  transferred  to  the  National  Library  are  in 
many  cases  such  as  could  not  be  obtained  by  purchase,  and  are  pres- 
ents to  the  Institution  from  the  old  libraries  of  Europe,  consisting  of 
transactions  and  other  publications  of  learned  societies,  forming  a 
special  collection  not  only  ranking  first  in  this  country,  but  one  of  the 
best  in  the  world. 

Neither  is  it  the  value  of  the  books  already  transferred  which  is  to 
be  considered,  but  also  the  perpetual  increase  of  the  several  series  of 
scientific  transactions  in  their  continuations  from  year  to  year  which 
are  regularly  supplied  in  exchange  for  the  publications  of  the  Insti- 
tution. 

The  collections  of  transactions  of  societies  contain  the  record  of 
the  actual  progress  of  the  world  in  all  that  essentially  pertains  to  the 
mental  and  physical  development  of  the  human  family,  and  as  it  has 
been  the  aim  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  from  the  first  to  establish 
exchanges  with  all  societiec  of  this  character,  the  list  of  those  now 
in  the  national  library  includes,  with  scarcely  any  important  excep- 
tion, the  whole  series  of  the  world,  and  affords  tne  means  therefore  of 
tracing  the  history  of  at  least  every  branch  of  positive  science  since 
the  days  of  the  revival  of  letters  until  the  present  time. 

The  use  of  this  library  for  the  purpose  of  research  will  soon  be 
much  facilitated  and  its  treasures  brought  more  generally  into  requi- 

*  In  January,  1868,  it  contained  165,467  yolomes. 

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58  BEPORT  OF  THE  SECRETARY. 

sitioD  by  tbe  publication  of  tbe  classified  index  of  all  the  physical 
papers  in  tbe  transactions  of  learned  societies  and  in  scientific  peri- 
odicals which  has  been  in  course  of  preparation  for  tbe  last  ten  years 
by  the  Royal  Society  of  London,  and  of  which  the  printing  of  the  first 
volume  bas  just  been  completed.  It  may  be  recollected  that  the 
preparation  of  this  index  resulted  from  a  letter  addressed  to  the  Brit- 
ish Association  in  1855,  by  tbe  Secretary  of  this  Institution,  setting 
forth  the  advantages  to  science  of  such  a  work,  that  the  matter  was 
referred  to  a  committee  of  the  Association,  reported  favorably  upon, 
and  recommended  for  execution  to  the  Royal  Society.  As  soon  as 
this  work  is  published  copies  will  be  procured  by  the  principal  libra- 
ries and  institutions  in  this  country.  Any  person,  then,  desiring  to 
investigate  a  special  point  in  any  branch  of  science,  will  be  able  to 
find  a  reference  to  the  transactions,  journals  or  proceedings  in  which 
it  is  contained  ;  and  as  the  most  perfect  set  of  these  is  to  be  found  in 
tbe  National  Library,  it  will  become  a  centre  of  information  on  scien- 
tific subjects.  It  may  also  be  remarked  that  the  National  Library  is 
now  accessible  to  all  persons  during  every  week-day  in  the  year,  with 
the  exception  of  one  month  devoted  to  cleaning  and  arranging. 

In  the  arrangement  of  the  compound  library  the  principal  part  of 
the  Smithson  collection,  that  is,  the  scientific  ti;ansactions,  will  form  a 
department  by  itself  in  which  works  of  a  similar  character  previously 
belonging  to  the  library  of  Congress  will  be  incorporated,  while  the 
miscellaneous  books  of  the  Institution  will  be  arranged  with  the  works 
of  a  similar  class  already  in  that  library.  A  complete  catalogue  of 
all  tbe  transactions  belonging  to  the  Smithson  library  up  to  1866  was 
prepared  and  published  by  the  Institution,  and  a  general  catalogue 
of  the  whole  National  Library  is  now  in  the  prefts,  in  which  the  books 
of  the  Institution  are  designated  by  the  letter — S. 

Some  idea  may  be  formed  of  the  value  of  the  annual  contributions 
from  the  exchanges  of  the  Institution,  when  it  is  mentioned  that  it 
includes  the  publications  of  1,081  societies,  besides  large  donations 
from  governments,  libraries,  and  individuals,  and  that  these  publica- 
tions are  principally  of  a  very  expensive  character,  illustrated  by 
costly  engravings  and  in  many  cases  by  colored  plates.  The  following 
is  a  statement  of  the  number  of  establishments  in  difierent  parts  of 
the  world  which  have  contributed  to  the  Smithson  library,  and  which 
it  is  expected  will  continue  their  contributions  from  year  to  year  for 
an  indefinite  period. 


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ICEPOBT  OF   THE   8ECBETABY.  69 

Number  of  todetieM  sending  their  publications  in  exchange  to  the  Smithsonian 

Institution. 

Germany 334     East  Indies 4 

Great  Britain  and  Ireland  •  •  194     Chile 4 

France 113    Portugal 3 

United  States 100    Turkey 3 

Italy 70     Mauritius 2 

Holland 48     Africa 2 

Bussia 46     China 2 

Switzerland 35     Brazil 2 

Canada 20     Greece • 

Belgium 19     Egypt 

Australia 15     Bogota 

Denmark 13    Buenos  Ayres 

Sweden 12     Jamaica 

Hindostan 11     Mexico 

Norway 9     Trinidad 

Spain 7                                                

Cuba 6        Making  in  all 1,081 


To  the  list  of  correspondents  during  the  past  year  we  may  add  the 
Institute  of  Egypt,  founded  Bf,  Alexandria,  in  1859,  from  which  we 
have  received  the  first  volume  of  its  transactions  and  several  numbers 
of  its  proceedings.  These  works  form,  as  it  were,  an  epoch  in  the 
history  of  modern  civilization,  which,  originally  cradled  in  the  valley 
of  the  Nile,  now  returns,  after  having  changed  the  condition  of 
western  Europe,  to  the  place  of  its  birth,  destined,  we  trust,  to  rouse 
from  its  long  apathy  **the  country  in  which  Pythagoras  courted 
wisdom  and  Herodotus  unveiled  the  sources  of  history."  A  library 
and  collections  have  been  formed,  which  are  rapidly  increasing,  and 
which  even  now  it  is  stated  are  capable  of  rendering  essential  service 
to  the  explorers  of  the  valley  of  the  Nile.  Although  the  French  lan- 
guage has  been  adopted  for  the  reports  and  also  for  correspondence 
between  the  members  of  the  society  and  the  learned  institutions  of 
the  west  and  east,  yet  the  contributions  of  authors  are  presented  in 
their  original  form  and  style,  and  hence  the  present  volume  includes 
memoirs  in  French,  Italian,  Greek,  and  Arabic,  with  illustrations  in 
the  hieroglyphic,  Coptic,  and  Hebrew.  To  some  of  these  memoirSy 
explanations,  rather  than  strict  translations,  are  appended. 


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60  REPORT  OF  THE  SECfBETABT. 

The  following  is  a  statement  of  the  books,  maps  and  charts  received 
by  exchange,  in  1867,  and  deposited  in  the  National  Library: 
Volumes: 

Octavo 1,088 

Quarto 383 

Polio 86 

1,551 

Parts  of  volumes  and  pamphlets: 

Octavo 2,689 

Quarto * 1,057 

Polio 200 

8,946 

Maps  and  charts 328 

Total  receipts 5,831 


Among  the  more  interesting  additions  to  the  library  during  the 
year  is  the  work  of  Dr.  Hochstetter,  on  New  Zealand.  This  gentle- 
man was  one  of  the  scientific  oorps  of  the  celebrated  Austrian  explor- 
ing expedition  on  board  the  Novara,  and  when  the  vessel  arrived  in 
New  Zealand,  he  was  left,  at  the  request  of  the  governor  of  the  colony, 
to  make  a  geological  exploration  of  the  islands.  The  results  of  his 
labors  are  embodied  in  a  special  work,  which  conveys  a  great  amount 
of  information  relative  to  the  geography  and  natural  history  of  the 
country.  Originally  published  in  the  German  language,  an  English 
translation  has  appeared  in  Stuttgardt,  made  by  Mr.  Edward  Sauter, 
of  Little  Bock,  Arkansas,  to  whom  we  are  indebted  for  a  copy  of  the 
work. 

But  perh&ps  the  most  valuable  donation  received  during  the  past 
year  is  that  from  Hon.  G.  Y.  Pox,  late  Assistant  Secretary  of  the 
Navy,  through  the  Department  of  State.  It  consists  of  articles  pre* 
sented  to  him  on  the  occasion  of  his  recent  visit  to  Russia  as  the  bearer 
to  the  Emperor  of  a  resolution  of  Congress  congratulating  his  Majesty 
on  his  escape  from  assassination.  They  embrace  179  volumes,  finely 
bound,  many  in  quarto  and  largo  octavo  ;  15  atlases  and  albums, 
some  ** eagle,"  others  ** elephant"  folio  size,  all  bound  in  cloth  or 
morocco  ;  72  maps,  some  in  covers  and  cases  ;  4  city  plans,  in  cases, 
and  12  pamphlets — making  in  all  283  pieces,  illustrating  the  physi- 
cal geography,  ethnology,  and  resources  of  the  Russian  empire. 
The  character  of  this  gift  will  be  properly  appreciated  when  it  is 
stated  that,  by  a  joint  resolution  of  Congress,  Mr.  Pox  was  author- 
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BEPOBT  Of  THE  8ECSBTART.  61 

ized  to  accept  these  books  as  additions  to  bis  own  library,  bat,  with 
commendable  liberality,  he  has  presented  them  to  the  Smithsonian 
Institation,  to  form  part  of  the  collections  deposited  in  the  National 
Library.  They  are  principally  in  the  French  and  Russian  langnages, 
and  we  have  availed  ourselves  of  the  services  of  Mr.  H.  H.  Ealusow- 
ski,  of  the  Treasury  Department,  for  the  means  of  access  to  a  knowl.- 
edge  of  their  rich  contents. 

The  following  are  also  some  of  the  larger  donations  received  in 
1867: 

Biksbiblioteket,  Stockholm,  44  volumes. 

Bergeark  Museum,  Bergen,  Norway,  8  volumes  and  7  pamphlets. 
Imperial  Academy  of  Sciences,  St.  Petersburg,  11  volumes  and  16 
pamphlets,  completing  some  of  the  early  series  of  their  publications. 
Hydrographical  Department  of  the  Ministry  of  Marine,  St.  Peters- 
Imrg,  38  volumes,  7  pamphlets,  and  174  charts. 

Imperial  Free  Economical  Society,  St.  Petersburg,   12  volumes 
•^Transactions.'' 
Finland  Society  of  Sciences,  Helsingfors,  13  volumes. 
Imperial  Oeographical  Society,  St.  Petersburg,  16  volumes  and  33 
pamphlets. 

Verein  zur  Befdrderung  des  Gewerbfleisses  in  Preussen,  Berlin,  40 
volumes  and  2  pamphlets,  nearly  completing  the  *' Yerhandlungen.'' 
Kais.  Akademie  der  Wissenschaften,  Vienna,  13  volumes  and  33 
pamphlets* 

E.  Statistisch-Oentral-Oommission,  Vienna,   37  volumes  and  60 
pamphlets. 

B.  Istituto  Lombardo  di  Scienze,  Lettere  ed  Arti,  Milan,  15  volumes 
and  27  pamphlets. 

Ministero  di  Agricoltura,  Industria  e  Commercio,  Florence,  10  vol- 
umes and  2  pamphlets. 

B.  Istituto  d'  Incorragiamento  alle  Scienze  Naturale,  Economiche 
e  Technologiche,  Naples,  17  volumes  and  23  pamphlets. 

British  Archseological  Association,  16  volumes  and  9  pamphlets, 
nearly  completing  the  "Journal.'' 
British  Museum,  9  volumes. 

Museum  of  Practical  Geology  and  Geological  Survey,  London,  10 
volumes  and  19  pamphlets. 

Institut  Egyptien,  Alexandria,  the  first  volume  of  transactions  and 
9  numbers  of  bulletin. 
Mining  Department,  Melbourne,  12  volumes  and  17  pamphlets. 
Real  Sociedad  Economicode  Amijos  del  Pais,  Habana,256  volumes, 
chiefly  theological. 


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62  REPORT   OF  THE   SECRETARY. 

American  Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign  Aflfairs,  Boston,  36 
volumes  and  53  pamphlets. 

Massachusetts  State  Board  of  Agriculture,  13  volumes  and  7  pam- 
phlets. 

J.  G.  Cotta,  Augsburg,  15  volumes. 

Dr.  Karl  Koch,  Berlin,  205  pamphlets. 

Justus  Perthes,  Ootha,  12  volumes  and  16  pamphlets. 

F.  A.  Brockhaus,  Leipzig,  13  volumes  and  6  pamphlets. 

Before  concluding  the  history  of  the  Institution  for  1867,  it  be- 
comes my  duty  to  recall  a  painful  event,  which  was  announced  to  the 
Board  at  its  meeting  in  February  last.  I  allude  to  the  death  of  Alex- 
ander Dallas  Bache,  the  head  of  the  United  States  Coast  Survey,  and 
one  of  the  original  members  of  the  Board  of  Regents.  On  the  occa- 
sion of  the  announcement  of  this  bereavement,  which  was  received 
with  emotions  of  profound  sorrow,  the  following  resolutions,  pre- 
sented by  Hon.  J.  W.  Patterson,  of  New  Hampshire,  were  unanimously 
adopted  : 

^^  Besdvedy  That  the  highest  honor  is  due  to  the  memory  of  our 
respected  and  beloved  associate.  Professor  Alexander  Dallas  Bache, 
who,  through  so  many  years  of  active  life,  has  devoted,  unselfishly 
and  with  untiring  energy,  great  talents,  profound  acquirements  and 
undeviating  integrity  to  the  advance  of  art,  science,  education  and 
philanthropy. 

*  *  Besclved,  That  in  the  death  of  our  lamented  associate  this  Institu- 
tion, of  which  he  was  a  regent,  and  one  of  the  executive  committeo 
from  its  first  organization  to  the  time  of  his  death,  has  lost  an  efficient 
collaborator,  a  sagacious  counsellor  and  zealous  supporter. 

^^  Resolved^  That  the  members  of  the  Board,  in  common  with  the 
Secretary,  lament  in  his  departure  the  loss  of  a  warm  and  tried  per- 
sonal friend ,  and  that  they  will  always  cherish  the  memory  of  his 
genial  and  sympathetic  disposition,  his  gentle  and  prepossessing  man- 
ners, his  refined  taste,  high  moral  perceptions  and  unswerving  advo- 
cacy of  the  right. 

^^  Besolved,  That  a  copy  of  these  resolutions  be  transmitted  to 
the  widow  of  the  deceased,  and  that  the  Secretary  prepare  a  suitable 
eulogy  for  insertion  in  the  next  annual  report." 

In  compliance  with  the  resolution  of  the  board,  I  have  collected 
materials  for  a  memoir  of  my  lamented  friend.  Dr.  Bache,  and  pre- 
pared as  full  an  account  of  his  life  and  labors  as  my  time  and  ability 
would  permit  The  duty  thus  devolved  upon  me  would  have  been 
accepted  with  alacrity  as  a  means  of  gratifying  my  feelings  of  regard 


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REPORT  OP  THE  SECRETARY.  63 

and  veneration  bad  it  not  been  associated  in  my  mind,  from  the  first, 
witb  a  sense  of  its  diflScnlty  and  responsibility.  I  was  aware  that  it 
was  not  enough  to  narrate  the  events  of  his  life,  and  to  give  a 
recital  of  bis  numerons  and  diversified  labors;  bat  that  it  would  also 
be  necessary  to  analyze  his  mental  and  moral  constitution,  as  well  as 
to  trace  the  influence  which  his  career  has  had,  and  will  continue  to 
have,  on  the  advancement  of  science  and  education  in  this  country. 
To  fulfil  this  satisfactorily,  though  a  duty  not  to  be  declined,  is  a 
labor  requiring  much  care,  and  involving  much  solicitude.  The 
sketch  which  1  have  prepared  has  been  sent  to  G^n.  Sabine  for 
insertion  in  the  proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London,  and  in 
view  of  my  other  pressing  duties,  it  will  be  diflBcult  for  me  to  present 
the  complete  eulogy  to  the  board  at  its  present  session.  I  therefore 
crave  the  indulgence  of  being  allowed  to  defer  the  publication  until 
the  appearance  of  the  report  for  1868. 
Respectfully  submitted: 

JOSEPH  HENRY, 
Secrdary  Smithmmian  InsUtiUUm. 
WiSHiHOtOH,  JcMuary^  1868. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


APPENDIX  TO  THE  EEPORT  OF  THE  SECRETARY. 


FftOM  THE  REPORT  OF  PROF.  S.  F.  BaIRD. 


A. — Table  showing  the  itatUtia  of 

the  Smithsonian  exchanges  in  18G7. 

Agent  and  conntiy. 

1'^ 

i^ 

"si 

1-9 

II 

Dr.  Felix  FlOoel,  LetpiU— 

Russia  -..— .••••.••. 

49 

336 

35 

70 

395 

42 

*■ 

Oermany  ..•.•.......••..••........ 

Bwitsftrland......  ...... .... .... .... 

Total.— ••••••••••• — • 

420 

507 

46 

443 

10,835 

Freduiick  MDller,  AvMttrdam— 

13 
6 

14 
1 

51 

19 

22 
8 

20 
1 

68 

21 

Norway  «••-••.---•.-•.•--...•.-.-• 

D^nmArk  ........••••.•......••••.. 

Iceland  .••••.••••••••---  .•••••.... 

Holland  ........................... 

Belffium......  .....•..•••••........ 

Total 

104 

140 

15 

146 

2,780 

0.  BosSANOE,  Paris^ 

Franco  ••••-••••.••••••••••-••-•-•• 

113 

7 
3 

122 

7 
4 

Spain.....  

Portugal  ••••  •-••  .«••••  ...... ...... 

Total 

123 

133 

8 

90 

2.188 

Itaiv      •• 

70 

79 

5 

35 

1,020 

j,*«ijr. -....•-•—•••••••••-•••  •••••• 

OrMkt  Rritiiin  and  Treland  ..........r 

197 

230 

24 

186 

4,200 

BMt  of  world        ...•••••.... 

87 

101 

15 

75 

1,500 

Total 

1,001 

1,190 

113 

975 

22,523 

B. — Packages  received  hy  the  Smithsonian  Institution  from  parties  in  America  for 
foreign  distribution  in  1867. 

Kowof  pkg& 

Albania,  N.  Y.— 

Albany  Institute 16 

Dudley  Observatory 7 

New  York  State  AOTCultural  Society 55 

New  York  State  ]£>m<£opatliic  Society 6 

Secretary  of  state 12 


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APPENDIX  TO  THE  REPORT  OP  THE  SECRETARY.  65 

No.  of  pkgi. 

Boston,  Mass, — 

American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences ^ 124 

Board  of  State  Charities 34 

Boston  Society  of  Natural  History 496 

Municipality  of  Boston 1 

Dr.  Brewer 1 

S.  H.  Scudder 2 

Cliarles  Sumner 100 

Drs.  Wan-en  and  Storer 50 

BrooMyn,  N.  Y,— 

Long  Island  Historical  Society 12 

Cambridge^  Mass. — 

Ameiican  Association  for  Advancement  of  Science 55 

Cambridge  Observatory 200 

Harvard  College 24 

Museum  of  Comparative  Zoology 525 

Pref.  Asa  Gray 19 

CdumbuSj  Ohio — 

Ohio  State  Board  of  Agriculture 102 

SastoHj  Pa, — 

Rev.  Lyman  Coleman 10 

Hartford,  Conn. — 

American  Asylum  for  Deaf  and  Dumb 16 

JanesviUe,  Wis. — 

Institution  for  the  Blind '. 12 

LitiU  B^k,  Ark.— 

State  of  Arkansas 20 

Martindak,  N.  Y.— 

Rev.  W.  I.  Loomis 20 

Montreal,  Can. — 

Prof.  J.W.Dawson 33 

New  Bedford,  Mass. — 

J.  H.  Thomson... 1 

New  Haven,  Conn. — 

Connecticut  Academy  of  Sciences 50 

Prof.  G.  J.  Brush 1 

Prof.  J.  D.  Dana 31 

Prof.  O.  C.  Marsh 50 

Pi-of .  A .  E .  Verrill 11 

New  York,  N.Y.— 

American  Institute 54 

New  York  Lvceum  of  Natural  History 116 

American  Christian  Commission 170 

United  States  Sanitary  Commission 99 

Mrs.  Samuel  Colt 16 

A,  M.  Edwards ^ 1 

Dr.  J.  S.  Newberry f 9 

5  8    67 


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66      APPENDIX  TO  THE  REPORT  OP  THE  SECRETARY 

No  of  pkg«. 

Northampton,  Mass. — 

State  Lunatic  Asylum 36 

PMaddphiOy  Pa, — 

Academy  of  Natural  Sciences 184 

American  Pharmaceutical  Association 7 

American  Philosophical  Society 460 

Conchological  Section,  Academy  Natural  Sciences 72 

Historical  Society  of  Pennsylvania 25 

Numismatic  and  Antiquarian  Society 21 

Pennsylvania  House  of  Refuge 100 

Pennsylvania  Institution  for  I)eaf  and  Dumb 100 

Prison  Discipline  Society 1 100 

Public  Schools 96 

James  Barclay 3 

Rev.  E.  R.  Beadle 9 

Henry  C.  Lea 4 

Princeton,  N.  J. — 

A.  D.  Brown 4 

Providence,  R.  L — 

Dr.  E.  M.  Snow 65 

Edwin  M.  Stone 15 

Quebec,  Can. — 

Literary  and  Historical  Society 34 

Salem,  Mass. 

Essex  Institute 116 

Dr.  A.  S.Packard ^  6 

San  Francisco,  Cal.-^ 

California  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences 54 

St.  Louis,  Mo.^ 

Academy  of  Sciences 7 

St.  Paul,  Min. — 

Minnesota  Historical  Society 18 

South  Bethlehem,  Pa. — 

Dr.  C.  M.  Wetherill ' 26 

Toronto,  Can. — 

Canadian  Institute 5 

Washington,  D.  C. — 

Columbia  Institute  for  Deaf  and  Dumb 50 

Hydroffraphic  Office,  Navy  Department 61 

Medical  Department  United  States  Army 51 

Public  Schools 200 

Secretary  of  War 500 

United  States  Coast  Survey 141 

United  States  Engineer  Department 2 

United  States  Hospital  for  Insane 28 

United  States  Naval  Observatory 188 

United  States  Patent  Office 216 


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APPENDIX  TO  THE  REPORT   OP  THE   SECRETARY. 


67 


No.  of  pkgi. 

Wasldngfon,  2>.  C. — Continued. 

Cleveland  Abbe 1 

Archibald  Campbell 9 

J.  Disturnell 1 

Admiral  Da^^s 60 

Dr.  Elliot  Coues 50 

Th.  Poesche 3 

J.  H.  C.  Coffin 6 

A.  R.  Rossler 1 

Peter  Force 300 

Dr.  King 20 


6,016 


C-^Packages  received  by  the  Smithsonian  Institution  from  Europe  in  1867,  for 
distribution  in  America. 


ALBANY,  NEW  YORK. 

Albanj  Institnte 

Bareaa  of  MiliUrj  Statistics 

Dodlej  Observat4)ry 

HuoHBopathic  Medical  Society 

Kew  York  State Afirncaltaral  Society.. 

New  York  State  Library 

Kew  York  State  Medical  Society 

New  York  State  University 

State  Cabinet  of  Natural  History 

AMHERST,   MASSACHUSETTS. 

Afflherst  College 

ANN  ARBOR,  BHCHIGAN. 

Obienratory 

AUOUSTTA,   BfAINE. 

Haine  Insane  Hospital 

AUSTIN,  TEXAS. 

Texas  State  Lunatic  Hospital 

BALTIMORR,  MARYLAND. 

Maryland  Academy 

Maryland  Historical  Society 

Medical  Hospital  for  Insane 

Peabody  Institute 

BLACRWCZl  h  ISLAND,  NEW  YORK. 

Hew  York  City  Lunatic  Asylum 


6 

4 

21 

1 

18 
26 
3 
6 
2 


American  Academy  of  Arts  and  8ci> 

ences , 

American  Statistical  Association 

American  Unitarian  Association 

Boston  Christian  Register 

Boston  Journal  of  Medicine 

Boston  Society  of  Natural  History. .. 

Bowditch  Library 

Christian  Examiner 

Massachusetts  Historical  Society 

Mercantile  Library  Association 

North  American  Review , 

Perkins  Institution  for  the  Blind 

Prison  Discipline  Society , 

Public  Library 

State  Library 


BUFFALO,  NEW  YORK. 

Historical  Society 

BRATTLEBORO',  VERMONT. 

Vermont  Asylum  for  Insane 

BROOKLYN,   NEW  YORK. 

Long  Island  Historical  Society  . 

BRUNSWICK,  MAINE. 

Bowdoin  College ^.. ...... 


BURLINGTON,   VERMONT. 

I  University  of  Vermont. 


107 

10 

3 

3 

1 

209 
3 
3 
2 
I 
3 
2 
1 
10 
7 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


68 


APPENDIX  TO  THE  REPORT  OP  THE  SECRETARY. 


Packages  received  by  Smithsoniun  Institution,  d:c, — Continued. 


CHARVOTTESVILLE,  VIRGINIA. 

University  of  Virginia 

CHARLESTON,  SOUTH  CAROLINA. 

Elliott  Society  of  Natural  History  — 

Society  Library 

South  Carolina  Historical  Society  . . . . 

CAMBRIDGE,  MASSACHUSETTS. 

American  Association  for  Advance- 
ment of  Science 

Astronomical  Journal 

Harvard  College 

Museum  of  Comparative  Zoology  .... 
Observatory  of  Harvard  College  .... 


CANANDAIOUA,  NEW  YORK. 

Brigham  Hall  Asylum 

CHICAGO,  ILUNOIS. 


Chicago  Academy  of  Science. 

Histoncal  Society 

Observatory 


CINCINNATI,   OHIO. 

Historical  and  Philosophical  Society. 

Mercantile  Library 

Observatory 


CUNTON,  NEW  YORK. 

Observatory  of  Hamilton  College.. 

COLUMBIA,  SOUTH  CAROLINA. 

South  Carolina  College 

COLUMBUS,  OHIO. 


Central  Lunatic  Asylum 

Ohio  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 


CONCORD,   NEW  HAMPSHIRE. 


New  Hampshire  Asylum 

New  Hampshire  Historical  Society . 


DANVILLE,  KENTUCKY. 

Institution  for  Deaf  and  Dumb.. 

DES  MOINES,  IOWA. 


Governor  of  the  State  of  Iowa. 
State  Library 


25 

1 
1 


28 
2 
17 
21 
30 


44 

1 


1 
64 


1 
24 


DAYTON,  OHIO. 

Southern  Lunatic  Asylum . . . 

DETROIT,  MICHIGAN. 


Historical  Society 

Michigan  State  Agricultural  Society. 


FLATBUSH,  NEW  YORK. 

King*s  County  Lunatic  Asylum.. 

FRANKFORD,  PENNSYLVANIA. 

Asylum  for  Insane 

FRANKFORT,  KENTUCKY. 

Geological  Survey  of  Kentucky.. 

FULTON,  BflSSOURI. 

State  Lunatic  Asylum 

GAMBIER,  OmO. 

Kenyon  College 

GEORGETOWN,  D.  C. 

Georgetown  College 

HAUFAX,  NOVA  SCOTIA. 


Nova  Scotian   Institute  of  Natural 
Sciences 


HANOVER,  NEW  HAMPSHIRE. 

Dartmouth  College 

HARRISBURG,  PENNSYLVANIA. 


State  Library 

State  Lunatic  Hospital. 


HARTFORD,   CONNECTICUT. 

American  Institution  for  Deaf  and 

Dumb 

Historical  Society 

Retreat  for  Insane 

Trinity  College 

Young  Men*s  Inatitute 


HOPKINSVILLR,  KENTUCKY. 

Western  Lunatic  Asylum 


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APPENDIX   TO   THE   REPORT   OP  THE   SECRETARY.  69 

Packages  received  by  Smithsonian  Institution,  dtc. — Continued. 


p« 


IOWA  cmr,  IOWA. 
State  Universitj 

JACKSON,  LOUISIANA. 

Insane  As  jlnm 

JACKSONVILLB,  ILLINOIS. 

Institntion  for  the  Blind 

JANESVILLE,  WISCONSIN. 

Inttitntion  for  Blind 

JEFFERSON  CITY,  MISSOURI. 

Governor  of  the  State  of  Missonri . . 

KINGSTON,  JAMAICA. 

Jamaica  Sodety  of  Arts 

LEXINGTON,  KENTUCKY. 

Eastern  Lunatic  Asylum... 

LITTLE  ROCK,  ARKANSAS. 


State  Library  . . . 
State  University - 


BfADISON,  WISCONSIN, 


EmlgT^tion  Bureau 

State  Historical  Society  of  Wisconsin 

State  Library 

State  University 

Wisconsin  Natural  History  Society.  .- 
Wisconsin  State  Agricultural  Society. 

MILL  CREEK,  OHIO. 

Hamilton  County  Lunatic  Asylum  . . . 

MONTPELIER,  VERMONT. 


Historical  Society  of  Vermont . 
State  Library 


MONTREAL,  CANADA. 

Katnral  History  Society 

MOUNT  PLEASANT,  IOWA. 

Wesleyan  University 

NASHVILLE,  TENNESSEE. 

Hoapital  for  Insane 


35 


41 
4 


NEWARK,   NEW  JERSEY. 

Historical  Society  of  New  Jersey. 

NEWBURO,  OHIO. 

Northern  Lunatic  Asylum  ....  . . 


NEW  HAVEN,   CONNECTICUT, 

American  Journal  of  Science  and  Art 

American  Oriental  Society 

Conuecticut  Academy  of  Sciences. . . 
Yale  College 


NEW  ORLEANS,  LOITISIANA. 

New  Orleans  Academy  of  Sciences. . 

NEW  YORK,  NEW  YORK. 

American  Christian  Commission ... 

American  Ethuolo^cal  Society 

American  Geographical  and  Statisti- 
cal Society 

American  Institute 

Astor  Library 

Bloominedale  Asylum  for  Insane . . . 

Courier  aes  Etats  Unis 

Historical  Society 

Mercantile  Library  Association  .... 
New  York  Academy  of  Medicine  . . . 

New  York  Christian  Enquirer 

New  York  Institution  for  Blind 

New  York  Institution  for  Deaf  and 

Dumb 

New  York  Lyceum  of  Natural  History 

School  of  Mines 

United  States  Sanitary  Commission.. 
University 


PHILADELPHIA,  PENNSYLVANIA. 


Academy  of  Natural  Sciences 

American  Journal  of  Conchology .... 
American  Entomological  Society .... 
American  Pharmaceutical  Associat'n. 

American  Philosophical  Society 

Central  High  School 

Central  High  School  Observatory .. . 

Franklin  Institute 

Girard  College 

Historical  Society  of  Pennsylvania.. 

Library  Company 

Medical  and  Chirurgical  Review 

Naval  Review 

Pennsylvania  Horticultural  Society  . 
Pennsylvania  Hospital  for  Insane.. . 

Pennsylvania  Institute  for  Blind 

Pennsylvania  Institute  for  Deaf  and 

Dnmb 

Wagner  Free  Institute 


54 
25 

1 
14 


35 


12 
14 

54 
9 
5 
1 
1 
2 
2 
5 
5 
1 

1 
96 

3 
14 

5 


201 

2 

5 

27 


1 
'^ 

1 
5 
2 
I 
1 
2 
1 
2 

1 
7 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


70 


APPENDIX  TO  THE  REPORT  OP  THE  SECRETARY. 


Packages  received  by  Smithsonian  Institution^  &c, — Continued 


PITTSBURG,   PEKNSYLVANIA. 

Western  Peons jlvania  Hospital 

PORTLAND,  MAINE. 

Portland  Society  of  Natural  History. 

PRINCETON,  NEW  JERSEY. 

College  of  JNew  Jersey 

PROVIDENCE,  RHODE  ISLAND. 

Brown  University 

Butler  Hospital  tor  Insane 

Rhode  Island  Historical  Society 

Secretary  of  State 

QUEBEC,  CANADA. 

Literary  and  Historical  Society 

Observatory 

RALEIGH,  NORTH  CAROLINA. 

Insane  Asylum 

RICHMOND,  VIRGINIA. 

State  Library 

SACRAMENTO,  CALIFORNIA. 

State  Ajrricultural  Society 

ST.  JOHN'S,  NEW  BRUNSWICK. 

Natural    History    Society    of    New 
Brunswick..^ 

ST.  LOUIS,  MISSOURL 

St.  Louis  Academy  of  Sciences 

Slavni  Redakei  Pozom 

Unlvor»ity 

ST.  PAUL,  MINNESOTA. 

Historical  Society 

SALEM,  MASSACHUSETTS. 

Essex  Institute 

SAN  FRANCISCO,  CALIFORNIA. 

California  Academy  of  Natural  Sci- 
ences   

Observatory 

SOMERVILLE,  MASSACHUSETTS. 

McLean  Insane  Asylum 


o  be 

.  * 

&4 


24 


115 

1 
2 


10 


51 

1 


STAUNTON,  VIB1INIA. 

Western  Lunatic  Asylum 

TRENTON,  NEW  JERSEY. 

State  Lunatic  Hospital 

TORONTO,  CANADA. 

Canadian  Institute 

Observatory 

UTICA,  NEW  YORK. 

American  Journal  of  Insanity 

New  York  State  Lunatic  Asylum.. 

WASHINGTON,  D.  C. 

American  Nautical  Almanac 

Bureau  of  Navi^tion 

Bureau  of  Statistics 

C'tnsus  Office 

Commissioner  for. Indian  Affairs... 

Library  of  Congress 

Medical  Department 

National  Academy  of  Sciences 

Ordnance  Bureau 

Secretary  of  the  Navy 

Secretary  of  War 

State  Department 

Treasurv  Department 

United  States  Coast  Survey 

United  States  Department  of  AgricuU 

ture * 

United  States  Naval  Observatory  — 

United  States  Patent  Office 

War  Department 

Washington  Public  Schools 

WEST  POINT,  NEW  YORK. 

United  States  Military  Academy  — 

WILLIAMSBURG,  VIRGINIA. 

Eastern  Lunatic  Asylum 

WORCESTER,  MASSACHUSETTS. 

American  Antiouarian  Society 

State  Lunatic  Hospital 

Total  addresses  of  inst  itutions .     1 97 
Total  addresses  of  individuals .     150 

Total  number  of  parcels  to 
institutions 2, 356 

Total  number  of  parcels  to  indi- 
viduals      615 


2,071 


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APPENDIX  TO  THE  REPORT  OP  THE  SECRETARY.     71 


D. — Copy  qf  circular  relative  to  exchanges  of  government  documents, 

Smithsonian  Institution, 
Washington,  U.  S,  A.,  May  16,  1867. 

A  law  has  just  been  passed  by  the  Congress  of  the  United  States  authoriz- 
ing the  exchange,  under  direction  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  of  a  certain 
number  of  all  IJnited  States  official  documents  for  the  corresponding  publica- 
tions of  other  governments  throughout  the  world  ;  the  returns  to-be  placed  in 
the  national  library  at  Washington.  Ttie  works  to  be  distributed  under  this 
law  will  consist  of  reports  and  proceedings  of  Congress,  messages  of  the  Presi- 
dent, annual  reports  and  occasional  publications  of  departments  and  bureaus, 
&c.,  the  whole  relating  to  the  legislation,  jurisprudence,  foreign  relations,  com- 
merce, statistics,  arts,  manufactures,  agriculture,  geography,  hydrography,  &c., 
of  the  United  States,  and  including  everything,  of  whatever  nature,  published, 
either  by  direct  order  of  Congress  or  by  any  of  the  departments  of  the  govern- 
ment. The  series  will  embrace  a  large  number  of  volumes  each  year,  the  most 
of  which  are  bound. 

The  object  of  the  law  above  mentioned  is  to  procure  for  the  use  of  the  Con- 
gress of  the  United  States  a  complete  series  of  the  publications  of  other  gov- 
ernments, to  include  the  documents  of  special  bureaus  or  departments,  as  well 
as  the  general  publications,  of  whatever  nature,  printed  at  the  public  expense, 
and  also  embi-acing  all  such  works  as  are  published  by  booksellera  with  the  aid 
of  grants  or  subscriptions  from  governments.  The  law  is  not  retrospective, 
although  it  may  cover  some  of  the  publications  of  the  last  session  of  Congress. 

Some  time  will  necessarily  elapse  before  the  first  transmissions  can  be  made ; 
but  in  order  to  organize  a  plan  of  exchange,  to  be  presented  for  consideration 
to  the  Library  Committee  and  the  librarian  of  Congress,  I  beg  leave  to  ask 
yonr  advice  as  to  the  Iwst  method  of  accomplishing  the  objects  above  stated. 
It  is  important  to  ascertain  what  governments  are  willing  to  enter  into  the  pro- 
posed exchange,  and  whether  any  one  bureau  or  branch  of  government  or  pub- 
lic library  in  each  country  will  undertake  to  collect  all  the  national  publica- 
tions, as  above  mentioned,  and  transmit  them  to  Washington,  or  whether  sepa- 
rate arrangements  must  be  made  with  more  than  one  office.  The  former  plan 
18  considered  preferable,  as  diminishing  the  labor  involved,  and  may  possibly 
be  adopted  by  enactment,  as  has  been  done  by  the  United  States.  Whatever 
method  be  most  feasible,  you  will  confer  a  favor  by  giving  us  such  infoimation 
on  these  and  other  points  as  may  serve  for  our  guidance  in  further  action. 

Infoiination  is  also  desired  as  to  the  titles  and  character  of  the  regular  offi- 
cial publications  of  each  country,  and  their  average  number  and  extent  in  each 
year,  as  well  as  the  names  of  the  different  bureaus  or  offices  from  which  they 
emanate. 

The  Smithsonian  Institution,  in  behalf  of  the  Library  of  Congress,  is  pre- 
pared .to  promise,  if  necessary,  the  delivery  of  the  above-mentioned  publica- 
tions free  of  charge  for  freight.  It  will  also  name  an  agent  in  each  country 
who  will  receive  the  parcels  or  boxes  containing  the  exchanges  returned,  and 
transmit  them  to  Washington. 

Besides  the  exchange  of  complete  series  of  national  publications,  the  law  of 
Congress  above  stated  authorizes  the  distribution  of  works  on  special  subjects 
to  the  different  bureaus  having  them  in  charge,  as  finance,  statistics,  patents, 
a^cultnre,  &c.,  provided  that  copies  of  their  publications  be  given  in  return. 
Very  respectfully,  your  obedient  servant, 

JOSEPH  HENEY, 
Secretary  Smithsonian  Institution. 


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72 


APPENDIX  TO  THE  REPORT  OP  THE  SECRETARY. 


E. — Table  showing  tJie  entries  in  the  record  books  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution 
in  1865,  1866,  and  1867. 


Class. 


1865.         1866.         1867. 


Skeletons  and  skalls 

Mammals 

Birds 

Reptiles 

Fishes ^ 

Ef^gs  of  birds 

Crustaceans 

MoUusks 

Radiates^ 

Annelides 

Fosails 

Minerals 

Ethnological  specimens. 
Plante :.... 


6,609 
8,416 

40,5.54 
6,544 
5,588 
9.939 
1,287 

]8, 103 
2,725 
HO 
5,907 
4,940 
1,125 


7,100 
8,685 

4.^000 
6,582 
5,591 

10,400 
1,287 

18,500 
2,725 
110 
5,920 
4.941 
2,260 


Total  . 


111,847 


119,101 


7,500 
8,900 

50,000 
7,150 
5,625 

13,300 
1,287 

18,500 
2.725 
110 
6,600 
5,150 
5,400 
175 


132, 322 


F. — Approximate  table  of  distribution  of  duplicate  specimens  by  the  Smithsonian 
Institution  to  the  end  of  1867. 


DiatribuUon  to  end 
of  1866. 

Distribntion  to  end 
of  1867. 

TotaL 

Clati. 

flQ 

§ 

1 

CO 

g 

00 

OD 

i 

104 

794 
8,079 
1,641 
2,394 
3.C99 
67,419 

551 
1,013 
1,838 
13,058 
2,971 
1,346 

150 

104 

1,574 

12,286 

2,609 

5,150 

9.379 

162,214 

727 

2.516 

5,152 

18,303 

7,537 

5,579 

1.V) 

1 

14 
1,358 
21 
30 
18B 
4,352 

1 

14 

2.293 

106 

50 

722 

7,652 

105 

808 

9.4:17 

1.6t» 

2,4.M 

3.887 

71,764 

551 

1,013 

1,838 

13,358 

3,361 

J.  718 

1,048 

1,190 

105 

Miimmiibi           .........  ................ 

1.588 

Birds 

14,579 

Reptiles 

2.715 

Plrihes    

5,200 

10, 101 

Sh  ells        

169.  8G6 

RudiatoA 

727 

Cmataceanii         .   .         ...     ............. 

2,516 

5,  152 

Piantt 

300 
390 
372 
808 
1,190 

400 

1,370 

480 

8l»3 

1,937 

18,703 

FoMgilg 

8.927 

MiQ'*rali  ftnd  rockv 

6,059 

Ethnology 

1.048 

Insectd      ... ............................ 

1,937 

Total 

105.050 

233,300 

9,114 

15,923 

114, 164 

249,223 

G.— ADDITIONS  TO   THE  COLLECTIONS  OF  THE  SMITHSONIAN  INSTITU- 
TION IN  1867. 

Academy  of  Natural  Sciences,  Philadelphia, — ^Ten  mounted  birds,  various  locali- 
ties. 

Aliberty  J,  P.,  (per  Hon.  G.  V.  Fox,  Assistant  Secretary  United  States  Navy.) — 
Mass  of  graphite  mounted,  with  associated  rocks  and  manufactured  pencils, 
Eastern  Siberia. 

Ashcom,  6r.  W, — Insect  molluscs,  reindeer  horns.  Plover  bay. 

Austin,  E,  P. — Three  bottles  of  insects,  near  Mount  Vernon,  Virginia ;  4  boxes 
of  insects  from  Massachusetts. 

Bannister,  Henry  M. — General  collection  natural  history,  St.  Micbaers,  Norton 
sound. 


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APPENDIX  TO  THE  REPORT  OP  THE  SECRETARY.      73 

Barischj  Franz, — Collection  of  mosses  and  algse,  Austria. 

BeckeTf  Alexander  and  F.  WJiite. — Large  stereoscope  and  views. 

BeU,  Hannah. — Indian  stone  relics,  Allegany  county,  New  York. 

Bemayj  Br,  F,  T. — Collection  of  vegetable  fibres,  &c.,  Missouri. 

Berthoudf  Br.  E.  L. — Fossils,  Indian  relics,  &c.,  ColcOrado. 

iBrigham  dr  Mann, — Series  of  corals.  Sandwich  Islands. 

BU^wp,  N.  H. — Skins  and  eggs  of  birds  of  Cuba. 

Blacidburny  Charles  and  George. — Collection  of  birds'  eggs,  Iowa. 

Bhke,  W  P. — Specimens  of  wool  of  mountain  goat,  Russian  America. 

Blandy  Thomas. — Collection  of  reptiles,  spiders,  &c.,  Inaguaj   90  species  of 

land  shells,  America. 
Boardman,  G.  A. — Helminthophaga  peregrina  ;  stema  of  birds,  skins,  eggs,  &c., 

Maine. 
Bolander,  Br.  H.  N. — Collection  of  plants,  California ;  eggs  of  Grus  canadensis, 

Sierra  Nevada,  California. 
Bondy  Br.  Thomas  J. — Crotaphytus  in  alcohol,  Choctaw  nation. 
Brewer^  Br.  T.  M. — ^Types  of  eggs  figured  in  North  American  oology,  various. 
Bryan,  0.  N. — Box  bird  skins,  fossil  bones,  &c. ;  miocene  fossils,  Maryland. 
Bulkekyj  Colonel  Cltarles  S.,  (Robert  H.  Kennicott,  William  H.  Dall,  directors 

of  scientific  corps.) — 28  boxes  of  collections  of  the  Russian  Overland  Tele- 
graph Expedition,  in  all  branches  of  natural  history,  collected  in  part  by 

Bischoff,  at  Sitka. 
Burtonj  Hon.  A.  A. — Greneral  zoological  collections,  minerals,  &c.,  Bogota  j 

sulphate  of  barytes,  Kentucky. 
Buiclter,  Br.  H.  B. — General  collection  of  birds,  fossils,  mammals,  Texas. 
CaldweUj  JR. — Box  shells,  Chappell  island  and  Plover  bay. 
Canfidd,  Br.  C.  A. — Three  boxes  zoological  specimens,  California.  • 

Carmiol,  Julian. — ^Birds,  233  species,  seeds  of  palms,  &c. ;  mammals^  ^hellsy 

Costa  Rica. 
Christ,  Bichard. — Box  of  birds'  egffs,  Pennsylvania. 
Clary  Brothers. — Collection  of  birds'  eggs,  Illinois. 
Cotter,  B.  -4.— Birds'  eggs,  St.  Michaefs. 
Cook,  J.  W. — Petrifaction. 

Cooper,  Br.  J.  G. — Nests,  eggs,  birds,  reptiles,  shells,  Califomia. 
Crocker,  AUan. — ^Numerous  birds'  eggfi,  &c.,  Kansas. 
Csapkay,  L.  J.,  U.  S.  consul. — Carved  wooden  box,  tobacco  pouch,  child's  coat, 

drinkinff  cup,  cane,  Hungary. 
BdU,  W.  If.— General  collections.  North  Pacific  ocean. 
Davis,  Henry. — Indian  reb'cs  and  river  shells,  Iowa.* 
Dayton,  E.  A. — Vertebrae  of  fossil  saurian,  opposite  Aquia  creek,  Virginia. 
Diehl,  Israel  8. — Wool  of  Angora  goat  raised  in  Ohio ;  casts  of  Assyrian  seals. 
Dow,  Captain  J.  M. — Skin  of  tern,  Veragua. 
Edmonds,  Hon.  J.  W. — Stone  axe,  ancient  mines  of  Lake  Superior. 
Edwards,  Baniel. — Indian  stone  relics,  Grenesee  county.  New  York. 
Endres,  J.  B. — Humming  birds  in  skins  and  in  alcohol,  Costa  Rica. 
Fletcher,  N. — Reindeer  horns,  Plover  bay,  Siberia. 
Foreman,  Br.  E. — Scops  asio,  (young,)  Maryland. 
Freeman,  Professor. — Collection  of  reptiles,  insects,  vampire  bat,  living  achatina, 

fibres  of  blood-root,  &c.,  Liberia,  Africa. 
Fox,  Hon.  J.  v.,  U.  S.  N. — ^Three  boxes  minerals  and  metallnrgic  specimens^ 

Sweden. 
Gibbs,  George. — Specimens  of  limestone,  Kansas. 
Giraud,  J.  F. — ^Types  of  "  16  new  species  of  Texas  birds,"  Texas. 
Glasco,  J.  M. — Grasshoppers,  Texas. 
Glover,  Frqfessor  T. — Seeds  of  Boehmeria  nivea. 
Goulding,  B.  P. — Specimens  of  nickel  and  cobalt,  Scotland. 


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74     APPENDIX  TO  THE  EEPORT  OP  THE  SECEETABY. 

Gray  J  Dr,  C.  C,  U.  S»  A. — Six  bottles  insects,  three  boxes  shells. 

Gray,  li.  J. — Collection  of  birds  from  Mexico. 

Grayson,  Colonel  A.  J, — One  box  of  birds,  Mazatlan. 

Green,  Jasper. — Cast  of  fossil  plant,  Schuylkill  county,  Pennsylvania. 

Green,  T.  U. — Indian  8t<Jne  relics,  New  York. 

Gruber,  F. — Box  of  birds,  California.  * 

Hague,  Henry. — Bird  skins,  two  skins  of  Panyptila  stihieronymi  and  nest,  small 
box  river  shells,  Guatemala. 

Haining,  W.  J. — Stone  lamp.  Plover  bay. 

Hall,  C,  F. — Eggs  of  snowy  owl  and  pair  of  for  mittens,  (Esquimaux,)  Hudson's 
Bay. 

Hardeman,  George. — ^Box  bird  skins,  San  Salvador. 

Harvey  d:  Holden. — Specimens  of  varieties  of  Ostrea  virginea. 

Hayes,  I,  I. — Skeleton  and  skulls  of  walrus,  North  Greenland. 

Hayden,  Dr.  F,  V. — Fossils,  rocks,  &c.,  Nebraska. 

Helper,  H.  B. — Bones  of  mastodon,  fossil  shells,  Buenos  Ayres. 

Hepburn,  J. — Brachyramphm  marmorcUus  and  four  soecies  of  birds'  eggs, 
Vancouver  island. 

Hit^s:,  Dr.  B.  B. — One  box  of  fossils,  Iowa. 

Hudson,  W.  H. — 123  bird  skins,  Buenos  Ayres. 

Huson,  Alden  W. — Various  zoological  specimens  presented  through  Colonel 
Bulkcley,  moUusks  and  fishes,  north  end  of  Vancouver  island. 

Intertropical  Company,  New  York. — Specimens  of  fibres  and  nuts. 

Irwin,  Dr.  B.  J.  D. — 16  bottles  reptiles,  &c..  New  Mexico. 

Jones,  Strachan. — Birds'  eggs  and  skins,  Indian  satchel,  Fort  Rae. 

Kelsey,  Captain  W.  H. — ^Wooden  plate  of  natives,  Plover  bay. 

Kennedy,  J.  C.  G. — Snake  and  dried  plant,  Maryland. 

Ketchum,  Frank. — Skulls  of  Indians,  &c.,  Yukon. 

King,  Clarence. — ^Two  boxes  zoological  and  geological  specimens,  Nevada. 

Kirckeval,  A.  W. — Rock  specimens,  &c.,  Virginia. 

Ki^rulf,  Professor  H. — ^Minerals,  fossils,  rocks,  Norway. 

Kluge,  Dr.  J.  P. — Collection  of  fishes  and  Didelphys  quica  and  young,  in  alco- 
hol, Aspinwall. 

Krider,  J. — 25  mounted  birds,  various. 

De  Lacerda,  A. — Collection  of  birds,  Brazil. 

Lahmann,  F. — Box  of  minerals  and  fossils,  Costa  Rica. 

Latimer,  George. — Four  jars  crabs,  crows,  snake,  Porto  Rico. 

Leacock,  B.  B. — ^Two  bird  skins,  Trinidad. 

Lemon,  W.  C. — Skull  of  mountain  sheep,  Kamtschatka. 

Lewers,  Lydia. — ^Arrow-heads,  Iowa. 

Lewis,  Dr.  James. — Box  small  land  and  fresh-water  shells.  New  York. 

Lincecum,  Dr.  Gideon. — Box  of  cretaceous  fossils,  shells,  &o.  j  insects  and  alco- 
holic preparations,  from  western  Texas. 

Lincecum,  Lysander  B. — Skulls  of  mammals,  Texas. 

Long,  James  H. — ^Living  owl.  District  of  Columbia. 

Longsdorf,  Henry  A. — Black  sand  underlying  Prairie  Bluff,  Missouri. 

Lytic,  W» — Productus  costatus,  Indiana. 

McDonald,  Prqf.  Marshall. — Box  fossils,  chert  limestone;  Hdicina  occulta,  Say, 
Virginia. 

Mapes,  H.  H, — Insects  in  alcohol,  Michigan. 

Merritt,  John  C. — Indian  arrow-heads,  iron  ore,  &c. 

Minor,  Dr.  T.  T. — One  box  Indian  relics ;  skull  of  buffalo ;  Nebraska. 

Morch,  D. — Cyprina  islandica,  varieties,  and  other  European  shells;  typo 
specimens  of  a  memoir  on  fresh-water  and  land  shells  of  Greenland. 

Moore,  C.  B. — ^Birds'  eggs,  Indian  relics,  Virginia. 

Morgan,  L.  H. — Six  skulls  of  beaver.  Lake  Superior. 


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APP£^DIX  TO  THE  EEPOBT  OP  THE  SECRETARY.      75 

Mudge,  Prqf,  B.  F. — Box  of  fossils,  Kansas. 

Naiurhistorischer  Verein,  qf  1854. — Specimens  Jepidoptcra. 

ODonoghue^  John  0. — ^Dredgings  of  silt,  St.  Mary^s  river,  Michigan. 

Palmer  J  Dr.  E. — Six  boxes  collections  of  natural  history,  Indian  relics,  &c., 
Arizona. 

ParUnnan,  Dr.  W. — Stone  axes,  Iowa. 

Parker  J  Dr. — ^Two  boxes  of  specimens  gray  Medina  sandstone,  New  York. 

Parrishy  John  H. — Eggs  of  Antrostomus  CarolinensiSj  Alabama. 

Parsons,  W.  B. — Bat,  m  flesh,  Elansas. 

Patterson,  F.  A. — Stuffed  skin  of  rattlesnake. 

PeatCy  Franklin. — Photograph  of  Indian  arrow-heads,  Philadelphia. 

Pease,  Charles. — Zoological  collections,  Russian  America. 

PhiUipj  Dr.  R.  A. — 338  specimens  birds,  Chile. 

Poey,  Prqf.  F. — ^Keg  of  nshes,  Cuba. 

Posten,  Col.  Charles  D. — Plajring  cards  of  raw  hide,  made  and  used  by  the 
Coyotero  Apaches  in  the  game,  of  monte,  Arizona. 

P&tts,  Dr.  John  G. — Box  of  shells  and  Mergulus  allCj  in  flesh,  Virginia. 

Provancher  M.  Abbe. — Coleoptera,  Canada. 

Handalj  F.  0. — Many  living  specimens  of  Menopoma  AUegJutniensis,  Pennsyl- 
vania. 

Basin,  B.  W.  L. — Tliree  bottles  reptiles,  &c.,  Navassa  island. 

Beed,  M.  C. — Indian  remains  from  a  mound  near  Chattanooga. 

Biecksecker,  L.  E. — Birds'  eggs,  Pennsylvania. 

Bidgway,  B. — Bird  skins,  skulls,  eggs,  skin  of  albino  Turdtts  migratorius,  Illi- 
nois. 

Bichardson,  Mr. — Slag,  from  the  conflagration  of  New  York  Crystal  Palace, 
New  York. 

Biotte,Hon.'C,N, — Five  acorns  evergreen  oak,  Costa  Rica. 

Bodtfer,  J. — Specimens  of  iron  ore,  Virginia. 

Boessler,  A.  B. — Indian  arrow-heads,  New  Mexico. 

Bathrock,  J.  F. — Box  of  plants,  Russian  America;  Indian  relics,  British 
Columbia. 

Bayal  College  y  Surgeons,  London. — Box  of  sterna  of  birds,  Australia. 

Buyter,  White  De. — Mineral  concretions  and  nodules,  Indiana. 

Bussell,  B.  S. — Impressions  of  ferns  in  sandstone,  Pennsylvania. 

Salvin,  Osbert. — Collection  of  birds,  from  Veragua. 

Samuels,  E.  A. — Eggs  of  Contopus  borealis,  Scops  asio,  &c.,  Massachusetts. 

Sawkins,  J.  G. — Foraminifera,  in  yellow  limestone,  Jamaica,  West  Indies. 

Scammon,  Captain. — Skeleton  of  seal,  also  plants,  soundings,  fishes,  shells. 
Plover  bay  and  Emma  harbor. 

ScJmyler,  T.  J. — Lot  of  shells,  Plover  bay. 

Schcnbom,  A. — ^Four  bottles  of  reptiles,  nsh,  insects,  from  Fort  Laramie. 

Schott,  Dr.  A. — Cotton  from  Bondtyx  pentandra,  Yucatan  j  also,  Yucatan  lepi- 
doptera. 

Scott,  Ansel. — Specunens  of  the  wood  of  white-pine  tree,  long  buried  in 
swamps ;  also  Indian  arrow-head,  Pennsylvania. 

Shute,  J.  G. — Six  sets  birds'  nests  and  effgs,  Massachusetts. 

Shmer,Prof.  Henry. — Box  bird-skins,  IlSnois. 

Sigd,  W.  H.,  Director  of  Hamburg  Zoological  Garden. — Two  cages,  containing 
300  Passer  domesticus,  (house  sparrow;)  10  arrived  living. 

Smith,  E.  E. — Shells  and  plants,  Puget  sound  and  Plover  bay. 

Steams,  B.  E.  C. — Collection  of  shells,  skull  of  panther.  Pacific  coast. 

Sumichrast,  Prqf.  F. — Collection  of  reptiles,  fishes,  and  insects,  in  alcohol, 
Orizaba. 

Swan,  J.  G. — ^Two  boxes  ethnological  and  zoological  specimens,  Puget  sound. 

Thompson,  J.  W. — Montacuta  GoMii,  Thompson,  Massachusetts. 


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76      APPENDIX  TO  THE  REPORT  OF  THE  SECRETARY 

Tolman,  J,  W, — Collection  of  birds'  eggs,  Illinois. 

Townscnd,  W.  A, — Star  fishes,  Plover  bay. 

Trippj  T,  Martin. — Nest  of  Empidonax  minimtis  and  other  eggs,  New  Jersey. 

Tt/ler,  Eobert — Box  of  minerals,  shells,  and  marine  invertebrates,  Great  Britain. 

Van  Tassel,  L — Skull  of  rabbit,  &c.,  Behring  straits. 

Van  Frantzius. — Skin  of  CathantSj  Costa  Rica. 

Van  Orman,  J, — Indian  pottery,  Iowa. 

Van  Fatten,  Dr,  C,  H, — Birds  and  other  collections,  Guatemala. 

Wakefield,  Dr. — Polioptila  plumbeat  Sonora. 

Walker  J  Dr.  R.  L. — Living  Menopamas  and  Trionix,  Pennsylvania. 

Walton,  Henry. — Tin  ore^  Missouri. 

Warren,  General  G.  K. — Box  of  ethnological  collections  and  heads  of  antelope, 

upper  Missouri. 
Wheatley,  Charles  M. — ^Land  and  fresh-watjer  univalves,  America. 
White,  F.—^QQ  A.  Becker. 
Whymper,  F. — Plants,  PetropaulowskL 

Williams  J  Dr.  J.  A. — ^Two  boxes  named  fossils  and  shells,  Missonri. 
Wilson;  D.  S. — 97  borings  of  artesian  wells,  Ohio, 
Wood,  Dr.  W. — Birds'  eggs,  Connecticut. 
Wright.  Charles. — Birds  and  nests,  Cuba. 
Wright,  Major  G.  M. — ^Tschuchtschi  skulls.  Plover  bay. 
Zoological  Museum,  Berlin. — Collection  of  Ovis  and  reptiles,  Europe  and  Asia. 

H. — List  qf  tlie  Expeditions  and  other  sources  from  which  the  spedmens  m  the 
Government  Museum  have  been  mainly  derived. 

1.  United  States  Exploring  Expedition,  under  Captain  Wilkes,  United  States 
navy,  1838-'42.  The  collections  made  by  this  naval  expedition  are  supposed 
greatly  to  exceed  those  of  any  other  of  similar  character  ever  fitted  out  by  any 
government ;  no  published  series  of  results  comparing  in  magnitude  with  that 
issued  under  the  direction  of  the  Joint  Library  Committee  of  Congress.  The 
collections  made  embrace  full  series  of  the  animals,  plants,  minerals  and  ethno- 
logical materials  of  the  regions  visited,  such  as  the  coast  of  South  America,  the 
islands  of  the  South  seas,  &c.  The  naturalists  of  the  expedition  were  Titian  R. 
Peale,  J.  D.  Dana,  Charles  Pickering,  W.  Rich,  J.  P.  Couthony,  and  W.  D. 
Brackinridge. 

2.  Exploration  of  the  Amazon  and  its  tributaries  in  1851-52,  by  Lieutenant 
W.  E.  Henidon,  United  States  navy.  The  collections  made  consist  chiefly  of 
vertebrate  animals  and  ethnological  material. 

3.  Exploration  of  the  valley  of  Great  Salt  Lake,  by  Captain  Stansbury, 
United  States  army,  in  1851.     Collections  in  character  much  like  the  last 

4.  Explorations  of  the  Zuni  and  Colorado  rivers,  by  Captain  Sitgreaves, 
United  States  army,  in  1851  and  1852,  and  the  survey  of  the  Ci*eek  boundary 
and  Canadian  Fork  of  the  Arkansas,  in  1856,  by  Captains  J.  C.  Woodruff  and 
Sitgreaves,  Dr.  S.  W.  Woodhouse,  naturalist. 

5.  Presents  made  to  the  United  States  by  the  King  of  Siam  and  other  for- 
eign governments,  deposited  by  the  State  Department. 

6.  Exploration  of  Commodore  M,  C.  Periy,  United  States  navy,  made  while 
negotiating  a  treaty  with  Japan,  and  the  presents  to  the  United  States  govern- 
ment tlirough  him  from  the  Japanese  authorities. 

7.  From  Dr.  D.  D.  Owen  in  his  United  States  geological  explomtions  in  the 
west. 

8.  Indian  paintings  from  the  War  and  Indian  Departments. 

9.  United  States  geological  survey  made  in  Iowa,  Illinois,  and  Minnesota, 
under  Dr.  D.  D.  Owen. 

10.  United  States  geological  survey,  made  on  Lake  Superior  by  Messrs.  Fos- 
ter and  Whitney. 


Digitized  by  VnOOQlC 


APPENDIX  TO  THE  REPOET  OP  THE  SECRETARY.      77 

11.  Geological  exploration  made  by  Dr.  Charles  T.  Jackson  on  Lake  Superior. 

12.  Geological  survey  made  in  Oregon  and  Washington  Territory  by  Dr.  J. 
Evans. 

13.  The  expedition  to  Chile  under  Lieutenant  J.  M.  Gilliss,  United  States 
navy.     Vertebrates  and  minerals. 

14.  North  Pacific  surveying  and  exploring  expedition  under  Captains  Ring- 
gold and  Rodgers,  United  States  navy,  chiefly  in  the  China  seas,  Behring's  straits, 
coast  of  California,  &c.,  in  1853  to  1856 ;  W.  Stimpson  and  Charles  Wright, 
principal  naturalists. 

15.  The  smrvey  of  the  line  between  the  United  States  and  Mexico,  first 
organized  under  Hon.  J.  B.  Weller,  as  commissioner,  and  Major  W.  H.  Emory, 
as  chief  of  the  scientific  department ;  then  under  J.  R.  Bartlett,  as  commissioner, 
and  Colonel  J.  D.  Graham,  chief  of  the  scientific  corps,  succeeded  subsequently 
by  Major  W.  H.  Emory  j  then  under  General  R.  B.  Campbell,  commissioner, 
and  Major  W.  H.  Emory,  chief  of  the  scientific  corps ;  together  with  the  survey 
of  the  boundary  line  of  the  Gudsden  purchase,  under  Major  W.  H.  Emory,  com- 
missioner, 1850  and  1856  j  collectors  John  H.  Clark,  Arthur  Schott,  C.  C.  Parry, 
Charles  Wright,  and  Dr.  T.  H.  Webb. 

16.  Pacific  railroad  survey,  of  the  38th,  39th,  and  47tli  parallels,  under  Gov- 
ernor Stevens,  in  1853-'54 ;  Dr.  George  Suckley  and  J,  G.  Cooper,  collectors. 

17.  Pacific  railroad  survey  on  the  38th,  39th  and  41st  parallels,  under  Cap- 
tains J.  W.  Gunnison  and  E.  S.  Beckwith,  in  1853  and  1854;  Mr.  F.  Kreutz- 
feldt^  principal  collector. 

18.  Pacific  railroad  survey  on  the  35th  parallel,  under  Captain  Whipple,  in 
1853  and  1854 ;  Drs,  C.  B.  Kennerly,  J.  M.  Bigelow,  Jules  Marcou,  and  H.  B. 
MoUhausen,  collectors. 

19.  Pacific  railroad  survey  on  the  partial  route  in  California,  under  Lieuten- 
ant Williamson,  in  1853  and  1854  j  Dr.  A.  S:  Heerman  and  W.  P.  Blake,  col- 
lectors. 

20.  Pacific  railix>ad  survey  on  the  western  end  of  the  32d  parallel,  under  Lieu- 
tenant Parke ;  in  1853-^54,  Dr.  A.  S.  Heerman  and  Dr.  Antisell,  collectors. 

21.  Pacific  railroad  survey,  on  the  eastern  end  of  the  same  parallel,  under  Cap- 
tain Pope,  in  1853. 

22.  Pacific  railroad  survey  in  California  and  Oregon,  under  Lieutenant  Wil- 
liamson, in  1855 ;  Dr.  J.  S.  Newberry,  collector. 

23.  Expedition  of  Captain  Pope  to  sink  artesian  wells  on  the  Llano  Estacado; 
in  1854,  &c. ;  Dr.  G.  P.  Shumard,  geologist. 

24.  Northwestern  boundary  survey  in  1857-61,  under  A.  Campbell,  esq.;  Dr. 
C.  B.  Kennerly  and  Geo.  Gibbs,  collectors. 

25.  Expedition  of  Captain  Page,  United  States  navy,  in  1853  and  1856  to 
the  Parana  and  its  tributaries ;  Ed.  Palmer,  collector. 

26.  Expedition  to  the  Isthmus  of  Darien,  by  Lieut.  Michler,  United  States 
army,  in  1857 ;  Arthur  Schott,  aided  by  W.  S.  and  Charles  Wood,  collectors. 

27.  Expedition  of  Lieutenant  Bryan  during  two  seasons  spent  in  constructing 
a  wagon  road  fix)m  Fort  Riley  to  Bridger's  pass,  in  1856  and  1857 ;  W.  S.  Wood, 
collector. 

28.  Expedition  to  upper  Missouri  and  Yellowstone  in  1856,  under  Lieutenant 
Warren ;  Dr.  F.  V.  Hayden,  collector. 

29.  Expedition  to  the  Black  Hills,  Loup  Fork  of  the  Platte,  in  1857-'58,  by 
/Lieutenant  Warren ;  Dr.  F.  V.  Hayden,  collector. 

30.  Expedition  to  the  Red  river  in  1852,  by  Captain  Marcy ;  Captaui  G.  B. 
McClellan,  principal  collector. 

31.  South  Pass  wagon  road  expedition,  under  W.  M.  Magraw,  in  1857;  Dr. 
J.  G.  Cooper  and  C.  Drexler,  collectors. 

32.  Exploration  of  the  Colorado  river,  under  Lieutenant  Ives,  in  1857 ;  Dr. 
J.  S.  Newberry  and  H.  B.  MoUhausen,  collectors. 


Digitized  by.  VjOOQIC 


78     APPENDIX  TO  THE  REPORT  OP  THE  SECRETARY 

33.  Explorations  in  E^ansas,  Nebraska,  and  Utah,  by  Captain  J.  H.  Simpson, 
United  States  anny,  in  1858-'59  j  Dr.  G.  Engelniann,  geologist;  C.  S.  McCaity, 
collector. 

34.  South  Pass  wagon  road  expedition  in  1859,  under  F.  W.  Lander,  esq.,  by 
Mr.  Snyder. 

35.  El  Paso  and  Fort  Yuma  wagon  road  expedition,  under  J.  B.  Leech,  esq., 
in  1857-'58,  by  Dr.  S.  Hayes. 

36.  Wagon  road  expedition  from  Walla- Walla  to  Fort  Benton,  under  Lien- 
tenant  John  MuUan,  United  States  army,  in  1859 ;  Johu  Pearsall  and  Mr.  Hil- 
dreth,  collectors. 

37.  Exploration  of  the  upper  Missouri  and  Yellowstone,  by  Captain  J.  W. 
Raynolds,  United  States  army,  in  1859-'60 ;  Dr.  F.  V.  Hayden  and  Geo.  H. 
Trook,  collectors. 

38.  Exploration  of  the  San  Juan  and  upper  Colorado,  by  Captain  J.  N.  Ma- 
comb, United  States  army,  in  1859 ;  Dr.  J.  S.  Newberry,  collector. 

39.  Commodore  Perry's  Japan  expedition,  in  1854. 

40.  Exploration  during  the  march  of  troops  to  Oregon,  via  Fort  Benton,  under 
Major  J.  H.  Blake,  in  1860,  by  Dr.  J.  G.  Cooper. 

41.  Survey  of  the  northern  boundary  of  Texas  in  1860,  by  Mr.  J.  H.  Clarke; 
C.  S.  McCarthy,  collector. 

42.  Exploration  of  the  Dead  sea,  by  Lieutenant  W.  F.  Lynch  : 

43.  Geological  survey  of  Oregon  in  1852,  by  Dr.  J.  Evans  and  B.  F.  Shu- 
mard. 

44.  Survey  from  the  Missouri  river  to  Los  Angelos,via  Uie  Huerfano  pass,  in 
1854,  by  Lieutenant  E.  F.  Beale. 

45.  General  SuUy^s  expedition  to  the  upper  Missouri,  &c.,  by  S.  M.  Rotham- 
mer. 

46.  Artesian  well  expedition  to  the  Llano  Estacado  of  Texas,  in  1857,  by 
Captain  John  Pope. 

47.  Explorations  of  the  Brazos  and  Wichita  rivers,  in  1854,  by  Captain  R. 
B.  Marcy  j  Dr.  G.  C.  Shumard,  naturalist. 

48.  Journey  from  Chile  to  Buenos  Ayres,  by  Lieutenant  A.  McRae,  United 
States  navy,  in  connection  with  Captain  Gilliss's  expedition,  in  1853  and  1854. 

49.  Survey  of  the  southern  boundary  of  Kansas,  under  Lieutenant  Colonel 
J.  S.  Johnston,  in  1857 ;  collections  made  by  J.  H.  Clark. 

50.  Exploration  of  the  La  Plata  river  and  its  tributaries  in  1857  and  1860,  by 
Captain  T.  J.  Page,  United  States  navy ;  Chris.  Wood,  collector. 

51.  Exploration  of  Russian  America,  under  the  direction  of  Captain  W.  A. 
Howai'd,  United  States  revenue  service,  in  1867,  in  the  steamer  Lincoln. 

52.  Exploration  of  Russian  America,  under  the  direction  of  Greo.  B.  David- 
son, of  the  United  States  coast  survey,  in  1867. 

53.  Exploration  by  the  War  Department  of  the  region  along  the  40th  paiaUel, 
under  Glaience  King. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


LIST 

OF 


METEOROLOGICAL  STATIONS  AND  OBSERVERS  OF  THE  SMITHSONIAN 
INSTITUTION  FOR  THE  YEAR  1867. 


Biignlilef  Barometer.  P,  Piyehometer;  T,  Thermometer;  R,  Rain  gauge;  A,  AH  four  liutmmenta;  N,  No 

Instrnment. 


BRITISH  AMERICA. 


Station. 


I 


I 

I 


& 


S> 


Aeafa  College 

JoMe,W.  Martin.. 

Mimloek,0 

O'DoQogfaae,  John. 


WolfviUe.  Nova  Scotia  .... 

OUfton,  Canada  West 

St  John,  New  Brooswick. 
St.  Anne,  Canada  East .... 


45  06 


64  85 


FuL 
80 


45  16 
47  24 


66  03 
70  05 


135 
175 


A 

T 

A 

B.  P.  T . 


11 
6 

12 
4 


MEXICO. 


8v1ortiii,I>r.  Chariea...   Mirador,  Vera  Cmi 19  15      96  25      3,600    A 


12 


CENTRAL  AlfERICA. 


f^tiiiui  Dr.  A 

Dm*.  J. P..  M.D.... 
Backer.  O.  A..  M.D.. 


San  Jot6,  Ooita  Rica  . 
Afpinwall 


954 
923 


84  06 
79  53 


3,772 
6 


T.P. 
A... 


1 
11 


BERMUDA. 


XEoglneert,  (In  the 
a  Gazette.) 


Centre  Signal  Station,  St  George*!. 


12 


ALABAMA. 


Xameof  obMrrer. 

Station. 

Connty. 

1 

1 

1 

m 

1 

i 

Alira,H.L.,  M.D 

Prairie  Blnff..... 

Monlton 

Prairie  Blnff 

Onelika 

Dallas 

o    / 
32  10 
32  06 
34  36 
32  06 
32  35 
32  50 

o     / 
87  15 
87  33 
87  25 
87  33 
85  30 
87  46 

FmC 

300 

'"'643' 
""566' 

T.R.... 

T 

B.T.R.. 

T 

T 

T.R.... 
T 

12 

HentoKm.  WiUiam 

Patm,  Thomas  M 

BcynoIdL  R.M 

WUcox 

Lawrence 

Wilcox 

10 
12 

I 
10 

ftfiSJj.H.":::::::::: 

Lee 

TWwOer.H 

HaTana ......... 

Greene  .... ..... 

12 

VMkJrk,W.J 

BonSeoour 

Baldwhi 

g 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


8U 


METEOROLOGICAL  OBSEBVEBS. 


List  of  meteorological  stations  and  observers ,  i(c, — Gontinaed. 

ARKANSAS. 


Name  of  obierver. 

Btation. 

Countj. 

1 

§ 

^ 

1 

• 

t 

f 

■a 

1 

& 

i 

5 

s 

O     1 

o    / 

Wut, 

Rtftell,  O.  P 

Helena 

Phnilpps 

34  33 

90  10 

T.  R.... 

3 

Hpringer,  Bev.  Franola. . . 

Port  Smith 

35  33 

94  29 

4eo 

T 

3 

CALIFORNIA. 


Ayrei,W.  O.,  M.D 

Oanfleld,  Colb't  A.,  M.  D. . 

Jlogan,  Tbos.  M.,  H.  D 

Regent,  Franc's  H 

Triveti,  Woltei  M 


San  Franciflco . 

Monterey 

Sacramento  ... 
MarHh'g  Ranch. 
Stockton 


San  Francisco... 

Monterey 

Sacramento 

Contra  Coita .... 
San  Joaqnln 


37  48 
36  36 

38  33 


37  57 


133  37 
131  53 
131  30 


131  14 


A.., 
A... 
A... 
T... 
RP 


6 
13 
3 
6 
S 


Berthond.  E.  L 

Meniam,  Arthni  H . 


Golden  City. 
Fountaine... 


COLORADO. 


Ell 


39  44 


105  08 


5^843 


CONNECTICUT. 


Dewhnrst,  Rot.E.  .. 
IIuDt,  B^v.  Daniel... 
Johniton.  Prof.  John. 
Rockwell,  Charlotte.. 
WiIHanu,Rev.R.G.. 
Yeomans^  William  H 


Oroton 

Pomfret.... 
Middletown 
Colebrook. . 
Waterbury. 
Colombia.. . 


New  London... 

Windham 

Middleoex 

Litchfield , 

New  Haven.... 
Tolland 


41  31 
41  53 
41  33 
43  00 
41  33 
41  40 


73  13 
73  10 

72  39 

73  03 
73  03 
73  42 


SO 
587 
175 


aT.R. 

A 

A 

T 

RT.R 
T 


10 
13 
13 
IS 
9 
13 


DELAWARE. 


VankeUe.!... 


Delaware  City.. 


Newcastle.. 


3935      7534 


FLORIDA. 


AndruB,  Wm.  C  .... 
Baldwin.  A.  8.,  M.D 
Corev,  Heury  M.... 

FUber,  Galen  M 

Hawks,  J.  M.,  M.D. 
Scoit,  H.  B 


Cedar  KeTt. 
Jackaoavllle 
Femandina. 
Lake  City  . . 
Port  Orange 
Gk>rdon 


Lery 

Daval 

NasMin . . . . 
Columbia. . 
Volnida.... 
Alachua... 


^  06 
30  15 
30  31 
30  13 


39  45 


83  03 
83  00 
81  30 
83  40 


83  30 


18 
30 
35 
135 


T... 
A... 
T.R 
T.R 
T... 
T... 


I 
11 

7 

I 

13 


Deekner,  Fredrick. 


Atlanta. 


GEORGIA. 


Fnlton. 


33  45      84  31      1.050     T.R 


ILLINOIS. 


Adam»,W.H 

Aldrlcli,  Verry 

Babcock,E 

Bowman,  E.  H.,  M.  D... 

Ballon,  N.E..  M.  D 

Breudei,  Frederick,  M.  D 

Biancbard.  O.  A 

Brinkerbofr,  0«o.  M 

Brookes.  Samnel 

Carey,  Dauiel 

Dudley,  Timothy 


Elmore.... 
Tiskilwa.. 

Riley 

Andalntla . 
Sandwich  . 
Peoria..... 
Blroira . . . . 
SpringfleU 
Chicago  . . . 

Alto 

Wareny  . . 


Peoria 

Bareaa , 

McUenry.... 
Rock  Island. 

DeKalb 

Peoria , 

Stark 

Sangamon 

Cook 

V^iCe 


40  56 

90  04 

613 

R 

41  15 

89  16 

550 

T 

43  11 

88  33 

760 

T.R.... 

4!  30 

B.T.... 

41  31 

88  30 

665 

T.R.... 

40  43 

89  30 

460 

A 

41  13 

90  15 

T.R.... 

39  48 

89  33 

T 

42  00 

87  30 

600 

T 

41  45 

89  00 

T 

I    39  40 

90  00 

680 

T.R.... 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


10 
13 
9 
11 
13 
13 

JO 

19 
II 
1-2 
10 


METEOBOLOGICAL   OBSERVEBS. 


81 


List  of  meteorological  stations  and  observers,  Sfc. — Continued 

ILLINOIS— Continned. 


Name  of  obaeirer. 

StaUon. 

County. 

4 

1 

4 

I 

1 

i 

3 

1 
11 

1 

Duncan,  Ber.  Alexander. 

Eldredg*.  Wm.  V 

Prerman  H.  C 

Monnt  Sterling.. 

Qolconda 

South  Pau../... 

Brown 

o    / 
40  00 
37  41 

o    / 
91  15 

88  47 

Feet, 

T 

T 

T 

A 

B.T.... 

T 

B.T.R.. 

T 

A 

T.P.R.. 
T.R.... 

T.R.... 

T.R.... 
T.R.... 

A 

T.R.... 
A 

12 

Pope 

19 
5 

Union 

Grant,  John ) 

Scott 

39  31 
43  03 

90  34 
87  38 

683 

614 

12 

1 
12 

Grant,  Charlefl  W >            

Hnse,  Fred.  J .•. *  Evftnitnn 

Cook 

K&nster,  H 

Waterloo 

Monroe 

Langgnth,  John  O.,  jr. . . . 
Uttle,  JoMph  T 

Chicago 

Dixon 

Cook 

43  00 
41  45 
40  55 

40  10 

41  90 

4!  30 

41  15 
38  14 
4148 

87  30 

89  36 

90  25 

91  00 

88  47 

89  45 

89  15 
89  16 
88  23 

600 
""■795* 
*""*566* 

32 

Lee 

4 

LiTinntoD,  Prof.  Wm 

Mead,  8.  B 

Galesburg 

Augurita 

Knox 

12 

Hannnck 

12 

Merwin.  Mrs.  Emily  H .. . 

Pbelp*.  E.  8 I 

Phelps,  MinLeUaE...  i 
Smith.  Henry  K 

Ottawa r.AflRil«.- 

12 
12 
6 

Wyanet 

Bureau. ......'... 

Magnolia 

Dabois 

Putnam 

Spencer,  Wm.  C 

Washington 

Kane 

11 

Spanlding,  Ablram 

Thompson,  A.H 

Tolman,  James  W 

Aurora. ......... 

12 

Lacon 

Winnebago 

Marvhall 

2 

Winnebago 

42  17 

89  12 

900 

12 

INDIANA. 


Boemer,  Charles  G ' 

Batterfleld,  W. W.  Sc  Mrs. ; 

Cbappellsmith,  John I 

Croeier.  Dr.  E.  S... ' 

Dawson.  Wm 1 

EstQD.  W.  J ! 

Holmes,  Thomas 

Kemper.  G.W.H.,M.D  .. 

Longhridge,  Dr.  J.  H 

McCoy,  Dr.  P } 

McCoy.  Miss  Lizzie  ....  > 

Sutton,  George,  H.  D > 

Valentine,  John , 


Vevay  

Indianapolis 

New  Harmony  . 
New  Albany... 

Spiceland 

Indianapolis . . . . 

Merom 

Muncie 

Rensselaer 

Columbia  City. . 

Aurora 

Richmond 


Switzerland 

Marion 

Posey 

Floyd 

Henry 

Marion 

Sullivan  ..  . 
Delaware  . . 
Jasper 

Whitney  ... 

Dearborn. . . 
Wayne 


38  46 

39  45 

38  08 

38  02 

39  48 

39  47 

39  05 

40  12 

40  56 

41  10 

39  04 

.39  52 

84  59 

T.R.... 

86  20 

698 

T 

87  50 

350 

A 

85  39 

353 

A 

85  18 

1,025 

B.T.R.. 

87  06 

698 

A 

87  40 

T.R.... 

85  16 

T.R.... 

87  13 

745 

T.R.... 

85  30 

T.B.... 

84  54 

*80 

B.T.R.. 

84  39 

850 

A 

11 

10 

11 

3 
12 

4 
13 

U 
5 

11 

12 
12 


IOWA. 


Atkinson,  Wm.  O 

Babcock,E 

Bryant.  A.  F 

Bosh,  Rev.  Alva 

Carpenter,  B 

ColUn,  Prof.  Alonzo 

Ueering,  D.  S 

IHckinson,  J  ames  P 

I>orweiler,  Philip 

Farnsworth,  P.  J .,  M.  D . , 
Hagentick,  John  Mathias 

Horr,  Aw,  M.  D 

Hudson,  AT 

Jorgen«on,  C.  N , 

Love,  Mrs.  Louisa  P 

MeCresdy.  Daniel 

Monlton,  M.M 

Naah.  Rev.  J.  A 

Parvin,  Prot  Theodore  8 

Sheldon.  D.  8 

8tec'd,T 

Stem,  Jacob  T 

Twwnsend,  Nathan 

Wadey,  H 

Walton,  Josiah  P 

Wame,  George,  M.  D  . . 

Warren,  Janws  H , 

WfaeatoD,  Mrs.  Daniel  D 
Witter.  David  R 


Dakota 

Boonsboro' 

Fontanelle 

Osage 

Atalissa 

Monnt  Vernon  . . . 
Independence  . . . 

Guttunburg 

Algona 

Cliuton 

Ceres 

Dubuque 

Lyons 

Fort  Dodge 

Burlington 

Fort  Madison 

Monticello 

Des  Moines 

Iowa  City 

Davenport 

Waterloo 

Harris  Grove 

Iowa  Falls 

Marble  Rock.... 

Muscatine 

Independence.... 

Algona 

Independence. . . . 
Whitesboro' 


Humboldt... 

Boone 

Adair 

MitcheU 

Muscatine 

Linn 

Buchanan  — 

Clayton 

Koftttnth 

Clinton 

Clayton 

Dubuque 

Clinton 

Humboldt  — 
Des  Moines.. 

Lee 

Jones 

Polk 

Johnson 

Scott 

Black  Hawk. 
Harrison .... 

Hardin 

Floyd 

Muscatine  — 
Buchanan  — 

Kossuth 

Buchanan  . . . 
Harrison  .... 


42  40 

43  00 

41  2d 

43  30 

41  32 

43  00 

43  30 

43  00 

94  00 

93  14 

94  30 
83  00 
91  12 

91  00 

92  16 
90  50 


40  40 
43  45 
43  30 
40  43 
43  30 
40  53 

40  37 
43  15 

41  35 
41  37 
41  30 
43  30 
41  00 
43  33 
43  00 
41  25 
43  25 
43  05 
43  29 
41  38 


90  10 

91  11 
90  4U 

90  10 
94  00 

91  10 
91  28 
91  15 
93  36 


90  40 
93  30 
95  00 
93  20 
93  00 
93  03 

93  06 

94  15 

91  SO 

95  40 


T 

T 

1.500 

T.R.... 

T 

T.R.... 

T 

850 

T 

690 

T 

T 

T.R.... 

630 

825 

T 

666 

A 

630 

T.R.... 

T 

530 

T 

T.R.... 

800 

T.R.... 

T.R.... 

621 

A 

737 

A 

670 

T 

900 

T 

T.R.... 

T 

582 

A 

850 

B.T.R.. 

T.R.... 

T.R.... 

T 

3 
18 

3 

5 
13 

4 

12 
12 
11 
12 
12 

5 
12 

] 

13 
12 

3 
12 
12 
12 
12 

9 

8 
12 

8 

9 
11 

1 


6  8    67 


'Above  low  water  in  the  Ohio  river. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


82 


METEOBOLOOICAL   OBSERVERS. 


List  of  meteorological  stations  and  observers,  Sfc. — Continued. 

KANSAS. 


Name  of  obierrer. 


StAUon. 


County. 


S 
I 


Agricultt^ral  College 

Beckwitb,  W 

Hollingworth,  Geo.  W 

Horn,  Dr.  H.  B } 

Horn.  Mi»Clotllde....> 

Ingraham  St.  Hyland 

Shoemaker,  J.  O 

StaVman,  Dr.  J 

Waitera,  Dr.  James 

Woodworth,  Abner,  M.  D. 


Manbattan  .... 

Olatha 

Lawrence 

AtcbiBon 

Baxter  Springt 

LeRoy 

Leavenworth . . 

Holton 

Cooncil  Qrove... 


Riley 

Johnson 

Douglas 

Atchison 

Cherokee 

Coffey 

Leavenworth . 

Jackson 

Morris 


39  12 
38  50 

38  37 

39  43 


96  40 

94  30 

95  10 

95  00 


Fut. 
1,300 


950 
1,000 


T.R 
T.R 
T.R 


38  06 

39  15 
39  27 
38  42 


95  03 

94  52 

95  10 

96  32 


1, 172 


T.R. 

B.T.R 

T.R 

T... 

T.R 


KENTUCKY. 


Beatty,  O 

Martin,  Dr.  Samuel  D. . 
Young,  Mrs.  Lawrence. 


Danville  .. 
Chilesburg 
Louisville  . 


Boyle... 
Fayette  . 
Jefferson 


37  40 

38  04 
38  07 


84  30 

84  20 

85  24 


900 
983 
570 


B.T.R.. 
B.T.R.. 
A 


LOUISIANA. 


Carter,  J.  H 

Fost<>r,  Robert  W 

Teele,  Rev.  Albert  K . 


Benton 

New  Orleans . . , . 
VidaliaPlantat'n. 


Bassin 

Orleans 

Concordia . 


29  57 
32  00 


90  00 

91  30 


T.... 
B.T. 
T.... 


MAINE. 


Eaton,  Virgil  O 

Gardiner,  Robert  H. 

GuptiU,O.W 

Moore,  A«i  P 

Moulton,  John  P.... 

Parlser,  J.  D 

Pettlngili,  Waldo... 

Pitman,  Edwin 

RobinHon,  Almon 

Towle,  Benjamin  H . 

West,  Silas 

Wilbur,  Benjamin  F 


North  Prospect.. 

Gardiner 

Cornish  . . : 

Lisbon 

Standish 

Steul>en 

Rumford  Point  .. 
Williamsburg.... 

Webster 

Leo 

Cornish 

West  WaterviUe. 


Waldo 44  28 

Kennebec 44  11 

York 43  40 

Androttcoggin 44  00 

Cumberland 43  45 

Washington 44  31 

Oxford 44  30 

PUcataquis 45  21 

Androscoggin 44  04 

Penobscot 

York 43  40 

Kennebec 44  30 


68  58 

69  46 

70  44 
-0  04 
70  30 
67  57 
70  40 


70  04 


70  44 
69  45 


207  I 

76 ; 

800 
130 

ii90  I 

50 
600 


7t»4 
250 


T..., 
A... 
T.R. 
T.R 
T.R 
A... 
T.R 
T.R 
T... 
T.R, 
A... 
T.R. 


MARYLAND. 


Goodman,  Wm.R 

Grape,  George  S 

Jourdan,  Prof.C.H 

McConnick,  James  O  . . 

Smith,  EU 

Stevenson,  Rev.  James 


Annapolis .... 
CatonsvUle . . . 

Emmittsburg 

Woodlawn  . . . 
Emmittsbnrg . 
St.Inigoes  ... 


Anne  Arundel... 

Baltimore 

Frederick 

Cecil 

Frederick 

St.  Mary's.... 


38  58 

39  17 
39  40 
39  39 


38  10 


76  29 

76  42 

77  21 
76  04 


76  30 


A 

T 

T.R.. 
B.T.R 

T 

A 


BIASSACHUSETTS. 


Astronomical  Observatory 

Bacon,  William 

Bixby,JohnU 

Caldwell,  John  U 

Cunningham,  George  A  .. 

Draper,  Joseph 

Fallon,  John 

Meniam,  Sidney  A 

Metcalf;  John  George.... 


Williamstown  ...    Berkshire  . 

Richmond Berluhire  . 

West  Newton...!  Middlesex. 


Newbury. 
Lunenburg . 
Worcester.. 
Lawrence  .. 
Topsaeld... 
Mendon .... 


E»sex  . 
Worcester . 
Worcester . 

Essex 

Essex 

Worcester . 


43  43 

73  13 

686 

A 

42  13 

TO  20 

1,000 

T.R.... 

42  21 

71  17 

40 

T 

42  45 

70  55 

25 

T 

42  35 

71  43 

B.T  .... 

42  16 

71  48 

528 

A 

42  42 

71  11 

133 

A 

42  38 

70  57 

A 

42  06 

71  34 

B.T.R.. 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


METEOROIiOOICAL  OBSERVERS. 


83 


List  of  meteorological  stations  and  observers,  ^, — Gontinaed. 

MASSACHUSETTS— Continued. 


Name  of  obfeirer. 

Station. 

County. 

i 
1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

e 

a 

Nuoo,  R«T.  Elias 

KeboD,  Henry  M 

North  Billerica  .. 

Georgetown 

Georgetown 

Kingston 

New  Bedford.... 
Amherst....... .. 

Middlesex 

Eiutex 

o    / 
42  34 
42  42 
42  42 
42  00 

41  39 

42  22 

o    / 
71  16 
71  00 

Feet. 
22.V 

B.T  .... 

T 

T 

T.R  .... 

A 

A 

T 

T.R.... 

12 
3 

Nelson,  S.  Auguatug 

Neweomb,  Guilford  S 

Rodmnn,  Samuel 

Ewex 

Plymouth 

BrlMtol 

71  00  '        225 

70  45  , 

70  56            90 

72  34           267 

8 
12 
12 

Snell.  Prof.  E.  8 

Hamptihire 

Norfolk 

12 

Teele,  Rev.  Albert  K 

Milton 

8 

Tucker,  Edward  T 

New  Bedford.... 

Briitol    

41  39 

70  55  1          50 

8 

MICHIGAN. 


Bnllard,  Ransom 

Cham,  Milton.  M.  D  .... 

£11  iR.  Edwin.  M.  D 

Holme*,  E.  8 

Kedzic,  Prot  R.  C 

31ape«,  Henry  H 

PaxtAii,John  W 

8mitb,  Rev.  George  N.. 

Smith,  Harmon  M 

Steele,  George  E 

8treng.L.H 

WbeIpley,HiMFloreuceE. 
Wbittletey,  S.  H 


Litchfield 

Kalamazoo 

Ontonagon 

Grand  Rapidit... 

Lansing 

Otthtemo 

Alpena 

Northport 

Kalamazoo 

Homestead .  

Holland 

Monroe !  Monroe 

Central  Mine 1  Keweenaw 


HillHdale... 
Kalamaxoo . 
Ontonagon  . 

Kent 

Ingham 

Kalamazoo . 

Alpena 

Lci>lanaw  -. 
Kalamazoo  . 

Benzie 

Ottawa 


42  01 


46  40 
43  CO 
42  42 


45  02 
45  OS 
42  20 
44  30 
42  42 
41  58 
47  00 


84  46       1,040 


90  00 
85  40 
84  34 


83  05 
85  41 

85  44 

86  00 

86  00 
83  23 

87  54 


610 
752 
895 


574 
592 


590 
1,177 


T.R. 
T.... 
T.... 
T.... 
A.... 
N.... 
B.T  . 
T.... 
N.... 
T.... 
T.R. 
T.R. 
T.... 


11 
11 
12 
11 
II 
12 
5 

5 
3 
9 
II 
6 


MINNESOTA. 


Babeock,  Dr.  B.  F 

Bardon,  Richard 

Cheney,  William 

Heimstreet,  John  W 

Patenon,  Rev.  A.B.,D.  D. 

Boos,  Charles 

Stepbeiu,  Prof.  A.  M 

Wieland,C 

Woodbury,  C.  W 


Aflon 

Grand  Portage 
Minneapolis  . . . 

St.  Paul 

SLPaul 

New  L'lm 

RedWmg 

Beaver  Bay  . . . 
Sibley 


Washington . 

Lake 

Hennepin  ... 

Ramsey 

St  Paul 

Brown  ...... 

Goodhtie  .... 

'  Lake 

I  Sibley 


44  50 
47  50 

45  00 
44  57 
44  57 
44  16 
44  35 
47  12 
44  31 


93  00 
89  50 
93  10 
93  05 

93  05 

94  26 
92  30 
91  18 
94  26 


950 
612 
856 
800 
800 

T             1 

T... 

A... 

A... 

T.R 

♦821 

T.R 

800 

T.R 

650 

T.R 

1,600 

T.R 

5 
5 
13 

1 
12 

12 
8 

12 
12 


MISSISSIPPI 


C1elaad,ReT.  T.H 

McCary.  William 

Moore,  Albert 

Fayette    

1 

T 

B.T.R.. 

T 

B.T.... 

12 

Natchez ^ 

Adams  -.- 

31  34 
33  45 
31  24 

91  25  ! 

90  00    

91  16    

12 

Grenada 

Yallobnsha 

11 

Smith,  J.  Edwards 

Kingston 

4 

MISSOURL 


Christian,  John 

£nglcmann,  George,  M.  D. 

Fendler,  Augustus 

Kancher,  William 

Moore.  Miss  Belle i 

Ray,  George  p 

Rogglef,  Homer 

Staat«beck,  Rev.F.  H.  ,S.J. 
Tertrees,  John  £ 


HarrisonvOle Cass ,  38  40 

St.  Louis 'St,LouU I  38  37 

Allenton '  St.  Louis 38  29 

Oregon |  Holt |  39  59 

I'nJon I  Franklin 38  25  i 

Hermitage |  Hickory ;  37  56  . 

Canton Lewi* i  40  12 


Rolla .*'  Phelps 


•I 


St  Louis  . 


jn  5H 


Edinburg Gnmdy  . 


Kt.  Louis t    3ri  37 


94  30 
90  15 

90  45 

95  10 

91  0?» 
93  16 
91  37 
91  33 
90  15 
93  30 


T.R.... 

481 

A 

482 

B.T.  P.. 

1,100 

T.R.... 

616 

T.U.... 

T.R.... 

T 

T 

470 

A 

T.R.... 

12 
3 

13 

12 
6 
4 
7 
8 

13 
I 


*  Above  Minnesota  river. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


84 


METEOROLOGICAL   OBSERVERS. 


List  of  meteorological  stations  and  observers^  Sfc, — Continued. 

MONTANA. 


Nameofobsenrer. 

Station. 

Connty. 

1 

1 
1 

1 

1 

s 

1^ 

Lebman,  Dr.  H.  H  ....... 

Camp  Cooko  ^ , . . 

O      ' 

48  00 
46  45 

O      ' 

111  00 
111  50 

Feet. 

"i/iho 

P.T.R.. 
T 

1 

Wbeatoo,  Alex.  Camp — 

Helena  City 

Edgerton 

4 

NEBRASKA. 


Bowen,  Jobn  S 

Brown,  U.H 

Chlld,A.L.,M.  D 

Hamilton, Bey. Wm  ...i 

McKensie,  J.  M 

Seltx,  Charles 


Elkbom  City Wasbln^on  . 

Dakota  City I  Dakota 

Glendale |  Can  . 


Belle vue  . 
Blackbird  Hills.. 

Pern 

De  Soto 


Sarpy 

Burt 

Nemeba 

Waisbington . 


41  22 

42  30 

40  55 

41  08 

42  10 

40  29 

41  30 


96  12 
96  30 
96  05 

95  50 

96  00 

95  46 

96  00 


1.350 


1,010 


T... 
T... 
T... 
T.R 
T.R 
T... 
T... 


Nl-rW  HAMPSHIRE. 


Brewster,  Alfred 

Brown,  Brancb 

CboKe,  Artbnr , 

Hatch,  John 

Hurlin,  Rev.  William 
Mend,  Stephen  O  ... 

Odell.  Fletcher 

Pitman,  Charles  H  .. 
Wheeler,  Jobn  T  .... 


Tamworth 

Stratford 

Clareroont 

Portsmoath 

Antrim 

Claremom 

Shelbnme 

North  Bamstead 
Concord 


Carroll , 

Coos , 

Sullivan 

RocklDgbam. 
Hillsboro'  .... 

Sullivan 

Coos 

Belknap 

Merrimack  .. 


43  50 

44  40 
43  22 
43  05 


44  23 
43  38 
43  12 


71  19 

71  07 

72  21 
70  41 


71  06 
71  27 
71  29 


1,000 

539 

12 


700 


400 


T 

T.R.. 
RT.R 

A 

N 

T 

RT.. 
T.R.. 
RT.R 


NEW  JERSEY. 


Beans,  Thomas  J 

Brooks,  William 

Cole,  Barker 

Cook,  Ephralm  R 

Cook,  Prof.  Ckorge  H 

Couch,  B.D 

Deacon,  John  C 

Flemiog,  Jobn 

FritU,J.8 

Ingram,  Jobn,  M.  D 

Rbees,  Morgan  J.,  M.  D  . . 

Sheppard,  Clarkson ) 

Sheppard,  Miss  R.  C  . . .  5 

Shriver,  Howard 

Whitehead,  W.  A 

Wood,  Samuel 


Mooresiown .... 

Paterson 

SeavlUe 

Trenton 

New  Bnmswick 

Newfleld 

Bnrlington 

Readington 

EI  wood 

Vinelond 

Mount  Holly  ... 

Qreenwicb 

Dover 

Newark 

Huddonfield 


Burlington  .. 

Passaic 

Cape  May... 

Mercer 

Middlesex  . . . 
Gloucester  .. 
Burlington  .. 
Hunterdon  .. 

Atlantic 

Cumberland . 
Burlington  .. 

Cumberland . 

Morris 

Essex 

Camden 


39  59 

40  55 

39  20 

40  14 
40  30 

39  30 

40  05 
40  33 


39  38 

40  (K> 

39  20 

40  54 
40  45 


74  54 
74  10 
74  40 
74  46 
74  27 

74  50 

75  10 
74  40 


75  00 

74  47 

75  25 

74  35 
74  10 


18 
60 
80 
180 
60 


30 


T.R... 
T.R... 
T.R  ... 
B.  T.  R. 

A 

T 

T.R... 

T 

T 

A 

B.T... 


30     A 

652  B.  P.  T  . 
35  I  B.T.R. 
74     A 


NEW  YORK, 


Arden,  Thomas  B 

Aubier,  Rev.  Jno.  M.,  &  J. 

Barrows,  Storrs 

Bnrtlett,  Erastus  B 

Beaucbamp.  William  M  .. 

Bowman,  John 

BuHising,  D.  S 

Bussing,  John  W 

Dewey,  Prof.  Chester 

Edwards,  Daniel 

Fries,  George  W 

Gardiner,  James  H 

Gregorys  8. 0 

Haam,  Henry 

Helmstreet,  Jobn  W 


Garrison's 

New  York 

South  Trenton 

VermiUion 

Ckaoeateles  .., 
Bald  wins  ville. 

MInaville , 

Mlnaville 

Rochester 

Little  (Genesee 
Friendithip  — 

Ncwburg , 

Theresa 

Dcpauville  — 
Troy 


Putnam 41  22 

New  York 40  44 

Oneida 43  10 

Oswego 43  26 

Onondaga 43  00 

Onondaga 43  04 

Montgomery 42  54 

Montgomery 42  54 

Monroe  , 43  07 

Allegany 42  00 

Allegany 42  15 

Orange 41  31 

Jefferson 44  12 

Jefferson 44  15 

Rensselaer 42  44 


74  02 

73  59 

74  56 

77  26 

76  30 

76  41 

74  15 

74  15 

77  51 

78  36 

78  10 

74  01 

75  48 

73  40 

180 
104 
835  ] 
:i27' 
932 


516 ; 

1,500  i 

1,536  ! 

85  I 

365 

350  , 

581 


T.R... 
B.T  ... 
T.R... 
T.R.. 
B.T  .- 

T 

T 

T 

B.T.R 
B.T.R 

T 

B.T.R 
T.R.. 
T.R.. 
A , 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


HETEOBOLOGICAL   OBSEBVEES. 


85 


List  of  meteorological  stations  and  observerst  Sfc. — Continued. 

NEW  YORK— CJontinued. 


NameofobierTer. 

SUtion. 

Conntj. 

1 

1 

1 

§ 

1 

1 

1 

1* 

JZJ 

Holier,  Spencer  L 

Howell  Robert 

Stapleton 

Nichols 

Richmond 

Tioga 

o    / 
40  39 

42  00 

43  15 

42  50 
40  43 
40  37 

43  28 
43  08 
40  49 
40  43 

o    / 
74  04 
76  32 

73  21 
78  56 

74  05 
74  02 

76  30 

77  51 

73  49 

74  05 

FeeL 
50 

A 

T 

3 

12 

Ingalfbe,  QrenvlUe  M  . . . . 
TvM.  William       ,. 

South  Hartford.. 
Buffalo 

Washington 

Erie 

400     T.R.... 
600     B.T.R.. 

A 

54     B.T.R.. 
250     B.T.R.. 

525     A 

43     T 

75     A 

210     T 

B.T.R.. 

13     T.R.... 

1,260  '  B 

500     T.R.... 

850     N 

273     T 

567     B.T.R.. 

B.T.R.. 

,  T.R 

.11 
12 

Jot,  Prof.  Charles  A 

Mark^Rer.EUT 

Malcolm,  Wm.  8chayler . . 
MatbewM,  M. M..  M.D  ... 
Morriis, HIu EUrabeth  ... 

Morria,  Prot  Oran  W 

Roe.  Sanford  W 

New  York 

Platbnsh 

New  York 

Kings 

12 
11 

Oswego  ......... 

12 

Roeheuter 

Throg'sNeck.... 

New  York 

Oennontown.... 

Ooavemeor 

Moriches 

Caxenovia 

Oneida 

Monroe 

Westchester 

New  York 

Colnmbia 

10 
12 
12 
10 

lUusell,  Cjnu  H 

St  Lawrence 

Suffolk 

44  19 

40  49 

42  55 

43  04 
42  30 

41  05 

42  53 

44  30 

43  40 

75  29 

72  36 
75  46 
75  50 
77  00 

73  40 
77  02 
75  40 
75  32 

12 

Smith.  E.  A..  St,  daaghters 

Soule,  Prof.  William 

Spooner,  Stillman,  M.  D.. 

Trowbridge,  David 

Wlllii,  Oliyer  R 

12 

Madison 

12 

Madison 

11 

Hector 

Schuyler 

Westchester 

Ontario 

10 

White  Plains.... 
Geneva  ......... 

12 

WilKm,Rev.W.D.,D.D. 

Wooster,  Charles  A 

Yale,  Walter  D 

12 

North  Hammond. 
Hooseville 

St.  Lawrence 

Lewis 

12 
12 

1 

NORTH  CAROLINA. 


AdfUiii,E.W 

AUinon,  Thoma*  A . . 

Aston,  E.  J 

Brewer.  Rev.  Fisk  P 
',Hicks,Wm.R.,M.D 
^JKoon,F.J 

MUU,JohnU 

Wray,  Alex 


Goldsboro' 

Statesville 

Asheville 

Raleigh 

Oxford 

Attaway  Hill 

Oxford 

Guilford  Mine  ... 


Wayne-... 

IredeU 

Buncombe 

Wake 

Granville. . 
Stanley  .... 
Granville. . 
Guilford... 


35  20 
35  30 


35  47 

36  23 

35  25 

36  23 
36  00 


77  51 
80  30 


.78  48 
78  14 
80  00 
78  14 
80  00 


102 


2,000 

'""sio' 


T.R 
T.R, 
T... 
T.R 
T.R. 
T.R 
T... 
N... 


12 
12 

8 
12 

8 
12 

4 

2 


OHIO. 


Bombacb.Dr.G 

Benner,  Josiah  F 

Bnrras,0 

Clarke,  John 

Crane,  George  W 

Doyle,  Joseph  B....... 

Ferriss,E.J 

Hammitt,  John  W 

Harper,  George  W 

Haywood,  Prof,  John  . . 

Honilngton,  George  C 

Hyde.GustavnsA \\ 

Hyde,  Mrs 5j 

Knoble,  Samuel I 

McMiUin,  Smith  B j 

Mar«li,  Mrs.  M.  M ! 

Matbewg,  Joseph  McD . . . ' 

NewtOD,  Rev.  Alfred i 

PhilUp«,R.C 

Rodders,  Alexander  P. . . . 

fthreve,  Charles  R 

8mitb.G.H.,M.D ' 

Bmurr.T.A.,  M.  D 

Thompson,  Rev.  David  - . . , 

Tbompwn,  Prof.  H.  A j 

Trembley,  J.  B.,  M.  D 

Trae,  H.  A..  M.  D 

Tttckerman,  L.  B 

WUliams,  Prof  M.  O 

inrakingoD,  John  R 

Winger,  Martin 1 


Ripley 

New  Lisbon 

North  Fairfield.. 
Bowling  Green  . . 

Betnel 

StenbenviUe 

Little  Mountain.. 

College  Hill 

Cincinnati 

Kingston 

Kelley's  Island... 

Cleveland 


Lafayette 

Eaut  Fairfield ' 

Ripley ' 

Hilkborongh > 

Norwalk | 

Cincinnati ' 

GaUipoUs 

Martin's  Ferry... 

Kenton ' 

Cleveland 

MilnersviUe 

Westerville | 

Toledo 

Marion 

CoUegelfiU    ...-• 

UrtMUta 

Williamsport ' 

Woocter 


38  47 

40  45 

41  08 
41  22 

39  00 

40  45 

41  38 
39  19 
39  06 
39  29 
41  36 


Cuyahoga 4130 

AUen ! 

Columbiana ! 

Huron i 


Brown  ...... 

Columbiana. 

Huron 

Wood 

Clermont.... 

Jefft;rson 

Geauga  

Hamilton 

Hamilton.... 

Rots 

Erie 


83  31 

80  45 

82  40 
63  40 

84  00 

80  47 

81  16 
84  26 
84  27 

83  00 

82  42 

81  38 


Highland... 

Huron 

Hamilton... 

Gallia 

Belmont 

Hardin 

Cuyahoga.. 
Cruemwy... 
Franklin... 

Loeas 

Marion 

Hamllt/m — 
Champaign. 
Ftckaway  . 
Wayne 


40  41 

41  00 
39  13 
41  13 
30  06 

39  00 

40  10 

40  10 

41  37 
40  10 

40  04 

41  yi 
40  a5 

39  19 

40  06 

39  37 

40  49 


106     A 

961     B.T.R. 

T.R  . 

T.R. 

T.R. 

RT. 

T.R  . 

T.R. 


660 
700 
555 


80  44  I 

82  .TO 


1,152 
965 


fc2  43  ! 

84  27  1 

ses 

62  00  ; 

coo 

*<•')  49  . 

83  54  , 

1,502 

81  46 

fel  45 

83  0ri  1 



604 

83  »- 

1,077 

M  26 

800 

83  43  • 

1.015 

83  07  ; 

81  57  I 


1,160 
800      _. 
*305  I  A 
692     A 
587     a  T.R. 

683  I  a  T.R 

'  T.R... 
A 

ap.T 

A , 

T.R  ... 
B.  T.  R 
T.R... 

T 

T , 

T 

T.R... 

A 

B.  T.  R. 
T.R... 
T.R  ... 
B.  T.  R. 
T.R... 
T 


872 


1 
11 
10 
12 
11 

4 

12 
II 
12 

G 
11 

12 

2 
5 

7 
11 
11 
12 

4 

6 
12 

8 
11 

5 
12 
11 

7 
11 

3 
11 


*  Above  low  water  In  the  Ohio  river. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


86 


METEOROLOGICAL   OBSERVERS. 


List  of  meteorological  stations  and  observers t  SfC. — Continued. 

OREGON. 


Name  of  obnerver. 

Station. 

County. 

.a 

1 

4 

2 
1 

1 

i 

& 

i 

5 

n 

55 

Barnard.  AD    ....... 

Corvallia 

Albany 

Benton 

o    / 
44  30 
44  22 

o     / 
123  00 
123  00 

Feet. 

""m 

T 

R 

11 

Ilindman.  S.  M.  W 

Linn 

9 

PENNSYLVANIA. 


Baker,  "William  E 

Bentley,E.T 

Brnckart.  H.G 

Brugger,  Samuel 

Dnrliu  jfton,  Fenelon 

Day,  Tlicodor© 

Dntton,  J.  RuBBell 

Fpnton,  Elisha 

f  J  roth  wohl,  John 

llance,  Ebenozer 

Hoii'ely,  Dr.  John 

Hoffer,  Dr.  Jacob  R 

Jaraeti,  Prof.  C.  8 

Ktrkpatrick,  Prof.  Jau.  A  . 

Kohler,  Edward 

McConnell,  E.  M 

Martindale,  Isaac  0 

Mayer,  Prof.  Alfred  M. . . . 

M<'ohan,  Tboman 

MiUiken.JohnT 

Bauer,  John  Heyl   

Smitli,  WilUam.  D.  D 

Spencer,  Mi8«  Anna 

fipera,W.U 

Stewart,F.L 

Tay 'or,  John 

Tavlor,  Rev.  R.  T 

Tofman,  Rev.  Marcus  A. . 
Tooker,  Nathan  C 


Ickesbnrg 

Tioga 

Silver  Spring 

Fleming 

PocopMon 

Dyborry 

Stevensville 

Grampian  HilU.. 
Blooming  Grove. 

Fallgington 

Harrisburg 

Mount  Joy 

Lewisburg 

Philadelphia 

North  WhitehaU. 

New  Castle 

Byberry 

Bethlehem 

Germantown .... 

North  East 

Reading 

Cauonxburg 

Horeham 

Ephrata 

Murry^ville 

Connellsville  .... 

Beaver 

Franklin 

Bethlehem 


Perry 

Tioga 

Lancaster 

Centre 

Chester 

Wayne 

Bradford 

Clearfield , 

Pike 

Buck« 

Dauphin 

Lancaster 

Union 

Philadelphia... 

Lehigh 

Lawrence 

Philadelphia... 
Northampton.. 
Phlhvdelphia... 

Erie 

Berks  

Watihington  — 
Montgomery... 

Lancaster 

Westmoreland. 
Fayette  ....... 

Beaver 

Venango  

Northampton... 


40  27 
42  00 
40  05 

40  55 

39  40 

41  36 
41  45 
41  00 
41  30 

40  12 
40  16 
40  08 
40  58 

39  57 

40  44 

41  00 
40  05 
40  38 


40  20 
40  16 
40  00 


40  28 
40  00 

40  43 

41  24 
40  38 


77  23 
77  00 

76  45 

77  53 
75  37 

75  19 

76  35 

78  40 

75  00 

74  48 

76  15 
76  32 
76  58 

75  11 
75  28 
80  12 
75  00 
75  23 


75  57 
80  10 
75  11 


79  35 

79  36 

80  23 
79  51 
75  23 


1,000 


780 
218 


300 
1,400 


30 


60 
450 


70 


269 
850 
250 


960 


T.R  .. 
T.R  .. 

T 

T.R.. 
T.R  .. 

T 

T.R  .. 
B.  T.  R 
T.R.. 
B.  T.  R 

A 

B.  T.  R 

A 

A 

T 

T 

N 

B.P.T 

T 

N..'... 

T 

B.  T.  R 
B.T.R 
T.R.. 

A 

T 

T.R.. 

T 

RP.T 


RHODE  ISLAND. 

Caswell,  Prof.  Alexis 

CrandaU,  William  H 

Providence 

Providence 

Newport 

41  49 
41  28 

71  25 
71  21 

120 
25 

A 

T.R.... 

4 

Newport  ........ 

12 

SOUTH  CAROLINA. 

Cornish,  Rev.  John  H 

Petty,  Charles 

Aiken 

Wilkensville 

... 

Barnwell 

33  32 

34  50 

81  34 
81  36 

565 

B.T.R.. 
N 

12 
12 

TENNESSEE. 

Bancroft,  Rev.  C.  F.  P. . . 

Doak,  S.  8.  ^  W.  S 

Frencti,  Fred.  H 

Goldsmith,  Edward 

Parker,  Joseph  M.,  M.  D. 
Stewart.  Prof.  Wra.  M. . . 
W^illiams,  Edward  F Lookout  Mount'n. 


Lookout  Mount'n. 

Greenville 

Nashville 

Memphis 

Franklin 

Clarksville 


Hamilton 

Green 

Davidson 

Shelby 

Williamgon... 
Montgomery. 
Hamilton 


35  15 

36  05 

85  15 
82  50 

2,200 

B.T.... 

T 

T 

B.T.R.. 
T.R.... 

A 

B.T.... 

35  08 

35  42 

36  29 
35  15 

90  08 

86  51 

87  13 
85  15 

262 
2,200 

TEXAS. 


Baxter,  Miss  E I  Houston 

Gantt,  W.  H  ,  M.  D Chap  pell  Hill.... 

Glasco,  J.  M Gilmer 

Merrill,  Edward,  BI.D.... I  Waco 

Rutherford,  M Long  Point 

Stevens,  Hennell '  Ced'r  Grove  Plan. 

Van  Nostrand,  J I  Austin 


Harris 

Washington 

Upshur 

McLeman.. 
Washington 
Brazoria  ... 
Travis 


29  50 

30  15 
32  46 

31  35 
30  16 

29  10 

30  29 


95  30 

96  21 
94  51 
96  50 


96  56 

97  46 


542 

950 


400 
60 
650 


T 

T.R  .... 

T 

T 

T.R... 
B.T.R.. 
T.P.R.. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


METEOROLOGICAL   OBSERVERS. 


87 


LUt  of  meteorological  stations  and  observers,  Sfc, — Gontinned. 

UTAH. 


KameofobMirer. 

StaUon. 

County. 

4 
1 

i 

1 
1 

i 

1 

2 

o 

BaUock,  Thomas. .  - 

Wanship 

Hanisbnrg 

Salt  Lake 

Stunmit ......  . 

o     / 
40  42 

O      1 

111  20 

Feet. 
6,200 

T 

T 

T.R.... 

IX 

Lewis,  Jftmes 

Watthington 

7 

FkelMiW.  W 

Salt  Lake 

40  45 

111  26 

4,320 

1 

7 

VERMONT. 


^KklBBd,  Harmon Brandon 

CBttiog,Hiram  A '  Lunenburg 

Eaton.  Benjamin  P.,  M.D.    Barnet 

Paddock,Jamf8  A Cruftsbury 

PaiDf,  Charles  L Randolph 

Perry,  Rer.  John  B Wilmington 

Sheldon,  Harmon  A Middlebnry 

Wild^EdwardP North Craftibury. 


Rutland.. 

Etisex _ 

Caledonia 
Orleans  .. 
Orange... 
Windham 
Addison . . 
Orleans  .. 


43  45 

44  28 
44  18 
44  40 
43  35 

42  53 

43  59 

44  40 


73  00 

71  41 

72  05 
72  30 
72  36 

72  47 

73  10 
72  30 


460 
1,124 

952 
1,100 

700 
1,250 

396 
1,100 


T.R... 

A 

RT.R. 
T.  R  . . 
T.R... 
B.T  ... 

A 

T.R  .. 


6 
12 
5 
4 

11 
2 

12 
8 


VIRGINIA. 


U.F 

C]ark,JainesT..M.D.... 

JoDM,  Benjamin  W 

Mniwetber,  Charles  J. . . . 

Pottii,JeanO 

Stotoaker.J.W 


Hewlett's 

Monnt  Solon  . . . , 

Surry  C.  H 

Near  Lynchburg 

Cape  Charles 

SnowyiUe 


Hanover  .... 

Augusta 

Surnr 

Bedford 

Northampton 
Pulaski 


37  52 

38  17 
37  10 
37  15 
37  08 
37  00 


77  45 
79  03 
76  50 

79  10 
75  53 

80  40 


20 


T 

T 

T 

T 

T.R.. 
T.R.. 


7 
8 
10 
9 
4 


WASHINGTON. 


B«Ikeley,S.  8 

Saznpsoo,  Alexander . 


PortTownsend.. 
NeahBay  


Jefferson . 


48  07 
48  22 


122  44 
124  37 


T.R... 
T.R... 


WEST  VIRGINIA. 


KlTen,  Robert  H 
MeDoweU,  W.  H 
Boffc.CharlesL. 
Sharp,  D.W.H.. 


Burning  Springs 

Romney 

Ashland 

Grafton 


Wirt 

Hampshire  . 

CabeU 

Taylor 


38  56 


38  30 


81  21 


82  16 


600 


T... 
T... 
T.R 
T... 


1 
9 
12 
12 


WISCONSIN. 


Breed,  E.  Everett 

Cortfci.W.W 

Dangan,  John  L 

EddTfLerens 

Foye.J.C    

C«l«,wnilam 

HkUJobn 

Haribart,  Dr.  M.  J.  E 

lapban.lDcr'se  A.,LL.D 

Upc  Jacob 

Mead,H.C 

MoeUer,  O 

Pofter,  Henry  D 

Shinti.  Henry  J 

Taie,ADdTew 

Waite,M.  C 

Webrter.C.D 

WkWng,  William  H 

Winkler,  Carl,  M.D 


Embarass  ... 
Rocky  Run. 
New  Lisbon. 

Delavan 

Apple  ton — 
Golesvllle  . . , 
Appleton — 
Appleton... 
Milwaukee  . 
Manitowoc  . 
Waupaca  ... 
Plymouth  . . . 

Belolt 

Edgerton . . . 

Bayfield 

Baraboo...., 
Waupaca  ... 

Geneva  

Milwaukee . 


Waupaca  . . . 

Columbia 

Juneau 

Walworth... 
Outagamie  . . 
Trempaleau 
Outagamie  .. 
Outagamie  .. 
Milwaukee  .. 
Manitowoc  .. 
Waupaca  ... 
Sheboygan  .. 

Rock 

Rock 

Bayfield 

Sauk 

Waupaca  ... 
Walworth  .. 
Milwaukee . . 


44  51 
43  26 

43  45 

42  39 

44  10 
44  06 
44  10 
44  10 

43  03 

44  07 
44  20 
43  44 
42  30 
42  30 


43  27 

44  21 

42  30 

43  03 


88  37 

89  19 

90  00 
88  37 
88  35 

91  16 
88  35 

88  35 
87  56 

87  45 

89  11 

88  07 

89  04 
89  00 


89  45 
89  13 
89  41 
87  57 


957 
800 
775 
800 
800 
604 
658 

1,000 
870 
780 

1,700 


920 


T.R 
T.R 
T... 
B.T. 
A... 
B.T 
T... 
A... 
A... 
B.T. 
T... 
B.T 
A... 
T... 
T... 
T.R 
T.R 
T... 
B.T.R 


12 
12 
8 
12 
2 
5 
3 
2 
12 
12 
11 
12 
7 
6 
4 

12 
5 
8 
12 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


88 


METEOBOLOaiCAL  OBSEBVEBS. 


1 


DEATHS  OF  OBSERVERS. 

Stephen  O.  Mead,  Claremont,  New  Hampshire,  March  16, 1867. 
James  A.  Paddock,  Craftsbury,  Vermont,  April,  1867. 
Professor  Chester  Dewey,  Rochester,  New  York,  December  15,  1867. 
M.  M.  Matthews,  M.  D.,  Rochester,  New  York,  November,  1867. 
Henry  M.  Corey,  Femandina,  Florida,  August  19,  1867. 


Colleges  and  other  institutions  from  which  meteorological  registers  were  received 
during  tJie  year  1867,  included  in  the  preceding  list. 


Nova  Scotia 

Alabama 

Arkansas 

California 

Connecticut  — 

Illinois 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Maryland 

Massachusetts  .. 

Michigan 

Mississippi 

Missouri....... 

New  Hampshire 
New  Jersey.-.. 
New  York , 


Ohio. 


Pennsylvania . 
Tennessee.... 


Texas 

Wisconsin. 


Acadia  College 

Greene  Springs  School 

Normal  School 

State  Insane  Asylum 

Wesleyan  University 

Young  Ladies*  Collegiate  Institute  . ... 

Lombard  University 

Northwestern  University 

Cornell  College , 

Griswold  College 

Iowa  State  University 

Agricultural  College 

St.  Timothy's  Hall 

Mount  St.  Mary *s  College 

Amherst  College 

State  Lunatic  Hospital 

Williams*  College 

State  Agricultural  College 

Fayette  Female  Academy 

St.  Louis  University 

Grand  River  College 

St.  Paul's  School 

Rutgers  Colleee 

Columbia  College 

Institution  for  Deaf  and  Dumb 

Erasmus  Hall  Academy 

Oneida  Conference  Seminary 

St  Francis  Xavier  College 

University  of  Rochester 

Farmers*  College 

Otterbein  University 

Urbana  University 

Woodward  High  School 

Jefferson  College 

Lehigh  University 

Lewisburg  University 

Stewart  College 

Lookout  Mountain  Educational  Institu 

tion 

Tnsculum  College 

Institution  for  I^af  and  Dumb 

Beloit  College 

Galesville  University 

Lawrence  University 


Wolfville. 

Havana. 

Helena. 

Stockton. 

Middletown. 

New  Haven. 

Galesburg. 

Evans  ton. 

Mount  Vernon. 

Davenport. 

Iowa  City. 

Manhattan. 

Ctttonsville. 

Emmittsburg. 

Amherst. 

Worcester. 

Williamstown. 

Lansing. 

Fayette. 

St  Louis. 

Edinburg. 

Concord. 

New  Brunswick. 

New  York. 

New  York. 

Flatbush. 

Cazenovia. 

New  York. 

Rochester. 

College  Hill. 

Westerville. 

Urbana. 

Cincinnati. 

Canonsburg. 

Bethlehem. 

Lewisburg. 

Clarksvilie. 

Lookout  Mountain. 

Greenville. 

Austin. 

Beloit. 

Galesville. 

Appleton. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQI^ 


METEOBOLOQICAL  MATERIAL.  89 


METEOROLOGICAL  MATERIAL  CONTRIBUTED  IN  ADDITION  TO  THE  REG- 
ULAR OBSERVATIONS. 

Academic  Boyale  de  Bdgique. — Observations  des  Etoiles  filantcs  pdriodiques 
de  Novembre,  1866.  (Extr.  des  Bulletins,  2mo  8(5r.,  t.  xxii,  No.  12,  1866.) 
Svo.j  24  pages. 

Sur  rileure  des  Chutes  d'A^rolithes,  par  M.  Ad.  Quetelet,  secretaire  perptHuel 
de  FAcademio  Royale  de  Belgique.  (Extr.  des  Bulletins,  2mo  ser.,  t.  xxiii,  No. 
3,  1867.)     8vo.,  Spages. 

Etoiles  filantes. — Publication  des  Annales  Metdorologiques  do  TObservatoire 
Royal.  Sur  ni^liographie  et  la  Selenograpbie. — Orages  observes  a  Bruxelles 
et  a  Louvain  du  7  Fevrier  jusqu'^  la  fin  de  Mai.  Communications  de  M.  Ad. 
Qnetelet,  Directeur  de  FObservatoire  Eoyal  de  Bruxelles.  (Extrait  des  Bulle- 
tins, 2me  serie,  tome  xxiii,  Nos.  5  et  6,  1867.)     8vo.,  20  pages. 

Administration  des  Mines  de  Eussie, — Correspondance  Meteorologique,  pub- 
lication annuelle  de  TAdministration  des  Mines  de  Russie,  redigee  par  A.  T. 
Knpffcr,  Directeur  do  VObservatoire  Physique  Central  de  Russie  et  membre  de 
I'Academie  des  Sciences  de  St.  Petersbourg.  Ann6e  1864.  St.  Petersbourg, 
1865.     4to.,  102  pages. 

Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal, — ^Journal  of  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal,  edited 
by  the  Natural  History  Secretary.  Calcutta,  1866  j  8vo.  [Contains  monthly 
abstracts  of  the  results  of  the  hourly  meteorological  observations  taken  at  the 
sorveyor  generaFs  office,  Calcutta.] 

BaUou,  Ndhum  E.j  M.  D. — Su.nmary  of  observations  made  during  the  year 
1867,  at  Sandwich,  De  Kalb  county,  Illinois. 

Bannister,  Henry  M. — Observations  made  at  Fort  St.  Michael,  Norton  sound, 
Russian  America,  from  October  1,  1865,  to  August  31,  1866.  (The  observa- 
tions from  December  10,  1865,  to  January  16,  1866,  were  made  by  Mr.  J.  M. 
Bean.) 

BarileUy  Erastus  B. — Summary  of  observations  for  the  year  1867,  at  Palermo, 
New  York ;  newspaper  slip. 

Board  qf  Trade,  London, — Reports  of  the  meteorological  department  of  the 
Board  of  Trade,  1862,  1863,  1864;  octavo. 

Eleventh  number  of  the  meteorological  papers  published  by  authority  of  the 
B»<u-d  of  Trade;  appendix  to  report;  8vo.  Twelfth  number,  miscellaneous ; 
8vo.  Thirteenth  number,  anemometry,  at  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia ;  4to.  Four- 
t^nth  number,  barometers ;  north  and  south  latitudes ;  4to. 

Barometer  Manual,  eighth  edition  ;  8vo.  Coast  or  Fishery  Barometer  Man- 
ual; ^tili  edition;  8vo.  Arrangements  for  Meteorologic  U'elegraphy ;  third 
edition. 

Wind  Charts  of  the  Ocean ;  16  large  charts.  Instructions  and  blank  forms 
fiT  meteorological  observations. 

BnUinSf  Prof,  Br,  C, — Meteorologische  Beobachtungen,  angestellt  auf  der 
Leipziger  Universitats-Stemwarte  in  den  Jahren  1864  und  1865.  Heraus- 
gegel)en  von  Prof.  Dr.  C.  Bruhns,  Director  de  Stemwarte.  Mit  zwei  graphi- 
scben  Darstellungen  der  Beobachtungen,  von  G.  Schi-eiber.     8vo.,  192  pages. 

Resultate  aus  den  meteorologischen  Beobachtungen,  angestellt  an  mehrereu 
Orten  im  Konigreich  Sachsen  in  den  Jahren  1760  bis  1865,  und  an  den 
zwei andz wan zig  Konigl.  Sachsischen  Stationen  ira  Jahre  1865,  nach  den 
roonatlichen  Zusammenstellungen  im  statistischen  Bureau  des  kdniglichen  Mini- 
fteriums  des  Innem.  Bearbeitet  von  Dr.  C.  Bruhns,  Director  der  Stemwarte 
nnd  Professor  der  Astronomic  in  Leipzig.  Zweiter  Jahrgang.  Leipzig,  1867. 
4to.,  147  pages. 

Chicago  Academy  of  Sciences, — Transactions  of  the  Academy,  volume  1, 
part  1,  Chicago,  1867.     [Article  II  is  "On  the  climate  of  the  country  border- 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


90  METEOROLOGICAL  MATERIAL. 

ing  upon  the  great  North  American  lakes.  By  I.  A.  Lapham,  LL.D.,  of  Mil- 
waukee, Wisconsin."] 

Cockburn,  S. — Rain-fall  at  Belize,  British  Honduras,  during  each  month  from 
August,  1862,  to  April,  1868,  inclusive. — ^Meteorological  phenomena  at  Belize, 
1863. 

Commissian  Hydromdrique  et  des  Orages  de  Lyon. — Volume  for  1866,  23d 
year.  It  contains :  Resumd  des  observations  recueillies  dans  les  bassins  do  la 
Saone,  da  Rhone,  et  dequelques  autres  regions,  acxiompagnd  de  notices  divci^^es. — 
Aperi^us  gt'neraux  sur  les  caracteres  de  Tannee  1866,  et  details  au  sujet  deii  orages, 
par  M.  J.  Founiet,  President  des  Commissions  Hydrometriquo  et  des  Orages. — 
Observations  Meteorologiques  faites  a  9  heures  du  matin  a  TobserN^atoiro  de 
Lyon,  du  ler  Decembre,  1865,  au  ler  Decembre,  1866,  par  M.  Aime  Drian, 
sous  la  direction  de  M.  Lafon,  Professeur  a  la  Faculte  des  Sciences  et  Directeur 
de  rObservatoire. — Resultats  de  la  nouvelle  serie  d^observations  ozonometri- 
ques,  faites  par  MM.  le  Docteur  Lembert  et  F.  Rassinier  durant  Vannec  1866. — 
Observations  Meteorologiques  faites  par  MM.  Midre  et  Aristide  Charicire  a 
Ahun,  (Creuse.)  36  annees  d'observations,  dont  33  completes. — Pluies  et  Neiges 
tombees  sur  les  divei*8es  stations  du  departement  du  Rhdne  et  autres  annexes 
en  1866. — Remarques  sur  la  Regie  Bugeaud  relativement  au  temps,  par  M.  H. 
Lorenti  ;•  lues  a  la  Societe  Imperiale  d'Agriculture,  d'Histoire  Naturelle  et  des 
Arts  Utiles  de  Lyon,  dans  sa  seance  du  20  Juillet,  1866. — ^Details  sur  la  distri- 
bution des  orages  normaux  dans  le  departement  du  Rhdne,  par  M.J.  Foumet. — 
Classification  des  Phenomenes  produits  par  Telectricite  m^teorique  dans  le 
bassin  du  Rhone  et  aux  alentours,  par  M.  J.  Foumet ;  lue  a  TAcademie  des 
Sciences,  Belles-Lettres  et  Arts  de  Lyon,  dans  la  sdanco  du  6  Mars,  1867. 

Couchj  E.  D, — Observ^ations  on  temperature  and  face  of  the  sky,  made  irreg- 
ularly, from  November,  1861,  to  April,  1862,  and  dming  the  years  1863  and 
1864,  at  Salisbury,  New  Hampshire. 

Coumhan/j  Aristide. — Observations  mdteorologiques  faites  4  Constantinople, 
sur  la  loUine  de  Pdra,  par  Aristide  Coumbray.  November,  1867,  to  March, 
1868.     Tables  and  diagrams. 

Crissotij  J.  C. — See  State  Department. 

Crou'ther,  Benjamin. — Observations  at  Tuspan,  Mexico,  during  September, 
October,  November,  and  December,  1867. 

Daguin,  P.  A. — Traite  ^lementaire  de  physique  theorique  et  expdrimontale, 
avec  les  applications  a  la  mdteorologie  et  aux  arts  industriels,  k  Tusage  des 
facultes,  des  ctablissements  d'enseignment  secondaire,  et  des  dcoles  speciales  du 
ffouvernement.  Par  P.  A.  Daguin,  ancien  eltive  de  Tecolo  normale,  Professeur 
de  Physique  a  la  Faculte  des  Sciences  de  Toulouse,  Directeur  de  TObserva- 
toire,  &c.  Troisieme  Edition,  avec  plus  de  1760  figures  intercaldes  dans  le 
texte,  et  une  planche  en  couleur.     Toulouse,  1867.     8vo.,  4  vols. 

De  Lyscr,  John. — Daily  register  of  the  weather  at  Hingham,  Sheboygan 
county,  Wisconsin  ;  made  morning,  noon,  and  evening,  during  the  year  1867. 

Eddy,  Levens. — Summary  of  observations  for  the  year  1866,  at  Delavan, 
Wisconsin ;  printed  slip. 

ElliSy  J,  M. — Monthly  review  of  the  weather  for  1867,  compiled  by  J.  M. 
Ellis  for  the  North  American  and  United  States  Gazette,  giving  temperature, 
rain,  and  mortality  statistics  at  Philadelphia;  also  occasional  notices  of  the 
weather  elsewhere. 

Ernst  J  A. — Meteorological  data  for  Caracas,  Venezuela,  South  America, 
communicated  by  G.  A.  Ernst,  Caracas.     10  pages  letter  paper. 

Foumet,  M.  J. — Note  sur  le  cai'act^ro  periodique  de  Tetablissement  des 
joumees  orageuses,  par  M.  J.  Foumet,  correspondant  do  Tinstitut.  (Extrait  du 
Bulletin  de  T Academic  Imperiale  des  Sciences,  Belles-Lettres  et  Arts  do  Lyon.) 
Svo.,  4  pages. 

Geological  Survey  qf  Indict. — Catalogue  of  the  specimens  ot  meteoric  stones 


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METEOROLOGICAL   MATERIAL.  91 

and  meteoric  irons  in  the  Museum  of  the  Geological  Survey  of  India,  Calcutta. 
Calcutta,  1866.     8vo.,  12  pages. 

Haidinger,  W.  MUter  vmi. — Der  Meteorsteinfall  am  9.  Juni,  1866,  bei  Knya- 
Linya.  (Zweiter  Bericlit.)  Vou  W.  Rittev  v.  Haitlioger,  wirklicbem  Mitgliedo 
der  kaiserlichen  Akademie  der  Wissenschaften.  Mit  3.  Tafelu.  Vorgelegt  in 
der  Sitzung  am  11.  October,  1866.     Vienna,  8vo.,  48  pages. 

Ua'ulinger^  W, — Die  Meteoriten  dos  k.  k.  Hof-Mineralien-Cabinetes  am  1. 
Juli,  1867  ;  4  pages. 

Hann,  Julius. — ^Der  Einfluss  der  Winde  anf  die  mittleren  Wertbe  der  wicb- 
tigeren  meteorologiscbcn  Elemente  zu  Wien.  Von  Julius  Hann.  (Aus  dem 
LVI.  Bande  d.  Sitzb.  d.  k.  Akad.  d.  Wissenscb.  II.  Abtb.  Oct.-Heft.  Jabrg. 
1867.)     8vo.,  25  pages. 

Heinistreet,  John  W, — Record  of  tbe  amount  of  rain  during  May,  fi*om  1826 
to  1846,  at  Lansingburg,  tbree  miles  nortb  of  Troy,  New  York,  and  during  May, 
from  1848  to  1867,  at  Troy. 

Heine,  IF. — Revue  des  Cours  Scientifiques  de  la  France  et  de  Tetranger,  4 
Mid,  1867.  Paris,  4to.  [It  contains:  ^^  Les  Etoiles  filantes.  Essai  de  tbeorie 
generale  d'apres  les  travaux  de  M.  Kewton,  des  Etats-Unis."]  By  M.  W.  de 
Fonvielle,     Pp.  356 — 365. 

Heineken,  Dr, — See  Naturwissenscbaftlicber  Verein. 

Hyde,  G.  A. — Summary  of  observations  for  tbe  year  1867,  at  Cleveland, 
Obio.     (Newspaper  slip.) 

Institut  Egyptien. — Bulletin  de  Tlnstitut  Egyptien.  Alexandrie  d'Egypte. 
No.  1  to  9  ;  1859  to  1865.  [Contain  observations  at  Port  Said  in  June,  1859  j 
No.  1,  page  50.  Observations  at  Port  Said  from  Juno  1  to  October  31,  1859  ; 
No.  2,  page  80.  Remarks  by  M.  Colucci-Bey  on  tbe  observations  tbus  far 
ma<lc  in  Egypt ;  No.  4,  page  ^5,  Remarks  on  the  observations  made  in 
1859-^60,  at  Alexandria  j  No.  5,  page  70] 

Ives,  William, — Climatology  of  Bufialo,  New  Yprk,  from  observations  made 
by  William  Ives,  from  1858  to  1867  inclusive  ;  four  pages  octavo ;  published 
in  Thomas'  Buffalo  City  Directory  for  1868. 

Jelinek,  Dr,  Carl, — Zeitschrift  der  Osterreichischen  Gesellschaft  fiir  Meteoro- 
logie.  Redigirt  von  Dr.  Carl  Jelinek.  Verlag  von  Wilbelm  Braumiiller  in 
Wien  ;  8vo.     [Published  on  the  1st  and  15th  of  every  month.] 

Uber  die  Taglichen  Anderungen  der  Temperatur  nach  den  Beobachtungen 
der  Meteorologiscbcn  Stationen  in  Osterreich.  Von  Dr.  K.  Jelinek,  ^^•irklichem 
Mitgbede  der  Kaiserlichen  Akademie  der  Wissenschaften.  Vorgelegt  in  der 
Sitzung  am  12.  Juli,  1866.     Wien,  1867.     4to.,  40  pages. 

tber  die  mittlere  Temperatur  zu  Wien,  nach  90-jabrigen  Beobachtungen,  und 
uber  die  Riickfallo  der  Kalte  im  Mai.  Von  Dr.  C.  Jelinek.  (Vorgelegt  in 
der  Sitzung  vom  2.  November,  1866.)     8vo.,  83  pages. 

Ueber  die  Stiirme  des  November  und  December,  1866.  Von  Dr.  C.  Jelinek. 
(Vorgelegt  in  der  Sitzung  vom  14.  Marz,  1867.)     Mit  4  Tafeln.     8vo.,  32  pages. 

Kais,  GeographiscJte  Gesellschaft  zu  St,  Petersburg, — Repertoiinm  fiir  Meteo- 
rologie,  herausgegeben  von  der  Kais.  Geographischen  GesellBchaft  zu  St. 
Petersburg,  reib'girt  von  Dr.  Ludwig  Friedrich  Kiimtz,  Kaiserl.  Russischem 
Staatsrath  und  Professor  zu  Dorpat.  III.  Band.  1,  2,  3  lleft*  Dorpat,  1863. 
4to.,  286  pages. 

K,  K.  Centrdlanstalt  fur  Meteorologie  und  Erdinagnetisnius. — Summary  of 
observations  issued  monthly.     Vienna,  8vo. 

Keenan,  J,  T,  R, — ^Daily*  notes  of  the  weather,  without  instmments,  during 
the  year  1867,  near  Brookhaven,  Lawrence  county,  Mississippi.  Table  of  the 
dates  of  planting,  germinating,  and  ripening  of  vegetables  in  1867.  Table 
showing  the  last  and  first  frost  and  date  of  first  cotton  blooms  and  when  killed 
by  fipst  J  also,  dates  of  appearance  and  disappearance  of  burds. 

Kwgston  Observatory, — See  Williamson,  James. 


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92  METEOBOLOQICAIi  MATERIAIi. 

Kongeligedanske  Videnskabernes  Selshdbs,  (Royal  Danish  Society  of  Science.) — 
Overeigt  over  det  kongelige  danske  Videnskaberaes  Selskabs  Forhandlinger,  og 
dets  Medlcmmers  Arbeider  i  Aaret  1866.  Af  J.  Japetus  Sm.  Steenstrup,  Pro- 
fessor ord.  ved  Kjobenhavns  Universitet,  Selskabets  Secretaer.  [Each  number 
contains  meteorological  observations  at  Copenliagen.] 

Kongelige  Landhunsholdnings  Sclskab, — (Royal  Society  of  Rural  Economy.) — 
Aarsberetning  fra  det  Kongelige  Landhuusholdnings  Selskabs  meteorologiske 
Comitee  for  1864.  Kjobenhavn,  1865.  8vo.,  46  pages.  Same  for  1865  and 
1866. 

Femaarslwretning  fra  det  Kongelige  Landhuusholdnings  Selkabs  meteorolo- 
giske Comitee  for  1861-1865.     Kjobenhavn.     1867.     8vo.,  132  pages. 

KoninUijk  Ncderlandsch  Metcorologisch  Instituut. — Nederlandsch  Meteoro- 
logisch  Jaarboek  voor  1866.  Uitgegeven  door  het  Koninklijk  Nederlandsch 
Metcorologisch  Instituut.  Eerste  Deel.  Waamemingen  in  Nederland.  Utrecht, 
1866.     Oblong  4to.,  159  pages. 

Nederlandsch  lllleteorologisch  Jaarboek  voor  1866.  Uitgegeven  door  het 
Koninklijk  Nederlandsch  Metcorologisch  Instituut.  Tweede  Deel.  Afwijkingen 
van  Temperatuur  en  Barometerstand  op  vele  Plaatsen  in  Europa,  met  Waam- 
emingen van  Regen  en  Wind.     Utrecht,  1867.     Oblong  4to.,  234  pages. 

Latimer,  George. — Some  observations  on  what  is  usually  called  the  Great 
Hurricane  of  29th  October,  1867,  at  Tortola^  (or  Peter's  island,)  Saint  Thomas, 
and  Porto  Rico,  in  the  West  Indies. 

Some  observations  regarding  the  earthquakes  in  Saint  Thomas  and  the  neigh- 
boring islands,  commencing  November  18,  1867. 

Leeds  Philosophical  and  Literary  Society, — Forty-sixth  report  of  the  council 
of  the  Leeds  Philosophical  and  Literary  Society,  at  the  close  of  the  session 
1865-'66}  read  at  the  annual  meeting.  May  1,  1866.  [Contains  an  abstract  of 
the  mean  temperature  and  height  of  barometer,  and  amount  of  rain,  for  each 
month  during  the  year  1865,  from  the  meteorological  register  kept  at  the  hall 
of  the  society.] 

Lewis,  James,  M.  2>. — Hourly  record  kept  at  Mohawk,  New  York,  during 
the  year  1867,  by  his  self-recording  thermometer  and  barometer.  [Records  were 
also  received  in  1865  and  1866,  but  omitted  to  be  noticed  in  the  list  published 
in  the  annual  report  for  those  years.] 

Logan,  Br,  Thomas  M, — Table  showing  the  amount  of  rain  at  Sacramento, 
California,  during  every  month  for  18  years,  (1849  to  1867,)  with  remarks  on  the 
wet  and  dry  seasons,  and  the  effect  of  trees  on  the  quantity  of  rain.  (Newspa- 
per slip.) 

Madras  Literary  Society  and  Auxiliary  Boyal  Asiatic  Society, — Madras  Jour- 
nal of  Literature  and  Science ;  edited  by  the  committee  of  the  Madras  Literary 
Society  and  Auxiliary  Royal  Asiatic  Society.  April,  1858,  to  March,  1860. 
New  series.  Vols.  4  and  5.  8vo.  [Contain  monthly  tables  of  meteorological 
observations  kept  at  the  Madras  magnetic  observatory.] 

The  Madras  Journal  of  Literature  and  Science ;  edited  by  the  honorable  secretary 
to  the  Madras  Literary  Society  and  Auxilian^  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society.  Third 
series.  Part  2.  October,  1866.  [Contains  "daily  and  half-monthly  results  of 
meteorological  observ^ations  made  at  the  Madras  observatory  in  the  yeai'  1863."] 

Marguet,  Professor  J, — See  Socicte  Vaudoise  des  Sciences  Naturelles. 

Maynurd,  Edward, — See  State  Department. 

Meteorological  Committee,  Calcutta. — Report  on  the  Calcutta  cyclone  of  the 
5th  October,  1864,  by  Lieutenant  Colonel  J.  E.  Gastrell  and  Henry  F.  Blan- 
ford,  A.  R.  S.M.,  with  maps  and  diagrams  illustrating  the  origin  and  process  of 
the  storm  and  the  track  of  the  storm  wave.  Printed  and  published  for  tne  gov- 
ernment of  Bengal,  by  order  of  the  lieutenant  governor.  Calcutta,  1866.  8  vo., 
184  pages. 


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METEOROLOGICAL  MATERIAL.  93 

Meteorological  Socieft^,  (British.) — ^Proceedings  of  the  Meteorological  Society, 
edited  by  James  Glaisher,  esq.,  F.R.  S.,  secretary.     London,  1867. 

Meteorohgische  CentrcHanstalt  der  Schweiserisclien  CrCseUscJiaft. — Schweizerischo 
Meteorologische  Beobachtungon,  herausgegoben  von  der  ]\Ietoorologischen  Cen- 
tralanstalt  der  Schweizerischen  Natarfoi-schendon  Gesellschaft,  unter  Dircktioii 
von  Prof.  Dr.  Rudolf  Wolf.     Zurich.     4to.     (Published  monthly.) 

Michigan  State  Agricultural  College, — Fifth  annual  i-eport  of  the  secretary  of 
the  State  board  of  agriculture  of  the  Stat«  of  Michigan,  for  the  year  1866.  It 
conliuns  a  copy  in  detail  of  the  meteorological  observations  for  the  year  1SG6, 
taken  at  the  State  Agricultural  College,  by  R.  C.  Kedzie,  professor  of  chemistiy. 
Also,  an  article  on  the  effect  of  forest  trees  on  climate. 

Muhrg,  A, — Zur  orographischen  Meteorologie.  Von  A.  Miihry.  I.  Ueber 
den  Fohnwind.  (Nach  den  in  den  Tabellen  des  schweizer  meteorologischen 
Beobachtungs-System  enthaltenen  Thatsachen.)  II.  Ueber  das  Verweilen  einer 
warmeren  Lnftschichte  in  den  oberen  Regionen  der  Alpen.     8vo.,  16  pages. 

Murpkg,  WiUiam  W. — See  State  Department. 

Natural  History  Society  of  Northuw^rlandj  Durham,  and  Netocastle-upon- 
Tyne. — Natural  History  Transactions  of  Northumberland  and  Durham.  Vol.  1, 
part  3.  [Contains  meteorological  report  for  1866.  Edited  bv  the  Rev.  R.  F. 
Wheeler,  M.  A.,  page  284-309.] 

Naturwissenschaftlicher  Verein  eu  Bremen, — Zweiter  Jahresbericht  des  Natur- 
wissenschaftlichen  Vereines  zu  Bremen.  Fiir  das  Gessellschaftsjahr  vom  1 .  April 
1866  bis  Ende  Marz  1867.  Bremen.  1867.  8vo.,  222  pages.  [It  contains : 
**Witterungsbeobachtungen  zu  Bremen  in  den  30  Jahren  von  1829  bis  1858. 
Angestellt  dnrch  Dr.  med.  Ph.  Heinekon.'^     74  pages.] 

Navy  Department, — Observations  during  the  year  1867  at  the  naval  hospitals 
at  New  York,  Philadelphia,  and  Norfolk. 

NeiR,  Thomas, — Table  showing  the  amount  of  rain  at  Sandusky,  Ohio,  in 
each  month,  from  1859  to  1867,  inclusive. 

Newton,  H.  A, — On  certain  recent  contributions  to  astro-meteorology,  by  H. 
A.  Newton.  8vo.,  16  pages.  (Extracted  from  the  American  Journal  of  Sci- 
ence, May,  1867.) 

Norshe  MeteorohgisJce  Institut. — Meteorologiske  paa  Christiania  Observato- 
nam,  1866.     Christiania,  1866.     Oblong  folio,  52  pages. 

Meteorologiske  lagttagelser  paa  fem  Teleffrafstationer  ved  Norges  kyst. 
Reducerede  og  sammenstillede  ai  J.  J.  Astrana,  Bestyrer  af  Bergons  Observa- 
twiam.  Forste  og  Anden  Aargang.  Udgivne  af  det  kongelige  Norske  Fre- 
deriks  Universitet  ved  C.  Feamley,  Bestyrer  af  Christiania  Observatorium.  Chris- 
tiania, 1866.     Oblong  folio,  158  pages. 

Meteorologiske  lagttagelser  i  det  Sydlige  Norge,  1863,  1864,  1865,  1866. 
Udgivne  af  det  Kongelige  Norske  Frederiks  Universitet  ved  det  Norske  Meteo- 
roli^ske  Institut.     Christiania,  1867.     Oblong  folio,  280  pages. 

(^^vatoire  d^AtJi^s, — Publications  de  Tobservatoire  d'Athdnes,  deuxiemo 
8erie,  tome  II.  Beitrage  zur  physicalischen  Geographio  von  Griechenland,  von 
J.  F.  Julius  Schmidt,  Director  der  Stemwarte  zu  Athen.    Zweiter  Band.    Athen, 

1564.  Quarto.  [Contains  Meteorological  observations  at  Athens  for  1860  and 
1S61.    Pages  1  to  113,  and  163  to  206.] 

Observaioire  Physique  Central,  St.  Petershourg,  —  Compte-Rendu  Annuel 
»dreffie  a  8.  Exc.  M.  de  Reutem,  Ministre  des  Finances,  par  lo  Directeur  de  TOb- 
lervatoire  Physique  Central  A.-T.  Kupffer.  Annde  1864.  Supplement  aux 
Annales  do  FObservatoire  Physique  Central,  pour  Tannee  1862.     St.  Petei'sbourg. 

1565.  4to.,  63  pages.  [It  contains  meteorological  observations  for  the  year  1862 
at  St.  Petersburg,  Catlierinburg,  Bamaoul,  Nertchinsk,  Sitka,  Tiflis,  Bogo- 
fclovsk,  Zlatooiiste,  and  Lougan.  Also,  a  table  giving  the  temperature  of  the 
•inter,  spring,  summer,  and  autumn  from  December  1, 1862,  to  December  1, 1863, 
tt  25  stations.] 


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94  METEOROLOGICAL  MATERIAL. 

Observatorio  Magndtico  y  Meieoroldgico  del  BecH  Colegio  de  Belen  de  la  Compa- 
nia  de  Jesus  en  la  Habana, — Monthly  bulletin  of  observations.     8vo.,  8  pages. 

Osservatorio  Astronomko  deW  Universita  di  Torino. — Bolletino  Meteorologico 
delP  Universit4  di  Torino.    Anno  1866.    Torino,  1867.    Oblong  4to.,  56  pages. 

Ocsterreichische  Gesellschqfl  fur  Meteorologie. — Zeitschrift  der  Oesterreiclii- 
scben  Gesellschaft  fiir  Meteorologie.  Redigirt  von  Dr.  Carl  Jelinek.  II  Band. 
Vienna,  1867.     8vo.,  584  pages. 

Farviny  Professor  Theodore  S. — Summary  of  observations  at  the  State  Univer- 
sity, Iowa  City,  Iowa,  during  the  year  1866,  and  comparisons  with  the  means  of 
twenty-five  years.     Two  pages,  8Vo. 

Pike  J  Nicolas. — See  State  Department. 

PlantaTHour,  E. — Des  Anomalies  de  la  Temperature  observ^es  k  Geneve 
pendant  les  quarante  annees  1826-1865,  par  E.  Plantamour,  Professeur  k 
rAcademie  do  Geneve.  Geneve,  1867.  4to.,  63  pages.  (Extrait  des  Mcmoires 
de  la  Societe  de  Physique  et  d'Histoire  Naturello  de  Gendve,  tome  xix.) 

Prestelj  Dr.  M.  A.  F. — Die  periodischen  und  nicht-periodischen  Verandemn- 
gen  des  Barometerstandes,  so  wie  die  Stiirme  und  das  Wetter  iiber  der  banno- 
verschen  Nordseekiiste,  als  Gnmdlage  der  Sturm-  und  Wetter-Prognose,  dargo- 
stellt  von  Dr.  M.  A.  F.  Prestel,  Oberlehrer  der  Mathematik  und  Naturwissen- 
echaften  am  Gymnasium  zu  Emden,  Direktor  der  Naturforschenden  Gesellschaft 
daselbst.     Mit  zwei  Tafeln  in  Steindruck.     Emden,  1866.     ^o.,  150  pages. 

Prettnerj  J. — Klima  und  Witterung  von  Klagenfurt.  Von  J.  Prettner.  ( Aus 
dem  Jahrbuch  des  Xat.-hist.  Museums,  VII,  Seite  I.)  Klagenfurt,  1865. 
8vo.,  80  pages. 

Quetektj  Ernest — ^^il^moire  sur  la  temperature  de  I'air  4  Bruxelles,  par 
Ernest  Quetelet,  Membre  do  TAcademie  Iloyale  des  Sciences,  des  Lettres  et 
des  Beaux-Arts  de  Belgique.     Bruxelles,  1867.     4to.,  103  pages. 

Bawsofij  Governor  C.  B. — Report  on  the  Bahamas  hurricane  of  October,  1866, 
with  a  description  of  the  city  of  Nassau,  New  Providence.  By  Governor  Eaw- 
son  W.  Rawson,  C.  B.     8vo.,  52  pages,  with  two  charts. 

Report  of  the  Bahamas  for  the  year  1864,  by  Governor  Rawson.  London, 
1866.  8vo.,  122  pages.  [It  contains  three  pages  on  the  climate  and  meteo- 
rology of  the  islands.] 

Heal  Academia  de  Ciencias  Medieas,  Fisicas  y  Naturodes  de  la  Habana. — 
Anales  de  la  Real  Academia  de  Ciencias  ]\Iedicas,  Fisicas  y  Naturales  de  la 
Habana.  Revista  cientifica.  Directores,  Dr.  D.  Antonio  Mestre  y  D.  Marcos 
de  J.  Melero,  Habana.  [Published  monthly,  and  each  number  contains  a  sum- 
mary of  observations  for  the  month,  at  Havana.] 

Beale  Accademia  delle  Scienze  di  Torino. — Memoirs,  second  series,  volume  23. 
4to.,  Turin,  1866.  [Contains:  Memoire  sur  la  loi  du  refroidissement  dea  corps 
spheriques  et  sur  Texpression  de  la  chaleur  solaire  dans  les  latitudes  circumpolaires 
de  la  terre,  par  Jean  Plana.  Lu  dans  la  seance  du  21  Juin,  1863.  Also :  Di  un 
barometro  ad  aria  od  aeripsometro,  per  la  misura  delle  piccolo  altezze,  di  Gilberto 
Govi.     Memoria  letta  ed  appro vata  nolF  adunanza  del  29  Marzo,  1863.] 

Atti  della  R.  Accademia  delle  Scienze  di  Torino,  publicati  dagli  Acoademici 
Segretari  delle  due  Classi.  -  [Published  monthly,  and  each  number  contains 
meteorological  observations  made  at  the  Astronomical  Observatory  at  Turin.] 

Peak  Listituto  Lomhardo  di  Scienze,  Letterc  ed  Arti. — Atti  del  Reale  Institute 
Lombardo  di  Scienze,  Lettere  ed  Arti,  vol.  2,  3,  Milano,  1860 — 1864.  Quarto. 
[Contain:  " Osservazioni  meteorologiche  fatto  nella  nuova  torre  del  Reale 
OsseiTatorio  Astronomico  di  Brera,  dalF  ab.  Giovanni  Capelli."  October, 
1859,  to  December,  1863,  inclusive.] 

Peak  Listituto  Lombardo  di  Scienze  c  Lettere. — Rendiconti.  Classe  di  Scienze 
Matematiche  e  Naturali.  Vol.  1,  2,  3.  Milano,  1864,  1865,  1866.  8vo. 
[Published  monthly,  and  contain :  ^*  Osscrvazioni  meteorologiche  della  specola 
di  Brera,  eseguito  dair  abate  Giovaui  CapoUi  f  beginning  with  January,  1864.J 
This  is  a  continuation  of  the  preceding  article. 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


METEOROLOGICAL   MATERIAL.  95 

Beale  Museo  di  Fisica  e  Storia  Nafurdle  di  Firense, — Annali  del  R.  Museo 
di  Fidca  e  Storia  Naturale  di  Fii'enze,  per  il  anno  1865.  Nuova  serie,  vol.  1, 
Firenze,  1866 ;  4to.  [Contains  meteorological  observations  at  Florence,  from 
January,  1853,  to  February,  1854  j  28  pages.] 

Beale  Osservaiario  di  Palermo. — ^BuUetino  Meteorologico  del  Reale  Osserva- 
torio  di  Palermo.  (Estratto  dal  Giomale  di  Scienze  Naturali  ed  Economiche.) 
Published  monthly  ;  8  pages,  folio. 

Oaservazioni  Meteorologiche  eseguite  nel  Reale  Osservatorio  di  Palermo  nelV 
anno  1864.     4to.,  28  pages. 

Eegio  Osservatorio  deW  University  di  Torino, — Bollettino  Meteorologico  ed 
Afitronomico  del  Regie  Osservatorio  dell'  University  di  Torino.  Anno  II. 
1867.     Oblong  4to.,  82  pages. 

EetiteTyF, — Observations M^teorologiques, (1854-1863,)  faites  k  Luxembourg 
par  F.  Renter,  professeur  de  chimie  d  V  Atb^nee  royal  grand-ducal  do  Luxem- 
bc»urg.     Luxembourg,  1867.     8vo.,  124  pages. 

itossff,  Prqfessor  C, — See  Soci^te  Vaudoise  des  Sciences  Naturelles. 

Eoyal  Society  of  Tasmania, — ^Results  of  twenty-five  years'  (1841  to  1865) 
meteorological  observations  for  Hobart  Town ;  together  with  a  two  years'  regis- 
ter of  the  principal  atmospheric  meteors  and  aurora  australis.  By  Francis 
Abljott,  F.  R.  A.  S.,  &c.,  to  which  is  added  a  meteorological  summary  for  Ade- 
laide, Melbourne,  Sydney,  Auckland,  &c.,  &c.,  as  compiled  from  their  respective 
reconls.  Hobart  Town,  printed  for  the  Royal  Society  of  Tasmania.  1866. 
4to.,  46  pages. 

Monthly  notices  pf  papers  and  proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Tas- 
mania, for  1863,  1864,  1865.  3  vols.,  8vo.,  containing  the  meteorology  for 
each  month. 

SchiapareJUj  G.  V, — Intomo  al  corso  ed  alV  origine  probabile  delle  Stelle 
Meteoriehe.  Lettere  di  G.  V.  Schiaparelli  al  P.  A.  Secchi.  (Estratto  dal  bulle- 
tino  meteorologico  dell'  osservatorio  del  CoUegio  Romano.  Vol.  5,  Ni.  8, 10, 11, 
12.)    Roma,  1866.     8vo.,  34  pages. 

Deir  Influenza  della  Luna  suUe  vicende  atmosferiche.  Memoria  di  G.  V. 
Schiaparelli,  Membro  efletivo  del  R.  Istituto  Lombardo,  letta  alia  Classe  di 
Scienze  materaatiche  e  naturali  nella  tomata  del  24  Maggio,  1866.  Estratto 
dalle  Meraorie  del  R.  Istituto  Lombardo,  vol.  x.  I  della  scrie  III.  Milano, 
1S66.    4to.,  26  pages. 

Schmidt,  J,  F.  Julius, — tJber  Fouermeteore,  1842  bis  1867.  (Schrciben  an 
Herm  k.  Hofrath  Rittcr  v.  Haidinger.)  Von  J.  F.  Julius  Schmidt,  Director 
der  Stemwarte  zu  Athen.  Vor^elegt  in  der  Sitzung  am  10  October,  1867. 
Aus  dem  LVI  Bde.  d.  Sitzb.  d.  k.  Akad.  d.  Wissensch.  II.  Abth.,  Oct.-Heft. 
Jahrff.  1867.     8vo.,  34  pages. 

Jkhweizerische    Naturforschende    GeseTlsc1u\ft. — Schweizerischo    Meteorolo- 
gische  Beobactungen,  hcrausgegoben  von  der  Meteorologischen  Centralanstalt 
der  Scliweizerischen  Naturforschenden  Gesellschaft,  unter  Direktion  von  Pro-. 
fessor  Dr.  Rudolf  Wolf.     Dritter  Jahrgang,  1866.     Zurich.     4to. 

Scottish  Meteorological  Society. — Journal  of  the  Scottish  Meteorological 
Sf»ciety.     Published  quarterly.     Edinburg,  1867.     8vo. 

Shepherd,  Bev,  J,  Avery, — IiTegular  observations  at  Pass  Christian,  Missis- 
wppi,  Mav  to  July,  1860  j  and  at  Montgomery,  Alabama,  September,  1860,  to 
April,  1861. 

SissoUy  Hodman.  —  Summary  of  thermometer  record  kept  at  Abington, 
Lozeme  county,  Pennsylvania,  during  the  years  1864,  1865,  1866,  1867,  giv- 
ing the  means  of  each  month,  also  range  and  extremes,  from  observations  made 
daily  at  sunrise,  noon,  and  sunset. 

Smith,  Haden  Patrick. — ^^Veekly  abstract  of  observations  kept  at  the  Central 
Park,  New  York,  with  a  full  set  of  instruments,  from  July,  1867,  to  the  end 
of  the  year. 


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96  METEOROLOGICAL  MATERIAL. 

Smith  J  M.  D. — Amount  of  rain  in  each  month  from  November,  1863,  to 
November,  1867,  at  Meadow  Valley,  Plumas  county,  California, 

Socieie  d^ Agriculture,  Sciences,  Arts  et  BeUcs-Lctkrs  du  departement  d^Indre- 
et'Loire, — Annales  do  la  Societe.  PubliiSes  sous  la  direction  de  M.  VAbb^  C. 
Clievalier,  secretaire-perpdtuel,  Ilddacteur.  8vo.  [Published  monthly  at  Tours. 
Each  number  contains  meteorological  observations  made  at  the  botanical  garden 
of  Tours,  by  M.  Bamsby.] 

Societe  d^ Agriculture,  Sciences  et  Arts  de  la  Sarthe, — Bulletin,  published 
quarterly.  [The  last  part  for  1866  contains:  "  Tableau  r^sumd  des  observations 
mdtdorologiques  faites  au  Mans  en  1866,  par  M.  D.  Bonhomet."] 

Societe  Imperialc  des  Naturalistes  de  Moscou, — ^Bulletin  de  la  Societd  Imp<5rialo 
des  Naturalistes  de  Moscou,  publid  sous  la  redaction  du  Docteur  Ilenard,  1866. 

t Contains:  ** Observations  m^t^orologiques,  faites  a  Tlnstitut  des  Arpenteurs  (dit 
^nstantiu)  de  Moscou,  et  communiqu6es  par  J.  Weinberg."] 

Societe  Meteorologiquc  de  France, — Nouvelles  Met^orologiques,  publi<$es  sous 
les  auspices  de  la  Society  M^teorologique  de  France.  Commission  de  nSdaction, 
MM.  Charles  Sainte-Claire  Deville,  president  de  la  Societe;  Marie  Davy,  secre- 
taire de  la  Socidt^;  Renou,  Lemoine,  Sonrel.  [Began  January,  1868;  published 
the  Ist  of  each  month ;  8vo.  32  pages.] 

Annuairo  1864,  1S65,  1866. 

Sociite  Vaudoise  des  Sciences  NatureUes,  Lausanne. — Bulletin,  volume  ix, 
No.  55,  July,  1866.  [Contains :  Resumd  des  Annies  Mdt^orologiques  1863  et 
1864,  pour  Lausanne,  par  J.  Marguet,  professeur;  pp.  139-151.  Also,  for  the 
year  1865,  four  diagrams  without  text.) — Bulletin,  volume  ix.  No.  56,  Decem- 
ber 1866.  [Contains:  Note  sur  rinfluence  do  la  Lune  sur  la  Terre,  par  J.  Mar- 
guet, professeur;  pp.  225-236. — Quelques  observations  anonnales  faites  sur 
les  Psycbrom^tres  d  la  station  m^t6orologique  do  Bex,  par  C.  Rosset,  professeur ; 
pp.  243-249.] 

State  Department. — ^An  account  of  a  cyclone  encountered  in  the  Indian  ocean, 
January  6  and  7,  1867,  by  the  United  States  steamer  Monocacy,  while  on  her 
passage  from  Simon's  bay,  South  Afiica,  to  Mauritius.  By  Nicholas  Pike, 
United  States  consul,  Port  Louis. 

Observations  made  at  Turk's  Island,  West  Indies,  in  September  and  October, 
1867,  by  J.  C.  Crisson ;  forwarded  by  Edward  Maynard,  United  States  consuL 

An  account  of  the  w^eather  in  Europe  during  the  month  of  March,  1867.  By 
William  W.  Murphy,  United  States  consul  at  Frankfort. 

Tayhc,  Edward  T. — Table  giving  the  amount  of  rain  during  each  month 
from  1850  to  1866,  inclusive,  at  Powhatan  Hill,  King  George  county,  Virginia; 
also  monthly  averages  for  the  whole  period. 

Rains  of  the  year  1867,  at  Powhatan  Hill,  King  Greorge  county,  Virginia. 

Thorns,  William  Taulds,  M.  D. — Diagram  showing  the  effects  of  the  meteoro- 
logical iufluences  on  mortality  in  the  city  of  New  York,  1866. 

United  States  Naval  Observatory. — ^Amount  of  rain  measured  at  the  United 
States  Naval  Observatory,  Washington,  D.  C,  during  each  month  from  1852 
to  1867,  inclusive,  except  the  years  1861,  1862,  1863. 

Unicersitdts-Bibliothck,  Basel. — Die  Erfindung  des  Thermometers  und  seine 
Grestaltung  im  XVIII.  Jahrhundert.  Von  Dr.  Fritz  Burckhardt.  Mit  einer 
lithogr.  Tafel.     Basel,  1867.     4to.,  56  pages. 

Wild,  I).  H. — Die  selbstregistrirenden  meteorologischen  Instrumente  der 
Sternwarte  in  Bern.  Von  Dr.  II.  Wild,  Professor  der  Physik  an  dor  Universitat 
Bern  und  Director  der  Sternwarte  daselbst,  Extraabdruck  aus  dem  II.  Bando 
von  Carl's  Repertorium.  Mit  9  Tafeln,  (No.  XXII  bis  XXX.)  Miinchen, 
1866.  Svo.,  44  pages. 

Willet,  Joseph  E. — Indian  Summer,  by  Joseph  E.  WiUet,  professor  of  natural 
philosophy  and  chemistry  in  Mercer  University,  Greorgia.  lYom  the  American 
Journal  of  Science  and  Arts,  November,  1867.     8vo.,  8  pages, 

\yiiiin*^o   n^  Q.^ — Record  of  thermometer  kept  at  ^^^vuf^ertie^JJk*"-  county. 

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METEOBOLOOICAL  MATERIAL. 


97 


New  York,  at  7  a.  m.,  from  January  14,  1863,  to  Jane  30,  1865,  with  daily 
notices  of  weather  daring  the  Bame  period. 

Record  of  thermometer  and  barometer  at  Waterbary,  Connecticat,  for  the 
year  1866. 

WtUiamSf  S.  B. — Abstract  of  observations  for  each  month  of  the  year  1867, 
at  Lexington,  Kentucky. 

WUliamsanj  JameSj  Director  of  the  Kingston  Observatory, — ^Abstracts  of  meteo- 
rological register,  University  of  Queen's  College,  Kingston,  Canada  West,  for 
1859  and  1860,  giving  the  means,  range,  and  extremes  of  each  month.  On 
printed  slips.  The  slip  for  1860  also  contains  the  annual  means  for  1856  to 
1861,  inclusive.  ^ 

HeiSf  Prqftssor  Dr, — ^Wochenschrift  fiir  Astronomic,  Meteorologie  und  Geo- 
CTaphie.  Neue  Folge.  Zehnter  Jahrgang.  Rediffirt  von  Professor  Dr.  Heis  in 
Munster.  Druck  und  Verlag  von  H.  W.  Schmidt  in  Halle.  [Year  1867 ;  pub- 
lished weekly.] 

Wright,  J.  TV.  A. — Summary  of  observations  for  the  year  1867,  at  Greene 
Springs,  Alabama. — Six  articles  on  the  climate  of  central  Alabama  and  Missis- 
sippi, published  in  the  '^  Alabama  Beacon,''  containing  facts  and  inferences 
deduced  from  the  observations  made  at  Greene  Springs,  and  their  comparison 
with  other  years  and  localities. 

( Unknown.) — ^Newspaper  slips  giving  didly  temperature  and  rain  at  Paramaribo 
from  June  6  to  December  15,  1867,  with  a  few  omissions. 


Meteorological  registers  received  for  the  year  1867,  or  some  part  of  it. 

a 

si 

r 

1'^ 

i 

1 

a 

i 

i. 

•S3 

l| 
1' 

is 

a 
a 

I 

Britifh  America 

2 
3 

1 
2 
6 
1 
2 
5 
4 
4 

2 

9 

7 

6 

10 

28 
11 
22 

.... 



1 

"2* 

.... 
1 

"2 
"2' 

Illinois 

5 
2 
4 
2 
4 

23 
7 

15 
7 

25 
9 
G 
1 
3 
2 
2 
2 
2 

Maine 

Missouri 

New  HamiMhire  .-. 

Wisconsin 

Vermont............... . 

Minnesota. . ........... 

Messachasetts 

Iowa... ..........  •••. . 

Rhode  Island 

Kansas ................ 

Connecticat 

Nebraska 

New  York 

Colorado .............. 

1 

New  Jersey. ....... ...... 

Utah 

Pennsylvania 

Montana 

Delaware 

Washinfirton. . ......... 

Maiyland 

8 

Oregon ............... 

Virpnia 

Calitomia  ...... ...... . 

3 

1 

...... 

WwtVirrinia 

MRXICO. 
Mirador 

North  Carolina 

South  Carolina 

Georgia 

CENTRAL  AMERICA. 

San  Jos^,  Costa  Rica... 
Aspinwall,  Panama 

WEST  INDIES. 

1 

Florida 

AUUma 

1 

LoQiiiana 

Mississippi 

1 

Texas........:.:.;;:.:. 

Arkansas 

Tennessee 

1 
1 
6 

1 
4 

5 

2 

24 

10 

8 

BERMUDA. 

St.  George's 

1 

Kentncky 

Ohio...:. 

Michigan 

Total 

Indiana..:::.::::;;'::" 

69 

305 

11 

7  8  67 

D 

igitized  b 

yGo 

ogle 

REPORT  OF  THE  EXECUTIVE  COMMITTEE. 


The  Executive  Committee  respectfully  submit  the  following  report  in  relation 
to  the  funds  of  the  Institution,  the  receipts  and  expenditures  for  the  year  1867, 
and  the  estimates  for  the  year  1868 : 

STATEMENT  OP  THE  FUND. 

The  original  amount  received  aa  the  bequest  of  James  Smithson, 
of  England,  deposited  in  the  treasury  of  the  United  States,  in 
accordance  with  the  act  of  Congress  of  August  10, 1846 $515, 169  00 

The  residuary  legacy  of  Smithson,  received  in  1865,  deposited  in 
the  treasury  of  the  United  States  in  accordance  with  the  act  of 
Congress  of  February  8,  1867 26,  210  63 

Total  bequest  of  Smithson 541,  379  63 

Amount  deposited  in  the  treasury  of  the  United  States,  as  author- 
ized by  the  act  of  Congress  of  February  8,  1867,  and  directed 
by  the  Board  of  Regents,  derived  from  pjirt  of  savings  of  income 
and  increase  of  value  of  investments 108,  620  37 

Total  permanent  Smithson  fund  in  the  treasury  of  the  United 
States. 8650,  000  00 

In  addition  to  the  above  there  remains  of  the  extra 
fund  derived  from  savings  of  income,  &c.,  Virginia 
State  6  per  cent,  bonds  for $53,  500  00 

Also,  additional  Virginia  bonds  issued  for  unpaid  in- 
terest to  January  1, 1867 >. .   19,  260  00 

Par  value $72, 760  00 

Present  value,  about  $30,000. 

Beceipts  and  expenditures  for  1867. 

RECEIPTS. 

Interest  on  the  original  bequest  of  Smithson,  viz : 

6  per  cent,  on  $515,169 $30,  910  14 

Interest  on  the  amount  added  to  the  original  prin- 
cipal in  the  United  States  treasury,  authorized 
by  act  of  Congress  February  8,  1867,  viz :  Feb- 
ruary  19,  1867,  $34,831,-  FebruaiT  27,  $30,544  j 
April  1,  $68,906  25 1 6,  420  68 

Interest  on  United  States  7-30  bonds,  from  February 

15,  1865,  to  February  19, 1867,  on  $54,150 7,  907  00 

Interest  on  Virginia  bonds,  viz:  4  per  cent,  on 
$53,500,  to  December  31, 1867,  (less  brokerage).       2,  033  00 

Interest  on  Washington  city  bond,  viz  :  6  per  cent, 
on  $100  to  July  1,  1867,  (4^  years) 27  00 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


BEPOBT   OP   THE  EXECUTIVE   COMMITTEE.  99 

Sales  of  bonds  and  stocks,  viz : 

$54,150  United  States  7-30s $57,468  00 

15,000  Tennessee  6s 9,586  78 

75,000  Indiana  5s 68,906  25 

500  Georgia  6s 358  71 

100  Washington  6s 100  00 

136,419  74 

Sale  of  coin  interest. 14,255  41 

Sale  of  publications  and  old  and  useless  material..  527  74 

Total  receipts  in  1867 $198,500  71 

Balance  on  band,  Januaiy,  1867 22,891  23 

Total  amount  available  in  1867 221,391  94 


$134,831  00 


EXPENDITURES. 

Amount  added  to  the  original  bequest  of  Smitbson, 
in  the  treasury  of  the  United  States,  authorized 
by  the  act  of  Congress  of  Febniary  8,  1867,  and 
directed  by  the  Kegents,  to  increase  the  princi- 
pal to  $650,000,  viz :  residuaiy  legacy  of  Smith- 
son $26,210  63 

Additional  deposits 108,620  37 

Expenses  for  the  year  1867 — 

Building  and  furniture 38,  650  74 

General  expenses 12,488  84 

Publications  and  researches 10,030  25 

library,  museum,  and  exchanges 13,905  55 

Total  expenses 75,075  38 

Total  expenditure  and  investment  during  1867 $209,906  38 

Balance  on  hand  January,  1868 11,485  56 

— — 

Statement  in  detail  qf  expenditures  for  current  operations  of  the  year  1867. 

BUILDINO. 

Reconstruction  of  parts  injured  by  fire $35,102  35 

Bepaurs  to  old  parts 2,137  91 

Furniture  and  fixtures 1,410  48 


GEmSRAL   EXPENSES. 

Meetings  of  the  Board 

Lighting 

Heating 

Postage 

Stationery 

Greneral  printing 

Incidentals,  viz :  hardware,  tools,  materials  for  clean- 
ingi  &o 


VOO^UilU     /  % 

256  50 
204  bb 
808  65 
714  45 
$892  79 
194  06 

.    241  19 

Digitized  by  Google 

100       REPORT  OP  THE  EXECUTIVE  COMMITTEE. 

Payment  for  loss  of  tools  by  tbo  fire,  authorized  by 

resolution  of  tbo  Board,  February  1,  1867 $500  00 

Salai-ies  socretarv,  clerks,  and  laborers 8,676  65 

$12,488  84 

PUBLICATIONS  AND  RESEABCHES. 

Smithsonian  contributions,  (quarto) $4,621  76 

Smithsonian  miscellaneous  collections,  (octavo) 2,045  20 

Smithsonian  report,  illustrations,  stereotyping,  &c —  920  18 

Meteorology 1 1,044  39 

Apparatus 457  82 

Laboratory 17  41 

Explorations 923  49 

10,030  25 

LIBRARY,  MUSEUM,  AND  LITERARY  EXCHANGES. 

Purchase  of  books  and  binding $719  10 

Literary  and  scientific  exchanges 3,507  87 

Assistants  in  museum 5,890  39 

Incidentals  for  museum,  alcohol,  benzine,  &c 1,715  81 

Freights 2,072  38 

13,905  55 

Total  expenditure  in  1867 75,075  38 


The  Board  of  Re^nts  having  directed  the  sale  of  the  United  States  7.30 
bonds,  as  also  the  Indiana,  Georgia,  and  Washington  bonds,  the  proceeds  to  be 
applied  to  the  increase  of  the  permanent  capital,  this  was  accordingly  done 
through  the  agency  of  the  bankers  of  the  Institution.  The  act  of  Congress  of 
February  8,  1867,  passed  in  accordance  with  the  memorial  of  the  Board  of 
Re^^ents,  (see  report  for  1866,  page  74,)  authorized  the  Institution  to  deposit 
with  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  on  the  same  terms  as  the  original  bequest, 
the  residuary  legacy  of  Smithson,  together  with  other  sums  not  exceeding,  with 
the  original,  $1,000,000.  From  part  of  the  proceeds  of  the  sale  of  the  United 
States  and  State  stocks  referred  to,  the  sum  of  $108,620  37,  with  the  residuary 
legacy,  $26,210  63,  making  $134,831,  was  deposited  in  the  treasury  of  tbe 
United  States;  thus  making  the  total  amount  of  the  Smithson  fund  perpetually 
in  the  United  States  treasury,  bearing  6  per  cent,  interest,  payable  semi-annu- 
ally, $650,000. 

The  Commissioner  of  Agriculture  continues  to  pay  one-half  of  the  salary  of 
the  clerk  employed  to  take  charge  of  the  meteorological  statistics. 

The  appropriation  annually  made  by  Congress  "for  the  care  and  preservation 
of  the  collections  of  the  exploring  and  surveying  expeditions  of  the  govern- 
ment" has  been  expended,  as  heretofore,  under  the  direction  of  the  Secretary  of 
the  Interior,  and  as  the  amount  was  increased  for  the  year  ending  July  1, 1868, 
from  $4,000  to  $10,000,  a  part  of  this  has  been  applied  to  the  preservation  of 
that  part  of  the  building  devoted  to  the  collections,  and  other  purposes. 

The  State  of  Virginia  has  paid  four  per  cent,  interest  on  its  stock,  reserving 
two  per  cent,  in  Richmond,  to  be  paid  whenever  the  conflicting  claims  between 
the  old  State  and  the  new  State  of  West  Virginia  should  be  settled.  All  the 
interest  due  on  the  stock  of  the  State  up  to  tne  1st  of  January,  1867,  amount- 
ing to  $19,260,  has  been  funded  by  the  issue  of  new  bonds  bearing  six  per  cent, 
interest,  none  of  which  has^  however,  yet  been  piud.     The  total  amount  of  Vir- 


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REPORT  OF  THE  EXECUTIVE  COMMITTEE.       101 

ginia  stock  now  held  by  the  Institution  is  $72,760,  which  it  is  considered  advis- 
able to  retain  for  the  present. 

The  current  income  of  the  Institution  is  now  deposited  in  the  First  National 
Bank  of  Washington,  the  payment  of  bills  being  by  checks  drawn  by  the  Sec- 
retaiy,  in  accordance  with  the  regulations  prescnbea  by  the  Board  at  its  last 
annual  session. 

The  following  may  be  considered  an  approximate  estimate  for  the  year  1868. 

ESTIMATED  RECEIPTS. 

Interest  on  the  Smithson  fund  in  the  treasury  of  the  United  States, 
viz :  six  per  cent,  on  $650,000,  payable  July  1,  1868,  and 

January  1,  1869 $39,000  00 

Probable  premium  on  coin,  say  at  33  per  cent 13,000  00 

Interest  on  Virginia  bonds,  viz. :  4  per  cent,  on  $53,500 2,140  00 

Balance  on  hand  January  17, 1868 11,485  56 

65,625  56 


APPROPRIATIOKS. 


For  current  operations  of  the  Institution $34,000  00 

For  building,  (including  outstanding  debts,) 20,000  00 

Estimated  balance  January  1,  1869 11,625  56 

65,625  fjii 


In  conclusion,  the  comnuttee  have  the  satisfaction  of  again  calling  attention 
to  the  fact  that  all  the  expenditures  from  the  organization  of  the  establishment 
to  the  present  time,  including  $450,000  on  the  building,  the  publication  and 
'^Jstribution  of  200,000  quarto  and  octavo  volumes ;  the  collection  of  a  library 
of  60,000  works ;  a  museum  containing  1,000,000  specimens ;  and  the  distribu- 
tion to  other  institutions  of  250,000  specimens,  have  been  made  exclusively 
from  the  income  and  its  investments,  and  that  the  bequest  has  been  increased 
by  an  addition  this  year  of  $108,620  37,  making  the  total  capital  invested  in 
United  States  and  other  securities  $722,760. 

Attention  is  called  to  the  expense  of  the  National  Museum,  consisting  of  the 
collections  of  various  government  exploring  expeditions.  In  addition  to  the 
Appropriation  by  Congress  for  this  object,  mm  the  income  of  the  Institution 
the  sum  of  $7,606  20  has  been  expended  during  1867. 

The  committee  have  examined  680  vouchers,  embracing  several  thousand 
items,  for  payments  during  the  year  for  legitimate  purposes  of  the  Institution, 
and  find  them  correct  ana  conformed  to  the  rules  adopted  by  the  Regents  on 
the  22d  of  February,  1867. 

RICHARD  DELAFIELD. 

RICHAJID  WALLACE. 

PETER  PARKER. 
WASHnrGTOK,  April  14, 1868. 


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REPORT  OF  THE  BUILDING  COMMITTEE  FOR  1867. 


It  was  stated  in  the  report  presented  to  the  Board  at  its  last  session  that  it 
was  proposed,  daring  the  year  1867,  to  roof  the  main  building  and  towers  and 
finish  the  interior  of  all  the  rooms,  halls,  staircases  and  main  entrance,  leaving 
the  large  room  of  the  upper  story,  over  the  museum,  unfinished  until  funds 
could  be  provided  for  the  purpose  and  its  future  use  be  determined. 

In  accordance  with  this  proposition  the  iron  work  of  the  roof  over  the  museum 
was  erected  early  in  the  spring,  and  covered  with  slate,  fastened  to  the  iron 
purlines  with  wire,  and  plastered  inside  with  wall  plaster.  The  iron  gutters,  as 
well  as  the  roof,  were  found  perfectly  secure  from  leakage  during  the  hardest 
summer  rains.  The  severe  test  of  ice  and  snow  during  the  present  winter  has 
shown  the  necessity  for  additions  in  the  arrangements  for  conducting  the  water 
from  the  roof.  Plans  for  this  purpose  are  now  under  discussion  with  the  archi- 
tect for  persevering  in  the  original  plan,  or  adopting  some  additional  security 
that  the  late  severe  season  has  indicated  to  be  advisable. 

The  adaptation  of  new  to  old  work,  in  restoring  the  building  from  the 
destructive  efiects  of  the  fire,  by  substituting  incombustible  materials  for  wooden 
partitions,  floors  and  roofs,  has  been  attended,  as  was  foreseen,  with  much  labor 
and  expense,  as  well  as  making  additional  means  indispensable  for  rendering 
the  roof-surfaces,  valleys,  ^nd  gutters  water-tight  in  winter,  when  covered  with 
snow,  and  occasionally  ice,  as  well  as  the  sunmier  nuns.  Like  the  public  build- 
ings generally  in  this  city,  (and  we  may  say  elsewhere,)  where  battlements 
extend  above  the  eaves  with  gutters  behind  them  upon  the  roof,  or  resting  upon 
the  walls,  much  inconvenience,  and  at  times  damage,  arises  from  leaks,  the 
result  of  such  a  system.  It  is  experienced  in  the  Smithsonian  building  in  con- 
sequence of  the  stone  battlements  capping  all  its  exterior  walls.  The  present 
architect's  original  design,  approved  by  the  committee,  is  set  forth  in  his  report 
of  the  operations  of  the  year,  annexed  hereto.  Neither  time  nor  the  funds  of  the 
Institution  would  permit  his  carrying  this  part  of  his  plan  into  operation ;  and 
until  it  is  done,  together  with  some  additions  tha4  the  late  inclement  season  has 
pointed  out  as  advisable  and  necessary,  the  building  is  not  secure,  nor  the  pro- 
perty within  it,  from  dampness  and  moisture. 

The  introduction  of  the  proposed  warming  apparatus  for  all  the  apartments 
is  the  next  most  essential  particular  to  be  undertaken,  to  be  commenced  when- 
ever the  funds  of  the  Institution  will  justify. 

The  security  of  the  several  apartments  and  contents  are  in  a  great  measure 
dependent  upon  such  an  apparatus  as  a  substitute  for  the  stoves  temporarily  in 
use,  and  for  which  no  permanent  smoke-flues  or  other  arrangements  were  pro- 
vided. 

All  the  rooms  in  the  north  tower,  forming  three  suites  of  three  in  each,  with 
two  rooms  on  the  entrance  floor,  one  for  the  janitor  and  the  other  for  a  recep- 
tion room  for  visitors,  have  been  completed  and  are  now  used  and  occupied  as 
offices  for  conducting  the  operations  of  the  Institution.  The  several  apart- 
ments in  this  north  tower,  above  these  offices,  have  also  been  completed.  The 
rooms  and  apartments  in  the  south  tower  have  also  been  finished  and  are  now 
occupied.  The  lower  one,  or  that  on  the  first  floor,  forms  a  part  of  the  general 
museum  and  is  now  devoted  to  the  reception  of  the  larger  and  most  weighty 


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BEPOBT   OF  THE   BUILDING  COMMITTEE.  103 

articles  of  ethnology^  snch  as  tbo  stone  images  £rom  Central  America  and  tho 
stone  saroophagns  from  Syria. 

The  apartments  on  the  next  story  have  been  fitted  up  with  shelves,  bins,  and 
other  fixtures  for  the  transaction  of  the  business  of  the  literary  and  scientific 
exchanges,  packing  and  distributing  the  same. 

The  apartments  next  above  have  been  finished  for  the  meetings  and  conven- 
ience of  the  Board  of  Regents ;  and  those  on  the  three  remaining  floors  have 
also  been  finished  and  appropriated  to  storage  and  such  other  purposes  as  may 
become  necessary.  In  this  tower  are  also  provided  an  elevator,  with  conven- 
ient mechanical  power  for  removing  books,  specimens,  etc.,  to  and  from  the 
basement  and  four  stories  above  it;  water-closets  and  other  necessary  con- 
veniences, with  arrangements  for  the  use  of  the  Potomac  water  for  general  pur- 
poses and  in  large  quantities  in  case  of  fire. 

To  increase  the  accommodation,  two  additional  floors  have  been  added  to  the 
original  subdivision  of  the  stories  of  the  north  and  south  towers.  To  furnish 
light  to  the  new  rooms  in  the  south  tower,  circular  windows  have  been  opened 
through  the  waUs,  without  interfering  with  the  original  architectural  effect  of 
the  exterior,  thus  furnishing  sufficient  light  for  the  purpose  for  which  these 
apartments  are  intended. 

The  result  of  the  year's  laber  has  been  to  provide  ample  space  and  con- 
venient accommodation  to  subserve  all  the  wants  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Insti- 
tution, to  enable  him  to  carry  the  views  of  Smithson  into  effect  for  the  present 
and  several  years  to  come. 

The  floor-surface  in  57  apartments  of  the  building,  not  including  the  Secre- 
tary's quarters,  is  66,252  square  feet,  or  one  and  fifty-two  hundredths  of  an  acre, 
a  space,  so  far  as  now  can  be  foreseen,  abimdantly  sufficient  for  the  wants  of 
the  Institution,  only  requiring-  to  be  adapted  therefor,  from  time  to  time,  in 
details,  fhmituro  and  special  finish. 

The  following  is  a  detailed  statement  of  the  expenditures  on  the  building 
during  tho  year  1867  : 

FOR  BECOKSTBUCnON  OF  PABT8  DSSTBOYEO  BY  THB  FIBE. 

Iron-work,  beams,  doors,  &c $2,791  67 

Iron-work,  new  roof 8,591  50 

Stone-cutting  and  setting 3,354  05 

Brick 116  87 

Bricklaying 4,277  53 

Lumber 1,000  00 

Carpentry 7,398  50 

Elevator 450  00 

Laborers 844  00 

Sand 31  82 

Blacksmiths 7  50 

Hardware 174  90 

Rope 8  25 

Painting 1,927  00 

Frescoing 730  00 

Tin  and  metal  work 3,135  26 

Slating  new  roof 3,534  89 

Plumbing 1,000  00 

Gas-fitting 296  55 

Plastering $2,000  00 

Architect :^,315  75 

43,986  04 

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104  REPORT  OP  THE   BUILDING  COMMITTEE. 

In  addition  to  this  earn  the  following  expenditures  were  made  on 
the  parts  of  the  building  not  injured  by  the  fire,  or  for  general 
repairs : 

Carpenters 8960  00 

Plumbers  and  gas-fitters 132  95 

Paints,  oil,  glass,  and  glazing 510  68 

Lumber 335  73 

Miscellaneous 198  65 

2,137  91 

Whole  expenditure  on  building  in  1867 46,123  95 

Of  this  expenditure,  $8,883  69  were  paid  out  of  the  appropriation  by  Con- 
gress for  the  preservation  of  the  government  collections. 

RICHARD  DELAFIELD, 
RICHARD  WALLACH, 

BuUding  Committee. 
Washington,  April  14, 1868. 


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REPORT  OF  THE  ARCHITECT. 


Washikgton,  January  6,  1868. 

Snts :  I  have  the  honor  to  report  the  progress  made  in  the  reconstmction  of 
the  bnildings  daring  the  calendar  year  1867. 

The  absolutely  fire-proof  roof  of  the  main  buildinff,  consisting  of  a  slate  cover- 
ing, plastered  inside  and  fastened  by  wire  to  a  well-braced  wronght-iron  frame, 
has  been  firmly  put  in  place.  Many  difficulties  had  to  be  overcome,  since  the  out- 
lines of  the  buildinff,  more  especially  the  shape  of  gable  walls  and  topping  out  of 
side  walls,  on  which  that  most  important  feature  of  the  mediaeval  roof,  the  sys- 
tem of  guttering,  depends,  were  prearranged  upon  the  more  pliable  plan  of  a  com- 
bustible frame  and  wooden  sheathings.  However,  no  pains  were  spared  to 
accommodate  the  new  conditions  to  the  original  architecture  of  the  building. 
The  different  hips  and  valleys  were  made  secure  and  water-tight  by  \vido  strips 
of  sheet-copper  and  sheet-lead  laid  upon  a  solid  foundation  of  sheet-iron  of  proper 
width,  fastened  by  wire  to  the  rafters.  The  gutters  consist  of  wrought-iron, 
rolled  into  proper  shape,  and  of  a  section  vouched  for  by  the  PhcBuix  Iron  Com- 
pany. The  connections  of  the  sections  of  gutters,  lengthwise,  have  been  made 
80  as  to  allow  for  expansion,  and  the  connections  of  the  gutters,  sidowise,  with 
the  slate  roof  are  effected  by  galvanized  sheet-iron  plates  riveted  to  vertical 
flanges  on  the  inner  side  of  the  gutter,  and  bent  so  as  to  follow  up  the  pitch  of  the 
roof,  sustained  by  the  lowest  courses  of  iron  purlines  for  the  slating.  The  modo 
adopted  has  effectively  carried  off  the  water  of  the  heaviest  rain  storms  of  the  sum- 
mer, but,  being  of  a  novel  design,  has  not  fully  stood  the  test  of  an  extraordinary 
snow-storm  followed  by  a  rainfall  which  was  freezing  as  fast  as  it  came  down. 
Thb  action  of  the  elements  caused  a  thorough  freezing  up  of  the  northern  gutters 
encased  inside  the  battlements  of  the  side  wall,  and  with  the  consequent  effect  of 
the  son  upon  the  upper  part  of  the  roof,  the  melted  snow  in  its  downward  course 
forced  its  way  underneath  the  frozen  foce  and,  for  want  of  an  outlet,  backed  up 
underneath  the  galvanized  sheet-iron  described  above.  Plans  have  been  laid 
hefore  the  building  committee  with  a  view  to  remedy  this  defect  as  developed  by 
icvere  tests. 

The  ridge  of  the  roof,  another  important  feature,  has  been  effectively  secured 
by  a  layer  of  sheet-lead,  capped  by  rolled  iron,  shaped  to  the  angle  formed  by 
the  ridge  of  roof  and  batted  down  to  the  roof  frame. 

In  connection  with  the  frame  of  the  roof,  for  considerations  of  solidity  as  well 
as  of  economy,  all  the  necessary  and  somewhat  complicated  iron  stays,  finks  and 
pnrlmes  have  been  inserted,  forming  the  outlines  of  an  appropriate  and  well- 
Bh^>ed  ceiling  in  keeping  with  the  features  of  a  fire-proof  hall,  200  feet  in 
length  by  50  feet  in  width.  Whilst  the  details  of  this  ceiling  are  left  an  open 
qoestion  for  the  decision  of  the  committee,  its  main  features  consist  of  a  boldly 
coved  and  bracketed  cornice,  surmounted  by  broad  panelled  friezes,  the  inner 
members  of  which  are  formed  so  as  to  subdivide  the  whole  ceiling  into  three 
panels,  each  extendiug  through  the  whole  width  of  the  building  and  worked  out 
agam  into  more  minute  details. 

After  the  roof  was  well  secured,  the  tracery  of  the  double  windows  in  the  side 
walls  was  carefully  taken  out,  the  numerous  weakened  parts  of  the  cut  stone 
work  supplied  by  new  material  and  workmanship,  and  the  whole  work  reset, 


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106  BEPOBT  OP  THB  ARCHITECT. 

anchored  and  leaded,  in  the  most  substantial  manner.  Immediately  following 
this  work  the  frames  and  sash  of  these  windows  were  made  and  inserted,  strictly 
in  keeping  with  the  general  style  of  the  building. 

The  ceiling  of  the  museum  in  lower  story  being  now  beyond  accident,  it  was 
repaired,  and  received,  with  the  side  walls  and  intermediate  arching,  a  plain 
frescoing.  The  towers  and  buildings,  north  and  south  of  the  main  building,  were 
being  roofed  in  at  the  close  of  last  year's  report.  In  the  early  part  of  the  season 
the  brick  arches  for  the  fire-proof  floors  were  turned,  concreted,  and  the  floors 
laid.  During  the  summer  they  have  all  been  finished  ready  for  occupancy. 
The  carriageway  leading  to  the  northern  main  entrance  has  been  paved,  mainly 
with  flagfi^ing  on  hand,  the  unsightly  ceiling  repaired  and  appropriately  decorated, 
the  roof  has  been  put  in  order  and  the  unstable  battlements  securely  fastened. 

The  northern  main  entrance  door  leads  to  the  vestibule,  which  has  an  orna- 
mental tiled  floor  of  alternate  colors ;  is  finished  octa^nally,  four  sides  being 
occupied  by  niches  designed  for  receiving  statuary ;  it  has  a  marble  case,  and  is 
finished  in  oak  and  frescoed  in  complementary  colors. 

The  vestibule  is  flanked  to  the  east  by  the  janitor's  room,  which  is  floored  with 
German  tile,  and  to  the  west  by  the  reception  room,  which  is  finished  in  imita- 
tion of  walnut  and  has  a  floor  of  encaustic  tiles.  The  three  stories  above  tho 
vestibule  and  adjoining  rooms  are  fitted  up  for  tiers  of  three  communicating  offi- 
ces, each  tier  forming  a  compartment,  secured  by  fire-proof  iron  doors,  consisting 
of  two  layers  of  sheet-iron,  with  intermediate  frame  and  air-space.  Wooden 
flooring  on  top  of  the  fire-proof  arches  has  been  preferred  for  office  purposes. 
The  higher  stories  of  the  towers  form  rooms  of  a  miscellaneous  character,  are 
approached  by  iron  stairs  and  floored  with  pressed  bricks  on  the  concrete.  The 
main  stairs  and  stau*way  have  been  finished  with  tiled  floors  and  landings, 
plastered  and  frescoed. 

South  of  the  main  building  a  hoist  has  been  introduced,  extending  j&om  the 
basement  up  to  the  fourth  story.  Private  stairs  cut  to  shape  &om  old  stone  on 
hand  i-each  up  to  the  same  height,  and  iron  stairs,  similar  to  those  in  north 
towers,  lead  up  to  the  higher  stories.  The  first  story  contains  vestibule  and 
general  accommodations.  The  second  story  contains  a  properly  fitted-up  pack- 
ing room  and  bath  room.  The  third  story  contains  the  regents'  room.  The 
fourth,  fifth  and  sixth  stories  are  finished  for  storerooms  and  miscellaneous  pur- 
poses. 

All  modem  and  useful  improvements  have  been  introduced  in  the  restored  and 
newly  fitted  rooms.  In  the  introduction  of  Potomac  water  provisions  have  been 
made  for  fireplugs  of  sufficient  size  in  tho  different  stories,  north  and  south  of 
the  main  building,  and  the  water  can  be  shut  ofi*  from  any  one  section  without 
incommoding  the  rest  of  the  buildings.  The  same  provision  is  made  for  the 
gaslight  arrangements.  Speaking  tubes  lead  in  all  directions,  tending  to  facili- 
tate the  transaction  of  business. 

No  funds  being  at  disposal  to  introduce  a  contemplated  modem  and  improved 
heating  apparatus  for  the  whole  of  the  buildings,  one  of  the  functions  of  which 
would  have  been  to  perfect  the  satisfactory  working  of  the  now  gutters  by  means 
of  exhaust  pipes  at  and  ai-ound  the  inlets  to  the  down-spouts,  stoves  were  set  in 
the  fall  of  the  year  which  will  heat  the  offices  and  other  newly  created  rooms 
for  any  length  of  time  that  may  be  found  necessary. 

The  ix>of  and  gutters  of  tho  east  wing  were  found  to  be  totally  out  of  repair 
and  so  arranged  as  to  be  difficult  of  remodelling.  The  slate  roof  had  to  bo 
taken  up  and  relaid,  the  gutters  were  overhauled,  renewed  and  soldered.  Other 
necessary  repairs  and  alterations  of  a  minor  nature,  demanded  by  the  exigency 
of  the  case,  were  attended  to. 

The  areas  of  casemate  doors  and  windows  around  the  main  buildings  were  all 
out  of  repair.  Their  cappings  were  broken  and  laid  so  low  that  the  simaco  water 
of  the  surrounding  grounds  backed  into  the  basement.     They  were  put  in  order 


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BEPOBT  OP  THE  ABCHITECT.  107 

and  BoffideDtly  heightened.    Brick  pavements  were  laid  in  different  parts  of  the 
basement  of  the  main  building. 

The  work  has  been  faithfully  done  by  the  following  mechanics  and  artisans: 
Brick  work,  Wise  &  Callahan ;  stone  work,  N.  Acker ;  carpenter's  work,  Bird 
&  Baker;  iron  work,  Phoenix  Iron  Company  anil  Gray  &  Noyes;  tin  and  cop- 
per work,  W.  H.  Harrover,  H.  Kichey;  plumbing,  Thos.  Evans;  gas-fitting, 
A.  £.  Bidgway ;  plastering,  Fenwiok  &  Stewart;  painting  and  glazing,  M.  T. 
Parker  &  MacNiohol;  freeing,  E.  Carstens. 

I  have  the  honor  to  be,  sirs,  your  most  obedient  servant, 

ADOLPH  CLUSS, 

Superintending  Architect. 


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JOURNAL  OP  PROCEEDINGS 


OP 


THE    BOARD   OF   REGENTS. 


Washington,  January  15,  1868. 

In  accordance  with  a  resolution  of  the  Board  of  Agents  of  the  Smithsonian 
Institution,  fixing  the  time  of  beginning  of  the  annual  session  on  the  third  Wed- 
nesday of  January  in  each  year,  a  meeting  was  called  for  this  day.  Present^ 
Hon.  J.  V.  L.  Pruyn,  General  Bichard  Delafield,  Professor  L.  Agassiz,  Hon. 
Peter  Parker,  and  Professor  Henry,  the  Secretary. 

The  Secretary  presented  the  following  joint  resolution  of  the  Senate  and 
House  of  Representatives  of  the  United  States : 

[Public  Resolution  No.  5.] 

A  RESOLUTION  for  the  appointment  of  Re^^nts  of  the  Smithsonian  Institntion. 

Resolved  by  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  qfthe  United  States  of  America  in  Can^ 
fress  assembled.  That  the  Tacancies  in  the  Board  of  Re^^ents  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution 
of  the  class  *'  other  than  members  of  Congress  *'  be  filled  by  the  appointment  of  Theodore 
D.  Woolsey,  of  Connecticat,  William  B.  Astor,  of  New  York,  John  Maclean,  of  New  Jersey, 
and  Peter  Parker,  of  the  city  of  Washington. 

Approved,  January  11,  1868. 

The  Secretary  stated-  that  on  the  7th  of  January  the  Speaker  of  the  House 
of  Representatives  had  appointed  the  following  Regents:  Hon.  J.  A.  Garfield 
of  Ohio,  Hon.  L.  P.  Poland  of  Vermont,  and  Hon.  J.  V.  L.  Pruyn  of  New  York. 

No  quorum  being  present,  the  Board,  after  examining  the  building  and  col- 
lections, adjourned  to  meet  on  Wednesday  evening,  January  22,  1868,  at  7i 
o'clock. 


Washington,  January  22, 1868. 

A  meeting  of  the  Board  of  Regents  was  held  at  7^  o'clock  p.  m.  in  the  Regent^ 
room  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution.  Present,  Hon.  B.  F.  Wade,  Hon.  R. 
Wallach,  Hon.  L.  Trumbull,  Hon.  G.  Davis,  Hon.  J.  A.  Garfield,  Hon.  L.  P. 
Poland,  Hon.  J.  V.  L.  Pruyn,  Prof.  L.  Agassiz,  Rev.  Dr.  John  Maclean,  General 
Richard  Delafield,  Hon.  Peter  Parker,  and  Professor  Henry,  the  Secretary. 

Mr.  Wade  was  called  to  the  chair.  The  minutes  of  the  last  meeting  were 
read  and  approved. 

The  Secretary  stated  that  a  vacancy  existed  in  the  Executive  Committee,  on 
account  of  the  death  of  Professor  Bache. 

On  motion  it  was 

Besolved,  That  Hon.  Peter  Parker  be  elected  to  fill  the  vacancy  in  the  Execu- 
tive Committee. 


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PROCEEDINGS  OF  THE   BOABD   OF  fiEGENTS.  109 

The  Secretary  made  a  statement  relative  to  the  finances  of  the  Institation,  the 
fide  of  the  State  stocks,  etc. 

Gen.  Delafield,  on  the  part  of  the  Executive  Committee,  presented  the  annual 
acooant  of  receipts  and  expenditures  for  1867,  and  stated  that  a  detailed  report 
would  be  submitted  at  a  future  meeting. 

The  Secretary  presented  a  statement  in  regard  to  international  exchanges  of 
literary,  scientific  and  government  publications.  The  act  of  Congress,  passed 
tt  the  last  session,  directing  that  50  copies  of  every  government  publication 
iLoold  be  given  to  the  Smithsonian  Institution  to  be  exchanged  for  the  publica- 
tkms  of  foreign  governments,  had  not  been  carried  out,  as  the  public  printer  did 
Bot  condder  that  the  act  referred  to  authorized  the  printing  of  extra  copies  of 
the  works,  and  all  the  regular  edition  was  already  disposed  of  according  to  exist- 
ing laws.    Further  legislation  was  therefore  required. 

Mr.  Pruyn  stated  that  the  subject  had  been  refened  to  the  Library  Committee 
of  Congress,  of  which  he  was  a  member,  and  that  he  would  do  all  in  his  power 
to  promote  the  object  desired. 

Professor  Agassiz,  from  the  committee  appointed  at  the  meeting  of  February  1, 
1867,  presented  a  report,  which,  on  motion  of  Mr.  Wallach,  was  accepted. 

After  remarks  by  several  Regents,  on  motion  of  Mr.  Poland,  the  report  was 
Ittd  on  the  table  and  made  the  special  order  for  the  next  meeting. 

On  motion  of  General  (Garfield  the  report  was  ordered  to  be  printed. 

The  Board  then  adjourned  to  meet  on  Monday  evening,  January  27,  1868. 


Washington,  January  27,  1868. 

A  meeting  of  the  Board  of  Regents  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  was  held 
at  7 J  o'clock  p.  m.,  in  the  Regents'  room.  Present,  Chief  Justice  Chase,  (the 
Chincellor,)  Hon.  B.  F.  Wade,  Hon.  Richard  Wallach,  Hon.  J.  A.  Garfield, 
Hon.  L.  P.  Poland,  Hon.  J.  V.  L.  Pruyn,  Professor  Agassiz,  Hon.  Peter  Parker, 
tnd  Professor  Henry,  the  Secretary. 

The  Chancellor  took  the  chair,  and  the  minutes  of  the  last  meeting  were  read 
ind  approved. 

The  Secretaiy  presented  the  report  for  the  year  1867. 

Professor  Agassiz  presented  a  printed  and  revised  copy  of  the  report  of  the 
special  committee  on  the  use  of  the  new  room,  made  at  the  last  meeting,  which 
was  read  as  follows : 

Beport  qf  the  committee  appointed  to  consider  what  mU  be  the  best  use  for  the  large 
room  in  the  second  story  qf  the  main  building  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution, 
The  influence  the  Smithsonian  Institution  has  exercised  from  its  origin  upon 
the  progress  of  science  in  the  United  States  has  been  so  marked  and  so  deep, 
that  in  considering  any  step  connected  with  the  organization  of  the  Institution, 
it  b  of  the  utmost  importance  to  keep  in  view  its  bearing  upon  the  advancement 
of  knowledge  generally.  To  those  not  familiar  with  the  active  operations  of 
the  Institution,  the  growing  recognition  of  the  difference  between  the  increase 
and  diffusion  of  knowledge,  and  the  consequent  establishment  by  Congress  of  a 
National  Academy,  mainly  organized  for  the  purpose  of  enlarging  the  boui^dariea 


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110      PROCEEDINGS  OF  THE  BOARD  OF  REGENTS. 

of  science  among  ns,  are  in  themselves  sufficient  evidence  of  its  beneficent  power. 
The  large  and  unique  library  lately  transferred  from  the  Institution  to  the  Ubrary 
of  Congress,  and  the  extended  intercourse  between  the  Institution  and  all  the 
learned  bodies  scattered  over  the  globe,  bear  equally  impressive  testimony  to  the 
wide-spread  action  of  the  Institution. 

In  attempting  to  determine  the  most  appropriate  use  to  which  the  large  build- 
ing of  the  Smithsonian,  and  especially  the  large  unappropriated  hall  in  the  second 
story,  may  be  put,  your  committee  has  been  led  to  consider  the  probable  course 
the  Institution  may  follow  whenever  its  resources  become  consolidated  and  its 
means,  gradually  freed  from  their  temporary  application  to  subordinate  purposes, 
are  exclusively  devoted  to  the  special  object  pointed  out  in  the  will  of  Smithaon, 
viz :  ''  the  increase  and  diffusion  of  knowledge  among  men."  The  policy  which 
has  led  to  the  transfer  of  the  Smithsonian  library  to  that  of  Congress  suggests 
the  propriety  of  severing  also  the  museum  from  the  Smithsonian  Institution, 
inasmuch  as  a  museum  is  no  more  contemplated  by  the  will  of  Smithson  than  a 
library.  The  accumulation  of  books  and  specimens  has  been  a  natural  conse- 
quence of  the  organization  of  an  institution  exclusively  devoted  to  the  fostering 
of  intellectual  pursuits.  But  in  proportion  as  their  number  increased  they  claimed 
a  larger  and  larger  part  of  the  attention  and  means  of  the  Institution  until  it 
became  a  matter  of  serious  consideration  how  far  the  possession  of  such  objects 
should  be  embraced  in  its  general  plan  and  scope. 

As  far  as  the  libraiy  is  concerned  the  question  has  been  settled.  It  has  become 
evident  that,  in  consequence  of  the  judicious  distributing  of  its  published  contri- 
butions and  miscellaneous  works,  the  Smithsonian  has  acquired  the  most  com- 
plete collection  of  learned  transactions  in  existence ;  so  extensive,  indeed,  that 
its  preservation  and  natural  extension  would  have  encroached  upon  the  specified 
obligations  of  the  Institution.  The  disposition  made  of  it  leaves  the  students  of 
science  in  the  fullest  enjoyment  of  this  invaluable  store  of  information,  while  it 
relieves  the  Smithsonian  of  a  serious  burden.  Now  your  committee  is  satisfied 
that  the  museum  of  natural  history,  and  the  other  collections  preserved  in  the 
Smithsonian,  stand  in  precisely  the  same  relation  to  the  Institution  as  the  library 
did,  and  that  it  may  be  equally  desirable  to  give  them  up,  and  with  them  the 
largest  part  if  not  the  whole  of  the  building,  could  this  be  done  without  injury 
to  the  collections  and  to  the  cause  of  natural  history.  However,  it  does  not  appear 
advisable  to  adopt  such  a  course  immediately ;  but  it  seems  wise  to  keep  it  in 
view  as  a  probability,  doing  meanwhile  whatever  is  most  likely  to  contribute  to 
the  advancement  of  science. 

A  few  facts  concerning  the  operations  of  the  Institution  should  be  borne  in 
mind  in  this  connection.  In  the  same  manner  as  the  Smithsonian  has  distributed 
its  various  publications  broadcast  among  learned  institutions  and  individual  sci- 
entific men,  and  obtained  in  return  the  magnificent  library  above  alluded  to,  it 
has  also  distributed  an  immense  number  of  specimens,  and  fostered  in  this  way  j 
scientific  research  both  at  home  and  abroad.  But  for  these  latter  contributions 
scattered  over  the  whole  civilized  world  it  has  neither  claimed  nor  received  ade- 
quate returns.  All  the  duplicates  of  these  treasures  obtained  at  home  from  the 
various  government  exploring  expeditions  and  surveys  have  been  given  away  with 


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PROCEEDINaS  OF  THE  BOARD  OF  REGENTS.       Ill 

the  imderGitaiiding  that  the  time  may  come  when  the  progress  of  science  among 
us  would  make  it  desirable  that  returns  in  kind  should  be  expected. 

The  Smithsonian  Institution  has  now  been  in  operation  for  twenty  years.  In 
acknowledgment  of  its  published  Contributions  to  Knowledge  it  has  received  the 
splendid  library  which  now  adorns  the  Congressional  library.  Is  it  not  time  that 
the  rights  accrued  in  consequence  of  the  distribution  of  specimens  by  the  Insti 
tution  should  be  called  in  j  that  this  great  outstanding  debt,  as  it  may  well  bo 
called,  should  be  collected  before  tbe.  recipients  of  these  manifold  gifts  bave  passed 
away,  and  the  benefits  thus  conferred  by  tbe  Smithsonian  are  altogether  forgot- 
ten ;  when  the  Institution  might  find  it  difficult  to  obtain,  without  new  offerinr^, 
tliat  which  at  this  moment  it  may  claim  os  its  due  f 

Should  this  Board  approve  the  recommendation  of  this  committee,  no  time 
ought  to  be  lost  in  giving  notice  to  all  the  various  institutions  with  which  the 
Smithsonian  is  in  regular  correspondence,  that  this  is  henceforth  to  be  the  regu- 
lar policy  of  the  Institution.  On  the  other  hand  it  is  indispensable  that  we 
should  make  the  necessary  preparations  for  receiving  these  objects,  and  also 
determine  beforehand  the  ultimate  destination  of  the  extensive  collections  which 
no  doubt  will  flow  in  as  soon  as  we  are  prepared  to  take  care  of  them.  Your 
committee  is  of  opinion  that  the  great  hall  in  the  second  story  of  the  building 
should  be  used  for  the  reception  of  these  collections,  and  the  smaller  rooms  in 
the  towers,  as  far  as  not  needed  for  other  purposes,  as  laboratories  to  identify, 
arrange,  clasfflfy,  and  distribute  these  collections  for  the  greatest  advantage  of 
adence  among  us,  until  suitable  arrangements  can  be  made  for  the  organization 
of  a  great  national  museum,  to  which  the  whole  should  in  the  end  be  transferred. 

It  is  self-evident  that  the  collections  likely  to  come  in  will  soon  outgrow  tho 
ci4>acity  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  and  its  ability  to  take  care  of  them,  with- 
out applying  its  income  to  objects  for  which  it  was  not  intended.  But  the  diffi- 
culty of  disposing  of  these  scientific  treasures  is  no  sufficient  ground  why  the 
Smithsonian  should  surrender  its  large  claims  on  other  scientific  institutions ;  for, 
in  so  doing,  it  would  simply  deprive  the  country  of  scientific  objects,  which  other 
museums  would  be  glad  to  receive  should  the  Smithsonian  be  obliged  to  give 
them  up  before  the  country  demands  and  organizes  a  great  national  museum  in 
Washington. 

To  sum  up  these  remarks,  your  committee  recommends — 

1st.  That  the  distribution  of  specimens  carried  on  by  the  Smithsonian  Insti- 
tution be  continued  and  extended,  but  that  at  the  same  time  proper  returns  be 
required  whenever  the  specimens  are  not  given  out  in  aid  of  original  researches 
or  for  educational  purposes. 

2cL  That  the  expenses  for  such  operations  be  linutod  to  the  resources  especi- 
ally appropriated  for  the  purpose,  and  not  allowed  to  encroach  upon  the  regular 
acdve  operations  of  the  Institution. 

3d.  That  the  great  hall  of  the  second  story  of  the  building,  and  such  other 
rooms  as  are  not  required  for  the  regular  operations  of  the  institution,  be  devoted 
to  the  preservation  of  the  sdentific  collections. 

All  of  which  is  respectfully  submitted  in  behalf  of  the  committee. 

L.  AGASSIZ. 


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112      PROCEEDINGS  OF  THE  BOARD  OF  REGENTS. 

On  motion  of  Mr.  Garfield,  after  remarks  by  Messrs.  Pruyn,  Agassiz,  Ohase, 
Wade,  Parker,  Wallach,  Garfield,  and  the  Secretary,  the  recommendations  of 
the  committee,  after  modification,  were  adopted  unanimously,  as  follows : 

Ist.  That  the  distribution  of  specimens  carried  on  by  the  Smithsonian  Insti- 
tution be  continued  and  extended,  but  that  at  the  same  time  proper  returns  for 
the  past  as  well  as  for  the  future  be  required,  whenever  the  specimens  are  not 
given  out  in  aid  of  original  researches  or  for  educational  pui-poses. 

2d.  That  the  expenses  for  such  operations  be  limited  to  the  resources  spe- 
dally  appropriated  by  Congress  for  the  purpose,  and  not  allowed  to  encroach 
upon  the  regular  active  operations  of  the  Institution. 

3d.  That  the  great  hall  of  the  second  story  of  the  building,  and  such  other 
rooms  as  are  not  required  for  the  regular  operations  of  me  Institution,  bo 
devoted  to  the  preservation  of  the  scientific  collections. 

On  motion  of  Mr.  Garfield,  the  following  resolution  was  adopted : 

Besolvedj  That  a  committee  be  appointed  to  report  to  the  Regents,  at  their 
next  meeting,  what  amount  of  appropriation  should  be  asked  of  Congress  for 
the  care  of  the  museum  and  for  fitting  up  the  great  hall  for  the  safe-keeping 
and  exhibition  of  specimens. 

Messrs.  Wade,  Garfield,  Pruyn,  Poland,  and  the  Secretary  were  appointed  as 
the  committee. 

The  Board  adjourned  to  meet  at  the  call  of  the  Secretary. 


Wednesday,  April  15,  1868. 

Present,  Chief  Justice  Chase,  (the  Chancellor,)  Hon.  R.  Wallach,  General  R, 
Delafield,  Hon.  Peter  Parker,  and  Professor  Henry,  the  Secretary. 

No  quorum  being  present  the  Board  adjourned  to  meet  on  the  22d  instant  at 
7  p.  m. 

Wednesday,  April  22,  18G8. 

A  meeting  of  the  Board  of  Regents  was  held  this  day  in  the  Regents'  room, 
at  7  o'clock  p.  m.  Present,  Chief  Justice  Chase,  (the  Chancellor,)  Hon. 
B.  F.  Wade,  Hon.  Lyman  Trumbull,  Hon.  Garret  Davis,  Hon.  J.  A.  Garfield, 
Hon.  J.  V.  L.  Pruyn,  General  R.  Delafield,  Hon.  Peter  Parker,  and  Professor 
Henry,  the  Secretaiy. 

The  Chancellor  took  the  chiur,  and  the  minutes  of  the  last  meeting  were 
read  and  approved. 

General  Delafield  presented  the  report  of  the  Executive  Committee  for  the 
year  1867,  which  was  read  and  approved. 

General  Delafield  presented  the  report  of  the  Building  Committee  for  tho 
year  1867,  which  was  read  and  approved. 

The  Secretary  made  a  statement  relative  to  the  facilities  afforded  by  various 
steamship  and  railroad  companies  in  conveying  the  packages  of  the  Institution 
free  of  freight. 

On  motion  of  Mr.  Trumbull,  the  following  resolutions  were  adopted  : 

Whereas  the  Pacific  Mail  Steamship  Company,  North  German  Lloyd,  Ham- 
burg American  Steamship  Company,  General  Trans- Atlantic  Steamship  Com- 
pany, Inman  line  of  steamers,  Uunard  line  of  steamers,  Pacific  Steam  Naviga- 


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PROCEEDINGS  OP  THE  BOARD  OP  REGENTS.      113 

tioB  Company,  Panama  Railroad  Company,  and  California  and  Mexico  Steam- 
ship Company  have  generously  aided  in  a<lvancing  the  objects  of  the  Smithso- 
nian Institution  and  the  promotion  of  science  by  the  facilities  they  have 
afforded  in  the  transportation  of  books,  specimens,  etc.,  free  of  charge :  There- 
fore, 

Besclvedj  That  the  thanks  of  the  Board  of  Regents  of  the  Smithsonian  Insti- 
tution are  hereby  given  to  the  directors  and  officers  of  the  above-named  compa- 
nies for  this  liberal  and  enlightened  action. 

JResdved,  That  a  copy  of  these  resolutions  be  transmitted  by  the  Secretary 
to  each  of  the  companies. 

Professor  Henry  submitted  a  statement  as  to  the  proposed  researches  and 
publications  during  the  present  year. 

Hon.  Mr.  Parker  stated  that  the  city  councils  had  under  consideration  the 
ceding  of  the  canal,  which  bounds  the  Smithsonian  grounds  to  the  north,  to  a 
private  company,  and  as  this  might  affect  the  interests  of  the  Institution  he 
thought  some  action  should  be  taken  in  regard  to  it. 
On  motion  of  General  Garfield,  it  was 

Besclvedj  That  the  Executive  Committee  be  instructed  to  ascertain  what 
measures  aie  proposed  to  be  taken  by  the  city  authorities  of  Washington  in 
regard  to  the  canal,  so  far  as  concerns  the  Smithsonian  Institution. 

The  Chancellor  called  attention  to  the  fact  that  a  committee  was  appointed 
at  the  last  meeting  to  prepare  estimates  for  the  completion  of  the  large  hall 
and  for  obtaining  an  adequate  appropriation  from  Congress  for  the  care  of  the 
government  collections,  and  expressed  the  desure  that  this  committee  should 
act  immediately  in  regard  to  the  matter. 

The  Secretary,  on  behalf  of  the  committee,  stated  that  on  consultation  with  the 
architect  it  was  thought  that  $50,000  would  be  required  for  finishing  the  large 
room  and  supplying  it  with  cases,  and  that  at  least  $10,000  annually  ought  to  be 
appropriated  for  the  care  of  the  museum.     Whereupon  it  was 

Besolved,  That  a  memorial  be  presented  to  Congress  asking  appropriations  in 
accordance  with  the  report  of  the  committee. 

The  Secretary  gave  an  account  of  the  establishment  of  a  scientific  society  in 
Egypt  publishing  valuable  ti-ansactious  which  had  been  received  by  the  Insti- 
tution. 

The  Board  then  adjourned  to  meet  on  Friday,  May  1,  at  7  o'clock  p.  m. 


Feiday,  May  1,  1868. 

A  meeting  of  the  Board  of  Regents  was  held  this  day  at  7  o'clock  p.  m. 
Present,  Chief  Justice  Chase,  (the  Chancellor,)  Hon.  B.  F.  Wade,  Hon.  Lyman 
Trumbull,  Hon.  L.  P.  Poland,  Hon.  J.  V.  L.  Pruyn,  Hon.  Richard  Wallach, 
Geoeral  R.  Delafield,  Hon.  Peter  Parker,  Rev.  Dr.  John  Maclean,  and  Profes- 
sor Henry,  the  Secretary. 

The  Chancellor  took  the  chair,  and  the  minutes  of  the  last  meeting  were 
read  and  approved. 

General  Delafield,  from  the  Executive  Committee,  reported  that  he  had  col- 
lected a  large  amount  of  information  in  relation  to  the  canal,  (bounding  the 
8mithfiK>nian  grounds,)  but  was  not  yet  ready  to  make  a  report. 
8  8    67 

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114       PROCEEDINGS  OF  THE  BOARD  OF  REGENTS. 

The  Secretary  read  a  copy  of  the  memorial  which  had  been  prepared  in 
accordance  with  the  directions  of  the  Board,  signed  by  the  Chancellor  and  Sec- 
retary, and  presented  to  Congress,*  as  follows : 

To  the  lionorabk  the  Senate  and  House  of  Bepresentaiives  in  Congress  assembled : 

In  behalf  of  the  Board  of  Regents  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  the 
undersigned  beg  leave  respectfully  to  submit  to  your  honorable  body  the  fol- 
lowing statement,  and  to  solicit  such  action  in  regard  to  it  as  may  be  deemed 
just  and  proper : 

Tlie  act  of  Congress  organizing  the  Institution  ordered  the  erection  of  a 
building  which  should  accommodate,  on  a  liberal  scale,  besides  a  library  and  a 
gallery  of  art,  a  museum,  consisting  of  all  the  specimens  of  natural  histoiy, 
geology,  and  art,  which  then  belonged  to  the  government,  or  which  might  there- 
after come  into  its  possession  by  exchange  or  otherwise.  Although  the  majorit v 
of  the  Regents  did  not  consider  the  maintenance  of  these  objects  to  be  in  accord- 
ance with  the  intention  of  Smithson,  as  inferred  from  a  strict  interpretation  of 
the  temis  of  his  will,  yet  in  obedience  to  the  commands  of  Congress  they  pro- 
ceeded to  erect  a  building  of  the  necessary  dimensions,  and  to  take  charge  of 
the  ffovernment  collections. 

The  erection  and  maintenance  of  so  large  and  expensive  an  edifice,  involving 
an  outlay  of  $450,000,  and  the  charge  of  the  government  museum,  have  proved 
a  grievous  burden  on  the  Institution,  increasing  from  year  to  year,  which,  had 
not  its  effects  been  counteracted  by  a  judicious  management  of  the  funds,  would 
have  paralyzed  the  legitimate  operations  of  the  establishment,  and  frustrated 
the  evident  intention  of  Smithson. 

It  is  true  that  Congress,  at  the  time  the  specimens  were  transferred  to  the 
Institution,  wanted  an  appropriation  of  $4,000  for  their  care  and  preservation, 
that  being  the  equivalent  of  the  estimated  cost  of  the  maintenance  of  these 
collections  in  the  Patent  Office,  where  they  had  previously  been  exhibited* 
But  this  sum,  from  the  rise  in  prices  and  the  expansion  of  the  museum  by  the 
specimens  obtained  from  about  fifty  exploring  expeditions  ordered  by  Congress, 
scarcely  more  than  defrays,  at  the  present  time,  one-third  of  the  annual  expense. 
In  this  estimate  no  account  is  taken  of  the  rent  of  the  part  of  the  building 
devoted  to  the  museum  of  the  government,  which,  at  a  moderate  estimate, 
would  be  $20,000  per  annum. 

Besides  the  large  expenditure  which  has  already  been  made  on  the  boilding, 
at  least  $50,000  more  will  bo  required  to  finish  the  lar^e  hall  in  the  second 
story,  necessary  for  the  full  display  of  the  specimens  of  tne  government.  But 
the  Regents  do  not  think  it  judicious  further  to  embarrass  the  active  operations 
for  several  years  to  come,  by  devoting  a  large  part  of  the  income  to  this  object, 
and  have,  therefore,  concluded  to  allow  this  room  to  remain  unfinished  until 
other  means  are  provided  for  completing  it. 

It  is  not  by  its  castellated  building  nor  the  exhibition  of  the  museum  of  the 
government  that  the  Institution  has  achieved  its  present  reputation,  nor  by  the 
collection  and  dbplay  of  material  objects  of  any  Kind  that  it  has  vindicated  the 
intelligence  and  good  faith  of  the  government  in  the  administration  of  the 
trust )  it  is  by  its  explorations,  its  researches,  its  publications,  its  distribution  of 
specimens  and  its  exchanges,  constituting  it  an  active,  living  organization,  that 
it  has  rendered  itself  favorably  known  in  every  part  of  the  civilized  world,  has 
made  contributions  to  almost  every  branch  of  science,  and  brought  more  than 
ever  before  into  intimate  and  friendly  relations  the  Old  and  the  New  Worlds. 

A  central  museum  for  a  complete  representation  of  the  natural  products  of 
America,  with  such  foreign  specimens  as  may  bo  required  for  comparison  and 
generalization,  is  of  great  importance,  particularly  as  a  means  of  developing 

*  May  1.— In  the  Honso  of  Bapresentatives.— Referred  to  the  Committee  on  Appropriations 
and  ordered  to  be  printed. 


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PBOCEEDINOS  OF  THE  BOARD  OF  REGENTS.      115 

and  illnstrating  onr  industrial  resources,  as  well  as  of  facilitating  the  study  of 
the  relations  of  our  geology,  mineralogy,  flora  and  fauna,  to  those  of  the  Old 
World.  But  the  benefit  of  such  an  establishment  is  principally  confined  to  this 
country,  and  does  not  partake  of  the  cosmopolitan  character  of  an  institution 
such  as  Smithson  intended  to  found,  and  therefore  ought  not  to  be  supported 
from  his  bequest. 

The  Board  of  Regents  are  confident  that  upon  a  full  consideration  of  the  case, 
your  honorable  body  will  grant  an  adequate  support  for  the  collections  of  the 
government,  and  also  an  appropriation  for  finishing  the  repaii*s  of  the  building, 
and  eventually,  when  the  financial  condition  of  the  country  will  permit,  for  the 
independent  maintenance  of  a  national  museum. 

It  may  not  be  improper,  in  addition  to  what  has  been  siud,  to  recall  the  fact 
that  the  Smithsonian  Institution  has  transferred,  without  cost,  to  the  library  of 
Congress,  one  of  the  most  valuable  and  complete  collections  of  the  transactions 
of  scientific  and  learned  societies  and  serial  publications  in  existence,  consisting 
of  at  least  50,000  works,  which,  with  the  annual  continuations  of  the  same 
seri^  must  render  Washington  a  centre  of  scientific  knowllidge,  and  the  library 
itself  worthy  of  the  nation ;  and  that  it  has  also  presented  to  the  government  its 
valuable  collection  of  specimens  of  art,  illustrating  the  history  of  engraving 
from  the  earliest  periods.  It  is  prepared  to  render  a  similar  service  to  a  national 
museum,  by  the  exchanges  from  foreign  museums  to  which  it  has  been  a  liberal 
contributor,  and  which  may  be  obtained  as  soon  as  means  are  provided  for  their 
transportation  and  accommodation. 

It  may  also  be  mentioned  that  the  Institution  has  rendered  important  service 
to  the  government  through  the  scientific  investigations  it  has  made  in  connection 
with  the  operations  of  the  different  departments,  and  it  is  not  too  much  to  say 
that,  through  the  labors  of  its  officers,  it  has  been  the  means  of  saving  millions 
of  dollars  to  the  national  treasury. 

In  conclusion,  your  memorialists  beg  leave  to  represent,  on  behalf  of  the 
Board  of  Regents,  that  the  usual  annual  appropriation  of  $4,000  is  wholly 
inadequate  to  the  cost  of  preparing,  preserving,  and  exhibiting  the  specimens, 
the  actual  expenditure  for  that  purpose  in  18G7  having  been  over  $12,000  j  and 
they  take  the  liberty  of  respectfully  urging  on  your  honorable  body  the  expe- 
diency of  increasing  it  to  $10,000,  and  that  a  further  sum  of  $25,000  bo  appro- 
priated at  this  session  of  Congress  towards  the  completion  of  the  hall  required 
for  the  government  collections. 

And  your  memorialists  will  ever  pray^  &c. 

S.  P.  CHASE, 
Chancellor  Smithsonian  Institution, 

JOSEPH  HENRY, 
Secretary  Smithsonian  Institution. 

On  motion,  the  action  of  the  Chancellor  and  Secretary  in  relation  to  the 
memorial  was  approved. 

The  Secretary  gave  an  account  of  the  correspondence  of  the  Institution,  and 
as  an  illustration  of  its  diversified  character  read  the  letters  which  had  been 
received  that  day. 

On  motion  of  Mr.  Maclean,  the  annual  report  of  the  Secretary  was  accepted, 
and  the  ofiScers  of  the  Institution  authorized  to  transmit  it  to  Congress. 

A  motion  of  Mr.  Wallach,  in  behalf  of  the  Executive  Committee,  to  increase 
the  salary  of  the  Secretary,  was  referred  back  to  the  same  Committee,  with 
instmctions  to  make  a  report  on  the  whole  subject  of  the  compensation  of  the 
pfficers  of  the  Institution  at  the  next  meeting. 

Adjourned,  to  meet  at  the  call  of  the  Secretary. 


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116  PROCEEDINGS   OP  THE  BOARD   OF  REGENTS. 


EXTRACTS  FROM  THE  GENERAL  CORRESPONDENCE  SUBMIT- 
TED  TO  THE  BOARD  OF  REGENTS. 

From  the  Becards  qfthe  American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 

Boston,  Massachusetts,  Mat/  29, 1866. 
Remarks  were  made  by  the  president  and  by  tbe  librarian  on  the  aid  ren- 
dered by  the  Smithsonian  Institution  in  effecting  the  exchanges  of  the  academy; 
and,  on  motion  of  the  librarian,  it  was  voted :  That  the  thanks  of  the  academy 
be  presented  to  the  Smithsonian  Institution  for  the  generous  and  efficient  aid 
whicli  it  has  rendered  through  its  system  of  foreign  exchanges  and  distribution 
of  publications,  by  which  the  academy  has  greatly  profited. 

CHAUNCEY  WRIGHT, 
Becording  Secretary  American  Academy. 


From  George  H.  Knight. 

CiNcnrNATi,  Ohio,  Jtdy  10,  1866. 

The  system  of  weights  and  measures  being  on  the  tapis,  ought  we  not  to  save 
posterity  a  world  of  trouble  by  once  for  all  dethroning  ten  as  the  metrical  num- 
ber in  favor  of  eight — a  number  susceptible  of  indefinite  bisection,  itself  a  cube, 
(2',)  and  whose  square  is  a  cube,  (4^  t) 

Two  with  its  multiples  is  the  natural  division  in  measures;  witness  the  old  dry 
measure:  2  gills=one  jack^  2  jacks=one  pint^  2  pint8=one  quart;  2  quart8= 
one  pottle;  2  pottles=2one  gallon;  2  gallon8=one  peck;  4  peck8=one  bushel; 
8  bushel8=one-quarter ;  4  quarter8=one  chaldron,  &;c. 

The  system  would,  of  course,  abolish  the  two  digits,  8  and  9.  Eight  would 
be  represented  by  the  sign  10,  and  nine  by  11,  while  8.  X  8. =100.  I  am  not 
unaware  of  the  prodigious  labor  involved  in  such  a  change — a  labor  too  great 
for  an  age  which  expends  more  on  litigation  than  on  its  wheat  crop ;  but  I  never- 
theless believe  it  will  be  undertaken  by  some  future  age  at  a  far  greater  sacrifice. 


From  E.  C.  BoUes,  Secretary  qf  the  Portland  Society  qf  Natural  History. 

Portland,  Maine,  August  24,  1866. 

The  Portland  Society  of  Natural  History  has  always  felt  that  the  Smithsonian 
Institution  .was  its  best  friend.  Unnumbered  instances  of  a  generous  regard, 
rising  to  munificence  in  the  time  of  our  loss  and  trial ;  wise  counsels  never  out 
of  place ;  wonderful  facilities  for  scientific  interchange  most  cheerfuUv  granted, 
all  compel  us  to  this  belief;  and  it  is  in  obedience  to  this  conviction  that  we  lay 
before  you,  at  the  earliest  possible  moment,  a  statement  of  the  present  condition 
of  our  society,  which,  in  the  terrible  calamity  well  known  throughout  our  land^ 
has  been  almost  the  greatest  sufierer  of  all. 

The  destructive  fire  of  July  4th  consumed  our  building  and  collections,  leav- 
ing, fi-om  the  peculiar  construction  of  the  former,  scarcely  a  vestige  of  the  interior 
of  the  hall.  We  regret  to  say  that  this  loss  was  entirely  unnecessary.  The 
structure  was  eminently  fire-proof,  separated  by  20  feet  on  each  side  from  the 
buildings  on  the  right  and  left.  A  large  wooden  house  on  the  right  had  been 
entirely  burned  without  danger  to  our  property ;  the  library  had  been  quietly  and 


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PBOC££DINGS  OF  THE  BOABD  OF  REGENTS.       117 

safely  removed ;  in  the  event  of  possible  danger  there  seemed  time  enough  to 
secure  the  cabinets,  which  were  already  so  aiTanged  as  to  be  readily  carried  out, 
when  an  ill-judged  explosion  of  powder  in  the  building  on  the  left  blew  out  the 
frw  windows  in  our  premises,  and  drove  the  burning  mass  of  splinters  and  boards 
quite  over  the  lower  floor  of  oiur  lecture-room,  and  left  this,  of  course,  in  a  moment, 
only  a  sheet  of  flame.  This  unexpected  blow,  almost  destroying  several  mem- 
bers of  the  society,  rendered  all  further  efforts  to  save  our  property  vain. 

You  will  be  pleased  to  learn  that  all  our  books  and  pamphlets,  including  our 
own  and  the  Smithsonian  publications,  were  saved.  I  wish  that  I  could  say  as 
moch  for  the  collections,  but,  excepting  about  100  species  of  shells,  withdrawn 
for  a  special  purpose  and  not  then  returned,  all  was  lost. 

And  now  we  beg  to  assure  you  that  the  society  still  lives.  Not  even  this 
second  trial  by  fire  shall  destroy  our  existence  and  work.  Although  since  that 
night  of  disasters  eveiy  one's  heart  and  brain  have  been  overtaxed,  we  have  not 
]ok  a  single  meeting.  One  result  you  will  see  in  the  enclosed  appeal,  which 
document  we  have  circulated  among  such  men  of  science  as  were  catalogued  in 
tie  "  Naturalist's  Director}*."  Wo  find  ourselves  almost  penniless.  Our  city  is 
too  well  drained  of  its  resources  to  afford  more  than  a  few  scanty  crumbs  of  aid. 
What  response  will  bo  made  to  om*  petition  we  do  not  as  yet  know ;  certain  it  is 
that  if  this  machinery  fails  we  shall  try  some  other.  Our  fortune,  by  its  very 
hardness,  rouses  and  stimulates  us.  We  are  very  anxious  to  have  some  building 
of  our  own,  however  humble,  rather  than  multiply  risks  by  sharing  with  other 
organizations  the  common  shelter  of  one  roof.  Wo  feel  better  to-day,  because 
no  part  of  our  loss  is  to  be  charged  upon  our  own  want  of  forethought  or  imme- 
diate care. 

Our  present  location  might  again  serve  us  were  it  not  for  public  demands  and 
mterference.  The  walls  of  our  building  are  as  good  as  when  first  built ;  but 
the  city,  in  making  the  street  in  front  of  us  wider,  cuts  off  about  20  feet  of  our 
building,  reducing  the  dimensions  of  our  land  too  much  to  leave  the  rest  of  use 
to  us.  I  need  scarcely  add  that,  under  the  most  favorable  terms  of  sale,  we 
cannot  close  our  business  matters  up  to  have  more  than  82,500  remain  above  our 
mortgage  debt. 

But  we  ought  not  to  tax  your  patience  further.  We  shall  be  most  grateful 
for  your  s)Tmpathy,  suggestions,  aid.  Situated  as  we  are,  there  is  not  another 
institution  of  science  that  has  been  forced  to  record  two  such  terrible  chapters  of 
misfortune.  But  we  mean,  if  Providence  blesses  our  labors,  to  make  it  true  that 
DO  local  societv  of  natural  history  shall  leave  in  years  to  come  a  better  chapter 
of  haid-eamed  prosperity  and  fame. 

[NoTB. — ^We  are  happy  to  state  that  this  society  is  again  in  a  flourishing  con- 
(fition,  and  that  permission  has  recently  been  given  to  it  by  the  city  government 
to  occupy,  free  of  charge,  rooms  in  the  new  city  hall  building  j  also,  that  the 
Smithsonian  Institution  has  presented  it  with  another  very  complete  set  of  its 
duplicate  specimens  of  natural  history. — J.  H.] 


From  JosiaJi  Goodwin,  secretary  and  editor  qf  the  Bath  and  West  qf  England 
Society  for  the  Encouragement  qf  Agriculture,  Arts,  Manttfactures,  and  Com- 
merce, 

Bath,  September  3,  1866. 

On  behalf  of  the  president  and  council  of  the  Bath  and  West  of  England 

society,  I  have  the  honor  to  acknowledge  the  safe  arrival  of  the  several  books 

enumerated  in  the  invoice  numbered  804a,  1866,  which  I  beg  to  enclose  receipted ; 

and  I  have  much  pleasure  in  conveying  to  the  honorable  the  officers  and  Regents 


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118      PROCEEDINGS  OP  THE  BOARD  OP  REGENTS. 

of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  the  assurance  that  the  president  and  the  conncil 
of  the  Bath  and  West  of  England  society  entertain  not  only  a  very  high  sense 
of  the  valuable  services  confen'ed  on  the  scientific  world  i y  the  labors  and  pub- 
lications of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  but  they  cannot  too  highly  applaud  the 
enlightened  liberality  which  has  actuated  the  conductors  of  the  Smithsonian 
Institution  in  the  establishment  of  such  an  admirable  system  of  organization  for 
facilitating  the  mutual  interchange  of  the  publications  of  the  learned  and  other 
societies  in  various  parts  of  the  great  continent  of  America  and  the  United  King- 
dom of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 

Acting  in  a  reciprocal  spirit,  I  have  much  pleasure  in  transmitting,  through 
your  recognized  agent,  several  volumes  of  the  Bath  and  West  of  England  society's 
journals,  in  order  to  complete  the  set  in  the  library  of  your  Institution,  more  espe- 
cially as  the  earlier  volumes  can  now  be  obtained  only  very  rarely,  as  the  society's 
stock  is  entuely  exhausted. 


From  Dr.  Brehm,  the  director  qf  the  Zoological  Gurdcns. 

Hamburg,  September  11,  1S66. 

I  am  in  receipt  of  your  letter  dated  the  2d  of  last  month,  in  which  you  state 
that  a  specimen  of  the  American  great  homed  owl  is  offered  for  the  accep- 
tance of  the  zoological  society  of  this  city,  by  the  Smithsonian  Institution; 
and  I  have  the  satisfaction  of  stating  that  the  bird  has  arrived  in  good  health 
and  condition,  and  the  society  is  very  much  obb>ed,  and  will  do  itself  the  pleas-  * 
ure  of  returning  the  compliment  if  you  will  indicate  in  what  manner  it  can  be 
done. 

If  I  might  further  intrude  on  the  kindness  of  the  Institution,  it  would  be  to 
say  that  some  of  your  common  finches  (FringiUidcB)  would  be  very  acceptable, 
as  the  birds  usually  imported  are  only  such  as^  e.  g :  Uardindlis  virffinianuSy  Spisa 
cinis,  Astragalinus  tristus,  and  Cocoborus  ludovicianus.  But  we  get  overdone 
with  these  birds  of  dealers,  and  which  are  popular  with  private  purchasers,  who 
do  not  value  the  less  externally  attractive  and  common  birds  which  I  am  anx- 
ious to  possess.  Some  of  the  small  owls  I  should  also  like  to  have  from  America, 
together  with  any  of  your  ducks,  (AnaSj)  excepting  the  "  summer  duck,"  which, 
for  the  same  reason  as  I  have  above  given  in  regard  to  other  birds,  are  imported 
into  Europe  in  quantities. 

It  is  remarkable  that  the  "  snow  goose,"  though  abounding  in  the  United 
States  in  any  number  of  thousands,  is  not  in  any  European  zoological  garden. 
Will  you  please  to  think  of  me  with  special  attention  with  regard  to  this  bird  t 


From  the  Chicago  Academy  qf  Sciences. 

Chicago,  February  11,  1867. 
The  undersigned,  trustees  of  the  Chicago  Academy  of  Sciences,  desiring  to 
signalize  in  a  more  special  manner  their  sense  of  the  great  obligations  the  academy 
is  under  to  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  have  caused  a  list  to  be  made  of  its  recent 
donations  to  their  library  and  museum,  and  take  this  method  of  expressing  to 
you  their  sincere  thanks,  not  only  for  these  books  and  specimens,  but  in  general 
for  the  fostering  care  with  which  the  Institution  has  treated,  from  its  inception, 
our  attempt  to  establish  a  strictly  scientific  museum  here  in  the  west. 
Very  respectfully,  your  obedient  servants, 

GEO.  C.  WALKER.  H.  G.  L00M18. 

W.  E.  DOGGETT.  E.  W.  BLATCHPORD. 

E.  G.  McCAGG.  DANIEL  THOMPSON. 
J.  YOUNG  SCAMMON. 


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PBOCEEDINGS  OF  THE  BOARD  OF  REGENTS.       119 

Bepart  on  an  improved  system  qf  numeration^  by  W.  B,  Taylor,  Esq. 

United  States  Patent  Office, 

Washington,  March  22,  1867. 

I  have  examined  the  paper  referred  to,  on  tLe  subject  of  an  improved  numera- 
tion for  aritLmetical  operations,  and  have,  respectfoUy,  to  offer  the  following 
remarks:  The  proposal  is -simply  to  interpolate  six  additional  "digits"  (if  the 
term  may  be  allowed)  between  the  nine  and  the  ten  of  our  common  arithmetical 
scale,  in  every  order  or  place  of  figures ;  in  other  words,  to  substitute  a  senide- 
nary  for  the  received  denary  radix  of  numeration.  This  suggestion  has  been 
made,  I  believe,  more  than  once  before.  In  1859,  Mr.  J.  W.  Nystrom,  of  Phila- 
delphia, published  an  essay  on  what  he  called  the  tonal  system,  (ton  being 
the  name  he  assigned  to  the  senidenary  ten,)  advocating  the  adoption  of  the 
number  16  as  the  basis  of  a  universal  arithmetic  and  metrology. 

All  who  have  given  the  subject  of  weights  and  measures  much  consideration 
will  agi-ee  in  the  proposition  that  a  scheme  of  continual  bisections  and  doublings 
would  prove  a  great  convenience  in  all  the  operations  of  concrete  arithmetic,  and 
were  it  not  for  the  enormous  labor  of  a  reconstruction,  and  the  great  time  reqmred 
for  its  general  introduction  among  civilized  nations,  some  such  reform  might  be 
accepted  as  advantageous  or  desirable. 

So  early  as  the  beginning  of  the  last  century,  the  illustrious  Leibnitz  elaborated 
a  scheme  of  binary  arithmetic,  (whose  only  characters  were  1  and  0,)  and  pub- 
lished a  treatise  in  its  exposition  and  support.  A  paper  of  his  upon  the  subject 
will  be  found  in  the  Memoirs  of  the  Academic  Royal  des  Sciences  for  the  year 
1703,  page  85,  in  which  he  says  he  had  himself  employed  this  ratio  of  computa- 
tion for  many  years,  and  that  he  regarded  it  as  "  la  perfection  do  la  science  des 
nombres;"  an  opinion  which,  from  such  an  authority,  is  entitled  to  very  high 
respect. 

It  may  well  be  questioned,  however,  whether  the  senidenary  scale  favored  by 
your  correspondent  would  fulfil  the  true  desideratum — a  minimum^  of  arithmetical 
hbor.  There  are  considerations  tending  to  show  that  even  our  present  denary 
ratio  is  too  high  for  the  most  complete  and  general  facility.  In  balancing  the 
two  opposite  conditions  of  conciseness  of  expression,  and  simplicity  of  construc- 
tion, it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  while  the  number  of  places  required  to  express 
a  given  value  is  diminished,  simply  as  the  logarithm  of  the  radix  increases, 
the  mental  labor  required  in  using  any  scale  is  increased  in  a  considerably  higher 
ratio  than  the  arithmetical  increment  of  the  radix ;  probably  in  a  geometrical 
progression,  or  as  some  low  power  of  the  base.  I  am  inclined  to  believe,  there- 
fore, that  as  between  the  binary  and  senidenary  systems,  the  former  is  decidedly 
to  he  preferred ;  that  the  economy  of  places  or  of  expression  in  the  latter  would 
prove  but  a  trival  compensation  for  its  much  larger  range  and  variety  of  symbols 
and  the  for  greater  complexity  of  all  the  tables  and  processes  necessary  in  its 
employment. 

For  all  popular  uses,  either  the  quarternary  or  octonary  scale  would  probably 
be  found  much  more  convenient  than  either  of  these  suggested  extremes,  and 
certainly  much  more  available  for  the  distribution  of  weights  and  measures. 

In  1719,  Swedenborg  published  an  Octonaiy  Computus,  and  a  project  of  an 
octaval  system  of  weights,  measures,  and  coins.  It  is  said  that  Charles  XII,  of 
Sweden,  had  contemplated  the  experimental  adoption  of  the  scheme  not  long 
before  his  death,  in  1718. 

It  may  not  be  considered  urrelevant  to  here  briefly  compare  the  four  different 
scales  above  mentioned  with  oar  established  scale^  in  point  of  expressiveness. 


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120       PROCEEDINGS  OF  THE  BOARD  OF  REGENTS. 

Scale  of  eompariaon. 


Scale. 


I 


S  0; 
OS  c> 

S  * 
«^ 

CU'. 
CO 


Expression  for 

toe  present 

year. 


Denary.-.. 
Senidenary., 
Octonary... 
Qnarternary 
Binary 


1. 

1.204 
.903 
.602 
.301 


V 


1.867 

.743 

3.613 

131.023 

Jl.  101.001.011 


Or  to  coroparo  them  in  the  expression  of  very  large  values,  as  for  example,  of 
such  a  sum  as  the  number  of  grains  of  sand  required  to  constitute  a  globe  as 
large  as  our  earth,  (which,  assuming  10  millions  of  grains  to  the  cubic  inch, 
would  not  exceed  659  quintillions,  an  expression  requiring  33  places  of  figures,) 
we  should  find  that  the  senidenary  scale  would  require  28  figures,  (a  reduction 
quite  insignificant,)  the  octonary  would  require  37  fisfures,  (an  excess  equally 
insignificant,  with  only  half  the  number  of  digits,  ancl  probablj^  not  one-fourtu 
the  difficulty,)  the  quartemary  55  figures,  and  the  binary  110  figures. 

In  conclusion,  I  would  express  the  opinion  that  the  arithmetical  scale  suggested 
by  your  correspondent  does  not  pronn'se  a  convenience  which  would  justify  the 
subversion  of  the  existing  system  of  enumeration  in  its  favor. 


From  Count  de  LuHg,  President  of  tJte  St  Petersburg  Academy  of  Sciences. 

St.  Petersburg,  May  13,  1867. 

Having  received,  through  the  kind  attention  of  his  excellency  General  Clay, 
the  letter  which  you  did  me  the  honor  to  address  to  me  under  date  of  the  25tli 
of  March  last,  fix)m  the  city  of  Washington,  I  lost  no  time  in  communicating  its 
purport  to  the  Imperial  Academy  of  Sciences.  That  body  has  accepted,  with 
the  most  lively  acknowledgments,  the  offer  which  you  make,  in  the  name  of  the 
Smithsonian  Institution,  to  enrich  the  museums  of  the  academy  with  the  gift  of 
duplic4ites  of  the  objects  of  natural  history,  collected  in  the  Russian  possessions 
in  America,  as  well  as  of  those  which  M.  Bischoff  shall  have  an  opportunity  of 
collecting  in  Kamtschatka  and  the  province  of  the  Amour. 

At  the  same  time  I  deemed  it  my  duty  to  address  to  General  Korsakoff,  gov- 
ernor general  of  Siberia,  a  request  that  he  would  have  the  goodness  to  give  such 
orders  that  M.  Bischoff  shall  find,  during  the  expedition  which  he  contemplates* 
assistance  and  protection  on  the  part  of  the  local  authorities.  By  an  official 
despatch  of  the  25th  of  April,  M.  Korsakoff  informs  me  that  he  has  written  on  this 
subject  to  the  governors  of  the  provinces  which  M.  Bischoff  has  the  intention  of 
visiting,  and  luis,  at  the  same  time,  conveyed  to  me  an  open  order  (in  the  Russian 
language)  which  it  will  be  proper  that  M.  Bischoff  shall  carry  wnth  him  and  pro- 
duce to  the  local  authorities  in  case  of  need,  that  he  may  secure  their  protection 
and  assistance^  be  enabled  to  procure  from  the  magazines  of  the  state  provisions 
at  the  legal  rates,  and  be  received  on  board  the  vessels  of  the  empire.  This  docu- 
ment I  have  the  honor  of  transmitting  with  the  present  communication,  and  beg, 
sk,  that  you  will  accept  the  assurance  of  my  most  distinguished  consideration. 


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PROCEEDINGS  OF  THE  BOARD  OF  REGENTS.       121 

From  H,  Zisqenbdls. 

Leipsic,  May  17,  1867. 

Enclosed  I  send  you  the  prospectus  of  the  Schlagintwait  collection  of  ethno« 
grapliic  heads  of  India  and  higher  Asia,  which,  in  view  of  the  purpose  now  enter- 
tained of  forming  a  comprehensive  museum  of  such  representations,  cannot  fail 
to  he  of  interest  to  the  Smithsonian  Institution. 

The  price  of  the  collection  is,  as  has  been  already  stated,  somewhat  high,  and 
is  established  at  the  following  rates : 

1.  Single  heads,  according  to  the  choice  of  the  purchaser,  for  11  thalers. 

2.  At  least  25  heads  taken  at  one  time,  at  9  thalers. 

3.  The  complete  collection,  275  heads  and  37  impressions  of  hands  and  feet, 
taken  at  one  time,  2,348  thalers. 

In  case  of  a  commission  for  the  above  purpose  I  would  hold  myself  in  readi- 
ness to  superintend  the  transmission  in  the  best  and  most  expeditious  manner. 


From  W.  Alfred  Lloyd. 

Hamburg,  May  25,  1867. 
The  sparrows  will  be  sent  in  about  two  months  from  this  date,  when  tho 
young  birds  bom  this  spring  will  be  strong  enough  for  travelling.  They  are  not 
very  easy  to  keep  in  captivity,  and  I  must  try  to  find  out  by  previous  observa- 
tion what  will  bo  the  best  manner  of  forwarding  them.  You  shall,  of  course, 
have  due  notice  and  proper  instructions,  and  I  \vill  place  them  in  the  care  of  a 
trustworthy  person,  to  whom  a  premium  can  be  offered,  varying  in  amount 
according  to  the  number  delivered  alive  and  in  good  health.  This  is  the  plan  I 
adopt  with  regard  to  the  transport  of  living  aquarium  animals,  and  thank  you 
very  much  for  kindly  trying  to  send  me  some.  I  mentioned  sea  anemones  and 
madrepores,  they  being  easier  to  send  alive  than  some  other  animals,  but  I  should 
be  glad  to  have  any  American  invertebmta,  particularly  marine,  as  I  try  to  make 
the  aqoariura  of  our  society  a  kind  of  museum  of  the  lower  aquatic  forms  of  life. 
I  think  I  did  send  you  a  pamphlet  containing  a  list  of  those  I  have  already 
obtained,  chiefly  from  England  and  the  north  of  Europe,  and  I  am  now  desux>us 
to  get  things  from  places  further  afield.  I  believe  many  of  your  marine  Crustacea 
might  be  forwarded  with  no  very  great  amount  of  difficulty,  but  the  only  exam- 
ples I  have  yet  obtained  are  CenobUa  Diogenes^  from  Cuba,  and  Limularpoiy- 
pfiemus,  from  New  York.  I  have  still  some  of  the  last  named,  but  they  are  too 
big  for  my  accommodations,  and  I  am  anxious  to  see  very  young  specimens — 
say  a  couple  of  inches  long.  Last  week  I  almost  got  some  crafts  from  the  South 
Sea  islands.  They  appear  to  bo  situated  somewhere  about  grapsus  or  gonopl». 
These  three  forms  of  Crustacea  reached  Europe  alive  because  of  their  habit  of 
living  much  out  of  water,  not  usually  immersed  in  fluid,  but  only  kept  damp,  so 
that  the  fact  or  accidence  of  their  own  avoidance  of  being  kept  actually  below 
the  surface  of  the  water  caused  their  gills  to  be  sufficiently  aerated  on  the  voy- 
age, as  it  is  evident  that  thin  films  of  water  presented  to  the  atmosphere  are 
more  quickly  oxygenated  and  acted  upon  than  large  masses,  because  of  the  pre- 
sentation of  greater  surfaces  to  tho  action  of  the  atmosphere,  just  the  same  com- 
paring together  dissimilar  processes  that  a  lump  of  sugar  placed  in  water  as  a 
Bolid  lump  takes  a  much  longer  time  to  dissolve  than  if  the  same  quantity  were 
powdered,  because  when  in  the  form  of  powder  the  water  has  an  infinite  number 
of  surfaces  to  act  upon  all  at  once.  For  this  reason  I  keep  all  difficult  marine 
animals  in  shallow  water.  A  cubic  foot  of  fluid,  arranged  as  a  cube,  pre- 
sents to  the  atmosphere  a  surface  of  144  square  inches,  whereas,  if  the  same  cubic 
^t  be  spread  out  so  the  depth  is  but  throe  inches,  the  surface  presented  is  576 


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122  PROCEEDINGS  OP  THE  BOiltD  OP  BEGENT8. 

incbeSy  and  tbe  amount  of  oxygen  absorbed  by  tbe  atmospbere  in  contact  witb  it 
and  the  health  of  the  animals  immersed  in  it  (always  supposing  they  have  enough 
space  in  which  to  move)  is  according  to  tbe  arithmetical  expression  of  the  case. 
Even  deep-sea  creatures  obtained  from  tbe  greatest  depths  to  which  dredges  and 
sounding  lines  have  ever  penetrated  try  to  get  to  the  surface  of  the  aquarium 
they  are  placed  in,  to  seek  the  air  which  tbe  enormous  pressure  gave  them  in  tbe 
waters  they  inhabited  in  nature,  and  appear  to  suffer  no  inconvenience  by  the 
removal  of  that  pressure,  their  tissues  being  vascular  and  permeated  by  the  water 
on  all  sides.  I  trouble  you  with  these  particulars  as  being  useful  hints  in  the 
sending  of  any  aquatic  animals,  as  sailors  and  others  are  so  apt  to  keep  them  in 
deep  water,  i.  e.,  deep  water  relatively  to  the  surface  exposed  afforded  by  the 
vessel  they  are  brought  in.  I  have  often  thought  that  a  large  tub  containing 
masses  of  rough  cleaned  sponge,  (such  as  is  used  for  stable  purposes,)  would 
answer  well  in  bringing  over  some  crnstacea,  and  perhaps  sea  anemones.  Some 
small  holes  should  be  bored  in  the  side  of  the  tub  about  three  inches  from  tbe 
bottom,  and  then,  if  a  quantity  of  sea-water  were  daily  or  oftener  poured  over 
the  sponge  and  animals,  it  would  find  its  way  out  at  the  holes  and  leave  the 
sponge  saturated  wirti  ipoisture.  Each  mass  of  sponge  would  be  a  kind  of  lung 
perforated  with  openings  in  all  directions,  and  the  fluid  contained  in  the  sponge 
would  thus  have  a  very  large  surface  exposure  to  the  surrounding  air,  and  the 
crabs  would  climb  upon  and  absorb  it,  while  tbe  three  inches  of  water  below 
would  effectually  prevent  desiccation.  Twenty  or  thirty  small  crabs  so  brought 
to  Europe  in  a  tub  of  about  four  feet  diameter,  covered  over  the  top  with  a  net, 
would  be  very  nearly  in  the  condition,  chemically  speaking  of,  as  many  birds  or 
other  lung-breathing  creatures.  The  sponge  too  would,  I  think,  prevent  injury 
to  the  animals  by  the  motion  of  the  ship.  Wo  know  fax  too  little  of  the  habits 
of  invertebrate  aquatic  forms  of  life  from  parts  of  the  world  distant  from  us,  as 
we  have  not  given  sufficient  consideration  to  the  proper  means  of  transporting 
them.  What  is  wanted  is  not  only  water  but  air  in  iJie  water,  and  if  on  boam 
ship  tbe  appliances  are  somewhat  rude,  so  that  the  fluid  cannot  be  kept  as  pure 
as  it  might  be  kept  on  land,  then  shallowness  and  the  presentation  of  great  sur- 
faces of  fluid  to  the  purifying  influences  of  the  atmosphere  are  the  best  means  of 
getting  over  the  difficulty.  We  shall  be  very  thankful  for  the  promised  meno- 
jpoma. 


From  W.  Alfred  Uoyd. 

Hamburg,  July  13,  1867. 
By  the  steamer  Borussia,  leaving  here  this  evening,  the  ^'  Zoologische  Gessell- 
chaft,"  of  Hambfirg,  sends  for  the  acceptance  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  at 
Washington  a  collection  of  upwards  of  300  living  sparrows,  in  accordance  with 
a  wish  expressed  by  you,  as  you  desire  these  birds  to  multiply  in  your  country 
that  they  may  consume  the  insects  that  devour  com,  vegetables,  and  fruit  grow- 
ing in  the  ground.  Will  you  please  report  on  their  arrival  and  say  how  many, 
if  any,  reached  you  alive ;  then  thb  society  will  pay  the  man  in  charge  a  propor- 
tionate premium  for  himself.  The  freight  is  free  between  our  two  Institutions 
by  all  the  vessels  of  the  Hamburg  New  York  company.  Please  return  the  cages, 
and,  if  you  wish,  we  will  send  more  in  them,  and  continue  to  fortvard  you  sup- 
plies till  we  succeed,  if  success  be  possible.  Sparrows  from  England  have  been 
sent,  after  some  trials,  to  Australia,  and  they  are  there  thriving,  I  believe.  If 
any  ill-luck  should  happeu'to  the  present  consignment,  please  try  to  find  out  the 
cause  of  it,  in  order  that  in  renewing  our  attempt  we  may  learn  from  experienco 
of  the  past.  I  have  heard  something  of  the  value  of  transporting  such  birds 
to  long  distances  confined  in  small  cages,  with  two  or  three  in  each,  but  no 
reason  was  given  for  it,  and  therefore  1  cannot  see  why  such  a  system  should  be 


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PROCEEDINGS  OF  THE  BOARD  OF  REGENTS.       123 

right  or  wrong ;  btrt  if  yon  find  a  good  cause  for  it,  let  mo  know  and  I  will 
ftdopt  the  plan,  or  any  other. 

Yon  were,  in  yonr  letter  of  April  24th  last,  so  kind  as  to  say  you  would 
endeavor  to  forw^ard  my  wish  in  procuring  from  America  some  living  marine 
animals  for  our  aquarium  here,  and  I  should  be  glad  to  know  what  success  yon , 
have  yet  met  with.  Some  weeks  ago  I  sent  you  a  letter  setting  forth  at  full 
length  my  views  on  the  transport  of  non-lung-breathing  animals,  and  I  trust 
that  the  explanations  I  ventured  to  trouble  you  with  may  be  of  some  service  in 
getting  over  difficulties.  We  know  very  little  of  non-European  zoophytes  in  a 
living  state,  and,  as  I  may  have  told  you,  American  sea  anemones  have  been 
brought  over  only  once,  though  such  animals  from  Britain  have  several  times 
been  sent  to  your  country  and  to  Australia. 

I  am  exceedingly  anxiotis  to  obtain  some  of  your  Helian  thoid  polypes,  your 
sea  anemones  and  madrepores ;  and  no  matter  how  conunon  they  may  be  with 
you,  they  are  sure  to  be  interesting  and  valuable  to  me,  unless  it  is  positively 
known  beyond  all  doubt  that  they  are  identical  with  European  species,  and 
even  then  the  very  fact  of  the  identity  would  be  of  interest.  So  please  send  me 
any.  Of  course  you  have  got  Gosse's  "Actinotoba  Britannica,"  8vo,  1860. 
It  is  the  text-book  for  British  Actineas  and  Madrepores ;  and  I  am  told  that 
Rhodactinea  is  exactly  the  same  as  our  Act.  mesembry  anthemone.  I  should 
like  to  prove  this.  I  have  also  heard  that  our  Actinotoba  dianthus  is  ^'  very  near 
your  M.  marginatum,"  and  this,  too,  I  should  like  to  clear  up. 

ArachnactiSf  the  only  swimming  anemone  known,  is  reported  to  be  very  abund- 
ant with  you ;  it  finds  a  place  in  the  lists  of  our  British  fauna,  but  I  do  not  know 
any  one  who  has  ever  seen  it,  and  I  fear  it  is  too  small  and  delicate,  and  too  near 
in  texture  and  habit  to  the  Acalaphse  to  be  brought  here  alive.  Bisidiam  and 
Haieampay  too,  are  two  of  your  minute  forms  I  should  like  to  get. 

Our  two  commonest  British  corals,  CaryophyUea  and  BcdamphyUeaj  are  exceed- 
ingly hardy  in  transport,  and  if  your  stony  corals  are  anything  like  ours  the  send- 
ing them  over  is  a  matter  of  no  gi*eat  difficulty. 

We  have  but  one  really  denotoid  coral  in  Britain,  Laphohdia  prolifera,  and 
its  corrallam  even  is  very  rare  indeed,  and  no  British  naturalist  has  ever  seen  it 
alive.  Tropical  (American  and  other)  branching  corals  are  constantly  being 
brought  to  Europe  by  tons  weight,  but  never  once  has  a  single  living  specimen 
been  imported  in  good  health.  Lately  I  went  to  much  expense  in  trying  to  get 
some  from  the  Navigators'  islands,  but  they  all  arrived  without  a  particle  of 
fleshy  matter  on  them.  You  may  judge  from  this  what  a  ^eat  prize  I  should 
deem  an  Asirangia  colony  hero  in  Hamburg,  and  this  is  found  in  abundance, 
I  believe,  in  Massachusetts  bay.  It  is  right  to  name  the  name  of  the  man  who 
for  the  first  'and  only  time  brought  sea  anemones  from  your  country — Captain 
H.  W.  Wendt.  In  my  blazing  zeal  I  have  had  his  photographic  portrait  framed ; 
and,  common  sailor  though  he  looks,  he  is  in  my  eyes  a  greater  man  than  all  the 
political  fellows  who  go  raving  up  and  down  various  countries.  The  species 
y/^erePhymactisflorida  and  Phymactis  pluvia,  from  Iguazee,  in  Peru,  and  described 
in  Dana's  great  work  in  quarto  and  folio  on  Captain  Wilkes's  United  States 
exploring  expedition. 

The  Echinodermata  of  any  kinds,  hard  or  soft,  would,  I  fear,  not  travel,  but 
I  need  not  say  how  much  I  should  value  a  living  EchinarachinuSy  of  which  only 
one  example  of  one  species  (E.  Placenta)  has  ever  been  found  in  Britain.  With 
you  it  is  very  common. 

Fishes  from  America  are  not  to  be  hoped  for,  I  am  afraid,  though  I  have  got 
two  alive,  fPbnelodus  catus  and  Leneiscus  pygtnaeus.)  But  some  of  the  Crustacea 
might,  I  imagine,  be  got  over  alive ;  for  example,  Homarus  Amerkanus,  And 
jodging  from  it,  I  should  imagine  your  edible  crabs  and  your  soldier  crabs  to  be 
different  specifically  from  oiurs. 
But  pray  assist  me  in  preventing  the  importation  of  Limtdus  polyphemua 


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124      PROCEEDINGS  OF  THE  BOABD  OF  BEGENTS. 

(horseshoe  crab,)  which  come  over  here  in  such  numbers  that  lately  I  have  with 
them  stocked  all  the  marine  aquaria  of  England  and  the  continent  of  Europe, 
and  I  do  not  know  what  to  do  with  those  I  now  have  over.  I  do  not  like  to 
see  the  poor  things  dying  by  inches,  and  my  mind  revolts  at  plunging  animals 
fiill  of  life  and  health  into  spirits.     It  would  be  well  if  IdmtUas  were  less  hardy. 


>      From  the  Museum  qf  Natural  History  qf  the  National  University  of  Greece, 

Athens,  August  12,  1867. 

We  have  learned,  through  M.  Rangabd,  our  envoy  extraordinary  and  minister 
plenipotentiary  near  the  government  of  the  Union,  that  the  directorship  of  the 
Institution  of  Smithson  is  desirous  of  entering  into  relations  of  exchange  with 
our  museum  of  natural  history,  with  a  view  to  obtaining  the  natural  productions 
of  Greece.  We  lose  no  time  in  expressing  the  pleasure  which  this  information 
has  given  us,  and  the  gratification  we  shall  experience  in  forming  and  maintain- 
ing such  relations,  which  cannot  fail  to  be  of  great  advantage  to  our  own  nmseum, 
inasmuch  as  our  collections  are  at  present  but  scantily  provided  with  objects 
pertaining  to  the  natural  history  of  North  America.  As  regards  duplicates  of 
the  objects  of  our  own  country,  we  have  in  readiness  for  offering  to  the  Institu- 
tion :  a  series  of  fossil  bones  of  different  mammifers  (Hippotherium  grande;. 
Rhinoceros  partygnathus ;  Sus  erymanthius;  several  species  of  antelope,  &c., 
&c., )  of  the  pleocene  formation  of  Pikeiini,  in  Attica ;  a  collection  of  impres- 
sions of  fossil  plants  of  the  eocene  formation  of  Koumi,  in  Enbir;  preparations 
of  several  kinds  of  birds  of  Greece j  eggs  of  different  Greek  birds;  marine 
shells,  fresh-water  and  terrestrial. 

We  beg  to  be  instructed  as  to  what  the  Institution  would  desire,  or  rather 
what  it  would  prefer  to  receive  in  the  first  instance,  in  order  that  we  may  bo 
able  at  once  to  make  a  first  remittance.  We  should  be  glad,  at  the  same  time, 
to  know  by  what  channel,  by  what  means,  and  to  what  address  oiu:  remittances* 
must  be  forwarded.  It  would  be  esteemed  a  favor  if  the  authorities  of  the  Insti- 
tution would  inform  us  in  a  compendious  note  what  objects  it  possesses  in  dupli- 
cate and  at  its  disposal  for  exchange,  so  that  we  might  indicate  in  turn  our  own 
desiderata. 

We  have  the  honor  of  subscribing  ourselves,  with  assurances  of  the  most  dis-. 
tingoished  consideration, 

TH.  Db  HELDREICH, 
Conservator  qf  the  Museum  qf  Natural  History. 
HEHITZOPOULOS, 
Ephor  qf  the  ZoologicoHj  Minerdhgicalf  and  Geological  Collections 
^  qf  the  Museum  qf  Natural  History  qf  the  University. 


From  Prqfessor  Laboulaye,  qf  the  Institute  qf  France. 

Paris,  September  4,  1867. 

I  have  received,  through  M.  Bossange,  the  case  containing  174  volumes  of 
educational  books,  which  you  had  the  goodness  to  send  me.  These  books  form 
the  admiration  of  all  who  take  an  interest  in  education,  and  I  hope  that  Fi-anco 
will  profit  by  this  example.  We  have  excellent  things  at  home  by  which  you 
in  turn  might  profit  j  but  we  have  seen  nothing  comparable  to  your  "  Reader," 
your  "Object  Lessons,'' your  *^ Gmphics,"  and  your  "Geographical  Series." 

I  send  you  a  letter  for  each  of  the  editors  who  has  been  kind  enough  to  make 


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PBOCEEDINQS  OF  THE  BOABD  OF  REGENTS.       125 

me  a  present ;  and  I  avail  myseK  of  this  opportunity  to  say  to  you  how  much  1 
am  touched  by  the  proof  you  have  given  me,  on  this  occasion,  of  good  will. 
Yon  have  treated  me  as  a  compatriot,  and,  sooth  to  say,  there  is  no  Frenchman 
who  is  more  American  than  myself. 

[The  works  referred  to  were  presented  by  American  publishers  of  school  books 
at  the  request  of  the  Institution. — J.  H.] 


From  J),  G.  lAndhagen,  perpetual  secretary  qf  the  Academy  qf  Sciences  of 

Stockholm. 

Stockholm,  November  4,  1867. 

I  have  had  the  pleasure  of  receiving,  in  behalf  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at 
Stockholm,  vour  letter  of  the  29th  of  May  last,  accompanying  your  remittance, 
through  M.  if  liigel  of  Leipzic,  of  a  collection  of  very  rare  birds  of  the  Arctic 
regions  of  your  continent — a  collection  which  your  distinguished  Institution  has 
had  the  goodness  to  present  to  our  academy. 

The  package  arrived  in  the  month  of  August,  during  my  absence  on  certain 
commissions  of  the  academy,  and  was  transmitted  to  M.  Sandevall,  intendant  of 
the  national  museum  of  natural  history,  who  presented  it  to  the  academy  at  its 
first  meeting  in  autumn,  pronouncing  its  contents  to  possess  great  value  for  the 
museum. 

Permit  me  to  convey  to  you  the  thanks  of  the  academy  for  this  acceptable 
donation. 


From  John  Crotddy  esq. 

London,  Kovember  25,  1867. 
I  beg  to  thank  you  most  sincerely  for  your  kindness  and  liberality  in  sending 
from  time  to  time  for  my  inspection,  through  Mr.  Lawrence,  of  New  York,  speci- 
mens of  humming-birds  belonging  to  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  which  he  has 
designated  as  new  species.  By  these  acts  of  condescension  you  are  greatly  aid- 
ing the  cause  of  science,  since  it  is  only  by  the  actual  comparison  of  such  exam- 
ples with  the  older  known  species  of  this  extensive  family  in  the  collections  of 
this  country  that  the  fact  of  their  being  new  can  be  satisfactorily  determined. 


From  8,  P.  Mayherry. 

Gaps  Elizabeth,  MAcns,  January  4, 1868. 
I  am  very  much  pleased  with  the  selections  in  your  reports,  and  hope  that 
Bome  means  may  be  taken  for  their  more  extended  circulation.  While  at  a  summer 
leeort,  Rye  Beach,  New  Hampshire,  of  some  celebrity,  attention  was  called  to 
the  midual  approach  of  the  sea  upon  the  land.  Some  20  rods  below  high- water 
mark,  at  an  exceeding  low  tide,  may  be  seen  the  stumps  of  quite  large  trees 
embedded  in  the  sand,  and  from  the  general  appearance  one  would  suppose  that 
the  trees  had  been  felled  from  those  stumps.  I  made  inquiry  of  the  oldest 
inhabitants  if  they  had  any  information  relative  to  them  \  they  had  none ;  that, 
in  their  time  and  that  of  their  fathers',  these  had  been  noticed,  seeming  not  much 
farther  out  to  sea  than  at  the  present  time.  There  is  no  growth  within  800  yards. 
The  country  around  has  been  settled  since  1623.  About  two  miles  from  this 
used  to  be  a  fine  sand  beach,  which  has  disappeared.    The  inhabitants  thought 


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126       PROCEEDINGS  OF  THE  BOARD  OF  REGENTS. 

tbe  constant  play  of  the  sea  had  worn  it,  but  from  what  I  saw  I  rather  inferred 
that  the  gradual  approach  had  not  been  noticed,  and  I  believe  at  some  other 
pouits  there  is  unmistakable  evidence.  If  these  facts  are  of  any  use  to  science^ 
they  are  at  your  disposaL 

[The  facts  presented  in  the  above  communication  are  very  interesting,  in  con- 
nection with  similar  observations  at  other  points  along  our  coast.  They  indicate 
a  movement  in  the  strata  of  the  earth. — J.  H.] 


From  Lucien  Pratt,  prqfessor  qf  physics  and  chemistry,  University  of  San  Jaa6^ 

Costa  Rica. 

San  Josfe  db  Costa  Rica,  February  8,  1868. 

We  have  received  through  M.  the  minister  of  public  instruction  a  magnificent 
collection  of  the  scientific  memoirs  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  which  will 
form  the  most  precious  part  of  the  library  of  our  university.  I  am  authorized  to 
keep  it  in  the  laboratory,  and  I  can  assure  you  that,  as  far  as  we  are  concerned, 
the  object  of  the  publication  will  be  fully  attained.  It  will  essentially  serve  to 
augment  our  stores  of  knowledge,  especially  in  meteorology  and  geology.  The 
minister  has,  I  believe,  already  written  to  the  Smithsonian  Institution  in  the  name 
of  the  Costa  Rican  government.  Permit  me,  sir,  specially  to  offer  you  my  own 
acknowledgments  and  to  say  how  greatly  I  felicitate  myself  at  seeing  our  lalior- 
atory  placed  in  the  relationship  of  exchange  with  one  of  the  first  scientific  bodies 
of  the  world.  Regarding  neither  the  paucity  of  the  present  population  of  tbe 
country,  nor  the  necessarily  embryonic  state  of  the  University  of  San  Jos6,  you 
have  looked  only  at  our  disposition  to  labor,  to  take  part  in  the  scientific  move- 
ment of  the  great  nations,  and  you  have  treated  us  with  a  liberality  for  which  I 
know  not  how  to  express  my  gratitude. 

I  was  about  to  solicit  an  order  to  send  you  a  collection  of  the  ores  of  tbe 
country  and  of  the  most  characteristic  rocks  among  those  which  I  have  thus  far 
been  able  to  collect,  when  this  very  order  was  issued  to  me.  I  have,  therefore, 
prepared  two  small  cases,  enclosing  39  select  specimens  of  the  ores  of  gold  and 
silver  of  Costa  Rica,  as  well  as  of  some  eruptive  rocks  and  principal  limestones 
known  in  the  country.*  These  two  cases  I  propose  to  de^atch  by  the  mail  of 
day  after  to-morrow. 

The  specimens  of  ores  of  gold  and  silver  are  accompanied  only  by  a  designation 
of  the  locality ;  by  the  next  post  I  shall  have  the  honor  of  addressing  you  a 
copy  of  an  official  table  drawn  up  by  one  of  the  judges  of  mines,  in  which  you 
will  find  all  the  indications  relative  to  the  value  of  the  ores.  I  send  no  table  of 
analysis,  because  this  analysis  would  apply  only  to  isolated  specimens  or  at  most 
to  an  average  of  specimens,  and  would  never  have  the  practical  signification  of 
the  results  obtained  by  the  exploitation.  Neither  have  I  sent  any  specimen  of 
the  enveloping  stratum,  because  the  specimens  which  I  have  at  the  university 
have  been  taken  rather  too  near  the  surface,  and  it  is  impossible  to  recognize  in 
the  decomposed  rock  any  mineralogical  character  which  would  authorize  a  deter- 
mination respecting  the  formation  itself.  It  should  be  added  that  I  have  not  yet 
been  able  to  proceed  to  a  study  of  the  conditions  of  the  bearings  on  the  spot. 
As  soon  as  I  shall  have  found  time  to  make  a  geolo^cal  reconnaissance  of  the 
principal  Costa  Rican  mines,  I  will  send  you  a  statement  of  my  observations, 
and  will  submit  to  you  at  the  same  time  specimens  of  the  rocks  in  support  of  my 
determinations.  It  would  be  very  interesting  to  see  whether  the  law  of  Hum- 
boldt applies  to  Central  America,  and  whether  it  be  really  necessary  always  to 

*  These  specimeiui  have  been  recdred  at  tlie  Inttitation. 

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PROCEEDINGS  OP  THE  BOARD  OF  REGENTS.       127 

seek  the  precious  metals  at  the  point  of  contact  of  the  porphyry  and  trachyta. 
I  do  not  doubt  this  law  as  far  as  the  great  formation  of  South  America  is  con- 
eeraed,  but  it  appears  to  me  that  here  and  in  all  8outh  America  the  upheavals 
have  taken  place  at  several  intervals  and  relatively  on  a  small  scale^  so  that  all 
is  confounded. 

You  will  excuse,  I  trust,  sir,  the  meagreness  of  onr  remittance,  in  considera- 
tion that  it  is  barely  two  years  since  the  university  has  possessed  a  laboratory. 
The  work  of  organization,  indeed,  is  not  yet  fully  completed.  I  have  no  pre- 
parator,  and  the  most  advanced  of  my  pupils  have  had  less  than  two  years", 
tuition.  I  havo  a  number  of  schemes  in  view  which  can  only  be  realized  by^ 
degrees.  In  all  that  relates  to  a  serious  study  of  the  country,  it  was  impossible 
to  commence  anything  before  providing  assistants,  without  whom  an  isolated' 
explorer,  however  earnest  his  purpose,  would  find  himself  reduced  to  two  hands 
and  12  hours'  labor  per  diem.  The  government,  by  which  the  laborator}'  has 
been  established,  has  always  protected  us  with  a  liberality  sufficiently  indicative 
of  its  enlightened  views,  and  I  hope  that  ere  long  myself  and  my  disciples  will 
be  enabled  to  give  far  other  proofs  of  our  existence  than  a  scanty  remittance 
of  some  39  specimens. 

It  is  possible  that  we  shall  remain  for  some  time  among  the  poorer  correspond- 
ents of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  but  have  the  goodness  to  believe  that  we 
shall  be  among  the  most  zealous,  and  of  the  number  of  those  always  most  ready 
to  contribute,  according  to  our  resources,  to  the  noble  objects  which  the  Institu- 
tion holds  up  to  view. 


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BIOGRAPHICAL  NOTICE  OF  CHARLES  COFFIN  JEWETT, 

(FORMIRLT  ABSUTAUT  SSCRZTART   OF  THE  SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION,  IN  CHAROl  OF  THX  UBRARTO 


By  Reuben  A.  Guild,  op  Bkown  University.* 


Again  we  are  called  npon  to  mourn  the  loss  of  a  distinguished  man,  whom 
death  has  suddenly  removed  from  earth  in  the  prime  of  life  and  in  the  midst  of 
his  accustomed  duties.  We  refer  to  Professor  Charles  C.  Jewett,  superinten- 
dent of  the  Public  Library  in  Boston,  who  died  at  his  residence,  in  Braintree, 
yesterday  moniing,  at  half-past  1  o'clock,  after  a  brief  illness  of  ten  hours.  On 
Wednesday,  we  are  informed,  he  was  at  his  post  in  the  library,  attending  to  his 
work  as  usual,  until  3  o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  when  he  was  seized  with  a  sensa- 
tion of  numbness  in  one  hand,  which  proved  to  be  paralysis.  Ho  remained  con- 
scions  for  a  time,  and  after  having  had  medical  attendance,  requested  to  be  carried 
to  his  home.  On  the  way  he  became  insensible,  and  thus  he  continued  until  his 
death. 

Mr.  Jewett  was  bom  in  Lebanon,  Maine,  on  the  12th  of  August,  1816.  His 
father,  the  Rev.  Paul  Jewett,  was  a  Congregationalist  clergyman  of  Salem, 
Massachusetts,  who  graduated  at  Brown  University  in  1802,  in  the  same  class 
with  the  late  Hon.  Henry  Wheaton,  LL.  D.,  author  of  "  Elements  of  Interna- 
tional Law.''  He  was  a  tutor  in  this  institution  from  1806  to  1809,  and  was 
afterwards  offered  a  professorship,  which  he  declined,  preferring  the  labors  and 
responsibilities  of  the  Christian  ministry  to  those  of  any  other  calling  or  profes- 
sion. He  was  a  man  of  talents,  of  accurate  learning,  of  cultivated  taste,  and  of 
very  retiring  habits.  In  the  education  of  his  children  he  took  unwearied  pains. 
His  eldest  son  was,  until  recently,  a  well-known  and  enterprising  publisher  and 
bookseller  in  Boston;  the  second  is  the  one  whose  loss  we  to-day  deplore,  and  a 
third  was  for  several  years  a  professor  in  Amherst  College. 

Mr.  Jewett  passed  his  early  life  in  Salem,  graduating  at  the  Latin  School  in 
that  place.  He  entered  Dartmouth  College  in  1831,  but  transferred  bis  connec- 
tion, in  his  sophomore  year,  to  Brown  University,  where  he  graduated  in  the 
famous  class  of  1835.  He  spent  two  years  or  more  in  teaching  at  the  Uxbridgo 
Academy,  and  subsequently  studied  at  the  Theological  Seminary  in  Andovcr. 
.  Here  he  devoted  himself  chiefly  to  Philology,  and  especially  to  the  oriental  lan- 
guages and  eastern  antiquities,  in  which  departments  of  knowledge  he  attained 
great  proficiency.  Indeed,  according  to  the  testimonies  of  the  late  Professors 
Stuart  and  Edwards,  few  students,  if  any,  had  in  these  departments  exceUed  him. 
His  commencement  address  at  Andover  attracted  universal  attention,  and  was 
greatly  admired  on  account  of  the  elegant  style  in  which  it  was  written,  and  the 
thorough  acquaintance  with  oriental  subjects  which  it  evinced  on  the  part  of  the 
author. 

During  his  residence  at  Andover,  Mr.  Jewett  was  for  a  year  and  upwards  the 
librarian  of  the  seminary,  and  he  assisted  Mr.  Taylor  in  the  preparation  of  a 
catalogue  of  the  books.  At  this  time  he  was  intending  to  spend  several  yoarsy 
and  perhaps  his  life,  in  the  East  as  a  missionary,  and  he  had,  accordingly,  at  the 
close  of  his  theological  course,  marked  out  for  himself  an  extensive  coui'se  of 
study  and  research.  He  had  been  offered  facilities  for  the  accomplishment  of  his 
wishes  such  as  few  scholars,  in  this  country  at  least,  had  ever  enjoyed.  When 
ready  to  embark,  so  slight  a  circumstance  as  the  misdirecting  of  a  letter  to  inform 
him  when  the  vessel  in  which  he  had  taken  passage  was  to  sail,  changed  his 

*  From  the  Providenoe  EyeniDg  Press,  Friday,  January  10,  1868. 

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CHARLES  COPMN   JEWETT.  129 

wbole  course  of  life.  The  vessel  sailed  without  him,  and  he  took  charge  for  a 
y<5ar  of  "  Day's  Academy,''  so-called,  in  Wrentham,  Massachusetts.  Here  we 
first  made  his  acquaintance  as  a  pupil,  and  we  shall  never  forget  his  genial  man- 
ners towards  all,  and  his  cordial  affection  for  those  especially  whom  he  instructed. 
In  1841  he  was  appointed  librarian  of  Brown  University,  and  he  entered  upon 
his  duties  in  the  month  of  October.  He  at  once  set  himself  to  the  task  of  rear- 
nmging  the  books,  then  numbering  about  ten  thousand  volumes,  and  of  preparing 
a  catalogue  of  the  same.  For  this  kind  of  work  he  had  an  uncommon  aptitude. 
The  catalogue  was  published  in  1843,  and  attracted  much  attention,  being  favora- 
bly noUced  in  the  North  American  Review,  and  in  other  periodicals.  Especial 
care  was  now  given  to  this  department  of  the  University,  and  a  new  era  in  its 
history  was  inaugurated. 

Soon  after  the  publication  of  the  catalogue,  Mr.  Jewett  was  elected  professor 
<rf  modem  languages  and  literature  in  the  university.  He  immediately  embarked 
for  Europe,  where  he  spent  two  years  and  a  half,  principally  in  France,  Germany, 
and  Italy,  devotinff  himself  to  the  acquisition  of  the"  languages  of  those  countries, 
and  making  himself  familiar  with  all  the  principal  libraries.  During  his  resi- 
dence abroad.  Professor  Jewett  made  valuable  purchases  of  English  and  classical 
books,  under  the  direction  of  th6  library  committee.  He  was  also  intrusted  with 
la^  commissions  by  a  gentleman  of  the  corporation,  for  the  purchase  of  stand- 
anf  books  in  the  three  principal  modem  languages  of  Europe.  These  purchases, 
anHHmting  to  seven  thousand  volumes  and  upwards,  were  made  with  singular 
skill  and  fidelity ;  and  the  accessions  thus  secured  now  constitute  the  choicest 
treasures  of  the  libraiy. 

Upon  his  retum  from  Europe,  Professor  Jewett  devoted  himself  to  his  college 
duties  as  teacher  and  librarian,  until  March,  1848,  when  he  resigned  his  position 
ftt  Brown  to  accept  the  place  of  assistant  secrettuy  and  librarian  of  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution  at  Washington.  He  entered  upon  his  new  duties  with  enthu- 
fiiastic  ardor,  and  with  all  the  fondness  and  capacity  for  hard  and  persevering 
labor  for  which  he  had  been  pre-eminently  distinguished.  He  was  doomed,  how- 
ever, to  disappointment  in  his  efforts  to  build  up  a  great  national  library,  and  thus 
to  carry  out  what  he  understood  to  bo  the  expressed  wishes  of  Congress  in  regard 
to  the  expenditture  of  the  Smithsonian  funds.*  The  Controversy  between  science 
and  literature,  as  represented  by  Professors  Henry  and  Jewett,  attracted  gieat 
fttteoti6n  at  the  time,  and  subjected  the  latter  to  trials  which  fully  entitled  hiid 
to  the  sympathy  that  literary  men  so  cordially  gave  him.  But  of  the  merits  of 
this  controversy  we  do  not  intend  here  to  speak.  Although  unable,  as  already 
stated,  to  cany  out  his  plans.  Professor  Jewett  did  much  to  promote  bibliogiaphi- 
cal  studies  and  the  success  of  American  libraries.  His  "Notices  of  Public 
Libraries  in  the  United  States,"  which  was  printed  in  1850,  was  widely  circu- 
lated and  met  with  very  general  favor.  He  also  perfected  a  system  of  cata- 
loguing, by  stereotyping  separately  the  title  of  each  work  in  a  libi-ary,  tbus  com- 
bining economy  with  accuracy.  This  system,  indorsed  by  Edward  Everett, 
Joseph  G.  Cogswell,  Charles  Folsom,  Samuel  F.  Haven,  Edward  E.  Hale,  and  , 
George  Livermore,  was  published  under  the  auspices  of  the  Smithsonian  Instita- 
tion,  together  with  rules  and  examples  for  the  proper  cataloguing  of  books. 

When  it  was  decided  to  establish  a  great  public  library  in  Boston,  Professor 
Jewett,  by  conmion  consent  the  ablest  bibliographer  and  most  accomplished 
lit>rarian  in  the  country,  was  selected  as  the  one  of  all  others  to  superintend  its 
afikirs.  Although  offered  an  honorable-  position  in  our  oldest  university,  and  the 
presidency  of  a  western  college,  he  cheerfully  accepted  the  place  urged  upon  him 
by  the  trustees  of  the  public  library.  The  library  building  was  dedicated  with 
appropriate  ceremonies  on  the  1st  of  January,  1858,  and  in  October  following  the 

*  The  wishes  of  Mr.  Jewett  iu  regard  to  a  library  at  the  seat  of  goverDment  worthy  of  the 
BatMm,  are  now  beiog  realized  by  the  action  of  .Congress,  through  the  influence  of  the  Smith- 
i  Institution,  though  not  at  the  expense  of  its  fund8.-*J.  H. 

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130  OHABLES  COFFIN  JEWETT. 

first  catalogue  ofr  books  was  published.  For  more  than  10  years  Mr.  Jewett  ha^ 
thus  been  identijS<3d  with  the  best  interests  of  learning  in  the  metropolis  of  New 
England.  The  cat^ogues  which  he  has  prepared,  and  the  rules  for  the  govern* 
ment  of  the  library  which  he  has  suggested,  have  served  as  models  for  similar 
libraries  in  all  parts  of  the  country.  To  his  thorough  and  systematic  knowledge, 
and  to  the  faithful  performance  of  his  duties,  the  citizens  of  Boston  are  laigely 
indebted  for  the  rapid  growth  and  complete  success  of  what  seems  destined  to 
be  the  library  of  the  iMid. 

The  early  death  of  such  a  man  must  be  regarded  as  a  public  loss.  What 
shall  we  say,  idas !  for  the  loved  wife  and  children  who  survive  him,  and  fox 
those  who  enjoyed  his  friendship,  and  who  knew  him  in  the  most  intimate  relar 
tions  of  private  lifet  For  such,  it  is  a  consolation  to  know  that  his  daily  walk 
and  conversation  was  a  beautifiil  illustration  of  the  Ohristian's  faith )  and  that 
the  heavenly  smile  which  rested  upon  his  features  in  the  calm  repose  of  death 
was  but  an  index  to  the  soul  that  had  ceased  to  animate  them  forever.  The  loaa 
of  such  a  man«  viewed  in  its  teligious  aspeetSi  is  indeed  ''gain." 


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BIOGRAPHICAL  NOTICE  OF  WM.  HENRY  HARVEY,  OF  DUBLIN. 


By  Professor  Asa  Gray,  of  Harvard  College. 


[This  biography  is  republished  from  the  American  Jomnal  of  Science  and 
Alts  as  a  tribute  to  the  memory  of  a  most  valued  collaborator  of  the  Smithsonian 
Institution. — J,  H.] 

William  Henry  Harvey,  whose  lamented  death  was  announced  in  the  last 
number  of  this  journal^  (p.  129,)  was  bom  at  Summcrville,  near  Limerick,  Ire- 
land, on  the  5th  of  February,  1811.  His  father,  Joseph  M.  Harvey,  was  a  highly 
respected  merchant  in  that  city,  and  a  member  of  the  Society  of  Friends.  William 
Henry  was,  we  believe,  the  youngest  of  several  children.  He  received  a  good 
education  at  Ballitore  school,  an  institution  of  the  Friends,  and  on  leaving  it  was 
engaged  for  a  time  in  his  father's  counting-room,  devoting,  however,  all  his  spare 
time  to  natural  history,  his  favorite  pursuit  even  from  boyhood.  He  made  con- 
siderable attainments  in  entomology  and  conchology,  and  in  botany  he  earlv 
turned  his  attention  to  mosses  and  algcB,  To  the  study  of  the  latter,  in  which 
be  became  pre-eminent,  he  was  attracted  from  the  first  by  the  opportunities  which 
he  enjoyed  on  the  productive  western  coast  of  Ireland,  the  family  usually  spend- 
ing a  good  part  of  the  summer  at  the  seaside,  mostly  on  the  bold  and  picturesque 
ehore  of  Clare.  As  the  late  Sir  William  Hooker's  bent  for  botany  was  fixed  by 
his  accidental  discovery  of  a  rare  moss,  which  he  took  to  Sir  J.  £.  Smith,  ^o  in 
turn  was  Harvey's,  by  his  discovery  of  two  new  habitats  of  another  rare  moss, 
the  Hookeria  Uetevirens,  which  led  to  a  correspondence  with  Hooker,  and  to  a 
life-long  mutual  attachment  of  these  most  excellent  men.  Encouraged  by  his 
illustrious  friend  and  patron,  Harvey  sought  some  position  in  which  he  might 
devote  himself  to  science ;  and  it  would  appear  was  selected  by  Mr.  Spring  Rice 
(the  late  Lord  Monteagle)  for  the  post  of  colonial  treasurer  at  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  J  that  by  some  accident  the  appointment  was  made  out  in  the  name  of  an 
elder  brother,  and  an  inopportune  change  of  ministry  frustrated  all  attempts  at 
rectification.  There  was  no  other  way  but  for  the  brother  to  accept  the  under- 
signed appointment,  and  take  the  youn^  botanist  with  him  to  the  Cape  as  his 
assistant  This  was  done,  and  the  brothers  sailed  for  that  colony  in  the  year 
1835.  But  the  health  of  the  elder  brother  suddenly  and  hopelessly  failed  within 
a  year,  and  he  died  in  1836  on  the  passage  home.  William  Harvey's  appoint- 
ment to  succeed  his  brother  had  been  sent  to  the  Cape  while  he  was  on  his  home- 
ward voyage ;  he  immediately  returned  to  his  post  and  fulfilled  its  duties  for 
three  years,  devoting  his  mornings  to  collecting  and  his  nights  to  botanical  inves- 
tigation, with  such  assiduitythat  his  health  also  gave  way,  and  he  was  compelled 
to  return  home  in  1839.  The  summer  of  the  next  year  found  him  re-established 
and  on  his  way  to  the  Cape  for  the  third  time.  But  he  could  not  long  endure 
the  sultry  climate  and  the  intense  application ;  with  broken  health  he  came  back 
in  1841  and  gave  up  the  appointment. 

After  two  years  of  prostration  and  seclusion  he  was  well  again;  and  in  1844, 
on  the  death  of  Dr.  Coulter,  he  was  appointed  keeper  of  the  herbariimi  of  Trinity 
College,  Dublin.  The  most  important  portion  of  the  herbarium  then  consisted 
of  the  collections,  yet  unassorted,  made  by  Coulter  in  northwestern  Mexico  and 
California.  Harvey  generously  added  his  own  large  collections,  for  which  he 
was  allowed  fiftv  pounds  a  year  in  addition  to  a  slender  sala^,  and  he  proceeded 
to  build  up  the  herbarium  into  a  first-class  establishment.     The  professorship  of 

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132  WILLIAM   HENRT   HAEVEY. 

botany  in  the  college,  which  was  pretty  well  endowed,  fell  vacant  aboat  this 
time,  and  the  college  authorities,  wishing  to  elect  Harvey  to  the  chair  and  so  to 
combine  the  two  offices,  conferred  upon  him  the  necessary  degree  of  M.  D.  Bat 
it  was  contended  that  an  honorary  degree  did  not  meet  the  requirements,  and  bo 
Dr.  Allman,  the  present  distinguished  professor  of  natural  history  at  Edinburg, 
carried  the  election. 

Except  for  the  slendemess  of  his  salary,  Dr.  Harvey  was  now  well  placed  for 
scientific  work,  the  object  to  which  he  wished  to  devote  his  life,  and  he  entered 
upon  and  pursued  his  distini^uished  career  henceforth  with  an  entire  and  well- 
directed  energy  that  never  nagged  unt41  he  was  prostrated  by  mortal  disease. 

He  had  already  published,  at  the  Cape  in  1838,  his  (renera  qf  South  African 
PlantSy  hastily  prepared,  solely  for  local  use,  but  no  unworthy  beginning  of  his 
work  in  Phsenogamous  Botany ;  and  in  his  favorite  department  of  the  science  he 
had  brought  out  in  1841  his  Manual  of  British  Algce,  which  he  re-edited  in  1849. 
He  now  commenced  the  first  of  the  series  of  his  greater  works,  illustrated  by  his 
facile  pencil — for  he  drew  admirably.  The  first  (monthly)  part  of  his  excellent 
and  beautiful  Phycohgia  Britannicaj  a  History  of  British  Seaweeds^  containing 
colored  figures  of  all  the  species  inhabiting  the  shores  of  the  British  islands, 
appeared  in  January,  1846,  and  the  undertaking  was  completed  in  1851,  in  three 
(or  four)  volumes,  with  360  plates,  all  drawn  on  stone  by  his  own  hand.  A  simi- 
lar but  less  extended  work,  the  Nereis  Australis,  or  Algce  of  the  Southern  Ocecm^ 
which  was  begun  in  1847,  was  carried  only  to  50  plates  of  selected  and  beauti- 
ful species. 

In  1 848,  Dr.  Harvey  succeeded  Dr.  Litton  as  professor  of  botany  in  the  Royal 
Dublin  Society,  to  which  belonged  the  botanic  garden  of  Glasnevin  j  this  required 
him  to  deliver  short  courses  of  lectures  annually  in  Dublin  or  in  some  other  Irish 
town,  and  provided  a  welcome  addition  to  his  income. 

In  1848,  at  the  request  of  his  friend  Van  Voorst,  the  publisher,  he  wrote  his 
charming  little  volume,  Tlie  Sea-Side  Book,  the  unsurpassed  model  of  that  class 
of  popular  scientific  books;  it  was  published  in  1849,  and  has  passed  through 
several  editions.  In  July  of  that  year,  having  arranged  a  visit  to  this  country, 
and  having  been  invited  to  deliver  a  course  of  lectures  before  the  Lowell  Insti- 
tute, he  took  steamer  for  Halifax  and  Boston,  passed  the  summer  and  autumn  in 
exploring  the  shores  of  the  northern  States,  and  in  the  society  of  his  friends  and 
relatives ;  for  the  late  Mr.  Jacob  Harvey,  still  well  and  pleasantly  remembered 
in  New  York,  who  married  the  daughter  of  Dr.  Hosack,  was  his  elder  brother. 
In  the  autumn  ho  gave  an  admirable  course  of  lectures  upon  Cryptogamic  botany 
before  the  Lowell  lustituto  in  Boston,  and  afterwards  a  shorter  course  at  the 
Smithsonian  Institution  at  Washington.  He  then  travelled  in  the  southern 
Atlantic  States,  continuing  the  exploration  of  our  Alg<e  down  to  Florida  and  the 
Keys ;  and  in  May,  1850,  he  returned  to  Ireland.*  Under  the  wise  and  liberal 
arrangements  made  by  Professor  Henry  in  behalf  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution, 
and  with  liis  own  large  collections  augmented  by  the  contributions  which  every 
student  or  lover  of  Algce  was  glad  to  place  in  such  worthy  hands.  Professor 
Harvey  now  prepared  his  Nereis  Boreali-AtnericanOj  or  Contributions  to  a  His- 
tory qf  the  Marine  Algce  of  North  America,  The  work  is  a  systematic  account 
of  all  the  known  marine  Algce  of  North  America,  but  with  figures  only  of  the 
leading  species.  It  was  issued  in  three  parts ;  the  first  part,  the  Melanospermece, 
in  1852,  in  the  third  volume  of  the  Smithsonian  Contributions  to  Knowledge ; 
the  second,  the  Rhodospermece,  in  the  fifth  volume  j  and  the  third,  or  Chloro- 
spermece,  in  the  tenth  volume  of  the  series  published  in  1858 ;  and  the  three  parts, 
collected  for  separate  issue,  compose  a  thick  imperial  quarto  volume,  of  550  pages 
of  letter-press  and  fifty  plates.     The  work  remains  the  principal  if  not  the  only 

*A  notico  of  Dr.  Honrej  in  the  AthonsBam  states,  qaite  erroneoaslj,  that  **  he  also  at  thia 
time  made  a  tour  around  the  shores  of  the  Pacific,  visiting  Oregon  and  California.'* 


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WILLIAM  HENB7  HABVET.  133 

guide  to  the  American  student  of  Alga,  and  one  of  the  most  popular  as  well  as 
useful  of  the  very  various  contributions  tp  knowledge  which  the  well-managed 
bequest  of  Smithson  has  given  to  the  world. 

Before  the  last  part  of  the  Nereis  BoreaH-Americana  was  published,  Professor 
Harvey  had  sought  a  wider  field  of  scientific  labor  and  observation.  Obtaining 
a  long  leave  of  absence,  and  some  assistance  from  the  university  in  addition  to 
the  continuance  of  his  salary,  he  left  England  in  August,  1853,  by  the  overland 
route  for  Australia,  stopping  at  Aden  and  Ceylon  to  collect;  he  visited  the  east, 
south,  and  west  coasts  of  Australia,  as  well  as  Tasmania.  Taking  advantage  of 
a  missionary  ship  which  was  to  cruise  among  the  South  Sea  islands,  and  which 
offered  him  unexpected  facilities,  he  visited  the  Fiji,  Navigators',  and  Friendlv 
islands,  touching  also  at  New  2iealand.  Returning  to  Sydney  he  sailed  to  Val- 
paraiso, which  he  reached  much  prostrated  through  over-exertion  in  a  warm  cli- 
mate ;  and  when  recuperated  he  returned  home  by  way  of  the  Isthmus,  arriving 
m  October,  1856.  The  algological  collections  of  these  three  laborious  years,  or 
the  Australian  portion  of  them,  formed  the  subject  of  Professor  Harvey's  third 
great  illustrated  work,  and  one  of  the  most  exquisite  of  the  kind,  the  Phycohgia 
Australica,  the  serial  publication  of  which  began  in  1858,  and  was  concluded 
in  1863,  in  five  imperial  octavo  volumes,  each  of  60  colored  plates.  All  but  the 
last  century  of  plates  were  put  upon  stone  by  the  author. 

Upon  Dr.  Harvey's  return,  in  1856,  from  his  long  expedition,  he  found  the 
chair  of  botany  in  the  University  of  Dublin  vacated  by  the  appointment  of  Dr. 
Alhnan  to  that  of  natural  histoiy  in  the  University  of  Edinburg,  and  he  was  at 
once  preferred  to  the  position  which  he  had  sought  when  younger  and  freer,  and 
which  he  now  occupied  till  his  death.  The  exhausting  duties  of  this  chair,  and 
of  that  which  he  still  held  in  the  Royal  Dublin  Society,  undiminished  by  the 
transference  to  the  Government  Museum  of  Irish  Industry,  did  not  prevent  Pro- 
fessor Harvey  firom  entering  with  unabated  ardor  upon  an  undertaking  of  greater 
magnitude  than  any  preceding  one.  This  was  the  Flora  Capensis,  a  full  sys- 
tematic account  of  all  the  plants  of  the  Cape  Colony  and  the  adjacent  provinces 
of  Caffiraria  and  Natal,  in  which  he  was  associated  with  Dr.  Sender,  of  Ham- 
burg. Three  thick  octavo  volumes  of  this  work  have  appeared,  the  last  in 
1865,  including  the  Compositte,  Along  with  this  Dr.  HaiTey — ^learning  for  the 
purpose  another  form  of  lithographic  drawing — ^brought  out,  between  the  years 
1859  and  1864,  two  volumes  of  his  Thesaurus  CapensiSf  or  Illustrations  of  the 
South  African  Flora,  comprising  200  plates  of  interesting  phaenogamous  plants. 
A  complete  list  of  his  publications  would  include  several  contributions  to  scientific 
periodicals,  mainly  to  Hooker's  Journal  of  Botany,  and  a  few  miscellaneous 
writings. 

In  April,  1861,  Dr.  Harvey  manied  Miss  Phelps  of  Limerick.  If  not  robust, 
ho  was  apparently  in  good  health,  in  the  full  maturity  of  his  powers,  and,  it  was 
hoped,  only  at  the  noonday  of  his  allotted  course  of  usefulness.  But  ere  the  lec- 
ture season  of  that  summer  was  over,  an  attack  of  hsemorrhage  from  the  lungs 
gave  notice  of  a  serious  pulmonary  disease.  Yet  he  seemed  to  recover  from  this 
almost  completely ;  he  resumed  his  stated  work  and  gave  his  lectmes  as  usual  in 
1863,  and  also  in  the  spring  of  the  following  year,  but  with  some  difliculty.  The 
winter  and  spring  of  1864-5  were  spent  in  the  south  of  France,  with  only  tran- 
rient  benefit.  Returning  to  his  home  and  his  herbarium  he  worked  on  still  at 
the  Cape  Flora,  with  cheerful  spirit  and  feeble  hands,  until  he  could  work  no 
longer.  East  spring  he  sought  in  Devonshire  a  milder  air,  and  found  a  poaceful 
rest.  "On  Tuesday,  the  15th  of  May,  1866,  at  the  age  of  55  years,  he  quietly 
breathed  his  last  at  the  residence  of  Lady  Hooker,  the  widow  of  his  long  attached 
friend  "Sir  William  J.  Hooker,  surrounded  by  kind  and  anxious  relatives  and 
friends,  and  was  buried  in  the  cemetery  at  Torquay,  on  Saturday  the  19th  of 
May.'' 


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134  WILLIAK  HEKBT  HARVUT. 

Dr.  Harvey  was  one  of  the  few  botanists  of  our  day  who  excelled  both  in 
phaenogamic  and  cryptogamic  botany.  In  algology,  his  fiavorite  branch,  proba- 
bly he  has  left  no  superior ;  in  systematic  botany  generally,  he  had  now  an  emi- 
nent position.  He  was  a  keen  observer  and  a  capital  describer.  He  investi- 
gated accurately,  worked  readily  and  easily  with  microscope,  pencil  and  pen, 
wrote  perspicuously,  and,  where  the  subject  permitted,  with  captivating  grace; 
affording,  in  his  lighter  productions,  mere  glimpses  of  the  warm  and  poetical 
imagination,  delicate  humor,  refined  feeling,  and  sincere  goodness  which  wero 
charmingly  revealed  in  intimate  intercourse  and  correspondence,  and  which  won 
the  admiration  and  the  love  of  all  who  knew  him  well.  Handsome  in  person, 
gentle  and  fascinating  in  manners,  genial  and  warm-hearted,  but  of  very  retir- 
ing disposition,  simple  in  his  taet^s  and  unaffectedly  devout,  it  is  not  surprising 
that  he  attracted  friends  wherever  he  went,  so  that  Ms  death  will  be  sensibly  felt 
on  every  continent  and  in  the  islands  of  the  sea. 


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GENEKAL  APPENDIX 


TO  THE 


REPORT  FOR  1867. 


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The  object  of  ibis  appendix  is  to  illustrate  the  operations  of  the  Institution 
by  reports  of  lectures  and  extracts  from  correspondence,  as  well  as  to  furnish 
information  of  a  character  suited  especially  to  the  meteorological  observeiB  and 
other  persons  interested  bk  the  promotion  of  knowledge. 


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MEMOIR  OF  LEGENDRB. 


By  M.  fiuE  DB  Beaumont, 
Perpttmal  Secretary  of  the  French  Academy  of  8ci$Hce$.. 


TRAK8LATSD   FOB  THE   SMITHSONIAN   IKBTTrUTIOX   BT  C.    A.   ALEXANDER. 


It  has  been  said  that  the  distinctive  stamp  of  onr  age  is  the  aspiration  after 
material  well-being.  Science  is  accased  of  having  fostered  this  instinct  by  the 
numerous  useful  applications  with  which  it  has  endowed  humanity ;  and  it  is 
true  that  in  our  day  chemistry,  steam,  electricity,  have  remodelled  the  face  of 
the  world.  It  is  quite  certain,  also,  that  a  scientific  education  better  understood 
and  more  generally  distributed  has  multiplied  the  number  of  those  who,  without 
having  received  from  nature  faculties  of  the  first  order,  have  yet  proved  capable 
of  deriving  from  science  great  advantages  as  well  for  others  as  themselves.  We 
may  well  suppose  that  even  minds  still  more  developed,  seduced  by  the  allure- 
ments of  fortune  or  yielding  to  stem  necessity,  have  sometimes  deviated  firom 
the  arduous  paths  of  pure  science  into  the  more  inviting  paths  of  applied  science. 
Bat  we  have  seen  also,  and  see  daily,  men  of  a  more  robust  temperament  who, 
listening  only  to  the  inspirations  of  genius,  devote  their  whole  existence  to  stren- 
uous labors  which,  for  the  moment,  will  contribute  merely  to  the  increase  of 
science]  of  which  future  generations  alone  can  make  useful  applications;  which 
will  not  be  appreciated  even  in  a  manner  somewhat  general  until  long  after  the 
death  of  their  authors;  and  from  which  those  authors  will  themselves  have 
derived  no  other  enjoyment  than  the  majestic  and  exciting  spectacle  of  great 
truths  covered  as  yet  with  an  impenetrable  veil  to  all  eyes  but  their  own, 
together  with  the  consciousness  of  a  duty  fulfilled  towards  Providence,  who  has 
intrusted  to  them  the  instruments  of  the  future  progress  of  the  human  race. 

Among  those  who  seem  to  have  been  bom  to  vindicate  onr  age  from  an 
unjust  reproach,  and  to  exalt  humanity  in  its  own  esteem,  a  high  rank  must  be 
accorded  to  a  geometer  who  occupied  a  place  in  this  academy  for  nearly  50 
years,  who  has  enriched  our  publications  with  some  of  their  most  valuable  con- 
tents, and  bequeathed  to  future  ages  works  of  paramount  importance ;  whose 
merit  is  every  day  more  generally  recognized,  and  whose  memory  awaits  by 
just  title  an  official  testimonial  of  the  sympathetic  admiration  which  has  sur- 
vived him  in  the  afiectionate  remembrance  of  all  his  colleagues. 

Adrien  Marie  Legendre  was  bora,  September  18,  1762,  in  a  condition  of  life 
which  left  to  him  the  credit  of  being  indebted  to  his  own  merit  for  all  that  he 
might  eventually  become.  He  finished  in  good  season,  at  the  college  Mazarin, 
those  solid  classical  studies  from  which  he  derived  a  lasting  taste  for  the  litera- 
tnre  of  the  ancients,  the  happy  fruits  of  which  are  to  be  recognized  in  the  ele- 
gance, the  purity,  and  the  lucid  conciseness  of  his  writings.  There  also  he 
commenced  the  study  of  mathematics  under  a  highly  distbguished  master,  the 
Abbd  Marie,  who  failed  not  to  remark  his  ardor  and  was  strack  with  the  per- 
Bpicuity  of  his  exercises.  But  a  little  time  had  elapsed  after  his  retirement  from 
college  when  the  judicious  professor  publishing,  in  1774,  a  treatise  on  mechan- 
icsy  thought  proper  to  embody  in  it  several  remarkable  fragments  derived  from 
his  disciple.    The  modesty  of  the  scholar  inclined  him  to  shrink  from  designa- 


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i38  MEMOIB  OF  LEGENDRE. 

'  tion,  hut  the  ahh^  felt  it  to  he  a  duty  to  indicate  to  men  of  science  the  passages 
wLich  had  proceeded  from  the  pen  of  the  young  Legendre,  aged  at  that  time 
22  years.  Among  these  passages  is  the  definition  of  accelerative  forces,  dis- 
tinguished hy  a  precision  and  clearness  of  expression  which  seem  sometimes  to 
be  among  the  happy  privileges  of  youth.  This  definition  is  so  natural,  and 
now  so  familiar  to  scientific  minds,  that,  when  re^jalled,  it  is  with  difficulty  con- 
ceived how  it  could  ever  have  presented  anything  of  originality  and  novelty. 
It  is  but  just  to  say  that  it  forms  no  exceptional  feature  in  the  work  of  the  Abbe 
Marie,  who,  in  many  respects,  was  in  advance  of  his  age,  and  whose  merit  was 
not  limited  to  that  of  having  divined  the  talents  of  Legendre. 

D'Alembert  had  said,  with  just  foresight,  that  the  fate  of  the  new  calculus 
(differential  and  integi-al)  would  depend  on  the  reception  it  met  with  from  the 
younger  geometere;  these  therefore  he  sought  to  allure  to  the  method  in  ques- 
tion, and  which  was  as  yet  imperfectly  comprehended,  by  the  degree  of  esteem 
and  consideration  which  he  accorded  to  such  among  them  as  evinced  a  capacity 
for  following  it.  He  was  not  likely  long  to  overlook  the  penetrating  and  pre- 
cocious talent  which  disclosed  itself  in  the  young  Legendre ;  and  scarcely  had 
the  first  Mmpses  of  genius  given  presage  of  what  might  be  expected  from  the 
disciple  of  the  Abb(^  Marie,  when  he  was  named  professor  of  mathematics  at  the 
military  school  of  Paris.  Here,  from  1775  to  1780,  he  continued  to  give  les- 
sons on  the  scientific  grounds  of  the  military  art  to  that  ardent  and  intelligent 
body  of  youths  from  wnich  have  sprung  not  a  few  of  our  warlike  celebrities,  and 
whose  number  would  have  been  n^ore  considerable,  had  not  circumstances 
forced  a  part  of  them  into  emigi'ation.  It  may  be  inferred  that  the  instruction 
given  by  the  young  professor  embraced  the  first  elements  of  bcUisUcSy  the  art, 
namely,  of  throwing  projectiles,  and  that  he  studied  the  learned  treatises  which 
Bezout,  Borda,  and  other  eminent  men  had  published  on  these  difiicult  problems ; 
for  when  the  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences  and  Belles-lettres  of  Prussia  proposed, 
for  the  prize  of  1782,  the  question  of  determining  the  curve  described  by  balls  and 
shells,  regard  being  had  to  tJie  resistance  qf  the  air,  and  giving  the  rtdes  for  ascer- 
taining the  range  which  corresponds  to  different  initial  velocities  and  to  different 
angles  qf  projection^  M.  Legendre  was  quite  in  readiness  to  enter  into  the  compe- 
tition. His  memoir,  prepared  on  this  occasion,  was  crowned  with  success  in  the 
public  meeting  of  June  6,  1782,  and  was  published  at  Berlin  under  the  title 
of  Becherches  sur  la  trajectoire  des  projectiles  dans  les  milieux  resistants.^ 

Newton,  it  is  stated  in  this  memoir,  was  the  first  who  made  researches  respect- 
ing trajectories  in  resisting  mediums.  He  paiticularly  considers  that  which  takes 
place  on  the  hypothesis  of  a  resistance  proportional  to  the  simple  velocity  j  but 
he  gives  merely  approximations,  and  those  but  rough  ones,  for  the  trajectory 
which  results  when  the  resistance  is  proportional  to  the  square  of  the  velocity. 
The  honor  of  the  discovery  is  due  to  Jean  Bernoulli,  who  published  a  general 
solution  of  the  problem,  supposing  the  resistance  to  be  as  any  power  whatever 
of  the  velocity.  Long  after,  Euler  discussed  the  same  question  in  the  Memoirs 
of  the  Academy  of  Berlin  for  the  year  1753.  His  object  was  to  apply  the 
theory  to  balistics,  and  for  that  he  proposes  very  ingenious  means.  In  the 
memoirs  of  the  same  Academy  for  the  year  1765,  and  elsewhere,  we  find  very 
extended  researches  by  Lambert  with  the  same  object.  Borda,  in  the  Memoirs 
of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  of  Paris  for  the  year  1769,  has  treated  this  ques- 
tion with  his  usual  elegance  and  ingenuity.  Conformably  with  the  idea  of 
Newton,  he  substitutes  for  the  true  trajectoiy  that  which  would  be  described  in 
virtue  of  a  density  but  slightly  variable,  and  he  obudns  by  this  means  an 
approximation  much  superior  to  that  of  Newton.  Lastly,  Berout,  in  his  Course 
of  Artillery,  published  in  1772,  made  a  more  particular  application  of  methods 
of  his  own  to  the  trajectory  of  shells  and  bullets. 

*  This  memoir  bore  for  its  motto :  ToUuntur  in  altum  ut  ca$u  grnvun-e  ruanL 

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MEMOIB  OF   LEGENDRE  139 

M.  Legendre  propounds  the  equation  of  the  movement  of  the  projectile  on  the 
opposition  that  the  resistance  of  the  air  is  proportional  to  the  square  of  the  velocity. 
He  integrates  this  equation  with  ele^nce,  and  the  reduction  into  series  forms  more 
especially  the  remarkable  part  of  the  memoir.  Although  the  hypotheses  which 
he  advances  on  the  variation  of  the  density  of  the  air  have  been  modified,  his 
calcolations  have  remained  the  type  of  those  that  have  been  made  more  in 
detail  on  the  supposition  of  a  resistance  proportional  to  the  square  of  the  velocity. 
M.  Fran^ais,  professor  at  the  schools  of  artillery,  and  General  Didion  have  only 
mpplieil  improvements  to  his  method.*  But  this  solution  of  the  balistic  ques- 
tion is  simply  a  monument,  so  to  speak,  in  the  history  of  the  science,  since  the 
necessity  has  been  recognized  of  introducing,  in  the  expression  of  the  resistance 
of  the  air,  a  term  proportional  to  the  cube  of  the  vel9cicy.  It  is  not  the  less  cer- 
tain, however,  that  by  his  memoir  Legendre,  young  as  he  yet  was,  has  earned 
for  himself  a  distin^ished  place  in  the  series  of  mathematicians  .to  whom  is  duo 
the  superiority  of  the  European  artillery ;  a  series  which  commences  with  New- 
toD,  in  which  M.  Poisson  occupies  an  eminent  rank,  and  which  is  continued 
with  eo  much  ^clat  by  the  learned  officers  to  whom  we  owe  the  actual  precision 
of  our  artillery  and  the  emplo3rment  of  rifled  cannon. 

Bat,  however  seductive  this  first  success  might  appear,  M.  Legendre  did  not 
continue  to  occupy  himself  with  the  application  of  science  to  military  art,  and  we 
lead  at  this  early  stage  on  the  title  page  of  the  Dissertation  on  Balistics,  printed 
in  1782,  the  announcement  that  it  is  ''by  A.  M.  Legendre,  late  professor  of 
mathematics  in  the  military  school  at  Paris."  The  youthful  veteran,  to  whom 
perhaps  the  military  discipline  had  never  been  particuliurly  congenial,  had  decided 
to  reserve  his  whole  time  for  the  study  of  departments  of  mathematics  which, 
while  not  more  difficult,  pertain  to  an  order  of  ideas  generally  considered  as  more 
elevated. 

He  had  been  occupied  for  some  time  with  researches  on  the  mutual  attractions 
and  forms  of  the  planetary  spheroids,  and  read  at  the  Academy  of  Sciences  of 
Paris,  January  22,  1783,  a  memoir  on  the  attraction  of  spheroids,  for  the  exami- 
nation of  which,  MM.  d'Alembert  and  de  Laplace  were  named  commissioners. 
It  was  at  this  same  sitting,  as  we  learn  from  the  invaluable  journals  of  the 
Aeademy,  that  MM.  Daubenton  and  Bezout  made  a  favorable  report  on  a 
memoir  of  the  Abb6  Haiiy,  relative  to  the  structure  of  fluor  spars ;  for  it  was  the 
epoch  when  M.  Hauy  was  submitting  to  the  Academy,  in  a  series  of  memoirs,  the 
ideas  which  have  become  the  basis  of  cirstallography. 

M.  Legendre  finished  the  reading  of  his  memoir  in  the  sitting  of  the  19th  of 
February,  and  in  that  of  the  15th  of  March,  MM.  d'Alembert,  Bezout  and  de 
Laplace  read  the  following  report : 

The  Academy  having  charged  us  with  the  examination  of  two  memoirs  of  M.  Legendre  on 
^  attraction  of  spheroids,  we  proceed  to  render  on  account  of  them.  Geometers  well  know 
tbe  admirable  synthetic  theory  of  M.  Maclamrin  on  the  attractions  of  spheroids,  of  which  all  the 
itedons  are  elliptical,  &c.,  &o.  M.  de  Lagrange  subsequently  amved  at  the  same  results 
bj  analogy  alone  in  the  Memoirs  of  Berlin  for  1771,  but  all  these  researches  suppose  the 
roint  attracted  at  the  surface,  or  in  the  interior  of  the  spheroids.       •  •  •  • 

I  regret  the  impossibility  of  reading  the  whole  of  this  report,  written  with 
ft  masterly  hand  and  inimitable  clearness  by  M.  de  Laplace,  who  had  him- 
8elf  the  year  before  communicated  to  the  Academy  a  learned  theory  of  the 
ftttractions  of  spheroids  and  of  the  figure  of  planets,t  a  cmsumstance  which 
renders  still  more  honorable,  both  for  himself  and  M.  Legendre,  the  justice  which 
^  80  cheerfully  and  explicitly  accords  to  his  competitor,  as  yet  almost  unknown. 
I  will  content  myself  with  saying  that  after  having  analyzed  the  two  memoirs  of 
It.  Legendre,  who  arrivee  at  the  conclusion  that,  in  order  to  determine  the 

'  See  Trmiti  de  balistiquef  by  Qeneral  Didion,  second  edition,  revised  and  enlarged,  18G0 ; 
PP  246-251. 
iMimoir$t  de  VAead6mie  rojfmledeM  Seiemce$  for  the  year  r'82. 


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140  MEMOIR  OF  LEGENDRE. 

attraction  of  a  spheroid  on  any  exterior  point,  it  suffices  to  cause  the  surfiace  of 
another  spheroid  described  from  the  same  foci  as  the  first  to  pass  by  that  point, 
the  illustrious  reporter  closed  his  remarks  as  follows : 

The  theorem  which  forms  the  principal  object  of  these  two  memoirs  is  highly  interestio^. 
It  is  a  new  step  taken  in  the  theory  ot  attractions  of  spheroids ;  the  analysis  is  rery  able,  is 
presented  moreover  with  much  elegance  and  clearness,  and  announces  in  its  author  distin- 
guished talent  We  think,  therefore,  that  these  memoirs  merit  the  approbation  of  the  Academy, 
and  should  be  printed  in  the  Collection  of  foreign  savants. 

After  the  conclusions  drawn  in  their  report,  which  were  adopted  by  the  Academy, 
the  commissioners  further  added : 

Besides  the  two  memoirs  of  which  we  have  just  rendered  an  account,  M.  Logendre  has 
presented  to  the  Academy  at  different  times  memoirs  on  the  resolution  of  intermediate  equa- 
tions of  the  second  degree,  and  on  the  properties  of  continual  fractions;  on  several  nroblems 


of  probabilities ;  on  the  summation  or  continual  fractions,  and  on  the  rotation  or  bodies, 
which  are  not  quickened  by  any  accelerative  force.  All  these  memoirs  have  been  esteemed 
worthy  of  being  printed  among  those  of  foreign  savants.  FinfvUy,  M.  Legendre  has  borne 
off  the  prize  last  proposed  by  the  Academy  of  Berlin  on  balistics,  or  the  movement  of  pro- 
jectiles. 

Thus  the  reporters  made  incidentally  a  complete  statement  of  the  academic 
titles  of  M.  Legendre,  nor  was  this  done  without  intention,  for  there  was  an 
election  at  hand  in  the  class  of  mechanics.  The  journals  inform  us  in  effect 
that,  at  the  following  session  of  the  19th  March,  (the  Academy  then  met  twice 
a  week,)  MM.  Coulomb,  Bossnt,  Le  Roy,  a^d  Cousin  also  made  a  report  on  two 
memoirs  of  M.  P^rier ;  the  first  containing  a  description  of  a  steam-pump,  which 
the  latter  had  just  constructed  at  Chaillot  to  raise  the  waters  of  the  Seine,  upon 
the  principles  of  MM.  Watt  and  Bolton  j  and  the  second  in  relation  to  another 
pump,  which  the  same  engineer  had  erected  at  that  place,  after  ideas  of  his  own. 
These  works,  with  which  every  one  is  now  familiar,  appeared  to  the  Parisian 
population  of  that  day  a  marvel  of  a  wholly  novel  kind.  The  learned  reporters 
concluded  by  saying : 

We  think  that  the  two  memoirs  of  which  we  render  an  account,  in  which  the  author 
describes  in  a  simple  and  lucid  manner  a  steam  mechanism  of  his  own  invention,  as  well  as 
that  of  MM.  Watt  and  Boiton,  deserve  the  approbation  of  the  Academy,  and  should  be 
included  in  the  Collection  of  foreign  savants. 

At  this  sitting  the  Academy  likewise  received  a  favorable  report  from  MM. 
Desmarest,  Tillet,  Coulomb,  and  Monge  on  a  memoir  of  M.  Duhamel,  corre- 
spondent of  the  Academy  and  inspector  general  of  mines,  relative  to  a  new  instru- 
ment for  determining  the  intersection  of  lodes.  The  journal  ffoes  on  to  inform 
us  that  at  this  same  sitting  the  members  of  the  class  of  mechanics  presented 
MM.  Legendre,  Meunier,  P6rier,  Duhamel,  and  Defer;  that  the  first  voices  were 
for  M.  Legendre,  and  the  second  for  M.  Perier.  It  was  the  manner  of  expressing 
at  that  time  the  votes  of  the  Academy,  which  was  composed  of  four  ^nds  of 
members :  honoraries,  of  whom  few  were  present  at  the  sittings ;  pensionaries, 
associates,  and  adjuncts,  to  whom  were  sometimes  added  supernumerary  adjuncts. 
Among  the  names  of  academicians  who  took  part  in  the  scrutiny  of  the  19th  of 
March,  1783,  wo  remark  those  of  MM.  Cassinide  Thury,  d'Alembert,  Lavoisier, 
Lalande,  Daubenton,  Borda,  Bezout,  the  Marquis  Condorcet,  Bailly,  Rochon, 
3Ionge,  Bcrthollet,  de  Jussieu,  Tessier,  and  several  other  celebrated  savants,  a 
part  of  whom  will  be  remembered  by  some  who  hear  mo,  as  having,  at  a  later  period, 
occupied  with  themselves  the  benches  of  the  Institute. 

In  the  sitting  of  the  2d  April,  the  perpetual  secretary  (Condorcet)  read  the 
following  letter  of  M.  Amelot,  dated  from  Versailles,  30th  March,  1783 : 

X  have  the  honor  of  informing  yon  that  the  King  has  nominated  M.  Legendre  to  the  placo 
of  adjunct  of  the  Academy  of  ^iences,  vacant  in  the  class  of  mechanics  dv  the  nomination 
of  M  de  Laplace  to  a  place  of  associate,  and  that  his  Majesty  has  also  thought  proper  to 
name  M.  Perier  to  a  place  of  supernumerary  acljuuct  in  the  same  class. 

I  have  supposed  that,  in  reverting  to  the  first  brilliant  successes  of  M.  Legendre, 
it  would  perhaps  be  agreeable  to  my  auditors  to  carry  back  their  thoughts  for  a 


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MEMOIR  OF  LEQENDRE.  141 

moment  to  the  constitation  and  usages  of  the  ancient  Academy  of  Sciences  of 
Paris,  from  which  our  own  differ  in  some  respects,  though  on  many  points  they 
have  remained  identically  the  same. 

I  hasten  to  return  to  the  labors  of  M.  Legendre,  which  followed  one  another 
at  short  intervals.  He  read  to  the  Academy,  July  4,  1784,  Besearches  on  the 
figure  of  planetSj  in  which  he  again  discussed  in  a  felicitous  manner  a  subject 
treated  by  M.  de  Laplace.  It  had  been  ascertained  by  illustrious  geometers 
that  when  a  planet,  supposed  to  be  fluid  and  homogeneous,  revolves  upon  itself, 
it  arrives  definitively  at  an  ellipsoidal  fiffure,  slightly  flattened  at  the  two  poles 
of  rotation,  and  that  among  the  figures  which  may  be  attributed  to  the  meridian 
curve,  the  ellipsis  is  one  of  those  which  satisfy  the  condition  of  equilibrium ;  but 
no  one  had  yet  discovered  that  the  ellipsis  is  the  only  curve  which  can  satisfy  the 
condition.  M.  de  Laplace,  in  his  memoir  o^  1772,  had  said  positively  that  ho 
would  not  venture  to  assert  that  this  figure  was  the  only  one  which  could  do  so; 
that  it  would  be  first  necessary  to  know  in  finite  terms  the  complete  integral  of 
the  difierential  equation  of  the  problem,  and  that  he  had  not  yet  been  able  to 
obtain  it.  This  M.  Legendre  accomplished  by  availing  himself  of  the  ingenious 
analysis  of  his  memoir  on  the  attraction  of  the  spheroids,  and  he  concludes  that 
if  a  planet  in  equilibrium  be  supposed  to  have  the  figure  of  a  solid  of  revolution 
little  different  from  a  sphere,  and  divided  into  two  equal  parts  by  its  equator,  the 
meridian  of  that  planet  will  necessarily  be  elliptical. 

*'  The  proposition  which  forms  the  object  of  this  memoir,"  he  observes  in  a 
note,  "  having  been  demonstrated  in  a  much  more  skilful  and  general  manner  in 
a  memoir  which  M.  de  Laplace  has  already  publishe<l  in  the  volume  of  1782, 
(printed  later  than  its  date,)  I  should  draw  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  date  of 
my  own  memoir  is  earlier,  and  that  the  proposition  which  appears  here,  as  it  was 
resA  in  June  and  July,  1784,  gave  occasion  to  M.  de  Laplace  to  investigate  the 
subject  thoroughly,  and  to  present  to  geometers  a  complete  theory  thereof 

Other  great  geometers  also  have  added  their  discoveries  to  those  of  M. 
Legendre,*  but  nothing  has  effaced  the  merit  of  his  two  memoirs  drawn  up  in 
1782.  Hence,  M.  Poisson,  in  the  leame<l  and  eloquent  discourse  which  he  pro- 
nounced January  10,  1833,  at  the  grave  of  Legendre,  took  occasion  to  say: 

The  redaction  into  iseries  of  which  he  made  use  in  the  first  memoir,  gare  rise  to  theorems 
which  have  been  sinre  extended,  but  which  are  still  the  basis  of  the  theory  at  which  we  have 
sabseqoently  arrived.  In  the  second,  he  gave  the  onlv  direct  solution  jet  known  of  the 
problem  of  the  figure  of  a  homogeneous  planet,  supposed  to  be  fluid,  and  soon  aflerwards  he 
extended  his  researches  to  the  general  case  of  a  planet,  composed  of  heterogeneous  strata.! 

In  the  course  of  his  memoir,  M.  Legendre  finds  that  the  terrestrial  spheroid, 
which  is  in  equilibrium  when  the  axes  are  in  the  ratio  of  230  to  231,  may  still  be 
so  if  the  axes  be  supposed  in  the  ratio  of  1  to  681,  which  affords  quite  a  strange 
figure,  but  one  which  recalls  the  ring  of  Saturn.  He  adds  that  d'Alembert  was 
the  first  to  remark  that  there  might  be  several  elliptical  spheroids  which  would  com- 
port with  eqni librinm.  We  see  by  these  different  examples  what  emulation  existed 
between  those  fine  intellects,  d'Alembert,  Lagrange,  Laplace,  Legendre ;  with 
what  rapidity  their  labors  succeeded,  while  they  mutually  completed  one  another. 
It  may  further  be  remarked  that  M.  Legendre  supposes  only  in  an  implicit  man- 
ner that  the  spheroid  is  one  of  revolution.  The  equation  found  by  him  is  that 
of  the  meridian  curve,  and  his  analysis  is  in  no  respect  contradicted  by  the  dis- 
covery, as  curious  as  it  was  unexpected,  made  in  our  time  almost  simultaneously 
by  H.  Liouville  and  M.  Jacobi,  that  the  planetary  ellipsoid  may  have  its  three 
axes  unequal,  and  that  the  equator  may  itself  be  an  ellipsis. 

*  Since  the  death  of  M.  Legendre,  the  question  of  the  attraction  of  an  ellipsoid  on  an  exter- 
nal point  has  been  complete!/  resolved  in  ao  analytic  manner  by  M.  Poisson,  (  Bt^moires  dt 
fAead.  det  Sciences  de  I'lmsUtute,  t.  xiii,  p.  497,  1835  ;)  ard  in  a  synthetic  manner  bv  M. 
Charles,  {Uimoiret  des  §avani»  itrauger$  d  VAcademie  de$  SdeneeM,  t  ix,  p.  6*21),  1846.) 

t  IHftoourse  prononnced  at  the  fonml  of  H.  Legendre,  January  10,  1833,  by  M.  Poisson. 


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142  MEMOIR  OF  LEQENDRE. 

M.  Lcffendre  subsequently  resumed  the  questions  treated  in  these  first  and 
inemoraMe  memoirs,  particularly  in  1790,  in  the  sequel  of  his  researches  on  the 
figure  of  the  planets;  in  1789,  in  a  memoir  on  double  integrals,  in  which  be 
completes  the  analysis  of  his  memoir  on  the  attraction  of  spheroids ;  and  still 
later,  in  a  memoir  read  to  the  Academy  in  1812.  After  having  pointed  out,  in 
this  last,  the  improvements  contributed  to  his  preceding  labors  on  this  subject  by 
M.  Biot,  who  had  conceived  the  happy  idea  of  applying  thereto  an  integral  ^ven 
by  M.  de  Lagrange  for  another  object,  M.  Legendre  avails  himself  of  the  sub- 
stitution discovert  by  M.  Ivory  to  present  the  entire  theory  of  the  attraction 
of  homogeneous  ellipsoids  with  all  the  simplicity  of  which  it  is  susceptible. 

But  these  important  labors  were  far  from  entirely  absorbing  M.  Legendre's 
attention,  and  the  varied  nature  of  the  memoirs  which  he  presented  in  great  fre- 
quency to  the  Academy,  to  a  mere  enumeration  of  which  I  must  here  confine 
myself,  evinced  the  extent  of  his  knowledge  and  the  surprismg  fecundity  of  his 
genius. 

In  1785,  he  read  to  the  Academy  a  masterly  memoir  entitled  Besearches  <m 
indeterminate  analysis,  which  includes  numerous  propositions  on  the  theory  of 
numbers,  and  especially  the  celebrated  theorem  qf  reciprocity  known  under  the 
name  of  the  law  qf  Legendre.^  In  1786,  a  memoir  on  the  manner  of  distin- 
guishing maxima  from  minima  in  the  calculation  of  variations.!  Also,  two 
memoirs  on  integrations  by  arcs  of  the  ellipsis,  and  on  the  comparison  of  these 
arcs,f  memoirs  which  contain  the  first  rudiments  of  his  theory  qf  elliptical  func- 
tions. In  1787,  a  memoir  on  the  integration  of  certain  equations  with  partial 
differences.  By  a  simple  change  of  variables,  he  arrives  rigorously  at  the  inte- 
gral of  an  equation  which  Monge  had  only  integrated  by  a  process  depending  on 
certain  metaphysical  principles  about  which  there  still  existed  some  doubts.  By 
proving  that  the  integral  was  exact,  M.  Legendre  contributed  to  corroborate  the 
reputation  of  the  illustrious  author  of  the  application  of  analysis  to  geometry, 
whose  name  also  ia  one  of  the  characteristic  glories  of  the  French  mathematical 
school.  In  thb  same  memoir  he  gives  by  his  method  the  integrals  of  several 
classes  of  equations  with  partial  diflerences  of  superior  orders ;  then,  very  hap- 
pily extending  an  idea  of  Lagrange  for  the  integration  of  non-linear  equations 
of  the  first  order,  he  distinguishes  therein  six  cases  of  integrability  which  they 
may  present.  Again,  in  1790  he  read  a  memoir  on  the  particular  integrals  of 
differential  equations,  of  which  he  modestly  says  that  the  principle  and  demon- 
stration are  only  consequences  very  easily  to  be  deduced  from  the  theory  which 
M.  de  Lagrange  had  given  in  the  Memoirs  of  the  Academy  of  Berlin  for  1774. 
He  estabhshes  that  particular  integrals  are  always  comprised  in  a  finite  expres- 
sion in  which  the  number  of  arbitrary  constants  is  less  than  in  the  complete  inte- 
gral, thus  preparing  the  way  for  the  definitive  labors  which  M.  Poisson  has  since 
made  public  on  this  subject. 

But  at  this  epoch  M.  Legendre  was  already  engaged  in  another  series  of 
researches  which  occupied  him  at  intervals  for  a  great  number  of  years,  and  in 
which  his  labors  were  fertile  in  important  results. 

In  1787,  some  doubts  having  been  raised  upon  the  respective  position  of  the 
observatories  of  Paris  and  Greenwich,  it  was  decided  to  connect  the  meridians 
by  a  chain  of  triangles  which  should  extend  from  one  point  to  the  other.  The 
Academy  of  Sciences  confided  to  three  of  its  members,  MM.  Cassini,  Mechain, 
and  Legendre,  the  execution  of  this  operation,  in  concert  with  Major  Greneral  Roy 
and  several  other  English  savants.  These  important  labors  were  accordingly 
performed  with  all  the  exactness  which  the  state  of  science  then  permitted — ^by 
the  help  of  an  excellent  quadrant  prepared  by  the  celebrated  English  artist 
Ramsden,  and  the  repeating  circle  constructed  by  Lenoir  upon  the  principles  of 

*Mim.  de  VAeademie  des  Science*,  vol.  for  1785. 
tJIf^m.  de  VAcademie  dee  Sciences,  vol.  for  1766,  p.  7. 
XMim,  de  VAcademie  des  Sciences^  for  1766,  pp.  6^6-644. 


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MEMOIR  OF  LEGENDBE.  143 

Borda.  M.  Legendre  calculated  all  the  triangles  sitaated  in  France,  and  after- 
wards those  also  which  extended  in  England  as  far  as  Greenwich.  On  this  occa- 
sion he  went  to  London,  where  he  was  received  with  the  distinction  due  to  him, 
and  was  named  member  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London.  He  published  at  this 
time  in  the  Memoirs  of  the  Academy  for  the  year  1787  (printed  in  1789)  an 
important  paper  entitled,  Memoir  on  the  trigonometrical  operations  qf  which  the 
results  depend  on  the  figure  qf  the  earth  ;*  of  this  he  has  himself  explained  the 
object  in  terms  which  I  take  the  liberty  of  abridging : 

The  only  question  here  is  that  which  regards  operations  exacting  extreme  pre- 
cision, snch  as  the  measurement  of  the  degrees  of  the  meridian  or  of  a  parallel, 
and  the  geographical  determination  of  the  principal  points  of  a  large  area  from 
the  triangles  which  connect  them.  Operations  of  this  kind  may  be  carried 
henceforward  to  a  great  degree  of  precision  by  means  of  the  repeating  circle. 
In  effect,  the  use  which  we  have  made  of  this  instrument,  in  1787,  has  convinced 
us  that  it  can  give  each  angle  of  a  triangle  to  about  two  seconds,  or  even  more 
exactly,  if  all  circumstances  are  favorable.  It  is  further  necessary  that  the  cal- 
colations  established  on  such  data  should  not  be  inferior  to  the  latter  in  exact- 
ness ;  especially  is  it  requisite  to  take  account  of  the  reduction  to  the  horizon, 
which  amounts  quite  often  to  several  seconds;  and  thence  arise  triangles  of  infi- 
nitely femall  curvature,  the  calculation  of  which  demands  special  rules ;  for,  by 
(X)nsidering  them  as  rectilinear,  we  should  neglect  the  small  excess  of  the  sum 
of  the  three  angles  over  180°,  and  by  considering  them  as  spherical,  the  sides 
wonld  be  changed  into  very  small  arcs,  the  calculation  of  which  by  the  common 
tables  would  be  neither  exact  nor  commodious. 

I  have  assembled  in  this  memoir,  continues  M.  Legendre,  the  necessary  formu- 
las, as  well  for  the  reduction  and  calculation  of  these  sorts  of  triangles,  as  for 
what  relates  to  the  position  of  the  different  points  of  a  chain  of  triangles  on  the 
surface  of  the  sphewid.  In  these  calculations,  he  adds,  there  are  some  elements 
susceptible  of  a  slight  uncertainty.         •  •  •  •         In  order  that 

the  calculation  need  be  made  but  once,  and  to  judge  by  a  glance  of  the  influence 
of  errors,  I  have  supposed  the  value  of  each  principal  element  to  be  augmented 
hv  an  indeterminate  quantity  which  denotes  the  correction  of  it.  These  literal 
quantities,  which  are  to  be  regarded  as  very  small,  do  not  prevent  the  calculation 
from  being  proceeded  with  by  logarithms  in  the  i)sual  manner. 

This  was  an  important  addition  to  the  methods  of  calculation  employed  till 
then,  and  still  later  he  further  added  the  method  qf  least  squares.  He  gives  in 
this  memoir  formulas  for  the  reduction  of  an  angle  to  the  horizon,  as  also  for 
other  determinations,  and  especially  the  important  theorem  known  under  the 
name  of  the  theorem  qf  Legendre,  through  which  the  calculation  of  a  spherical 
triangle  of  small  extent  is  reduced  to  that  of  a  rectilinear  triangle,  by  subtract- 
ing from  each  of  the  three  angles  the  third  of  the  spherical  excess  of  their  sum, 
that  is  to  say  the  inconsiderable  quantity  by  which  this  exceeds  1 80°.  M.  Legen- 
dre has  subse<juently  demonstrated  that  this  fundamental  theorem  is  applicable 
also  to  spheroidal  triangles,  whether  traced  on  an  ellipsoid  of  revolution  or  even 
on  a  spheroid  slightly  irregular. 

He  also  occupies  himself,  in  the  same  memoir,  with  the  value  of  the  degrees 
of  the  meridian  in  the  elliptical  spheroid,  and  with  the  determination  of  the 
respective  position  of  different  places  deduced  from  the  nature  of  the  shortest 
line  which  can  be  traced  on  the  surface  of  this  spheroid  from  one  extremity  to 
the  other  of  the  chain  of  triangles  and  from  the  intersections  of  that  line  with 
the  different  sides  of  the  triangles  or  with  their  prolongations.  This  line,  which 
M.  Legendre,  at  different  times  and  always  with  success,  made  the  object  of  his 
researches,  bears  the  name  of  the  geodesic  line  ;  on  the  regular  ellipsoid  it  is  of 
double  curvature,  unless  it  coincides  with  a  meridian.     Finally,  he  occupies  him- 

*Mim,  de  VAeademie  de$  Sciettces,  for  1787.  (printed  in  1769,)  p.  352. 

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144  MEMOIR   OF   LEGEMDKE. 

self  vrth  the  operations  which  have  for  their  object  the  measurement  of  the 
degrees  of  the  meridian/ and  concludes  with  some  theoretical  and  practical  reflec- 
tions on  the  use  of  the  repeating  circle  of  Borda  in  the  delicate  operations  which 
relate  to  that  object. 

These  reflections  were  judicious ;  but  at  the  moment  of  recording  them,  M. 
Legendre,  struck  with  the  progress  which  the  construction  of  instruments  had 
recently  made,  did  not  foresee  those  improvements  which  it  was  even  then  on 
the  point  of  receiving.  They  were  such  that  at  the  end  of  30  years  the  opera- 
tions of  1787  were  found  to  be  inferior  in  the  measurement  of  angles  and  bases, 
the  observation  of  night-signals,  &c.,  to  those  generally  executed  in  this  way. 
Hence  it  resulted  that  the  geodesic  connection  of  Dunkirk  and  Greenwich 
required  to  be  recommenced  in  1817.  This  new  undertaking  was  confided  to 
MSI.  Arago  and  Mathieu,  associated  with  Captain  Kater  and  other  English 
savants.  What  remained  and  will  always  remain  of  the  operations  of  1787  are 
the  formulas  and  theorems  which  it  furnished  M.  Legendre  the  occasion  of  estab- 
lishing, and  which  in  the  sequel  he  still  further  developed  and  improved. 

His  memoir  was  written  in  the  anticipation  of  new  and  more  extended  appli- 
cations; for  the  project  already  existed  of  resuming  the  measurement  of  the 
meridian  which  traverses  Fi*ance  fix»m  north  to  south,  and  which  had  been  once 
measured,  in  1739  and  1740,  in  the  great  and  admirable  geodesic  operation  which 
had  supplied  the  basis  of  the  chart  of  Cassini.  The  National  Assembly,  in 
efiect,  having  adopted  the  plan  of  establishing  a  new  system  of  weights  and 
measures  for  all  France,  a  report  was  made  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  March 
19,  1791,  by  MM.  Borda,  Lagrange,  Laplace,  Monge,  and  Condorcet,  on  the 
choice  of  a  unit  of  measure.  The  report,  after  a  profound  discussion  of  the  sub- 
ject, proposed  to  take  as  the  unit  of  measure  the  metre,  representing  the  ten- 
millionth  part  of  a  quarter  of  the  meridian,  calculated"  from  the  measured  length 
of  the  arc  comprised  between  Dunkirk  and  Barcelona.  It  proposed  at  the  same 
time  the  execution  of  difierent  preliminary  operations,  one  of  the  most  important 
of  which  was  the  verification,  by  new  obsei*vation8,  of  the  series  of  triangles 
employed  for  the  measurement  of  the  meridian  of  Cassini  and  its  prolongation 
to  Barcelona. 

It  was  afterwards  agreed  that  MM.  Cassini,  Mechain,  and  Legendre,  the  same 
who  had  connected  the  meridian  of  Paris  with  that  of  Greenwich,  should  be 
charged  with  this  new  operation.  Yet  M.  Legendre  is  not  comprised  in  the  num- 
ber of  the  12  commissioners  nominated  (April  17,  1795)  to  conduct  all  the 
labors  necessary  for  fixing  the  bases  of  the  metrical  system.  These  commis- 
sioners designated  from  their  own  number  MM.  Mechain  and  Delambre  to  exe- 
cute the  measurement  of  the  angles,  the  astronomical  observations,  and  the  meas- 
urement of  the  dependent  bases  of  the  meridian,  and  it  was  they  in  effect  who, 
in  very  difficult  times,  had  the  merit  of  executing  this  vast  operation  with  means 
often  greatly  restricted ;  yet,  a  few  years  afterwaids,  we  find  M.  Legendre  among 
the  members  of  the  mixed  commission,  formed  of  a  union  of  French  and  foreign 
savants,  to  which  the  duty  of  examining  and  verifying  the  whole  work  was 
entrusted.  All  the  triangles  were  separately  calculated  by  four  persons,  MM. 
Trall^s,  Van  Swinden,  Legendre,  and  Delambre,  each  employing  the  method  he 
preferred,  and  the  results  were  only  admitted  when  there  was  a  satisfactory  agree- 
ment between  the  four  calculations.  M.  Legendre  signed  with  the  other  com- 
missioners the  report  made  to  the  National  Institute,  June  17. 1799,  on  the  basis 
of  the  metrical  system,  and  he  continued  to  take  pait  in  all  the  ulterior  calcula- 
tions and  the  difierent  verifications  rendered  necessary  by  certain  discordances 
which  had  been  remarked,  and  by  some  doubts  which  had  arisen  on  the  exact- 
ness of  several  parts  of  the  operation.  The  method  he  followed  was  that  of 
which  he  had  established  the  basis  in  his  memoir  of  1787.  In  applying  it  on  so 
extensiv/*  a  scale,  he  improved  and  developed  it,  and  gave  a  large  number  of  new 
theorems  leading  to  more  rapid  reductions,  to  more  convenient  formulas.    He  read 


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MEMOIR  OF  LEGEKDBE.  145 

to  the  first  class  of  the  Institute^  March  3,  1806,  a  new  memoir  entitled,  Ancdy- 
sis  cf  triangles  traced  on  the  surface  of  a  spheroid^  in  which  he  considers  the  tri- 
angles as  no  longer  described  on  the  sphere,  but  on  a  spheroid.  He  inquires 
aod  demonstrates  the  properties  of  the  shortest  lines  traced  on  its  surface ;  extends 
and  thus  generalizes  the  numerous  applications  of  the  theorem  which  bears  his 
name,  and  renewing  the  principal  operations  offered  by  geodesy,  gives  the  most 
complete  analysis  of  them. 

He  concludes  that  there  can  remain  no  doubt  of  the  exactness  of  the  calcu- 
latioo  of  the  triangles  from  which  the  distance  of  the  parallels  between  Dunkirk 
and  Moutjouy,  near  Barcelona,  has  been  computed,  as  well  as  the  length  of  the 
metre ;  but  he  considers  it  beyond  question  that  the  results  deduced  from  differ- 
ent chains  of  triangles  do  not  always  exactly  accord  among  themselves,  on 
account  of  certain  anomalies  in  the  latitudes  and  azimuths  which  may  be  due 
to  local  attractions. 

At  this  epoch,  in  1805,  M.  Legendre  had  just  published,  in  the  sequel  of  his 
new  methods  for  the  determination  of  the  orbits  of  comets,  an  appendix  on  the 
method  qf  least  squares.  Here  ho  proposed  that  method  which  has  generally 
been  adopted  for  deriving  from  the  measures  yielded  by  observation  the  most 
exact  results  which  they  are  susceptible  of  furnishing.  M.  de  Laplace  has  since 
demonstrated  that  it  is  the  most  advantageous  of  which  we  can  make  use  in  prac- 
tice. M.  Legendre,  after  having  developed  it,  made  an  immediate  application 
of  it  to  the  measurement  of  the  degrees  of  the  meridian  of  France,  and  he  con- 
cluded, as  in  the  geodesic  memoir,  that  the  anomalies  in  the  latitudes  ought  not 
to  he  attributed  to  the  observations,  and  that  they  pertain  probably  to  local 
attractions  which  act  irregularly  on  the  plumb-line.  M.  Gauss,  in  1809,  seems 
to  have  thought,  for  the  moment,  that  he  had  rights  of  priority  to  the  invention 
of  the  method  of  least  squares  y*  but,  if  it  cannot  be  contested  that  so  eminent 
a  savant  may  have  had  the  same  idea  with  M.  Legendre,  and  may  even  have 
applied  it  in  his  labors,  it  is  certain  that  M.  Legendre  had,  on  his  part,  disco v- 
md  the  method  and  was  the  first  who  published  it. 

H.  Legendre  continued  henceforth  to  make  part  of  the  commission  of  weights 
and  measures ;  but,  though  his  labors  of  1787  had  rendered  his  co-operation 
indispensable  in  the  great  enterprise  which  that  commission  was  charged  with 
oondacting  to  a  successful  issue,  there  was  a  period  during  which,  as  we  have 
said,  he  ceased  to  be  officially  attached  to  it :  this  was  under  the  reign  of  terror, 
like  most  of  the  savants  of  his  epoch,  he  was  favorable  to  the  ideas  which 
bave  become  the  basis  of  modem  society  ]  but  he  remained  a  stranger  to  the 
excesses  which  imbrued  the  Revolution  in  blood.  Perhaps,  indeed,  his  caustic 
torn  had  not  wholly  spared  its  authors ;  certain  it  is,  that,  during  the  violence  of 
the  storm,  he  was  forced  to  hide  himself.  It  was  one  of  the  most  happy  inci- 
dents of  his  life  j  for,  in  the  retreat  which  he  found  in  Paris  itself,  he  formed  the 
acquaintance  of  a  young  and  engaging  female,  MarguerUe-Claudine  Couhiny 
whom  he  espoused  shortly  afterwards,  and  who  constituted  his  happiness  during 
40  jesffs.  Much  younger  than  her  husband,  she  bore  no  inefficient  part  in  his 
gr^  labors  by  the  tranquillity,  the  assiduous  attentions,  the  watchful  solicitude, 
with  which  she  environed  him,  proving  herself,  in  all  circumstances,  a  model  of 
<ii9CTetion,  grace,  and  amiability. 

The  revolutionary  turbulence,  however,  had  itself  never  interrupted  the 
labors  of  M.  Legendre.  In  the  year  II  of  the  republic,  towards  the  end  of 
1793,  he  published  a  new  memoir  on  elliptical  transcendents,  forming  a  quarto 

*In  his  work,  entitled  Theoria  motui  corporum  celestium^  M.  Gaass  exorcsscs  himself 
^ith  respect  to  this  in  the  following  manner :  **Thi<i  principle,  which  we  nave  employed 
iuwe  the  year  1795,  has  been  lately  g^veu  by  M.  Legendre  in  bis  NouvelUs  Mithodes  pour  ta 
^*<(r»nMitoM  dts  orbites  de$  comSus :  Paris^  1806.  There  will  be  found  in  that  work  several 
cooseqneQces  which  the  desire  of  being  brief  induces  us  to  omit."  (See  the  work  enti- 
^  Mitkodea  des  moindres  earrSt,  M^moires  sur  ta  combination  dts  observations,  by  M.  Ch. 
F.  Gaoss,  translated  into  French  and  published  with  authority  of  tho  author  by  M.  J. 
Beitrand,  1855.  p.  133.)  ^<^  t 

10   867  Digitized  by  V^OOglC 


146  MEMOIR   OF  LEGENDRE. 

volume  of  more  than  100  pa^es ;  but  in  the  quietude  of  his  liappy  retreat  ho 
had  turned  his  thoughts  to  other  subjects.  The  former  professor  of  mathematics 
in  the  military  school  began  anew  to  occupy  himself  with  the  Elements  of 
Crcometry,  The  first  edition  of  his  work  under  this  title,  a  work  written  with 
elegant  simplicity,  and  in  which  all  the  propositions  are  disposed  in  a  natural 
and  methodical  order,  appeared  in  1794.  The  author,  modelling  himself  upon 
Euclid,  remands  the  science  to  the  severity  of  the  Greek  school.  In  this, 
without  perhaps  designing  it,  he  accommodated  himself  to  the  spirit  of  his  epoch. 
Architecture,  abandoning  the  distorted  forms  of  the  reign  of  Louis  XV,  was 
returning,  more  and  more,  to  the  elegant  simplicity  of  the  Greek  style.  A  few 
years  previous  our  great  painter,  David,  had  inaugurated,  by  his  picture  of  the 
Horatily  a  complete  revolution  in  painting,  which,  after  his  example,  reverted 
likewise  to  the  imitation  of  the  ancients. 

The  work  attained  at  once  the  first  rank  among  classical  books.  In  less 
than  30  years  fouiteen  editions  were  published,  of  which  the  last  has  under- 
gone a  large  number  of  impressions :  more  than  100,000  copies  of  it  have  been 
sold  in  France  alone.  Legendre's  Elements  of  Geometry  have  been  reproduced 
in  the  principal  languages  of  Europe,  and  have  been  even  translated  into  Arabic 
for  the  schools  established  in  Egypt  by  the  viceroy,  Mehemet-Ali. 

The  author,  prepossessed  with  the  method  of  Euclid,  has  perhaps  somewhat 
unduly  availed  himself  of  the  reductio  ad  absurdum,  whicli  might  often  be 
replaced  by  more  facile  demonstrations  j  but  his  work  has  served  to  excite  a 
sort  of  vigorous  intellectual  gymnastics  by  which  mathematical  studies  have 
been  invigorated,  and  its  influence  has  been  undoubtedly  salutary.  Among  other 
things,  M.  Legendre  here  demonstrates,  in  a  novel  manner,  the  equality  of  vol- 
ume of  two  symmetrical  polyhedrons  formed  of  equal  plane  faces,  adjusted 
undei*  the  same  angles,  but  with  an  inverse  arrangement  which  does  not  admit 
of  their  being  superposed.  The  first  editions  did  not  contain  the  excellent  trea- 
tise on  trigonometry  which  the  author  has  added  to  subsequent  ones.  He  has 
also  enriched  these  with  notes,  in  which  he  treats  analytically  certain  parts  of 
geometry  on  a  new  system,  as  where  he  demonstrates  that  the  i-atios  of  the 
circumference  to  the  diameter  and  to  its  square  are  irrational  numbers. 

The  ratio  of  the  circumference  to  the  diameter,  being  an  irrational  number,  is 
not  susceptible  of  being  exactly  expressed  by  any  fraction,  however  great  the 
whole  numbers  which  form  the  numerator  and  denominator.  Hence  results  the 
impossibility  of  ever  finding  the  quadrature  of  the  circle,  and  it  was  in  conse- 
quence of  a  proposition  of  M.  Legendre,  based  on  this  demonstrated  impossi- 
bility, that  the  Academy  renounced  all  further  attention  to  a  problem,  the 
importance  of  which  is  in  some  sort  axiomatic  among  persons  little  versed  in 
mathematics. 

But  whatever  might  be  the  success  of  his  ElementSj  M.  Legendre  did  not 
question  the  feasibility  of  using  other  methods  with  success,  and  himself  con- 
tributed, in  1802,  to  the  publication  of  a  new  edition  of  Clairaut's  Elements  of 
Geometry,  to  which  he  added  notes  derived  probably  from  his  memoranda  of  the 
military  school.  Geometry  is  further  indebted  to  him  for  a  method,  directly 
demonstrated  by  himself,  of  inscribing  in  the  circle  a  regular  polygon  of  17 
sides.  Algebra,  properly  so  called,  owes  to  him,  among  other  things,  two 
different  methods  for  the  solution  of  numerical  equations,  methods  which  make 
known  with  much  mpidity  all  the  roots,  whether  real  or  imaginary,  of  those 
equations. 

So  highly  was  M.  Legendre  appreciated  as  a  skillful  calculator,  that  rarely  was 
any  great  series  of  numerical  operations  undertaken  in  Franco  without  recourse 
being  had  to  his  services.  In  1787  he  ha<l  been  called  to  take  part  in  the  com- 
mission charged  with  connecting  trigonometrically  Dunkirk  and  Gi'eenwich. 
For  the  same  reason  M.  de  Prony,  placed  in  the  year  II  (1794)  at  the  head  of  the 
cadastre,  (registry  of  the  survey  of  lands,)  did  not  deem  it  expedient  to  dispense 
with  his  services.     The  decimal  division  of  the  circle,  then  regar4ed  as  a^neoes- 

jOOgk 


MEMOIR  OF  LEQENDRE.  147 

BAry  complement  of  the  metrical  system,  required  new  trigonometrical  tables. 
M.  de  Prony  caosed  them  to  be  constracted,  with  incredible  celerity,  by  means 
of  the  division  of  hhor  and  by  processes  wholly  new,  which  admitted  of  the 
employment  of  arithmeticians  of  oven  the  most  indifferent  qualifications.  The 
work  was  prepared  by  a  section  of  analysts,  over  which  presided  M.  Legendre, 
who  contributed  greatly  to  facilitate  the  operation  by  devising  new  and  ingen- 
ious formulas  for  determining  the  successive  differences  of  the  sinus.  For  the 
other  sections  it  only  remained  to  make  the  additions.  The  labors  of  this 
board  of  calculation  produced  two  copies  of  tables  entirely  independent  one  of 
the  other,  and  affording,  by  their  identity,  a  mutual  verification.  This  mona- 
ment  of  labor  and  skill,  the  most  vast  of  its  kind  which  has  ever  been  executed 
or  even  conceivetl,  has  no  other  defect,  said  M.  Delambre,  but  its  veri/  immcn- 
sUy,  which  has  so  long  delayed  its  publication. 

When  the  revolutionary  tempest  had  begun  to  subside,  one  of  the  first  cares 
of  government  was  to  reorganize  public  instruction  ;  but  M.  Legendro,  whether 
he  was  not  in  favor  with  the  men  in  power  or  for  whatever  other  reason,  was  not 
invited  to  co-of)erate.  His  name  does  not  either  figure  at  the  glose  of  1794 
among  those  of  the  firet  professors  of  the  Polytechnic  school,  nor  in  Januar}^, 
1795,  in  the  list  of  the  professors  of  the  Normal  schools  ;  nor  yet  was  ho  com- 
prised among  the  48  savants  whom  the  government  selected  to  form  the  nucleus 
of  the  Institute ;  but,  at  the  earliest  opportunity,  his  colleagues  hastened  to 
redress  this  injustice  by  summoning  him  to  their  ranks.  It  will  not  be  amiss  to 
recall  here  the  succession  of  events,  as  facts  not  destitute  of  historical  interest. 

The  Academy  of  Sciences  having  been  suppressed  by  a  decree  of  the  conven- 
tion of  the  8th  of  August,  1793,  the  National  Institute,  of  which  the  first  class 
represented  that  academy,  was  established  by  a  law  of  the  5  fructidor,  year  III, 
(22d  August,  1795,)  and  was  organized  by  a  second  law  of  the  3  brumaire,  year 
IV,  (25th  October,  1795.)  By  the  ninth  article  of  this  law  it  was  enacted  that, 
"  for  the  formation  of  the  National  Institute,  the  Executive  Directory  shall 
nominate  48  members,  who  shall  elect  96  others."  To  form  the  nucleus  of  the 
first  class  of  the  Institute,  20  members  were  accordingly  nominated  by  the 
directory,  December  6,  1795,  being  two  for  each  section ;  those  for  the  section 
of  mathematics  were  MM.  Lagrange  and  Laplace.  Two  other  members,  MM. 
Borda  and  Bossut,  w*ere  elected  in  the  meeting  of  the  9th  of  December,  and  the 
section,  which  was  to  be  composed  of  six  membere,  was  completed  on  the  13th 
of  the  same  month  by  the  election  of  MM.  Legendre  and  Delambre.  In  this 
list  M.  Bossut  appeared  by  just  title  for  his  labors  in  hydraulics ;  MM.  Borda 
and  Delambre  were  included  with  not  less  right  for  their  important  services  in 
relation  to  geodesy,  to  measiu*es  of  precision  and  astronomical  calculations ; 
MM.  Lagrange,  Laplace  and  Legendre  were  essentially  the  representatives  of 
the  higher  analysis,  and  occupied  during  life  the  foremost  place  among  the  geom- 
eters of  the  Institute.  All  three  continued  till  death  to  justify  this  proud  posi- 
tion by  labors  worthy  of  themselves  and  of  the  illustrious  body  to  which  it  was 
their  pleasure  as  well  as  duty  to  communicate  them. 

In  1805  M.  Legendre  published  new  methods  for  the  determination  of  the 
orbits  of  comets,  to  which  he  added,  in  1806  and  1820,  two  supplements ;  in 
the  latter  stages  of  life  he  had  collected  the  most  recent  observations  on  comets 
of  short  periods,  in  the  design  of  still  further  applying  and  improving  his  pro- 
cesses of  calculation.  Previous  to  the  publication  of  his  two  first  memoirs  in 
1805  and  1806,  the  question  had,  in  his  opinion,  been  always  treated  in  an 
imperfect  manner  and  merely  by  approximations.  He  considered  himself  as 
^ving  first  indicated  two  certain  modes  of  arriving  at  a  solution,  at  once  the 
most  simple  and  exact,  namely,  the  method  of  indeterminate  corrections,  pro- 
posed by  him  as  early  as  1787,  but  the  applications  of  which  had  been  few  in 
number,  and  the  method  of  least  squares,  which  then  appeared  for  the  first  time. 
Nevertheless,  this  analytic  perfection,  to  which  the  author  sought  to  add  as  often 
aa  he  retouched  his  formulas,  has  seemed  to  astronomers  to  be  more  than  coun-^Tp 


14K  MEMOIR   OF   LEGENDRE. 

terbalanced  by  tho  length  of  the  calculations  and  by  other  inconveniences. 
They  prefer  employing  the  methods  of  Olbers  and  Ganss,  which,  while  giving 
perhaps  a  less  certain  approximation,  furnish  it  in  all  cases  more  rapidly.  In 
1806  M.  Legendre  further  published,  in  the  memoirs  of  the  Institute,  a  new 
formula  for  reducing  to  true  distances  the  apparent  distances  from  the  moon  to 
the  sun  or  to  a  star.*  Its  object  was  to  simplify  and  accelerate  the  labors  of 
practical  astronomers.  •  , 

These  last  publications  were  in  some  sort  excursions  made  by  the  indefatiga- 
ble author  beyond  the  habitual  sphere  of  his  researches,  and,  seeing  with  what 
promptness  and  facility  M.  Legendre  thus  passed  from  one  subject  to  another,  it 
might  be  thought  that  he  was  completely  at  liberty  in  the  emph)yment  of  his 
time.  He  found  means,  however,  in  the  midst  of  his  purely  scientific  labors,  to 
reconcile  with  the  duties  of  the  academician  those  of  several  important  functions. 

Some  time  after  the  creation  of  the  Polytechnic  School,  the  former  laureate  of 
the  balistic  competition  was  appointed  examiner  in  mathematics  for  the  graduat- 
ing students  destined  for  the  ai-tillery,  and  he  continued  to  fulfil  these  honorable 
and  delicate  functions  till  1&15,  when  he  voluntarily  withdrew  and  was  replaced 
by  M.  de  Prony.  From  the  creation  of  the  university,  in  1808,  M.  Legendre 
was  of  its  council.  At  the  death  of  Lagrange,  in  1812,  he  was  chosen  to  suc- 
ceed him  at  the  bureau  of  longitudes,  in  quality  of  geometer.  He  thus  took 
his  place  by  the  side  of  M.  de  Laplace,  whom  he  had  replaced  in  1783,  as  adjunct 
member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  when  the  illustrious  author  of  the  Mechan- 
ique  Celeste  became  an  associate  member.  Thus,  at  an  interval  of  29  years,  and 
under  circumstances  assuredly  very  different,  no  one  was  found  in  France  who, 
by  his  scientific  merit,  could  more  naturally  be  called  than  M.  Legendre  to 
replace  M.  de  Laplace  or  M.  de  Lagrange.  That  he  owed  to  his  merit  alone  a 
choice  so  honorable  for  himself  and  those  who  made  it,  may  be  gathered  from 
a  slight  anecdote  which  is  related  of  him.  Having,  from  the  creation  of  the 
legion  of  honor,  been  inscribed  in  the  number  of  its  chevaliers,  though  he  failed 
not  to  record  this  testimony  to  his  merit  in  the  title-page  of  his  works,  bis 
natural  modesty,  we  are  told,  long  prevented  him  from  attaching  the  red  riband 
to  his  button-hole.  M.  Legendre  continued,  moreover,  as  has  been  already  said, 
to  form  part  of  the  commission  of  weights  and  measures  as  long  as  it  existed, 
and  more  than  once  was  a  member  of  other  commissions  charged  with  objects  of 
importance. 

Yet  independently  of  these  numer6us  occupations  and  varied  labors,  all 
impressed  with  a  peculiar  character  of  vigor  and  precision,  by  which  he  bore  a 
large  part  in  the  scientific  movement  of  his  epoch,  M.  Legendre  had  besides  cer- 
tain houseluM  gods,  to  which  he  sacrificed  with  ever  renewed  pleasure  in  the 
silence  of  his  closet.  I  mean  the  tJieort/  qf  numbers  and  the  elliptical  functions. 
To  these  he  consecrated,  during  the  latter  50  years  of  his  life,  all  the  leisure  loft 
him  by  his  daily  occupations  and  more  conspicuous  labors.  He  has  thus  reared 
two  monuments  which,  by  their  extent,  represent,  no  doubt,  the  better  part  of 
his  time,  and  w^hich,  though  having  had  few  readers  and  capable  of  having  but 
very  few  judges,  will  prove,  perhaps,  in  tho  eye  of  posterity,  two  of  his  princi- 
pal titles  to  renown. 

The  Theory  qf  numbers  appeared  in  1830,  in  two  quarto  volumes,  after  being 
preceded  at  divers  intervals  by  preliminary  publications.  M.  Legendre  says,  in 
the  advertisement : 

The  work  having  received  all  the  improvementfl  which  the  author  has  been  able  to  bestow 
upon  it,  as  well  through  his  own  labors  as  those  of  other  geometers  of  which  he  could  avail 
himself,  it  has  been  thought  proper  to  give  it  definitively  the  title  of  Theory  of  numbtrs,  in 
place  of  that  of  an  Eaay  on  the  subject  which  it  has  heretofore  borne. 

The  Essay  on  the  theory  of  numbers  had  passed  through  two  editions,  one  in 
1798,  the  other  in  1808 ;  this  last  hail  been  followed  by  two  supplements.     The 

*BS€moir«$^  de  VInMtitute,  t.  vi,  (printed  January.  IHOG,)  p.  30. 

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MEMOIR   OP   LEGENNRE.  149 

Essa^  had  itself  been  preceded  by  a  considerable  work  published  in  the  Memoirs 
of  the  Academy  for  17 80,  and  entitled  JRecherches  d^analy^  ind^termin^e  ;  which 
relates  principally  to  the  study  of  the  properties  of  numbers.  In  fine,  we  leam 
from  tlio  manuscript  proceedings  of  the  Academy,  before  cited,  that,  among  the 
memoirs  which  M.  de  Laplace,  in  the  session  of  March  15,  1783,  indicated  as 
having  been  presented  by  M.  Legendre,  occur  two  memoirs  on  the  resolution  of 
indeterminate  equations  of  the  second  degree  and  on  the  properties  of  continual 
fractions,  and  a  memoir  on  the  summation  of  these  fractions.  Now,  from  the 
objects  of  which  they  treat,  and  indeed  from  the  titles  alone,  these  memoirs  bear 
a  very  natural  relation  to  certain  paragraphs  of  the  great  memoir  of  1785. 
They  were  probably  the  first  rudiments  of  it.  Hence  we  see  that  M.  Legendre 
had  been  occupied  with  the  theory  of  numbers  from  his  youth.  He  had  labored 
upon  it  for  more  than  50  years.  Yet  he  concludes  the  advertisement  of  the 
Theory  qf  numbers,  dated  April  1,  1830,  with  the  following  words,  which  are 
certainly  modest  enough  : 

We  shall  not  pretend  that  certain  matters  treate<i  of  in  this  work  do  not  need  to  be  improved 
or  even  rectified  by  new  researches.  Nevertheless,  the  author  has  ihonght  that  it  would  be 
beiter  to  leave  them  in  this  state  of  imperfection  than  to  suppress  them  alto^ther ;  they  will 
offer  a  subject  of  investigation  to  those  who  may  be  disposed  in  the  future  to  occupy  them- 
Telves  with  the  advancement  of  the  science. 

This  part  of  the  science  has  received  in  effect,  since  the  publication  of  the 
Theory  0/ numbers,  important  accessions ;  but  if  we  compare  the  contents  of  this 
learned  work  wath  what  had  been  discovered  during  the  2,000  years  which 
preceded  1785,  we  shall  see  that  no  savant  has  marked  his  passage  in  this 
branch  of  mathematics  by  traces  in  any  degree  comparable  to  these  efforts  of 
M.  Legendre.  It  cannot  surprise  us  that  a  science  which  had  advanced  with  but 
slow  and  progressive  steps  under  the  hands  of  men  as  eminent  as  Euclid  and 
Diophantes  among  the  ancients,  as  Viete,  Bachet,  Fennat,  Euler,  and  Lagrange 
among  the  modems,  should  not  all  at  once  have  been  carried  to  a  point  which 
comported  with  no  further  progress.  It  behooves  us,  on  the  contrary,  candidly 
to  avow  that  M.  Legendre,  in  speaking  of  new  developments  which  still  awaited 
it,  gave  proof  of  perspicuity  almost  as  much  as  of  modesty. 

The  science  of  numbers  is  difficult,  and  it  is  above  all  difficult  to  convey  an 
idea  of  it  to  persons  whose  attention  has  never  been  occupied  with  it.  Every 
one  knows  that  numbers  are  distinguished  into  two  great  classes :  even  and  odd 
nnmbers,  which  alternately  succeed  one  another.  The  even  numbers  are  divisible 
by  2,  while  the  odd  numbers  are  not,  though  they  have  often  other  divisors. 
Whole  numbers  differ  much  from  one  another  in  the  possibility  of  being  divided 
by  other  and  smaller  integers.  It  has  been  long  ago  remarked  that  the  number 
10,  the  basis  of  our  decimal  system,  has  but  two  divisors,  2  and  5,  the  last  of 
which  is  not  subdivisible,  while  the  number  8  has  two  divisors,  2  and  4,  of  which 
the  last  is  further  subdivisible  by  2,  and  the  number  12  has  three  divisors,  2, 
3,  and  4,  the  last  of  which  is  again  subdivisible  by  2 ;  whence  it  follows  that 
the  number  8  and  especially  the  number  12  have,  as  the  basis  of  a  system  of 
nieasures  susceptible  of  bein^  successively  subdivided,  an  incontestable  supe- 
riority over  the  number  10.  This  inferiority  of  the  latter  number  is  one  of  the 
obstacles  to  the  general  adoption  of  the  decimal  system  of  weights  and  measures, 
which  presents  in  other  respects  such  great  advantages. 

Bat  the  number  10  is  more  favored  in  this  regard  than  the  number  9,  divisible 
only  by  3,  of  which  it  is  the  square.  It  is  still  more  so  than  the  numbers  3,  5, 
7, 11,  13,  17,  which  have  no  divisors,  or,  to  speak  the  language  of  science,  have 
no  other  divisors  but  themselves  and  unity.  Number  7,  which  enumerates  the 
seven  days  of  the  week,  the  seven  wonders  of  the  world,  the  seven  sages  of 
Gteece,  passes  for  possessing  a  certain  degree  of  excellence ;  but  number  13,  as 
weU  as  17,  i^  looked  upon  as  inauspicious,  by  reason,  it  may  be,  of  this  absence 
of  divisors  which  renders  both  numbers  refractory.  All  those  numbers  which 
have  no  other  divisors  but  themselves  and  unity,  are  called  prime  numbers. 

Jigitized  by  VjOOQIC 


150  MEMOIR   OF   LEOENDRE. 

There  are  prime  numbers  of  all  magnitudes ;  but  when  the  numbers  are  some- 
what great  it  is  not  easy  to  discover  immediately  whether  they  are  prime  or  not. 
The  prime  numbers  are  distributed  among  the  odd  numbers  with  an  apparent 
irregularity  which  is  yet  subject  to  certain  laws.  The  search  for  them,  the  deter- 
mination of  the  quantities  of  them  which  exist  in  a  given  interval  of  the  numeric 
scale,  form  one  of  the  objects  of  the  theory  of  numbers. 

Numbers  may  be  ranged  by  series  in  each  of  which  may  be  remarked  the  con- 
stant existence  of  certain  properties ;  such  are  the  triangular  numbers  1,  3,  6, 10, 
15,  &c.,  each  expressing  a  number  of  units  which  may  be  arranged  triangularly ; 
the  quadratic  numbers  1,  4,  9,  16,  25,  which  in  the  same  way  correspond  to  the 
square ;  polygonal  numbers,  pyramidal,  &c.  j  and  these  series  give  rise  to  com- 
binations more  or  less  curious.  Certain  numbers  are  the  squares  of  other  smaller 
ones,  as  4  the  square  of  2,  9  of  3,  &c. ;  others,  as  8,  13,  18,  are  the  sum  of  two 
squares ;  others  again,  like  1 7  for  example,  are  the  sum  of  three  squares.  Lagrange 
and  Euler  have  proved  that  there  is  no  number  which  is  not  the  sum  qf  four  or 
of  a  less  nuTnber  of  squares* 

These  properties  and  many  others  are  at  once  remarked  in  examples  taken 
among  numbers  of  little  amount,  and  it  becomes  a  matter  of  curiosity  to  follow 
them  among  the  larger  numbers  in  order  to  learn  whether  they  are  general  or 
not.  Ilence  proceed  researches  which  are  often  very  difficult  and  provoke  a 
lively  interest.  The  final  conclusion  evades  detection  so  much  the  longer  from 
the  circumstance  that  frequently  there  exists,  as  yet,  in  science  no  rule  for  seek- 
ing it ;  it  is  a  prey  which  for  a  long  time  eludes  the  pursuit  of  the  hunter.  Ag^n, 
there  are  certain  properties  of  numbers  which  come  to  light  unexpecteiUy  in  theur 
combinations,  and  which,  presenting  something  enigmatical  and  surprising^  have 
been  often  held  to  pertain  to  the  mysterious.  Henc«  the  virtues  which  necro- 
mancere  have  pretended  that  they  detected  in  cabalistic  numbers ;  virtues  which 
are  to  the  theory  of  numbers  not  unlike  what  astrology  is  to  astronomy. 

"  It  would  seem  (remarks  M.  Legendre)  that  Euler  had  a  peculiar  taste  for 
the  science  of  numbers,  and  that  he  gave  himself  up  to  this  Kind  of  research 
with  a  sort  of  passion,  as  happens  (he  adds)  to  almost  all  those  who  are  occupied 
with  it ;"  and  it  is  clear  that  M.  Legendre  himself  formed  no  exception  to  this 
remark. 

The  first  researches  of  M.  Legendre  on  numbers,  contained  in  his  distinguished 
memoir  of  1785,  constituted  a  direct  sequel  to  those  of  Euler  and  Lagrange  which 
they  extended  and  developed  in  several  important  particulars ;  but  M.  Legendre 
embodied  also  in  this  work  many  discoveries  entirely  new,  and  particularly  the 
theorem  qf  reciprocity,  known  likewise  under  the  name  of  the  law  qf  Legendre, 
one  of  the  most  fertile  laws  of  the  theory  of  numbers. 

This  theorem,  more  readily  expressed  in  algebraic  than  ordinary  language,! 

"Lefendre,  TheorU  des  Nombres,  t.  I,  p.  211. 

t  The  following  are  the  terms  in  which  M.  Legendre  enanciates.  in  the  Theorie  des  Norn- 
brest  In  230,  the  theorem  in  question :  $  YI.  Tf^orem  containing  a  law  of  reciprocity  which 
exists  between  any  two  prime  numbers  whatever,    (166.^  We  have  seen  (Xo.  i:^)  tbat  if  m 

and  fi  be  any  two  prime  numbers,  odd  and  oneqaal,  the  abridged  expressions  ( -  I  (- j 

represent,  one  the  remainder  to  -—   the  other  the  remainder  n    - —  divided  by  to.     At 

the  same  time  it  has  been  proved  that  one  and  the  other  remainder  can  never  be  other  than 
-|-1  and  —  1.    This  being  so,  there  exists  such  a  relation  between  the  two  remainders 

1^1  and  I  -  j  that  one  being  known,  the  other  is  immediately  determined.    The  following 
is  the  general  theorem  which  contains  this  relation  : 
Whatever  be  the  prime  numbers  m  and  n,  if  they  are  not  both  of  the  form  4z-f  3,  we 

shall  always  have  m=ri^ J  and  if  they  are  both  of  the  form  4z-|-3,  we  shall  have 
(£l  = —  I ^  j    These  two  cases  are  comprised  in  the  formula 

a)={-i)=?-'.^.  (=) 


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MEMOIR   OF  LEOENDRE.  151 

consists  in  this :  two  prime  numbers  m  and  n  being  given,  if  m  bo  raised  to  tho 
power  w  minus  1  divided  by  2  and  the  result  be  divided  by  w,  then  n  to  tho 
power  m  minus  1  divided  by  2,  and  tho  result  be  divided  by  m,  the  remainders 
of  the  two  divisions,  which  are  always  capable  of  being  expressed  by  plus  1  or 
minns  1,  will  both  be  of  the  same  sign,  or  else  of  the  contrary  sign,  in  certain 
determinate  cases;  a  result  which  has  found  and  continues  to  find  numerous 
applications  in  researches  relating  to  the  properties  of  numbers. 

M.  Legendre,  in  reproducing,  in  successive  editions  of  the  Theory  of  Numbers, 
the  demonstration  of  this  theorem  as  he  had  given  it  in  1785,  discovered  that  in  a 
determinate  case  it  presents  a  lacuna,  without  the  theorem  itself  having  been  ever 
found  in  default.  M.  Gauss,  who,  by  his  Disquisitiones  Arithmetic(B,  published 
in  1801,  had  placed  himself  in  the  first  rank  of  the  savants  who  have  dealt 
with  the  theory  of  numbers,  gave  a  demonstration  of  the  theorem  of  reciprocity 
which  left  nothing  further  to  be  desired.  M.  Legendre  reproduced  this  demon- 
Btration  in  his  Theory  of  Numbers  in  1830,  observing  that  it  is  the  more  remark- 
able as  resting  on  the  most  elementary  principles,  and  at  the  same  time  gave 
another  yet  more  simple,  proposed  by  M.  Jacobi.  Still  later,  M.  Lionville  and 
other  eminent  geometers  have  given  other  demonstrations  of  the  same  law.  The 
exactness  of  the  law  qf  Legendre  is  therefore  more  than  sufficiently  demonstrated ; 
bat  here  the  inventor  has  left  to  those  who  have  followed  him  the  privilege  of 
ampleting  his  discovery. 

This  circumstance  recalls,  somewhat  remotely,  the  fate  of  tho  remarkable 
.  theorems  on  numbers  which  Format  left  without  demonstration ;  all,  with  the 
exception  of  a  single  one,  have  been  demonstrated  within  a  century  and  a  half 
after  the  death  of  their  author,  by  Euler,  Lagrange,  and  Legendre ;  this  one,  the 
last  theorem  of  Format,  without  having  ever  been  found  in  default,  still  a\^-ait8 
a  demonstration,  though  the  Academy  has,  in  late  years,  several  times  proposed 
it  as  the  subject  of  a  prize  to  tho  emulation  of  geometers. 

Bat  if  M.  Legendre  took  delight,  like  Euler,  in  the  combinations,  so  arduous 
m  appearance,  of  tho  theory  of  numbers,  like  Euler,  ho  excelled  also  in  the 
research  of  the  integrals  of  differential  quantities,  a  research  which  is  itself  not 
directed  by  any  certain  rule,  and  in  which  the  inquirer  is  conducted  to  the  result 
only  by  a  certain  intuitive  prevision  of  tho  combinations  and  reductions  which 
will  be  available  in  the  formulas  and  figures.  The  finest  integrals  appear  often 
to  have  been  found  by  hazard  *,  but  these  are  hazards^  as  M.  Legendre  said  in 
speaking  of  Euler,  which  never  occur  to  any  hut  those  tclto  know  how  to  create 
them.  This  remark,  insuflBlcient  doubtless  to  mako  us  comprehend  how  a  differ- 
ential expression  is  integrated,  will  enable  us  perhaps  to  conceive  how  the  mind 
may  be  stimulated  to  this  pursuit,  as  to  that  of  the  properties  of  numbers,  and 
how  these  two  kinds  of  research,  which  seem  to  call  into  play  analogous  facul- 
ties, wore  the  two  dominant  passions  of  Euler  and  Legendre. 

A  differential  quantity  given  by  a  problem  of  geometry,  mechanics,  or  physics, 
does  not  always  correspond  to  an  analytic  expression  existing  in  the  science,  and, 
in  order  not  to  leave  certain  problems  i^dthout  solution,  it  becomes  an  object  to 
enrich  analysis  with  new  functions.  After  having  exhausted  expressions  purely 
algebraic,  wo  succeed  in  integrating  a  great  number  of  differentials  by  means  of 
arcs  of  the  circle  and  of  logarithms  which  are  the  most  simple  of  transcendent 
q[nantities ;  but,  in  order  to  elttend  still  further  the  applications  of  the  integral 
calculus,  it  was  necessary  to  have  recourse  to  transcendents  of  a  more  comix)site 
order. 

Euler  thought  that  instead  of  being  limited  to  the  circle,  other  curves  of  the 
second  degree,  especially  the  ellipsis  and  hyperbola,  might  be  considered,  and  that 
tables  analogous  to  the  tables  of  logarithms  and  to  those  of  circular  functions 
might  be  drawn  up  in  reference  to  them.  By  one  of  those  happy  combinations, 
wluch  seem  almost  fortuitous,  he  found  under  a  purely  algebraic  form  the  com- 
plete integral  of  a  differential  equation  composed  of  two  separate  but  similar 


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152  MEMOIR   OF  LEGENDKE. 

terms,  each  of  whicb  is  only  integrable  by  arcs  of  conic  sections.  This  important 
discovery  led  the  illustrious  geometer  to  compare,  in  a  manner  more  general  than 
had  been  done  before,  not  only  the  arcs  of  the  same  ellipsis  or  the  same  hyper- 
bola, but  in  general  all  the  transcendents  of  which  the  diiSerential  approximates 
to  those  of  these  two  curves,  in  presenting,  like  them,  a  rational  algebraic  func- 
tion of  the  variable  divided  by  the  square  root  of  an  algebraic  polynome  of  the 
fourth  degree.*  One  of  the  results  of  this  comparison  was,  that  the  integration 
by  arcs  of  the  hyperbola  may  always  be  reduced  to  integration  by  arcs  of  the 
ellipsis. 

From  this  time  Euler  foresaw  that  by  means  of  a  suitable  notation  the  cal- 
culation of  arcs  of  the  ellipsis  and  other  analogous  transcendents  might  become 
of  almost  as  general  use  as  that  of  arcs  of  the  circle  and  of  logarithms ;  but,  with 
the  exception  of  the  English  geometer  Landen,  who  demonstrated,  in  a  memoir 
of  1775,  that  every  arc  <^  the  hyperbola  is  immediately  rectified  by  means  o/tiao 
arcs  qf  the  ellipsis,]  no  one  but  M.  Legendre  recognized  the  importance  of  real- 
izing the  prevision  of  Euler  ]  and  it  may  be  said  that  our  learned  colleague  alone 
occupied  himself  with  this  subject  from  the  year  1786,  when  he  published  his 
first  researches  on  integrations  by  arcs  of  the  ellipsis,  until  the  year  1825,  when 
his  Treatise  qfEUipic  Functions  appeared. 

Arcs  of  the  ellipsis,  being  after  arcs  of  the  circle  and  logarithms  one  of  the 
most  simple  transcendents,  mi^ht  become  in  some  sort  a  new  instrument  of  cal- 
culation, if  we  were  once  familiarized  with  their  properties  and  possessed  ready 
means  of  calculating  them  with  precision.  M.  Legendre  applied  himself  to  this 
important  subject  in  two  memoirs  inserted  in  the  volume  of  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  for  1786.  In  both  of  them  the  author  demonstrates,  by  means  pecu- 
liar to  himself,  that  the  rectification  of  the  hyberbola  depends  on  that  of  the 
ellipsis  and  presents  no  special  ti'anscendent,  and  in  the  second  he  shows  that  ia 
an  infinite  series  of  ellipses  formed  after  the  same  law  we  can  reduce  the  rectifica- 
tion of  one  of  these  ellipses  to  that  of  two  others  taken  at  choice  in  the  same 
series.  This,  he  says  with  characteristic  modesty,  is  one  step  more  in  a  difficult 
path. 

In  the  first  memoir  M.  Legendre  gives  convergent  series  adapted  for  the  easy 
calculation  of  the  length  of  an  arc  of  an  ellipsis,  whether  in  the  case  in  which 
the  elipsis  but  slightly  eccentric  approximates  to  a  circle,  or  in  that  when, 
greatly  elongated,  it  recedes  but  little  from  its  greater  axis  i  and  in  the  second 
he  adds: 

If  the  zeal  of  calculators  could  famish  us  with  tables  of  arcs  of  the  ellipsist  for  different 
degrees  of  amplitude  and  eccentricity,  and  each  arc  were  accompanied  by  the  coefficient  of 
its  partial  difference,  we  should  have  the  means  of  integrating  by  these  tables  a  very  large 
number  of  differentials,  and  especially  all  those  which  MM.  d^Alembert  and  Euler  have 
referred  to  the  arcs  of  conic  sections. 

M.  Legendre  had  then  attained  the  age  of  34  years ;  he  knew  not  that  it 
would  be  permitted  him  to  labor  till  that  of  80  years,  and  that  unassisted  ho 
would  himseK  accomplish  the  task  of  which  he  here  traces  the  programme. 

In  the  course  of  these  two  memoirs,  and  particularly  towards  the  end  of  the 
second,  he  indulges  himself  in  a  just  tribute  of  praise  to  the  learned  geometers 
(Euler,  Landen,  and  Fagnani)  who,  before  himself,  had  demonstrated,  in  a  differ- 

*  R  being  a  radical  of  ihe  form  in  question  and  P  a  rational  algebraic  function,  all  these 

/P//z 
-TT—. — Legendre,  M6moire  Mur  les  Transetnd' 

antes  elliptiqueSt  p.  4. 

t  Landen  published  his  researches  in  the  Philosophical  Transactions,  and  still  later  in  a 
special  work  entitled.  Mathematical  Mcmoin  Respecting  a  Variety  of  Subjects^  by  John  Li2Ui- 
den,  F.  R.  S. :  London,  1780. 

X  See  the  volume  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  for  1786,  pp.  618  and  644. 


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MEMOIR   OF   LEOENDRE.  153 

ent  manner,  a  part  of  the  theorems  with  which  they  are  filled  to  profusion.* 
Bat,  in  the  publications  of  1786,  remarkable  as  they  were,  these  rich  materials 
hardly  yet  formed  a  completed  edifice,  and  M.  Legendre  was  not  long  in  per- 
ceiving that  this  subject,  and  in  general  the  theory  of  transcendents  whose  differ- 
ential enters  into  the  form  above  indicated,  required  to  be  treated  in  a  manner 
more  methodical  and  thorough.  This  he  undertook  to  do  in  a  Menwire  sur  les 
transcendentes  eUiptiqueSy  read  by  him  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  April, 
1792,  and  published  towards  the  end  of  1793,  in  which  he  proposed  to  compare 
among  themselves  all  the  transcendents  in  question,  to  class  them  according  to 
their  different  kinds,  to  reduce  each  of  them  to  the  most  simple  form  of  which 
it  is  susceptible,  to  estimate  their  value  by  approximations  the  most  prompt  and 
fecile ;  and,  in  tine,  to  form  from  the  collective  theory  a  sort  of  algorithm  which 
should  serve  to  extend  the  domain  of  analysis.! 

Taking,  in  its  most  general  algebraic  form,  the  differential  already  indicated 
as  a  point  of  departure  for  this  kind  of  researches,  he  analyzes  it  with-  extraor- 
dinary address,  lays  aside  all  the  parts  which  are  integrable,  whether  by  arcs  of 
the  circle  or  logarithms,  and  thus  reduces  it  to  its  quintessence ;  that  is  to  say, 
to  the  parts  whose  integrals  are  transcendents  of  a  superior  order.  Then,  trans- 
forming this  remainder  by  means  of  circular  functions,  he  reduces  it  to  a  form 
of  wonderful  simplicity,  containing  but  five  quantities  :f  an  arc  of  the  circle 
designated  by  the  name  of  amplitude,  null  at  the  point  where  the  integral  com- 
mences, and  developing  itself  in  proportion  as  that  is  extended ;  a  modultis 
always  real  and  smaller  than  the  unit,  which,  in  the  case  when  an  ellipsis  is  in 
question,  represents  its  eccentricity ;  a  parameter  of  any  magnitude,  positive  or 
negative,  capable  of  being  reduced  to  zero,  but  to  which  it  would  be  useless  to 
attribute  imaginary  values ;  lastly,  two  coefficients  whose  values,  independent 
of  all  the  rest,  may  be  anytliing,  provided  they  bo  not  null  simultaneously. 
The  amplitude  is  the  variable  in  reLation  to  which  the  integration  is  made ;  it 
is  null  only  at  the  point  of  departure  from  the  integral.  The  modulus  cannot 
be  null  without  the  expression  being  completely  altered  in  its  nature,  but  the 
three  other  quantities  may  be  null  independently  of  one  another,  or  fulfil  in 
their  relations  of  magnitude  certain  conditions  according  to  which  elliptic  tran- 
scendents are  divided  into  three  classes. 

The  second  class  is  the  only  one  which  represents  arcs  of  the  ellipsis.  The 
first  class  is  a  transcendent  more  simple  than  arcs  of  the  ellipsis;  it  may  itself 
be  expressed  by  means  of  such  arcs,  but  an  arc  of  the  ellipsis  cannot  be 
expressed  by  transcendents  of  this  first  class.  The  third  class,  on  the  contrary, 
the  only  one  in  which  the  parameter  is  not  null,  is  more  composite  than  arcs  of 
the  ellipsis. 

The  gradation  which  exists  in  the  complexity  of  these  three  classes  of  tran- 
scendents is  manifested  especially  by  this  circumstance,  that  transcendents  of 
the  first  species  may  be  joined  with  one  another,  by  addition  and  subtraction, 
80  as  to  form  a  sum  constantly  null.  Transcendents  of  the  second  species  may 
unite  in  like  manner,  so  as  to  form  a  sum  whose  value  is  expressed  in  terms 

•  "  I  shall  not  conclude  this  article,"  (XVI  of  the  memoir,)  says  M.  Legendre,  •*  without 
eiviog  notice  that  the  greater  part  of  the  propositions  contained  therein  have  been  discovered 
by  M.  Euler,  and  published  in  the  7tb  volume  of  the  Nonveaux  M^moires  de  Petersbourg 
and  in  some  other  works,  a  fact  of  which  I  was  ignorant  when  I  was  engaged  in  these 
researches.  But  the  difference  of  the  methods  may  throw  new  light  on  this  subject,  and 
moreover  the  comparison  of  the  arcs  of  different  ellipses,  which  is  discussed  in  article  XIII, 
has  not,  as  far  as  I  am  aware,  been  before  treated  ofby  any  one." — Mem.  I*  Acad,  dts  Scieu' 
CM.  1786,  p.  676. 

t  Legendre,  Theorie  de^fonction§  elliptiques.  Introduction,  p.  3. 

X  For  this  he  employs  the  following  expression : 

>  sin  '^    d^ 


/-A  +  Bj 


— lltmtinM  $ur  let  IrauMeendantei  tUiftiquet,  p.  17. 

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154  MEMOIR   OF   LEGENDRE. 

purely  algebraic,  like  the  celebrated  integral  of  Euler,  before  referred  to. 
Lastly,  transcendents  of  the  third  species  may  also  be  united  to  form  a  sum  of 
which  the  value,  without  being  null  or  even  algebraic,  is  notwithstanding  of  a 
more  simple  nature  than  each  of  the  former  in  itself  j  for  it  may  be  expressed 
by  arcs  of  the  circle  and  logarithms,  which  are  the  most  simple  of  transcendents. 

These  differences,  and  several  others  which  exist  between  the  three  species  of 
elliptical  transcendentSj  suffice  to  vindicate  the  division  established  by  M.  Legen- 
dre ;  but,  at  the  same  time,  they  do  not  prevent  our  perceiving  a  profound  anal- 
ogy between  all  these  transcendents  which  justifies  their  union  under  the  same 
denomination.  The  first  and  second  species  may  be  expressed  by  arcs  of  the 
ellipsis ;  the  third  is  the  most  compounded,  but  it  has  so  much  analogy  with  the 
two  others  that  all  three  may  be  regarded  as  forming  but  one  and  the  same 
order  of  transcendents,  the  first  after  arcs  of  the  circle  and  logarithms.  As  M. 
Legendre  elsewhere  says,  **  the  denomination  of  elliptic  function  is  improper  in 
some  respects ;  but  we  nevertheless  adopt  it  on  account  of  the  great  analogy 
which  exists  between  the  properties  of  this  function  and  those  of  arcs  of  the 
ellipsis." 

M.  Legendre  resumed  these  questions  with  several  others  in  a  great  work  in 
three  quarto  volumes,  which  he  published  in  1811,  1816,  and  1817,  under  the 
title  of  Exercises  de  cakul  integral  sur  divers  orders  de  transcendantes  et  sur 
les  quadratures.  In  this  work,  pai*t  of  which  was  devoted  to  two  classes  of 
definite  integrals,  to  which  the  author  has  given  the  name  of  integrates  euU- 
riennes,  he  occupied  himself  also  \^dth  a  great  number  of  questions  about  the  inte- 
gral calculus,  into  the  details  of  which  it  would  be  difficult  here  to  enter;  but  the 
most  extensive  and  in  his  eyes  the  most  important  part  was  that  which  treats  of 
elliptic  functions,  of  their  application  to  different  problems  of  geometry  and 
mechanics,  and  the  tables  necessary  for  the  use  of  those  functions.  Finally,  in 
1825  and  1826,  he  combined  anew  all  his  results,  with  the  developments  and 
improvements  which  incessant  labor  had  enabled  him  to  supply,  in  a  work 
entitled  Theorie  desfonctions  elliptiques.  This  first  appeared  in  two  volumes, 
followed  at  a  later  period  by  three  supplements,  which  constitute  the  third  and 
last  volume. 

Among  the  improvements  which  M.  Legendre  bestowed  on  his  previous  labors 
when  he  published  them  anew  in  1825,  one  of  the  principal  was  the  discovery 
of  a  second  scale  of  modules,  different  from  that  which  alone  was  known  at  the 
time  of  the  publication  of  the  exercises  on  the  integral  calculus.  **  This  second 
scale,"  as  he  remarks  in  the  31st  chapter  of  the  first  volume,  "completed  in 
many  respects  the  labors  of  the  author  upon  this  theory ;  it  afforded  an  easy 
method  of  arriving  at  many  striking  results  of  analysis  which  till  then  it  had 
been  impracticable  to  demonstrate  except  by  very  laborious  integrations.  By 
the  combination  of  the  two  scales  the  transformations  of  functions  of  the  first 
species  could  be  prodigiously  multiplied ;  this  the  author  has  made  evident  by 
constructing  a  sort  of  tessellated  table  (damier)  infinite  in  its  two  dimensions, 
all  the  divisions  of  which  might  be  filled  by  the  different  transformations  of 
which  one  and  the  same  function  is  susceptible." 

The  development  of  the  properties  and  uses  of  elliptical  functions,  consid- 
ered with  this  generality,  composed  the  whole  first  volume  of  the  publication  of 
1825.  The  second  was  devoted,  in  part,  to  tables  intended  to  facilitate  the 
conversion  of  the  integrals  obtained  into  numerals.  Calculated  by  the  author 
himself  with  the  greatest  precision,  these  tables  constituted  in  themselves  an 
immense  labor.  "  By  means  of  them,"  said  M.  Legendre,  "  the  theory  of  eU^ticai 
functions,  enlarged  and  nearly  completed  by  many  successive  labors,  might  be 
applied  with  almost  as  much  facility  as  those  of  circular  and  logarithmic  func- 
tions, answerably  to  the  wishes  and  hopes  of  Euler." 

After  the  developments  which  the  theory  of  elliptical  functions  had  received 
by  the  discovery  of  the  second  scale  of  modules,  further  progress  seemed  scarcely 


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MEMOIR   OF   LEOENDRE  155 

probable;  bat  the  fecundity  of  the  methods  created  by  M.  Legendre  was  such 
that  results  which  he  had  hardly  ventured  to  anticipate  were  very  soon  realized, 
and  I  abridge,  in  transcribing,  the  terms  in  which  he  speaks  of  this  event  in  the 
advertisement  of  the  third  volume : 

A  yonsfc  geometer,  M.  Jacobi,  of  Koeniffsberg,  wbo  conld  have  had  do  knowledge  of 
tbe  treatise  oielliptical  functions,  had  succeeded,  by  his  own  efforts,  in  discoyering  not  only  the 
second  scale  of  which  we  have  been  speaking,  which  is  relevant  to  the  number  3,  but  a  third 
which  is  relevant  to  the  number  5,  and  he  had  already  acquired  the  certainty  that  there  must 
exist  a  similar  one  for  every  odd  number  proposed.  *  *  *  This  theorem  beiog  established 
for  every  odd  number,  it  was  easy  thence  to  conclude  that  for  every  integer  or  simply  rational 
somber  may  be  formed  a  particular  scale  of  modules,  which  will  give  rise  to  an  infinitude 
of  transformations  of  any  one  function  of  the  first  species,  which  transformations  will  be  all 
determinable  algebraically.  *  *  •  The  hopes  inspired  by  the  first  successes  of  M.  Jacobi 
have  been  since  justified  by  new  publications.  *  *  *  It  remains  for  me  (says  M. 
Legendre  in  continuation)  to  speak  of  the  admirable  researches  on  the  same  subject  which 
H.  Abel,  a  rival  worthy  of  M.  Jacobi,  has  published  nearly  at  the  same  time.  The  first 
memoir  of  M.  Abel  forms  in  itself  an  almost  complete  theory  of  elliptical  functions  considered 
onder  the  most  general  point  of  view.  **  *  *  A  second  memoir  of  his  presents  very 
remarkable  results:  First,  on  the  division  of  the  particular  function  of  which  tne  modulus  is 
sin.  45^,  and  which  represents  arcs  of  the  lemniscate ;  secondly,  on  the  general  transformation 
of  functions  of  the  first  species,  by  which,  says  the  author,  we  are  enabled  to  demonstrate, 
in  a  very  simple  and  direct  manner,  the  two  general  theorems  previously  published  or 
aononnced  by  M.  Jacobi. 

We  shall  not  enter  into  other  detidls  (says  M.  Iiegendre  in  conclusion)  respecting  the 
labors  of  these  two  young  geometers,  whose  talents  nave  dawned  upon  the  learned  world 
with  so  much  brilliancy.  It  will  readily  be  conceived  that  the  author  of  the  present  treatise 
would  be  prompted  to  hail  with  cordial  applause  discoveries  so  g^reatly  promoting  that 
branch  of  analysis  of  which  he  may  claim  to  be  in  some  sort  the  founder.  Hence  has  origmated 
the  design  of  enriching  his  own  work  with  a  part  of  these  new  discoveries,  while  presenting 
them  under  a  point  of  view  at  once  the  most  simple  and  most  conformed  to  his  own  ideas. 
Soch  is  the  object  of  the  two  supplements  which  follow,  and  of  those  which,  in  the  sequel, 
he  may  unite  with  them  in  order  to  form  the  third  volume  of  his  treatise. 

Rarely  has  such  sincere  and  emphatic  recognition  been  extended  to  disciples 
worthy  from  the  outset  of  being  counted  as  rivals;  but  M.  Legendre  still  farther 
enhanced  this  recognition  by  the  unaffected  and  spontaneous  warmth  with  which 
the  paternal  tenderness  naturally  felt  for  a  theory  created  by  himself,  and  developed 
during  more  than  40  years  by  his  single  efforts,  was  reflected  on  his  young  competitors. 
Persons  who,  at  that  epoch,  attended  the  sessions  of  the  Academy  will  not  have 
forgotten  the  artless  effusion  of  feeling  with  which  M.  Legendre  hastened  to 
communicate  to  his  colleagues  the  first  letters  received  on  a  subject  so  interesting 
for  science  and  for  himself.  It  might  be  said  that  the  elliptic  functions  did  no 
less  honor  to  the  nobility  of  his  sentiments  than  the  profundity  of  his  genius. 

These  first  impressions  were  not  modified  by  subsequent  reflection,  and  M. 
Legendre  concludes  with  the  following  paragi-aph  the  third  supplement  to  the 
ThSorie  desfonctions  eUiptigues,  by  which  that  vast  labor  is  closed : 

We  shall  here  terminate  the  additions  which  we  have  proposed  to  make  to  our  work  by 
taking  advantage  of  the  recent  discoveries  of  MM.  Abel  and  Jacobi  in  the  theory  of  elliptical 
Auctions.  It  will  be  remarked  that  the  most  important  of  these  additions  consists  in  the 
new  branch  of  analysis  which  we  have  deduced  from  the  theorem  of  M.  Abel,  and  which 
uAd  remained  until  now  wholly  unknown  to  geometers.  This  branch  of  analysis  to  which 
We  have  given  the  name  of  theory  of  uiira'dliptie  functiom  is  infiniteljr  more  extended  than 
that  of  elliptical  functions,  with  which  it  has  very  intimate  relations ;  it  is  composed  of  an 
^definite  number  of  classes,  each  of  which  is  divided  into  three  species  like  the  elliptic^ 
ranctions,  and  which  have  besides  a  great  number  of  properties.  We  have  been  able  to 
^ter  but  partially  into  this  subject ;  but  that  it  will  be  progressively  enriched  by  the  labors 
of  geometers  can  hardly  be  doubted,  and  as  little  that  it  will  eventually  prove  one  of  the 
inost  efficient  parts  of  the  analysis  of  transcendents. 

Tbese  lines,  dated  March  4,  1832,  may  be  regarded  as  in  some  sort  the  scien- 
tific testament  of  M.  Legendre,  who  died  within  a  year  thereafter.  M.  Abel,  in 
^bom  he  reposed  such  high  hopes,  had  descended  to  the  tomb  several  years 
hefore  him  j  M.  Jacobi  followed  in  1849  j  but  the  anticipations  of  M.  Legendre 
^ve  not  the  less  been  realized,  as  well  by  the  labors  of  M.  Jacobi  himself  as 
hy  those  of  our  learned  colleagues,  MM.  Liouville  and  Hermite,  and  other  distin- 
S^hed  geometers.  ^  t 

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156  MEMOIR  OF  LEOENDRE. 

I  might  still  further  speak  of  important  labors  published  by  M.  Legendre  on 
the  integrals,  styled  by  him  eulertan,  from  the  name  of  Euler,  who  had  first 
occupied  himself  with  them,  labors  which  occupy  a  large  space  in  his  exercises 
on  the  integral  calculus,  and  which  he  partially  introduced,  while  he  improved 
on  them,  in  the  second  volume  of  his  theory  of  elliptical  functions.  I  might  also 
show  how,  parallel  with  the  employment  of  elliptic  transcendents,  he  opened  the 
way  to  the  numerical  realization  of  a  vast  class  of  integrals  by  the  tables  which 
he  has  given  for  calculating  the  new  transcendent,  designated  by  him  under  the 
name  of  the  function  grand  gamma;  but  although  M.  Binet  has  shown  that  the 
labors  accessory  to  those  which  M.  Legendre  has  given  to  the  public  on  these 
subjects  alone,  would  constitute  no  inconsiderable  title  for  a  distinguished 
geometer,  I  should  fear  to  weary  the  attention  of  my  auditors  by  dwelling  at 
greater  length  on  topics  of  this  nature. 

Like  Euler,  his  model,  and  like  many  other  great  geometers  who  preceded 
him,  M.  Legendre  prosecuted  his  labors  to  the  last  without  having  to  regret  any 
enfeeblement  of  his  faculties  j  the  volume  of  our  memoirs,  which  immediately 
preceded  his  death,  contains  one  of  his  studies  upon  a  difficult  question  of  the 
theory  of  numbers.     He  was  then  80  years  of  age. 

So  vigorous  an  organization  could  scarcely  be  broken  up  without  groat  suffer- 
ing. The  malady  which  terminated  the  life  of  our  colleague  was  long  and 
painful,  but  he  endured  it  with  firmness,  without  indulging  any  illusion  as  to  its 
fatal  issue,  and  with  a  resignation  which,  as  was  said  by  M.  Poisson  at  his  grave, 
must  have  been  rendered  difficult  by  the  happiness  of  liis  home,  th^  tenderness 
and  fond  solicitude  which  there  surrounded  him.  Always  characterized  by  a 
spirit  of  self-renunciation,  he  had  often  expressed  the  wish  that  in  speaking  of  him  no 
mention  should  be  made  except  of  his  labors ;  but  the  same  silence  is  not  imposoii 
on  us  as  regards  the  noble  actions  which  the  faithful  companion  of  his  life,  the 
depositary  of  his  thoughts  and  purposes,  continued  to  perform  in  his  name  after 
his  death. 

M.  Legendre  had  not  forgotten  what,  in  his  youth,  he  had  owed  to  the  learned 
and  estimable  men  who  had  divined  and  fostered  his  talents.  Madame  Legendre 
continued  to  testify  the  interest  which  her  husband  had  exhibited  towards  pupils 
of  the  Polytechnic  school,  who  happened  to  be  scantily  endowed  with  the  gifts 
of  fortune,  and  paid  in  succession  the  charges  of  several  of  them.  Having 
become  possessor  of  the  last  editions  of  those  works  which  M.  Legendre  had 
printed  at  his  own  expense,  she  distributed  them  hberally,  in  order  that  they 
might  more  promptly  subserve  the  advancement  of  science ;  and  the  year  before 
her  decease  she  presented,  through  the  Bureau  of  pubhc  instruction,  40  copies 
of  the  Theory  of  elliptical  functions  to  the  principal  libraries  of  France,  a 
donation  for  which  thanks  were  addressed  to  her  by  the  worthy  minister  M. 
Fortoul,  in  the  name  of  the  state.  At  her  own  death,  in  1856,  she  devised  to 
the  commune  of  Auteuil,  for  a  vicarage  and  school,  the  country  house  in  which 
she  had  last  lived  with  M.  Legendre. 

Full  of  devotion  and  admiration  for  the  memory  of  one  whose  name  it  had 
been  her  happiness  and  pride  to  bear  for  64  years,  she  preserved  to  her  last  day 
an  unaffected  and  religious  respect  for  all  that  had  pertained  to  him.  The 
survivor  of  M.  Legendrc  for  25  years,  she  died  at  a  somewhat  more  advanced 
age  than  he,  from  the  effects  of  a  long  and  cruel  malady,  against  which  she 
exerted  the  force  and  resignation  of  which  he  had  given  her  the  noble  example. 
She  had  lost  all  her  family,  allied  to  that  of  our  celebrated  painter  Robert  Lefdvre, 
and  having  never  had  children,  she  expired  at  the  age  of  82,  surrounded  by  tho 
pious  care  of  i)er8on8  whom  the  graces  of  her  mind  and  her  constant  amiability 
habitually  assembled  around  her,  and  who  have  preserved  for  her  memory  a 
filial  attachment.  With  her,  completely  disappeared  a  name  in  which  France 
will  never  cease  to  pride  itself. 

Lagreange  was  the  reformer  of  analysis.    By  rendering  more  evident  some  of 


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MEMOIB  OF   LEGENDBE. 


157 


the  "bases  of  that  science,  he  has  conferred  upon  it  greater  force,  at  the  same  time 
that  by  his  immortal  discoveries  he  has  extended  its  domain.  One  of  our  greatest 
geometers  hap  dwelt  with  admiration  on  the  perfection  of  his  analytical  style.* 
Clear  and  smooth  as  the  verses  of  Racine,  the  formulas  of  Lagrange  have  aug- 
mented the  number  of  the  adepts  of  science,  while  they  have  facilitated  their 
labors.  Laplace^  in  applying  to  the  laws  of  the  universe  the  faculties  of  a 
geometer  of  the  first  order,  advances  a  claim  to  be  considered  as  the  lawgiver 
of  the  celestial  movements.  By  his  vast  acquisitions  in  the  empire  of  nature,  he 
has  earned  a  title  to  be  styled  the  Newton  of  France.t  Legendrc,  more  pro 
found  than  popular,  w^as  our  Eulerj  like  Euler  and  after  his  example,  he  has 
bequeathed  to  the  future  a  multitude  of  those  analytical  results  which  genius 
alone  knows  how  to  obtain,  and  which  enrich  in  perpetuity  the  domain  of  the 
human  intellect. 

Clairault,  d^Alenibert,  Eider  were  the  continuers  of  Newton  and  Ijetbnitz, 
After  them,  Lagrange,  Laplacej  Legendre  have  held  with  a  grasp  not  less  firm 
the  sceptre  of  mathematics.  The  Academy  may  be  congratulated  that  it  has 
counted  in  its  ranks  and  can  still  count  at  the  present  day  more  than  one  suc- 
cessor of  these  great  men. 

•  In  his  Eloge  of  Laplace,  pronounced  June  15,  1829,  before  the  Academy,  where  M. 
L«gendre  still  occupied  a  scat,  M.  Fourier  took  occasion  to  make  some  interesting  remarks 
on  the  discoveries  of  Lagrange  and  the  character  of  his  works.  The  following  words  occur: 
"Alibis  mathematical  compoffitions  are  remarkable  for  a  singular  elegance,  for  the  sym- 
metry of  forms  and  the  generality  of  methods,  and,  if  we  may  so  say,  for  the  perfection  of 
the  analytic  style."    {mm,  de  VAead,  de$  Sciences,  t.  x,  p.  6,  1830.) 

t  It  was  M.  CuTier  who,  in  one  of  his  academic  discourses,  conferred  on  him  this  proud 
qnilification. 


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MEMOIR  OF  PELTIER. 


By  his  son,  F.  A.  Peltier. 


f TRANSLATED  FOR  1HE  SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION  DT  X.  L.  WOOD.] 


[The  following  sketch  of  the  life  and  labors  of  Peltier  by  his  son,  thongh 
perhaps  warmly  colored  by  filial  partiality,  scarcely  does  justice  to  his  character. 
He  possessed  in  an  eminent  degree  the  mental  chamcteristics  necessary  for  a  suc- 
cessful scientific  discoverer ;  an  imagination  always  active  in  suggesting  hypo- 
theses for  the  explanation  of  the  phenomena  under  investigation,  and  a  logical 
faculty  never  at  fault  in  deducing  consequences  from  the  suggestions  best  calcu- 
lated to  bring  them  to  the  test  of  experience ;  an  invention  ever  fertile  in  devis- 
ing apparatus  and  other  means  by  which  the  test  could  be  applied  j  and,  finally, 
a  moral  constitution  which  sought  only  the  discover}'  of  tiiith,  and  could  alone 
be  satisfied  with  its  attainment.  Depnve<l  in  early  life  of  the  means  of  mental 
culture,  and  not  commencing  the  study  of  physical  science  until  after  the  ago  of 
40,  it  is  not  surprising  that  ho  should  have  in  some  cases  presented  to  the  world 
the  results  of  his  investigations  in  a  fomi  little  favorable  to  their  proper  appre- 
ciation ;  or  that,  considering  his  antecedents,  the  savants  of  France  snould  not 
have  conceded  to  him  at  first  the  honors  to  which  he  was  justly  entitled.  Accoid- 
ing  to  Bacon,  foreign  countries  like  future  times  are  the  dispensers  of  justice: 
and  this  is  verified  in  the  case  of  Peltier,  whose  labors  were  more  highly  prized 
in  Brussels  than  in  Paris,  and  whose  more  impoitant  conteibutions  to  science  are 
found  not  among  the  memoirs  of  the  Imperial  Academy  of  Fmnce,  but  among 
those  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Belgium. — J.  H.] 

•  Jean  Charles  Athanase  Peltier  was  bom  at  Ham,  in  the  department  of 
Somme,  the  22d  of  February,  178o.  His  parents  were  poor,  his  father  follow- 
ing the  trarlo  of  shoemaker  in  the  town  of  Ham  ;  but  if  they  were  but  poorly 
favored  by  fortune,  they  were  well  endowed  by  natiu*e ;  the  father  of  Peltier 
being  a  man  of  firmness  and  capacity,  and  his  mother  an  active  and  industrious 
woman. 

Peltier  inherited  the  qualities  of  his  parents,  evincing  at  an  early  age  a  quick 
intelligence,  great  pei*severance  of  character,  a  remarkable  spirit  of  order,  and, 
above  all,  a  love  of  labor  which  unfortunately  led  him  to  overtask  his  powers 
and  consigned  him,  at  a  later  period,  to  a  premature  grave. 

He  was  first  sent  to  school  to  the  schoolmaster  of  the  place,  w^ho  most  proba- 
bly only  taught  him  to  read  and  write,  he  himself  not  knowing  much  beyond 
that.  He  was  afterwards  placed  under  the  care  of  a  vicai*,  who  took  him  for  a 
chorist,  taught  him  French,  a  little  arithmetic,  and  even  a  commencement  of 
Latin. 

From  this  time  Peltier  evinced  a  very  decided  taste  for  mechanics.  At  the 
age  of  ten  years  he  took  a  clock  to  pieces,  cleaned  it,  and  put  it  together  again. 
At  this  period  also,  he  gave  evidence  of  that  spirit  of  observation  which  never 
left  him.  One  evening  he  was  on  the  promenade  of  the  town,  earnestly  regard- 
ing the  heavens ;  several  shooting  stars  appearing,  he  followed  them  with  his 
eyes  with  intense  interest,  not  doubting  oven  then  that  some  day  he  should 
have  occasion  to  occupy  himself  with  them  more  seriously. 

From  the  predilections  his  son  had  shown,  the  father  of  Peltier  decided  to 
have  him  taught  the  trade  of  clockmaking  j  to  which  end  he  placed  him  in 


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MEMOIR  OF  PELTIER.  159 

apprenticeship  to  a  German  n^^med  Brown,  who  had  been  taken  prisoner  at  the 
time  of  the  first  campaigns  of  the  republic,  and  had  subsequently  established 
himself  at  Saint  Quentin.  In  character  be  was  brutal  and  passionate,  and  the 
young  apprentice  had  much  to  suffer  from  his  cruel  treatment.  This  natural 
violence  of  character  too  was  much  increased  by  the  condition  of  the  political 
world  at  that  time ;  for  Brown,  loving  his  own  couptry  to  fanaticism,  most 
keenly  desired  the  success  of  the  Austrian  arms.  This  was  in  1800 ;  the 
moment  of  the  glorious  campaign  of  Moreau  into  Germany,  and  the  second  con- 
quest of  Italy ;  and  the  year  of  Marengo  and  Hohenlinden.  Every  day  that 
tbc  paper  brought  news  of  a  victoiy — and  at  that  time  this  was  of  frequent  occur- 
rence— there  was  redoubled  bad  treatment  and  vexation  for  Peltier.  Nor  was 
this  all :  Brown,  who  himself  had  no  fondness  for  study,  refused  to  his  appren- 
tice this  privilege,  and  this  was  an  additional  means  of  tormenting  him.  For 
some  little  time  Peltier,  the  day's  work  being  done,  would  read  in  ms  chamber 
Ly  the  light  of  the  candle  furnished  him  ;  but  Brown,  discovering  this,  forbade 
tbe  use  of  one.  By  the  strictest  economy  he  now  procured  the  coveted  light 
from  his  own  scanty  means,  and  continued  to  read  at  night ;  but  this  also  was 
proLihited.  Forced  to  yield,  Peltier  at  length  watched  lor  the  nights  when  the 
moon  shone  clear,  and  opening  his  window  softly,  would  thus  read  a  few  pages 
by  stealth.  This,  too.  Brown  managed  to  prevent.  Apprised  of  these  fact^s, 
Peltier's  father  withdrew  his  son  from  this  uncongenial  domicile  and  succeeded 
shortly  aftcrwai'ds  in  dissolving  the  connection. 

Peltier  had  been  two  years  in  Saint  Quentin.  On  leaving  this  place  ho  went 
to  Paris,  where  he  became  apprentice,  to  a\;lockmaker  by  name  of  Mdtra,  who 
himself  worked  for  the  celebrated  Brequet.     This  was  at  the  close  of  1802. 

The  father  of  Peltier,  who  had  never  been  to  Paris  and  had  no  idea  of  the 
expense  of  living  there,  only  allowed  his  son  one  franc  a  day  for  his  support. 
With  this  pitiful  sum  the  poor  boy  was  to  provide  himself  with  board  and  lodging. 
Compelled  to  suffer  many  privations,  Peltier  appealed  several  times  to  his  father ; 
hut  he,  judging  Paris  by  his  own  little  town,  imagined  the  increase  of  allowance 
demanded  by  his  son  to  be  meant  solely  for  indulgence  in  pleasure,  and  refused. 
Peltier  very  soon  became  seriously  ill ;  and,  hm't  at  the  want  of  confidence 
manifested  by  his  father,  forbade  his  friends  to  write  to  him,  resolving  to  aban- 
don himself  to  his  illness  and  to  die  without  informing  his  parents  of  his  condi- 
tion. Fortunately  his  friends  to<ik  no  notice  of  his  prohibition,  and  WTOte  to 
his  father,  who  came  in  tears  to  find  his  son  and  carry  him  back  to  his  native 
country,  where  he  soon  recovered. 

On  his  return  to  Paris,  Peltier  set  himself  to  work  at  clockmaking  with  more 
ardor  than  ever.  At  the  close  of  1 803,  however,  he  was  for  a  while  diverted 
from  his  peaceful  occupations  by  other  and  entirely  new  ideas. 

Tbe  peace  of  Amiens  had  lasted  but  a  short  while,  and  war  with  England 
had  been  speedily  rekindled  ;  a  universal  enthusiasm  reigned  throughout  France ; 
departments,  cities,  corporations,  all  vied  with  each  other  in  offering  ships, 
frigates,  and  even  boats  for  the  public  service. 

Peltier  could  offer  nothing,  being  without  means,  but  he  could  give  his  life, 
and  he  resolved  to  enter  the  navy.  Not  wishing,  however,  to  engage  as  a  com- 
mon sailor,  he  worked  incessantly  in  the  hope  of  being  received  into  the  naval 
flchool  at  Brest.  Nor  was  this  all ;  for,  not  content  with  his  own  intentions 
towards  his  country,  he  recruited  three  of  his  comrades  and  bound  them  to  join 
the  army  with  himself.  For  a  while  all  went  smoothly  j  but  as  the  fatal  hour 
approached,  the  courage  of  the  three  comrades  waned  j  and  when  the  decisive 
moment  arrived,  Peltier  found  himself  successively  abandoned  by  his  pix^posed 
companions,  and  left  to  execute  his  designs  alone  j  this  he  would  certainly  have 
done  but  for  a  circumstance  which  he  had  not  foreseen.  In  order  to  enter  the 
natal  school  at  Brest,  it  was  necessary  to  obtain  the  consent  of  his  parents ; 
and  he  had  already  written  them  on  this  subject.     His  mother,  learning  his 


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160  MEMOIR   OF  PELTIER. 

design  with  the  deepest  grief,  made  many  efforts  to  dissuade  him  from  his  pur- 
pose J  but  in  vain.  When,  however,  at  last,  she  received  the  news  that  all  was 
in  readiness  for  his  departure,  and  that  he  only  awaited  their  consent,  she  was 
seized  with  a  despair  that  rendered  her  seriously  ill ;  and  the  father  of  Peltier, 
communicating  to  the  son  his  mother's  condition,  terminated  his  letter  thus : 
*^  If  you  persist,  I  will  send  you  my  consent,  but  it  will  kill  your  mother  j  and 
remember  that  you  will  have  but  yourself  to  reproach  for  her  death.''  The 
alternative,  thus  put,  admitted  evidently  but  of  one  solution,  and  Peltier 
renounced  his  design. 

Released  from  the  ideas  which  had  for  a  while  so  entirely  occupied  him,  Pel- 
tier set  himself  again  to  work,  and  it  was  not  long  before  Briquet,  discerning 
his  talent,  attached  him  directly  to  himself  as  a  workman,  and  shortly  after 
intrusted  him  with  the  most  difficult  part  of  horology — the  construction  of  chro- 
nometers. 

After  remaining  about  two  years  with  Brdquet,  Peltier  left  him  with  the  inten- 
tion of  establishing  himself  in  business.  For  a  while,  however,  he  was  on  the 
point  of  uniting  himself  to  Berthoud,  who  offered  him  very  advantageous  con- 
ditions ;  first,  a  very  good  salary ;  second,  that  at  the  end  of  six  years  he 
should  be  associated  with  himself  in  the  manufacture  of  marine  watches.  This 
offer  certainly  merited  reflection.  After  some  hesitation  Peltier  finally  refused ; 
ho  would  have  been  obliged  to  engage  for  six  years,  and  live  in  Argenteuil  at 
a  period  when  communication  was  not  as  prompt  nor  easy  as  it  is  to-day.  Pel- 
tier preferred  his  liberty  j  and,  establishing  himself  in  1806,  was  shortly  after 
married  to  Mademoiselle  Dufant.  Tor  nine  years  he  remained  honorably 
engaged  in  trade  j  retiring  from  business  in  1815,  on  the  death  of  his  mother- 
in-law. 

Madame  Dufant  left  him  master  of  a  very  moderate  fortune,'  the  proceeds  of 
which  were  considerably  restricted  by  the  disturbed  condition  of  affairs ;  but 
Peltier,  having  no  expensive  tastes  to  gratify,  remained  contented  with  it,  tbat 
ne  might  from  that  time  give  himself  up  entirely  to  his  natural  inclination  for 
study ;  besides  which,  energy  and  method  produced  by  degrees  their  natuml 
fruits  ;  so  that  towards  the  close  of  his  life  he  was  possessed  of  a  competency, 
which  permitted  him  to  occupy  himself  exc4usively  with  his  scientific  labors. 

The  activity  of  Peltier's  mind  prevented  him  from  restricting  himself  to  the 
narrow  limits  of  his  trade  ;  and  always  while  studying  and  working  at  horology 
ho  was  occupied  first  with  one  thing  and  then  another,  as  the  taste  or  inclination 
of  the  moment  prompted  him.  At  the  time  of  which  we  speak,  literature  and 
literary  persons  were  held  in  high  regard  in  the  empire;  and  Peltier's  age 
inclining  him  to  such  pursuits,  he  devoted  himself  exclusively  to  books.  He 
read,  wrote  or  dictated  constantly  j  reading  while  eating  or  walking  j  and 
even  in  the  evening,  when  at  work  on  his  bench,  listening  to  his  wife  who  read 
aloud.  It  is  thus  that  he  read  Voltaire,  Rousseau,  Buffon,  the  Correspondence 
of  Grinam,  and  the  geography  of  Malte-Brun ;  in  short,  everj^hing  that  he 
could  borrow,  the  scantiness  of  his  fortune  not  permitting  him  to  indulge  in  the 
purchase  of  books.  He  not  only  read,  but  composed.  While  still  a  journey- 
man, he  wrote  a  melodrama.  Later  he  applied  himself  to  the  study  of  poetry, 
and  has  left  a  comedy  in  verse  completely  finished,  and  has  even  published  a 
criticism  on  the  comedy  of 'the  Detix  Gendres  of  Etienne.  It  was  generally  in 
putting  together  his  clocks  that  he  C/omposed.  Leaving  his  house,  paper  and 
pencil  in  hand^  he  would,  while  walking,  compose  his  verses,  and  when  he  had 
them  properly  arranged  in  his  own  mind,  would  stop  and  write  them.  The 
real  bent  of  Peltier's  mind  was  rather  towards  the  sciences  and  severer  studies 
than  literature  or  poetry ;  but  he  yielded  for  the  time  to  the  ardor  of  youth  and 
the  fashion  of  the  moment.  Still  we  find  in  what  he  has  left  real  imagination, 
and  a  sprightliness  throughout  which  is  extraordinary.  In  general  the  vendfi- 
cation  is  somewhat  neglected;  but  this  is  by  no  means  surprisingi  ho  very 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


MEMOIR   OF  PELTIER.  161 

often  not  having  the  tune  to  review  what  he  had  written;  but  here,  as  else- 
wherCy  his  ideas  are  not  at  fault. 

Retiring  from  trade  at  the  age  of  thurty-one,  Peltier  resolved  to  educate  him- 
self anew.  He  had  doubtless  read  much,  worked  much;  and  exercised  his  mind 
on  a  variety  of  subjects ;  but  he  had  never  pursued  a  regular  course  of  study 
He  determined,  therefore,  as  the  first  step  to  make  himself  master  of  Latin,  and 
at  the  same  time  to  teach  it  to  his  little  son,  then  a^ed  seven  years,  and  whom 
he  had,  since  his  sixth  year,  taught  English.  Wiping  at  the  same  time  that 
be  taaght  the  Latin  to  perfect  the  child^  English,  he  bought  several  English 
and  Latin  grammars ;  but  what  was  his  surpnse  in  examining  them  to  find  that 
tbcy  differed  essentially  from  the  French  and  Latin !  This  difierence  was  the 
more  singular  inasmuch  as  these  grammars,  both  teaching  the  same  language, 
should  have  been  entirely  alike. 

Peltier,  not  content  with  remarking  this  difference,  set  himself  to  work  to 
asoertain  the  cause,  which  he  found  to  be  that  both  English  and  French  confine 
themselves  to  rules  for  translating  their  language  into  Latin.  Now  when  the 
Bomans  taught  their  children  the  rules  of  Latin  grammar,  it  was  by  rules  deduced 
from  gnunmar  in  general,  and  not  by  telling  them  that  such  and  such  a  turn  of 
phrase  in  French  or  English  should  be  rendered  in  such  or  such  manner  in  Latin. 
Thus  when  we  teach  our  children  French,  we  do  so  independently  of  all  foreign 


hen  Peltier  had  once  seen  this  defect,  he  resolved  to  write  for  his  son  a 
gTammar  in  which  all  the  rules  of  the  Latin  language  should  be  given  in 
English.  It  was  in  1816  that  he  undertook  this  work ;  somewhat  later  he  took 
it  op  again,  but  in  l^nch ;  the  change  from  one  grammar  to  the  other  being 
hot  a  small  matter,  the  same  language  being  taught  in  both,  and  the  same  rules 
^yen.  He  worked  at  this  for  some  time,  and  made  considerable  progress ;  but 
It  is  £u:  from  being  complete. 

When  this  work  was  somewhat  advanced,  Peltier  began  to  write  an  introduc- 
tion for  it.  Now  grammar  being  the  art  of  expressing  one's  thoughts  according 
to  certain  rules,  he  discoursed,  in  this  introduction,  of  ideas,  their  origin  and  trans- 
formations, thus  passing  from  grammar  to  ideology.  At  first  it  was  only  his 
intention  to  write  an  introduction,  but  little  by  little  his  plan  enlarged,  as  the 
constant  necessity  arose  of  mounting  higher  into  causes  in  order  better  to  explain 
effects.  It  was  first  an  introduction  of  a  few  pages ;  it  very  soon  became  an 
entire  work.  He  abandoned  it  several  times,  but  always  seemed  iiTcsistibly 
drawn  to  take  it  up  again. 

It  was  his  conviction  that  all  the  phenomena  of  the  formation  of  ideas  could 
and  should  be  reduced  to  the  simple  undulation  of  the  nervous  fluid.  The  sen- 
sation composed,  1st,  of  the  impression  made  on  an  organ,  2d,  of  the  transmission 
of  this  impression  to  the  brain,  3d,  of  the  perception  effected  by  the  brain,  was 
only,  according  to  him,  an  undulation  wrought  in  the  nervous  fluid,  the  starting 
pomt  of  which  is  any  given  organ,  the  stopping  point  the  encephalon;  when 
afterwards  this  undidation  returns  from  the  brain  to  the  organ  impressed,  it 
becomes  attention ;  when  it  retums  from  the  brain  to  an  ensemble  of  muscles, 
and  is  designed  to  cause  motion,  it  becomes  will.  Memory  he  describes  as  a 
BQccession  of  undulations,  similar  in  nature,  and  acting  upon  each  other;  while 
judgment  is  the  sensation  of  the  difference  between  I  fmoij  previously  impressed 
in  a  certain  manner,  and  I  fmoiJ  afterwards  impressed  otherwise. 

It  is  far  from  my  intention  here  to  enter  into  any  detail  on  this  subject.  Suf- 
fice it  to  say  that  ideology  is  one  of  the  sciences  on  which  he  was  most  often 
engaged,  and  in  which  he  has  advanced  the  newest  and  most  original  ideas. 
Unfortunately  his  work  on  the  subject  is  very  far  from  being  finished. 

Prepositions  are  the  most  difficult  parts  of  speech  to  define,  and  have  very 
much  perplexed  all  grammarians.  Expressing  the  relations  of  persons  and 
things  to  each  other,  they  form  one  of  the  most  abstract  points  of  graomiar. 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


162  MEMOIB  OF  PELTIER. 

We  easily  conceive  of  a  nonn ;  it  is  the  name  of  a  person  or  thing,  or  else  the 
generalization  of  a  qaality ;  we  understand  an  adjective'  or  verb ;  but  a  prepod- 
tion  is  infinitely  more  diMcalt  of  conception ;  it  is  neither  an  object,  qiiality»  nor 
act,  but  a  relation  between  all  these  ideas ;  it  is,  in  short,  a  something  completely 
intangible.  Led  by  his  ideological  studies  on  the  one  hand,  and  his  stadies  of 
Latin  grammar  on  the  other,  Peltier  undertook,  about  the  year  1820,  a  treatise 
on  Latm  prepositions.  To  this  he  applied  himself  assiduously  for  several  yeans, 
and  finally  completed  it.  In  1826  he  even  had  some  thoughts  of  submitUng  it 
to  the  press,  but,  led  off  by  other  studies,  he  soon  renouno^  his  intentions. 

At  the  time  that  Peltier  was  studying  the  formation  of  ideas  with  such  care. 
Dr.  Gall  had  opened  his  public  courts  in  Paris,  in  which  he  expounded  his  theory 
of  the  development  of  the  brain,  and  the  localization  of  the  faculties.  Peltier, 
perceiving  in  an  instant  of  what  immense  advantage  such  knowledge  would  be  to 
him,  studied  with  assiduity  the  lessons  of  Dr.  GaU,  and  became,  and  to  the  close 
of  life  remained,  his  zealoas  partisan.  Not  that  he  thought  the  localizadon  of 
faculties  as  maintained  by  Dr.  Gall  incontrovertible;  he  had  not  implicit  fiaitb 
in  all  his  bumpS)  (to  speak  after  the  usual  manner;)  but  he  did  believe  sincerely 
and  with  reason  in  the  fundamental  principle  of  G^'s  doctrine;  that  is,  in  the 
relation  which  exists  between  the  mental  and  moral  nature  on  one  hand,  and  the 
development  of  certain  parts  of  the  encephalon  on  the  other. 

The  confidence  he  had  in  the  principle  of  this  doctrine,  however,  did  not  pre- 
yent  him  from  pointing  out  a  few  errors  of  detail.  He  made  several  objections 
to  Gall  himself  on  his  cranioscopy ;  one,  among  others,  having  reference  to  the 
organ  of  perfectibility,  and  another  to  comparative  sagacity.  On  this  subject  he 
wrote  as  follows:  ***I  have  never  been  able  to  understand  how  there  could  be 
an  organ  of  perfectibility  unless  it  should  be  made  the  centre  of  all  the  intelleo 
tual  organs,  which  woufd  be  an  entire  subversion  of  your  scientific  principles. 
Mathematics,  metaphysics,  music,  having  each  its  particular  organ,  perfectibility 
cannot  be  a  separate,  universal  quality ;  it  can  only  be  a  greater  development 
of  a  particular  or^n.  Neither  have  I  been  able  to  comprehend  the  organ  of 
comparative  sagacity.  All  judgment  is  the  result  of  a  comparison;  the  mathe- 
matician compares  and  judges ;  so  also  the  painter,  the  mechanic  Our  knowK 
edge  does  not  come  but  by  comparing  and  judging.  The  organ  of  comparative 
sagacity,  then,  is  one  that  encroaches  upon  the  others,  and  that  is  directly  opposed 
to  your  theory  of  the  localization  of  the  faculdes."  The  reply  of  Otall  to  these 
objections  was  far  from  being  satisfactory. 

The  study  of  Gall's  theory  had  made  Peltier  feel  the  necessity  of  studying  the 
anatomy  of  the  brain.  This  necessity  once  acknowledged,  he  set  himself  to 
work ;  he  went  into  the  amphitheatres  and  dissected  like  a  novice,  although  he 
was  at  that  time  about  36  years  of  age.  He  did  not,  it  is  true,  pursue  the  study 
of  anatomy  so  far  as  is  necessary  for  a  physician  or  surgeon,  but  he  studied 
enough  to  understand  thoroughly  the  nervous  svstem  of  man,  and  to  have  suf- 
ficiently correct  ideas  of  all  his  other  organs.  The  gross  dissection  of  the  brain 
and  nerves  showing  him  almost  nothing  of  their  inmost  structure,  Peltier  endeav- 
ored to  study  them  with  magnifying  instruments.  But  man  stands  highest  in 
the  scale  of  animal  beings.  Instead  of  studying  the  construction,  assimilation, 
and  life  of  so  complex  a  being,  it  is  much  more  rational  to  study  them  in  beings 
of  more  simple  construction.  Transparent  insects  will  perhaps  let  the  secret  of 
their  existence  be  seen.    Thus  Peltier  was  led  to  apply  himself  to  microscopy. 

Perfectly  insatiable  in  his  desire  for  knowledge,  Peltier  attended  at  the  sanao 
time  the  lectures  of  M.  Flonrens  at  the  College  de  France,  and  the  experimenta 
in  vivisection  of  M.  Magendie.  Electricity  was  just  rising  into  great  fkvor  with 
physiologists;  all  was  attempted  to  be  explained  by  it  M.  Magendie  made 
dogs  and  rabbits  digest  by  electricity ;  according  to  M.  Dumas,  muscular  con- 
traction was  but  electro-dynamic ;  nothing  seemed  able  to  resist  its  power,  not 
even  the  generation  of  beings,  the  males  lining  powerfully  charged  with  positive 
electricity,  the  females  consequen*^^!^  «n»h  negative:  U  was  a  general  mania. 

Jigitized  by  V 


MEMOIR  OF  PELTIER.  163 

What  is  electricity  t  Peltier  had  now  come  to  the  study  of  this  science— a 
study  which  was  to  occupy  him  exclusively  during  the  last  twenty  years  of  his 
life^  and  on  which  he  has  left  such  a  profound  impress  of  his  genius ;  but  we  see 
what  detours  he  had  made  before  arriving  at  this  point,  and  what  road  he  had 
^veiled. 

I  have  entered  into  these  details  because  they  seemed  to  me  to  offer  som6 
interest ;  we  see  in  them  the  gropings  to  which  a  vigorous  mind  may  give  it*»elf 
np  before  ai-riving  at  what  is  destined  to  constitute  one  day  its  study  from  pre- 
dilectioQ.  The  course  followed  by  Peltier  is,  besides,  I  think,  rooted  in  the 
Tciy  nature  of  the  human  mind ;  it  is  always  towards  the  most,  abstract  and 
oomplex  ideas  that  man  at  first  and  from  choice  directs  his  studies ;  it  is  not 
tmtil  later,  and  little  by  little,  that,  instructed  by  experience,  he  at  the  same 
time  ampUfies  and  restricts  his  researches.  History  bears  ample  testimony  to 
this.  In  the  middle  ages,  on  the  revival  of  letters,  men  were  occupied  but  with 
qDestions  in  metaphysics — the  nature  of  the  soul  and  its  faculties — and,  as  if  this 
woe  not  sufficiently  beyond  their  powers,  they  discoursed  even  on  the  nature 
of  God.  It  was  not  until  some  time  later  that  they  consented  to  descend  from 
tbese  heights  and  study  the  material  world :  first  the  living  world,  anatomy  and 
physiol<^y ;  and  lastly  the  inorganic  world,  physics,  chemistry,  geology,  &c., 
kc, ;  so  true  is  it  that  associated  men,  or  the  people,  take  but  the  same  course  as 
isolated  men,  or  individuals. 

It  was  about  1825  that  Peltier  commenced  seriously  to  study  physics;  until 
tliat  tune  indeed  it  had  been  to  him  but  an  accessory.  In  1827  he  bought  in  a 
public  market-place  an  old  electric  machine  and  some  Leyden  jars;  these 
Toe  the  first  instruments  he  had  at  his  disposal.  At  first  he  amused  himself  by 
drawing  sparks;  he  then  formed  sparkling  squares  and  tubes,  and  electric  jump- 
ingjacks,  and  many  other  amusing  objects ;  a  little  after  he  tried  more  serious 
experiments;  but  he  very  soon  discovered  that  this  road  could  lead  to  nothing. 
By  an  electric  machine,  m  feujt,  he  could  never  have  obtained  other  than  static 
electricity ;  and  static  phenomena  constantly  reducing  themselves  to  phenomena 
of  attraction  or  repulsion,  and  to  sparks,  are  very  far  from  offering  the  variety 
and  interest  of  dynamic  phenomena.  Weaiy  of  these  experiments  without  result, 
Peltier  very  naturally  turned  his  attention  towards  another  source  of  electricity, 
tbe  pile ;  it  was,  besides,  of  the  Voltaic  pile  that  physiologists  made  use  in  apply- 
ing electricity  to  the  phenomena  of  life.  Peltier  therefore  very  soon  bought  a 
trough  pile,  with  which  he  made  his  first  investi^tions  into  currents.  Later  he 
made  for  himself  a  very  great  number  of  these  piles. 

For  several  years  Peltier  labored  without  communicating  to  any  one  either  his 
work  or  his  discoveries.  Knowing  but  little  of  the  world,  ne  had  not  had  oppor- 
tonity  to  compare  himself  with  other  men,  and,  ignoring  completely  the  real 
worth  of  his  intellect,  did  not  dream  that  he  could  do  anything  worthv  of  being 
known.  This  diffidence  rendered  him  extremely  reserved,  and  he  worked  a  long 
tiiDe  in  profound  silence.  His  first  communication  to  the  Academy  of  Science 
WM  on  the  19th  of  July,  1830,  and  relates  to  dry  electric  piles.  The  reason  of 
tills  communication  was  as  follows :  It  had  been  generally  believed  for  a  long 
tiiDe  that  diy  pUes  were  not  capable  of  giving  a  constant  current,  and  could  not 
produce  an^  chemical  reactions.  In  1830  M.  Donn^  endeavored  to  throw  li^ht 
im  this  subject  by  new  investigations.  In  his  experiments  he  carried  the  number 
<tf  couples  to  25,000  and  30,000,  without,  however,  increasing  the  usual  size  of 
the  plates.  He  obtained  thus  phenomena  of  enormous  tension,  but  could  not 
get  a  current  which  was  capable  of  efiecting  the  least  chemical  action. 

At  this  time  Peltier  haa  already  comprehended  the  distmction  to  be  main- 
tained between  the  quantity  and  the  intensity  of  a  current.  He  therefore  took 
^  the  experiments  of  M.  Donn<S,  but  instead  of  increasing  the  nnmbtr  of  couples, 
be  increased  their  surface,  and  thus  succeeded  in  reddening  to  the  color  of  turnsole, 
ttid  in  decomposbg  water  by  means  of  a  current  of  uie  dry  pile.    It  suffices 

Jigitized  by  VjOOQIC 


164  MEMOIR  OF  PELTIER. 

for  this  that  we  take  from  25  to  30  disks,  provided  only  that  their  surface  be  a 
little  expanded,  say  from  one  to  two  square  decimeters.  Such  was  the  first  sci- 
entific communication  made  by  Peltier  to  the  Academy  of  Science :  this  took 
place  on  July  19,  1830 ;  and  Peltier  dying  October  27,  1845,  it  was  in  this 
interval  of  15  years  that  he  wrote  and  published  the  labors  and  discoveries  of 
which  we  shall  proceed  to  give  a  rapid  enumeration. 

At  the  time  that  Peltier  began  to  devote  himself  to  experiments  in  physios, 
Nobili  was  in  Paris,  having  come  thither  to  illustrate  his  system  of  static  needles 
w^hich  he  had  just  invented  for  galvanometers.  Peltier  was  forcibly  struck  by 
the  sensibility  which  these  instruments  were  rendered  capable  of  acquiring  by 
this  ingenious  modification,  and  set  himself  immediately  to  work  to  construct 
similar  ones  for  himself.  A  short  rime  afterwards  M.  De  la  Rive  commenced  his 
publications  on  the  theor}'^  of  the  pile.  This  illustrious  savant  wished  to  prove 
that  chemical  action  was  the  real  cause  of  dynamic  electricity,  and  endeavored 
to  demonstrate  this  by  analyzing  the  different  phenomena  of  the  currents  by 
means  of  the  galvanometer  thus  perfected  by  Nobili.  Peltier  thus  found  him- 
self led,  on  one  hand,  to  the  thorough  study  of  galvanometers,  and  on  the  other 
to  experiments  on  the  pile  and  on  currents.  The  first  communication  that  Peltier 
made  to  the  Academy  of  Science  bore  marks  of  tliis  double  impulse.  On  July 
19,  1830,  he  presented  his  note  relative  to  dry  piles;  May  27,  1833,  he  laid 
before  this  learned  body  another  note  on  the  quantity  and  intensity  of  currents ; 
iJuIy  22,  of  this  same  year,  he  presented  them  with  a  memorandum  on  the  same 
subject  J  and  finally,  on  March  10,  1834,  he  made  known  his  galvanometer  of 
deviations  proportioned  to  its  force. 

Peltier  had  naturally  great  dexterity  of  hand,  which  had  been  still  increased 
by  his  practice  of  horology ;  further,  he  was  possessed  of  patience  sufficient  for 
any  ordeal,  never  becoming  disheartened,  and  never  recoilinsr  before  any  sacrifice 
of  time  or  trouble  which  could  lead  to  the  desired  end ;  and  assisted  besides  by 
the  counsels  of  a  distinguished  artist,  M.  Gouijon,  he  was  enabled  to  give  to  his 
galvanometers  a  sensibility  which  permitted  him  to  study  the  smallest  forces,  and 
consequently  to  discover  phenomena  of  which  he  would  never  have  suspected  the 
existence  had  he  had  at  his  disposal  only  heavy  and  sluggish  instruments.  It 
was  thus  he  discovered  that,  under  certain  determinate  circumst&nces,  a  weak 
electric  current  can  produce  cold.  He  first  made  known  this  fact  to  the  Academy 
of  Sciences,  April  21,  1834 ;  later  he  inserted  in  volume  56  of  the  Annals  qjf 
Cliemistry  and  Physics  a  dissertation  on  the  heat  generated  by  electric  currents. 

In  1 835  Peltier  discovered  the  difference  of  capacity  of  the  various  metals  for 
each  kind  of  electricity.  During  this  same  year  he  published  in  volume  60  of 
the  Annals  of  CJtemistry  and  Physics  a  dissertation  on  electro-magnetic  experi- 
ments. Until  that  time  it  had  been  assumed,  for  simplicity  and  facility  in  theo- 
retic calculations,  that  magnetic  repulsion  was  a  force  equal  and  contrary  to 
attraction.  In  this  dissertation  Peltier  proves  that  it  is  nothing,  demonstrating 
that  repulsion  is  by  no  means  a  special  force  like  attraction,  but  that  it  is  an  effect 
of  the  disagreement  of  opposed  motions  sustained  in  their  opposition  by  second- 
ary causes  and  influences. 

In  1830  Peltier  again  turned  his  attention  to  the  quantity  and  intensity  of  cur- 
rents, laying  before  the  academy,  May  9th,  an  article  on  this  subject ;  and  this 
same  year  he  submitted  to  that  learned  body  the  curious  fact  of  the  formation  of 
several  individuals  proceeding  from  a  single  animal  that  is  subjected  to  lingering 
inanition.  He  published  in  volume  62  of  the  Annals  of  CJiCfnistry  and  Physics 
a  description  of  the  electrometer  which  he  had  just  invented,  and  which  is  cer- 
tainly one  of  the  most  useful  instruments  with  which  he  has  enriched  science ; 
and  he  also  presented  to  the  Philomathic  Society  most  interesting  observations 
ou  vorticellsB,  on  the  articulation  of  the  claws  of  rhizopodes,  on  the  influence  of 
electric  currents  in  the  vegetation  and  evolution  of  animalcula,  on  the  reprodnc- 
tion  of  arcellae,  &c.     Finally,  this  same  year,  recurring  for  the  last  time  to  the 


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165 


subject  of  the  qaantity  and  intensity  of  currents,  he  published  a  resum^  of  his 
works  on  this  subject,  in  volume  63  of  the  Antmls  qf  Chemistry  and  PhyskH, 

January  9th,  1837,  Peltier  presented  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences  a  large  work 
containing  his  experimental  researches  into  the  various  phenomena  which  concur 
in  producing  the  general  result  from  electric  piles ;  the  30th  of  the  same  month 
he  inserted  a  note  on  the  dynamic  electricity  engendered  by  friction.  May  15 
he  made  known  to  the  academy  the  new  hygrometer  he  had  just  invented,  and 
his  work  on  solutions  and  dissolutions ;  and,  finally,  on  June  12,  he  laid  before 
this  same  learned  body  his  researches  on  the  difference  in  the  conduction  of  a 
circuit  according  to  the  direction  of  the  current ;  and  thus  explained  from  natural 
causes  a  fiact  that  M.  De  la  Rive  could  not  account  for,  except  by  admitting,  in 
electric  currents,  interferences  analogous  to  those  of  light. 

In  1838  Peltier  published  in  volume  67  of  the  Annals  qf  Chemistry  and  Physics 
an  article  on  the  quantity  of  dynamic  and  static  action  produced  by  the  oxida- 
tion of  a  milligram  of  zinc,  and  on  the  relation  which  exists  between  these  two 
kmds  of  phenomena.  Faraday  had  handled  an  analogous  question  before  Pel- 
tier, and  M.  Becquerel  has  treated  it  since.  These  three  gentlemen  have  arrived 
at  this  conclusion :  that  a  dynamic  degree  represents  an  enormous  static  force ;  in 
other  words,  that  a  galvanometer,  despite  its  apparent  sensibility,  is  an  extremely 
inert  instrument  compared  with  the  electroscope.  This  same  year  Peltier  made 
known  the  cause  of  secondary  currents  in  liquids ;  and  he  published  in  the  Annals 
<f  Natural  Science  two  dissertations :  one  on  a  new  kind  of  floscularia,  the  other 
on  the  structure  of  muscles.  He  also  laid  before  the  Philomathio  Society  his 
observations  on  the  zoosperms  of  the  frog ;  on  magnetism  by  discharges  along  a 
bar;  on  the  displacement  of  the  axis  of  a  magnetic  needle  during  a  prolonged 
deviation,  &c.,  &c. 

In  the  beginning  of  1839,  Peltier  presented  to  the  Philomathio  Society  an 
article  containing  most  interesting  observations  on  the  difference  in  structure  of 
the  motor  and  sensitive  nerves.  At  the  same  time  he  published  in  volume  71  of 
the  Annals  qf  Chemistry  and  Physics  a  very  comprehensive  dissertation.  This 
dissertation  is  composed  of  two  distinct  parts :  the  first  treats  of  the  formation  of 
tables  in  regard  to  relations  which  exist  between  the  force  of  an  electric  cnrrent 
ffiid  the  deviation  of  the  needles  of  the  multipliers — and  certainly  no  one  was 
more  fit  than  Peltier  to  do  this  work;  the  second  treats  of  the  causes  of  pertur- 
bation in  the  thermo-electric  pairs  and  the  means  of  avoiding  it.  It  is  in  itself 
an  entire  and  profound  study  of  thermo-electricity.  Peltier  examines  in  this 
work  the  effect  of  the  bulk  of  the  pairs  and  their  number,  of  the  size  of  the 
Bolderings,  the  extent  of  surface  immersed,  &c. 

Daring  the  period  we  have  just  sketched,  Peltier  had  also  occupied  himself 
with  the  study  of  meteorology,  although  in  a  cursory  manner.  In  1835  he  placed 
on  the  house  he  occupied  apparatus  for  studying  the  temperature  and  electric 
state  of  distant  media.  The  apparatus  with  which  he  at  this  time  studied  the 
elec&ic  interchange  between  the  earth  and  clouds  was  as  follows :  it  was  formed 
of  a  piece  of  copper  wire  surrounded  with  silk,  and  covered  over  with  several 
layers  of  oil  varnish ;  the  upper  portion  of  this  wire  was  terminated  by  a  tuft  of 
pmtiha  wire,  and  was  elevated  about  25  metres  above  the  earth ;  the  lower  end 
was  also  terminated  by  a  platina  wire,  and  immersed  in  a  deep  well  of  12  metres. 
In  the  midst  of  the  wire  Peltier  interposed  at  pleasure  either  a  multiplier  of 
3,000  coils,  an  electrometer  of  his  invention,  or  a  simple  electroscope  of  gold 
leaves.  By  the  aid  of  this  apparatus  Peltier  soon  ascertained  that  the  earth  ordi- 
narily gave  indications  of  negative  electricity ;  that,  in  general,  there  was  a  nega- 
tive ascending  current,  but  that  in  certain  circumstances,  and  especially  during 
8tonng,  there  was  on  the  contrary  very  often  an  inverse  current,  that  is,  a  nega- 
tive descending  current. 

Later,  in  1836,  Peltier  ascertained  that  during  storms  the  negative  ascending 
current  acquired  at  times  a  considerable  force,  and  then  ceased  altogether,  giving 


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166  M£MOIR   OF  PELTIEB. 

place  to  a  negative  descending  carrent  still  more  powerfal.  August  6  of  this 
same  year,  especially,  the  storm  that  he  was  observing  presented  at  least  25  of 
these  inversions.  He  even  ascertained  that  these  sadden  inversions  did  not  take 
place  in  all  their  power  until  the  rain  precipitated  itself  from  the  clouds  to  fall 
on  the  ground ;  and,  finally,  he  discovered  that  all  storms  were  negative,  hut  that 
the  clouds  surrennding  them  were  in  general  of  a  contrary  electricity,  and  that 
this  was  the  reason  why  the  commencement  and  close  of  storms  always  produce 
positive  signs,  while  the  storm  itself  gives  but  negative  ones. 

In  1838  Peltier  noticed  a  fact  whicm  he  afterwards  often  confirmed,  namely : 
that  snow  alone  never  produces  electric  currents,  while  on  the  contrary  sleet  and 
hail  invariably  give  them.  When  they  come  with  snow  it  is  because  it  is  mingled 
with  sleet.  Finally,  this  same  year,  he  called  the  attention  of  the  Philom^ic 
Society  to  the  fact  that  the  earth  and  all  bodies  resting  upon  it  are  naturally  in  a 
negative  state ;  but  that  when  in  a  storm  the  lower  clouds  are  strongly  negative, 
the  earth  and  all  appurtenant  bodies,  being  beneath  them,  become  positive ;  that 
Is,  they  exist  momentarily  in  a  condition  opposed  to  their  ordinary  state ;  and  he 
thinks  this  change  of  electric  state  may  be  the  cause  of  the  general  discomfort 
suffered  by  nervous  persons  during  certain  storms. 

We  see  that  Peltier  was  perfectly  prepared  by  his  observations  and  previous 
researehes  for  the  study  of  meteorology.  He  understood  electricity  thoroughly; 
he  possessed  galvanometers  of  great  sensibility,  by  the  aid  of  which  he  could 
estimate  the  smallest  dynamic  currents ;  he  had  invented  an  electrometer  which 
could  measure  the  smallest  static  tension ;  he  had  already  made  both  curious  and 
interesting  meteorological  observations,  and  ho  neede<l  but  some  favorable  occa- 
sion to  deliver  himself  to  the  study  of  meteorology  with  all  his  characteristic 
ardor.     This  occasion  the  water-spout  of  Ch&tenay  was  not  long  in  furnishing. 

On  June  18, 1839,  a  water-spout  laid  waste  the  property  of  M.  H6relle  at 
Gh&tenay.  The  insurance  company  refused  to  pay  damages,  alleging  that  water- 
spouts were  not  electric  phenomena.  In  order  to  satisfy  himself  on  this  point 
M.  Herelle  sought  Peltier,  whose  works  had  now  begun  to  be  known  and  appre- 
ciated. Solicited  by  M.  Herelle,  Peltier  repaired  to  the  spot,  and  by  virtue  of 
his  perfect  knowledge  of  electricity  soon  determined  the  real  character  of  this 
phenomenon.  He  first  wrote  a  letter  on  this  subject  to  the 'Academy  of  Science, 
July  15  J  later,  his  ideas  becoming  still  clearer,  he  presented,  October  28,  a 
resum^  of  his  researches,  and  in  1840  published  his  Treatise  on  Water-spouts. 

From  this  momient  Peltier  found  himself  engaged  for  a  long  time  in  the  study 
of  meteorology ;  for,  in  consequence  of  his  habit  of  never  leaving  unexplained 
a  single  phenomenon,  he  felt  himself  compelle<l  to  study  the  whole  science,  and 
with  what  zeal  he  did  this  we  shall  now  see. 

February  3,  1840,  Peltier  wrote  to  the  academy  explaining  the  fact  of  the 
enture  destruction  of  a  man  by  a  thunderbolt ;  and  the  same  day  laid  before  them 
a  sealed  package  on  the  grouping  of  clouds.  May  4,  he  communicated  to  this 
learned  body  observations  of  great  interest,  made  by  aid  of  an  electric  kite,  on 
atmospheric  electricity  during  clear  weather.  May  25,  he  made  known  his 
researches  on  the  phenomena  which  take  place  in  the  interior  of  metallic  spheres 
charged  with  electricity,  and  deduced  from  them  an  explanation  of  the  grouping 
of  clouds.  June  1',  he  complimented  the  academy  by  a  presentation  of  his  Treatise 
on  Water-spouts^  and,  finally,  November  30,  he  presented  them  wth  an  article 
in  which  he  demonstrated  that  the  electricity  produced  by  evaporation  was  only 
maintained  by  decrepitation.  All  these  works,  however,  did  not  prevent  him 
from  continuing  his  experiments  in  electricity  and  his  microscopical  researches, 
so  that,  July  4,  he  presented  to  the  Philomathic  Society  the  interesting  oliserva- 
tion  of  a  lucophre  produced  by  efflux ;  and,  November  16,  made  known  to  the 
academy  his  experiments  on  the  origin  of  the  zoosperms  of  the  frog. 

In  1841  Peltier  continued  to  occupy  himself  with  the  same  ardor  on  all  that 
concerns  meteorology ;  he  ascertained  the  resinous  tension  of  the  earth|  and  dia- 


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MEMOIR  OF  PELTJEB.  167 

covered  the  true  canse  of  the  electricity  of  vapors^  (Febrnaiy  8,  commonication 
to  the  Academy  of  Science.)  This  same  year  he  procured  a  barometer,  and  six 
months  had  not  passed  before  be  was  able  to  comprebend  the  true  cause  of  the 
osciUations  of  tbis  instrument,  placing  in  fact  before  the  academy,  April  25, 1842, 
a  sealed  package  containing  the  resnm^  of  his  researches  into  the  caoses  which 
vary  the  barometrical  pressure.  At  the  same  time  that  Peltier  made  by  his  obser- 
vations so  important  a  discoveiy,  he  published,  in  volume  4  of  the  third  series  of 
the  AnnalSj  his  great  work  on  the  cause  of  the  electrical  phenomena  of  the  atmo- 
n>bere,  which  may  be  regarded  as  the  fundamental  basis  of  all  meteorolc^ ;  he 
also  ascended  the  Faulhom,  and  there  ascertained  that  mountains  are  possessed 
of  all  the  properties  of  forelands,  and  that  consequently  their  resinous  tension  is 
enonuous.  He  explained  the  phenomenon  of  the  coloring  of  mountains ;  studied 
the  electrical  phenomena  of  caiscades;  caught  a  glimpse  of  the  cause  of  the  dif- 
ferent colorings  of  clouds ;  made,  with  M.  Bravais  and  by  request  of  M.  B^gnault, 
experiments  on  the  boiling  point  of  water  in  reference  to  dmerent  heights;  and 
finally  returned  to  Paris  laden  vrith  his  numerous  materials.  Hardly  arrived  in 
Paris,  he  gathered  together,  arranged,  and  nuide  known  all  the  factft  he  had 
observed,  and  published  his  dissertation  on  the  different  kinds  of  fogs. 

In  1843  Peltier  continued  his  labors,  and  prepared  the  memoirs  with  which 
big  scientific  career  terminated. 

November  2, 1844,  he  presented  to  the  Brussels  Academy  of  Science  his  great 
work  on  the  cause  of  barometrical  variations,  and  his  reseiupches  on  cyano-polar- 
imetry ;  and  this  same  vear  published  in  the  Archwes  qf  Electricity,  at  Geneva, 
bis  memoir  of  electrical  meteorology.  He  also  made  known  to  the  Phflomathic 
Society  his  observations  on  the  electricity  of  vapor  arising  from  boilers  at  high 
pressure ;  pointed  out  the  different  causes  of  error  which  might  deceive  students 
of  meteorology,  and  added  some  points  of  detail  to  the  general  history  of  water- 
spouts, on  occasion  of  the  Cette  water-spout. 

Finally,  in  1845,  Peltier  made  known  the  cause  of  the  osdllations  observed  by 
H.  Liagre  in  spirit  levels,  and  presented  to  the  BrusBeLs  Academy  of  Science  his 
dissertation  on  the  cause  of  electrical  phenomena,  which  concludied  hb  scientific 
career,  and  which  he  unfortunately  did  not  live  to  see  in  print. 

We  have  now  terminated  the  principal  discoveries  made  by  Peltier  in  micro- 
gn^hy,  physics,  and  meteorologv.  All  these  works,  all  time  researches  were 
effected  at  most  in  20  years ;  and,  indeed,  it  can  be  said  that  his  meteorological 
labors  only  date  horn  1839.  From  having  made  so  great  a  number  of  discoveries 
in  so  short  a  time,  it  is  easy  to  understand  in  what  a  state  of  intellectual  tension 
Peltier  must  have  passed  his  life.  For  sevend  years  previous  to  hb  death  his 
bealth  had  suffered  much ;  but  to  all  remonstrances  of  nis  friends  and  family  he 
repliecl :  '^  I  would  rather  die  10  years  aooner  and  leave  behind  me  discoveries 
which  will  recall  my  name."  In  the  month  of  July,  1842,  Peltier  went  to  the 
Faalbom,  there  to  make  meteorological  observations.  The  sudden  change  from 
a  temperature  of  30^  above  zero  to  one  almost  always  below  this  point,  mate- 
rially affected  his  health,  and,  a  short  time  after  his  return  to  Paris,  resulted  in  a 
spell  of  sickness.  His  disease  was  not  in  its  first  stages  dangerous,  being  but  a 
Blight  intestinal  affection,  to  cure  which  would  have  required  at  this  time  rest  and 
qoiet  for  a  few  months.  But  with  his  character,  with  that  incessant  activity  which 
distiogaished  him,  Peltier  could  not  accept  repose;  he  could  exclaim  with  Hoche: 
'*Give  me  a  remedy  for  fatigue,  but  let  it  not  be  repose."  Another  cause  there 
was  which  added  sdll  to  the  excessive  excitement  of  his  brain :  he  had  laid  the 
foandations  of  meteorology ;  he  had  established  the  basis,  and  he  now  wished 
to  deduce  its  coAscqnences  and  a[  ply  them  to  the  different  phenomena  of  nature. 
Nor  was  this  all :  it  was  long  since  be  had  had  decided  opinions  on  the  nature  of 
electricity ;  but  never  having  drawn  them  np  into  regular  form,  he  was  afraid 
death  might  overtake  him  too  soon  for  the  work ;  so  tlmt,  redoubling  his  energy 
And  activity  to  accomplish  his  wish,  his  relapses  became  frequent,  ana  his  malady 


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168  MEMOIR  OF  PELTICB, 

soon  assumed  a  most  sonous  character.  From  the  year  1S44  a  fatal  issue  was 
feared,  although  he  still  had  strength  sufficient  to  go  into  Belgium  for  the  pur- 
pose of  there  mtroducing  his  various  apparatus  and  his  method  of  observation  in 
meteorology. 

In  1845  the  disease  continued  to  make  such  progress  that  it  was  soon  impos- 
sible not  to  recognize  in  it  a  scirrhous  stricture  of  the  intestine ;  and  to  this  he 
soon  succumbed.  The  day  before  his  death,  although  exhausted  by  suffering, 
he  was  still  intent  upon  science— admitting  several  persons  who  came  to  consult 
him  on  the  water-spout  of  Monville,  among  whom  was  M.  Preisser,  professor  of  * 
chemistry  at  Rouen,  with  whom  he  had  a  long  conversation  on  the  cause  of  the 
disasters  which  had  just  taken  place.  In  the  evening  ho  dictated  some  lines 
explaining  the  twisting  which  had  been  observed  on  the  bark  of  certain  trees ;  the 
next  morning  he  still  retained  his  consciousness,  but,  gradually  losing  it,  died 
calmly  and  painlessly  at  9  o'clock  a.  m.  on  Monday,  October  27,  1845,  having 
attained  the  age  of  sixty  and  a  half  years. 

Peltier  was  of  medium  height  and  well  proportioned  j  his  build  was  somewhat 
spare,  and  his  temperament  at  the  same  time  bilious  and  nervous ;  his  forehead 
was  broad  and  largely  developed  j  his  face,  something  thin  at  the  lower  i>art, 
was  extremely  mobile,  the  expression  of  his  features  bemg  quick  and  intelligent, 
while  the  contrast  between  his  light  bine  eyes  and  heavy  black  brows  gave  to 
his  face  a  most  marked  appearance.  His  sight  was  excellent,  although  some- 
what impaired  towards  the  last  by  his  use  of  the  microscope  j  and  he  had  a  deli- 
cacy of  touch  which  he  found  invaluable  in  his  manual  labors.  In  an  intellect- 
ual point  of  view  there  are  few  men  who  have  been  better  endowed ;  his  con- 
ception was  prompt  and  facile,  and  he  was  at  the  same  time  a  man  of  theory  and 
of  facts,  never  separating  these  two— a  fact  being  to  him  but  the  round  of  a  lad- 
der by  which  he  ascended  to  the  cause.  It  was  also  often  his  lot  to  find  in  the 
discoveries  of  others  relations  which  thev  had  not  themselves  seen.  His  passion 
for  study  was  incredible  ]  it  is  impossible  to  conceive  a  correct  idea  of  all  that  he 
learned  and  did,  bearing  throughout  that  sound,  practical  mind  which  so  pre-emi- 
nently distinguished  him. 

In  a  moral  point  of  view  there  has  been  and  can  be  but  one  voice.  It  is 
known  with  what  violence  political  passions  rage,  and  how  the  least  fault  is  held 
up  to  public  view  as  a  lumdle  against  an  adversary.  But  his  political  adversa- 
ries, even  the  most  bitter,  respected  and  loved  him  profoundly,  for  his  probity 
and  loyalty  were  known  and  appreciated  by  all.  Peltier  had  no  ambition,  or, 
rather,  he  had  but  one,  and  that  was  science.  In  1834  the  prefecture  of  the 
Seine  oflFered  him  the  mayoralty  of  the  fifth  ward  of  Paris,  and  he  was  given  to 
understand  that  the  cross  of  honor  would  be  the  speedy  reward  of  his  services 
in  this  new  capacity ;  but  he  refused.  Himself  maintaining  the  most  decidedly 
conservative  opinions,  he  nevertheless  could  respect  the  views  of  his  adversaries ; 
and,  although  no  was  frequently  engaged  in  oral  strife,  those  even  whom  he  bad 
combatted  with  the  most  energy  could  not  leave  him  without  regret.  It  was, 
indeed,  for  every  one  a  day  of  grief  when  he  died. 

On  the  29th  day  of  October,  1845,  a  great  concourse  of  savants  and  frienda 
conducted  him  to  his  last  home,  amidst  the  universal  grief.  Among  these  were 
MM.  R^gnault  and  Milne  Edwards,  members  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences ;  M. 
Desbassayns  of  Richemont ;  Dr.  Gonneau,  MM.  Bravais  and  Martins,  M.  Boati^y 
d'E  vreux,  M.  L.  Br^net,  M.  Donn6,  M.  Lcmercier,  M.  Fr6ddric  Gt^rard,  M.  Lesuenr, 
M.  Silberman,  M.  Doydre,  M.  Lassaigne,  M.  Br6on,  M.  V6c,  mayor  of  the  fifth 
ward ;  MM.  Converchol  and  Lonrmand,  who  had  been  his  colleagues  in  the  pri- 
mary committee  of  instruction ;  the  officers  of  his  old  company,  and  many  others 
too  numerous  to  mention. 

Arrived  at  the  cemetery  of  Pdre-!a-Chmse  his  body  was  deposited  in  a  provis- 
ional vault,  and  two  discourses  were  pronounced  over  his  tomb— one  by  M.  Milne 
Edwards,  as  president  of  the  Philomathic  Society,  of  which  Peltier  was  a  mem- 
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MEMOIR  OF  PELTIER.  169 

bcr;  the  other  by  M.  Frdd^ric  Gerard,  who  had  known  him  bat  a  few  years,  but 
to  whom  the  time,  short  though  it  was,  had  sufficed  to  give  a  just  appreciation  of 
his  qualities.    These  discoarses  were  as  follows : 

DISCOUBSE  OF  H.  MILSTE  £DWAIU)S. 

"  It  is  not  in  the  midst  of  the  sad  scenes  surrounding  the  tomb  that  we  can  give 
OQiselves  up  to  the  cold  estimations  of  science,  and  judge  impartially  the  works 
of  a  man  woo  has  long  l>een  our  colleague.  I  shall  not  then  endeavor  to  recall 
here  all  that  M.  Peltier  has  done  for  the  advancement  of  human  knowledge,  nor 
to  expound  the  ingenious  views  which  led  him  to  explain  and  reproduce,  by 
ttigle  esperiments  m  the  laboratory,  the  roost  sublime  phenomena  of  which  the 
ttiuo^bcre  is  the  scat.  Historians  of  science  will  have  the  grateful  task  of  regis- 
tenng  his  works,  and  will  gladly  render  him  the  praise  which  is  his  due.  But 
before  the  earth-clods  close  over  his  remains  let  me  be  permitted  to  pay  to  his 
mcmoiy  this  last  tribute  of  respect,  in  the  name  of  a  body  of  men  whose  watch- 
words are  studtf  and  friendship.  The  Philomathic  Society  will  long  honor  the 
memory  of  M.  Peltier.  Wo  will  not  forget  the  frequent  and  interesting  com- 
mmiications  in  which  he  has  given  account  of  his  curious  researches,  and  his 
name  will  be  often  cited  among  us  when  we  wish  to  place  before  the  eyes  of  our 
riang  generation  examples  of  disinterested  love  of  science  and  patient  perseve- 
rance in  the  pursuit  of  knowledge,  which  may  excite  them  to  emulation.  The 
recital  of  his  life  mill  be  pre-eminently  instructive  to  those  who,  in  the  beginning 
of  their  career,  feel  discoiuraged  by  their  isolation,  and  fear  that  they  can,  unsup- 
ported, acquire  neither  fame  nor  fortune.  They  will  see  from  the  example  of  M . 
Peltier  how,  with  firm  will  and  undaunted  spirit,  a  young  man  alone  in  the  world, 
and  without  resource  except  such  as  is  furnished  by  a  powerful  organization,  can 
triamph  over  the  numberless  obstacles  by  which  he  is  smTounded,  and  conquer,  lit- 
tle byhttle,  all  that  is  wanting — ^instruction,  wealth,  and  fame,  all  well  acquired. 

^  Such,  indeed,  has  been  the  life  of  M.  Peltier;  and  had  not  death  so  ruthlessly 
come  prematurely  to  interrupt  the  course  of  bis  labors,  so  strongly  impressed  with 
the  seal  of  originality,  he  would  have  received  the  reward  due  to  his  merit,  for 
doubtless  his  peers  would  soon  have  chosen  him  to  be  one  of  the  representatives 
of  that  science  he  cultivated  with  such  dclat. 

"When  in  a  few  days  our  society  resumes  her  labors,  she  will  learn  with  grief 
the  loss  that  I  now  so  deeply  deplore ;  and  on  the  list  of  members  which  she  most 
r^ts  and  loves  will  be  inscribed  the  name  of  Peltier  beside  those  other  illus- 
tnoos  names,  Dolong,  Fresnel,  and  Bavart.'' 

DISCOUBSE  OF  M.  FRfo^BIC  OfeRAHD. 

'^It  is  a  noble  thought  that  gathers  around  a  grave  the  friends  of  him  whose 
lemains  are  to  be  laid  therein ;  it  is  the  last  homage  we  can  render  to  his  mem- 
017;  and  the  words  pronounced  over  his  coffin,  resting  deeply  engraved  in  the 
mind,  are  an  instroctive  lesson  to  all  who  hear  them. 

"If  a  pompons  eologium  is  expected  for  those  who  have  performed  glorious 
Actions,  a  few  simple  and  touching  words  are  the  fittest  tribute  to  the  memory  of 
that  man  who  has  applied  himself  to  the  art  of  living  well,  and  has  consecrated 
his  leisore  hours  and  all  his  mind  to  the  advancement  of  knowledge. 

"Booh  was  he  whom  death  has  taken  from  us  before  the  time  at  which  he  usn- 
iUy  strikes  those  who  have  passed  the  critical  period  of  life. 

"A  few  words  on  his  earliest  years  will  show  what  there  was  of  noble  in  this 
nan's  life,  and  will  be  the  highest  enlogium  we  could  pronounce  over  his  tomb. 

"Bom  at  Ham,  in  1785,  in  mediocre  condition,  bat  of  an  honest  and  intelligent 
^her,  Jean  Charles  Athanase  Peltier  was  placed*  at  the  age  oi  fifteen  years, 
vtHler  the  care  of  a  German  clock-maker  living  at  Saint  Quentin — a  hard,  unmer- 
dfol  man.    It  was  at  this  time  that  France  in  arms  battled  against  all  Europe ; 


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170  MEMOIR  OF  PELTIER. 

and  each  time  that  the  public  joarnals  announced  the  success  of  republican 
arms,  his  wounded  national  pride  vented  itself  upon  his  pupil,  who  experienced 
a  malicious  pleasure  in  informing  him  of  the  reverses  o(  the  German  hordes. 
As  he  offered  to  the  eager  lad  but  little  knowledge,  Athanase,  impatient  of  a 
yoke  which  nettled  his  pride,  ran  away  and  went  to  Paris. 

"  This  was  in  1803,  wh^n  Br^guet  held  in  this  city  the  sceptre  of  ele\^ted 
horology.  Peltier,  having  heard  of  his  fame,  presented  himself  before  him 
with  that  naive  confidence  so  precious  an  accompaniment  of  youth,  and  asked 
to  be  employed  in  his  workshop.  Struck  with  the  frank  and  open  manner  of 
the  young  Picard,  the  great  mechanic  granted  his  request,  and  placed  him  under 
one  of  his  most  skilM  workmen.  A  lew  years  later,  the  young  horologer  of 
Ham  was  promoted  to  a  place  under  Brdguet  himself,  and  very  soon  intrusted 
with  his  most  important  works. 

'*  Fortune  smiling  on  his  persevering  efforts,  Athanase  became  himself  head  of 
an  establishment  of  horology.  Until  that  time  he  had  applied  his  intellect  to 
the  study  only  of  mechanics';  but  he  then  began  to  feel  that  this  branch,  cut 
off  from  general  knowledge,  could  not  satisfy  him ;  and  so  occupied  himself 
with  literature,  poetry,  and  philosophy ;  this  last  science  especially  suiting  his 
grave  and  meditative  cast  of  mind. 

"  Married  in  1806,  and  becoming  a  father  two  years  later,  he  formed  the  reso- 
lution of  himself  directing  his  son^  education.  This  was  for  him  the  beginning 
of  a  new  life.  Without  neglecting  his  business,  he  attended  the  public  courses, 
and  devoured  the  lessons  of  the  great  masters  with  the  eagerness  of  a  spirit 
impatient  of  all  trammels.  Gifted  with  a  perspicacity  equalled  only  by  his 
perseverance,  overcoming  with  giant  strides  all  difficulties,  the  modest  partner 
of  the  labors  of  Breguct  could  soon  compete  with  those  who  had  commenced 
their  life  with  study,  and  could  discuss  with  them  the  most  abstruse  points  in 
science. 

'*At  the  close  of  1815  he  quitted  his  establishment  and  succeeded  his  father- 
in-law,  who  had  been  farrier  to  the  Emperor ;  but  the  feebleness  of  his  health, 
and  his  extreme  fondness  for  study  would  not  permit  him  to  accommodate  him- 
self to  a  profession  which  requires  more  of  physical  force  than  of  mental ;  and 
hence  he  was  not  long  in  abandoning  the  situation  to  return  to  his  favorite 
studies  with  renewed  zeal. 

"  In  a  short  time  the  son  of  M.  Peltier,  under  the  intelligent  durection  of  his 
father,  began  to  study  seriously,  and  designed  himself  for  the  profession  of  medi- 
cine. Thenceforth  the  career  of  the  elder  Peltier  was  irrevocably  determined ; 
he  occupying  himself  exclusively  with  mathematics,  physics,  and  natural  his- 
tory. He  brought  to  bear  on  these  studies  a  cool,  clear  mind,  a  sound  and  scvei-e 
judgment  and  a  fertility  of  resources  which  characterize  the  observer;  quali- 
ties rarely  found  united  in  one  man ;  to  which  he  added  a  skill  in  handicraft 
and  a  precision  which,  acquired  as  they  were  in  his  earliest  years,  enabled  him 
to  make  his  own  instruments,  and  to  add  to  others  the  modifications  necesdtated 
by  their  use.  He  loved  to  repeat  and  explain  the  experiments  in  physics  at 
which  he  had  assisted ;  and,  novice  at  first,  he  very  soon  became  skilful  in 
handling  the  most  delicate  instruments.  He  now  also  began  to  give  his  whole 
attention  to  the  study  of  electrical  phenomena. 

•*  He  for  a  long  time  followed  assiduously,  but  in  silence,  the  sittings  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences ;  meditating  deeply  on  problems  in  electricity,  repeating, 
multiplying  his  observations,  varying  them  incessantly,  and  perfectii^  constantly 
the  means  of  investigation. 

"  1830  found  him  laboriously  occupied  on  these  matters,  without  one  single 
line  having  appeared  in  public  to  reveal  his  severe  and  profound  studies.  At  this 
time  the  question  of  dry  batteries  was  much  discussed ;  this  subject  roused  him, 
and,  seizing  it,  he  treated  it  with  that  accuracy  of  judgment  which  announces  a 
man  habituated  to  the  severest  labors  of  the  'mind.     From  1833  to  1845  was 


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MEMOIR  OF  PELTIER.  171 

occupied  by  a  sncoession  of  works  nnmerous  and  varied  on  the  most  obscure 
points  of  electricity.  These  were  never  theories  a  priori^  mere  playthings  of 
the  imagination,  Irat  experiments  and  minate  researches  pregnant  with  new 
views  and  marked  by  the  most  snbtle  penetration.  The  retunis  of  the  Acad- 
emy of  Sciences,  the  Bulletin  of  the  Philomathic  Society,  of  which  he  was  an 
honored  member,  the  public  library  of  Greneva,  the  Annals  of  Chemistry  and 
Physics,  all  attest  his  incessant  activity. 

**  Dynamic  electricity  and  galvanism,  that  important  branch  of  phymcs  which 
18  80  nearly  allied  to  the  great  phenomena  of  life,  were  to  him  the  object  of 
nnmerous  researches ;  but  he  directed  his  special  observations  to  meteorology,  a 
science  which  so  imperiouslv  demands  an  attentive  observer,  a  skilful  experi- 
menter, and  a  philosopher  who  knows  how  to  deduce  results  from  his  observa- 
tions ;  and  on  this  subject  he  indeed  threw  light.  His  works  on  the  electricity 
of  clouds,  on  fogs,  and  his  fine  treatise  on  water-spouts,  would  suffice  to  assign 
him  a  dbtinguished  place  among  physical  philosophers  had  he  not  other  claims 
to  the  remembrance  of  the  finends  of  science :  I  allude  to  his  last  works  on 
electrical  meteorology  and  barometrical  variations. 

"I  shall  also  call  to  mind  his  considerations  on  ether, in  which  he  rises  to  the 
greatest  heights  of  abstraction  without,  however,  quitting  the  stronghold  of  expe- 
rience, a  characteristic  which  is  observable  throughout  all  his  works. 

"I  must  not  forget,  too,  to  cite  his  experiments  on  microscopic  life,  which  form 
a  portion  of  his  £b^  too  limited  zooloei^  observations.  Studying  in  them  the 
phenomena  of  the  production  and  disaggregation  of  infusoria,  he  arrived  at  a 
belief  in  the  heterogeneous  origin  of  idf  these  forms  of  life.  It  is  pleasant  to 
follow  him  in  these  minute  experiments,  where  we  recognize  at  eveiy  step  the 
rigorous  method  of  the  philosopher,  and  in  which  he  studies  this  infinitesimal 
life  with  a  happy  daring  which  permits  him  to  read  its  secrets  as  easily  as  the 
evolutions  of  great  bodies. 

"  But  a  life  so  laboriously  consecrated  to  study,  and  so  productive  of  fruit  for 
science  could  not  be  without  its  sacrifices.  The  observations  made  by  M.  Pel- 
tier on  the  Faulhom,  in  1842,  in  connection  with  M.  Bravais,  laid  the  founda- 
tion of  that  disease  which  has  to-day  bereft  us  of  him.  From  that  fatal  period 
his  strength  diminished,  and  his  body  wasted  away ;  but  his  mind  lost  none  of 
its  original  vigor,  and  he  ever  retained  his  passionate  love  for  science.  It  was, 
indeed,  during  these  last  three  years  that  he  published  in  the  Brussels  Archives 
of  Electricity  and  Memoirs  of  the  Academy  of  Science  his  most  important 
works. 

^^  Towards  the  close  of  this  year  his  health  became  more  and  more  feeble,  and 
the  disease  which  preyed  upon  him  soon  gave  too  clear  warning  of  his  approach- 
me  end.  He  spoke  of  it  without  affectation,  and  with  the  quiet  resi^ation  and 
calniphilosophy  of  one  who  feels  and  understands  that  the  goal  of  life  is  death. 

'^  His  extreme  sufferings,  the  prostration  of  his  strength,  his  ever-increasing 
debility,  that  precursor  of  dissolution,  could  not  diminish  the  ardor  with  whi<m 
he  8till  devoted  himself  to  his  favorite  occupation,  even  revising  and  correcting 
towards  the  last  the  impression  of  a  general  treatise  on  physics,  which  will 
^pear  as  a  posthumous  work,  and  is  the  last  emanation  nom  his  great  and 
noble  mind. 

^*  The  numerous  materials  he  has  collected  will  not,  we  hope,  be  lost  to  science ; 
and  only  when  we  reap  the  fruit  of  these  will  we  understand  the  full  extent  of 
the  loss  we  have  this  day  sustained.  Justice  will  then  be  rendered  him ;  all 
will  deplore  his  untimely  death,  but,  alas !  without  avail. 

^*It  18  but  t^w>  days  since  he  conversed  for  several  hours  with  a  scientific  gen- 
tleman of  Bouen  and  the  proprietors  of  Monville  on  the  cause  of  the  disasters 
of  that  commune ;  pointing  out  to  them,  with  his  usual  clearness,  the  part  he 
considered  the  electric  fluid  to  have  borne  in  this  fearful  event.  This  long  and 
serious  conversation,  while  it  aggravated  his  physical  exhaustion,  did  not  pre- 


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172  MEMOIR   OF  PELTIER. 

vent  him  from  dictating  to  his  son  his  ideas  on  the  cleavage  of  trees  by  the 
electric  spark. 

*'  In  men  whose  life  is  in  their  intellect,  the  obstructions  of  the  physiological 
functions  have  but  a  feeble  effect  on  the  brain }  this  was,  nevertheless,  the  last 
time  that  his  thoughts  manifested  themselves  to  those  around  him.  The  next 
morning  his  friends  found  him  sinking,  but  calm ;  a  few  hours  and  he  was  no 
more. 

'/  Thus  terminated  this  life  so  filled  with  labor  of  which  science  had  the  best 
and  noblest  portion.  He  died  firmly  believing  in  the  infinite  progression  of 
physical  philosophy,  and  confident  in  the  bright  future  of  experimental  science, 
which  he  regarded  as  the  anchor  of  safety  and  truth. 

^'  For  him  is  accomplished  that  terrible  phenomenon  whose  name  is  death ; 
but,  like  all  strong  men  who  dare  to  look  beyond|  he  was  prepared.'' 


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APPENDIX  TO  THE  BIOGRAPHIC  NOTICE  OF  PELTIER-SCIENTIFIC 

NOTICE. 

[TRAirSLATXD  FORTHS  SBaTHSONIAK  INSTTTUTIOlf,  BT  C.  A.  ALXXANDKR.*J 

I. — ^Microscopic  keseabches. 

We  owe  to  Peltier  observations  on  certain  new  microscopic  animals.  We 
will  cite  among  others  his  observations  on  a  vorticella  which,  by  its  form,  closely 
approximates  to  that  which  Muller  has  called  citrine,  and,  in  its  interior  consti- 
tution, resembles  the  vorticella  or  umbel  of  Ro^sel.  We  will  also  advert  to  his 
observations  on  a  new  species  of  floscularia.  We  shall  not,  however,  dwell  on 
this  class  of  researches.  Peltier,  in  fact,  had  never  devoted  himself  to  the  use 
of  the  microscope  in  order  to  discover  new  individuals ;  microscopy  was  for  him 
but  a  means  of  study  for  arriving  at  a  more  thorough  knowledge  of  physiology. 

Effects  qf  inanition  on  the  if\fusoria. — Microscopic  animals  have,  in  geneml, 
a  veiy  simple  structure ;  still  they  are  often  too  complex  to  admit  of  an  advan- 
tageous study  in  them  of  the  different  phenomena  of  organized  bodies.  Peltier 
conceived  the  ingenious  idea  of  employing  inanition  in  order  to  rid  these  ani- 
mals of  all  superfluous  matter,  and  to  reduce  them  to  their  most  simple  expres- 
sion. The  foUowing  is  the  method  which  should  be  taken  :  t  On  a  glass  plate 
let  a  circle  of  tin  be  glued,  and  in  the  centre  of  this  circle  place  the  drop  of 
water  which  is  proposed  to  be  examined ;  on  the  tin  circle  spread  a  thin  coat  of 
oil,  with  the  exception  of  a  section  of  a  few  millimetres.!  This  arrangement 
has  several  advantages ;  in  the  first  place  the  thickness  of  the  tin  does  not  per- 
mit the  drop  of  water  to  extend  itself  by  capillarity  as  far  as  the  edges,  and 
entirely  to  flow  away  as  ordinarily  happens ;  the  liquid  remains  at  rest  at  the 
centre  of  the  circle  which  circumscribes  without  touching  it  j  moreover,  the  circle 
of  oil  delays  evaporation.  If  we  closed  it  entirely,  there  ensues,  in  24  hours, 
asphyxia  of  a  great  part  of  the  animalcules ;  while,  by  leaving  a  small  space 
without  oil,  the  drop  of  water  may  be  preserved  from  three  to  eight  days, 
according  to  the  temperatiure  and  hygrometricity  of  the  air.  The  animals  thus 
preserved  in  a  drop  of  water  will  have  soon  exhausted  all  the  nutritive  matter 
which  it  contained,  and  a  succession  of  very  remarkable  effects  produced  by 
inanition  is  progressively  brought  to  view. 

In  proportion  as  the  drop  of  water  becomes  impoverished,  most  of  the  ani- 
mals give  more  development  and  extension  to  their  organs  of  contact ;  fre- 
quently new  vesicles  are  developed  on  the  sides  of  the  corona  of  the  vorticellae, 
and  around  the  cephalic  projections  of  the  rostrated  cyclida  the  protees  become 
transformed }  and  the  more  as  the  drop  of  water  has  been  longer  kept.  It 
seems,  in  a  word,  that  aliment  no  longer  reaching  the  organism  in  sufficient 
qoantity,  this  organism  forms  a  sort  of  hernia  of  all  its  parts  in  order  thus 
to  reach  it.  At  the  same  time  that  the  appendages  are  developed,  the  body  of 
the  animal  is  gradually  reduced  to  its  elements.  Peltier  witnessed,  for  instance, 
in  the  vorticeUa  above  spoken  of,  the  following  phenomena :  at  the  end  of  five 
or  six  days  of  inanition,  the  agglomerations  attached  to  the  exterior  mem- 
brane of  the  animal  diminish  in  number;  when  the  vorticella  is  wholly  enfee- 

*  NoHu  surla  vie  et  U$  travaux  $cient\fique8  de  J,  C,  A,  Peltier,  par  ionfils,    Paris,  1847. 

t  AmuUa  de$  Sciences  Naturdles,  February,  1&S8,    Vol.  9,  p.  8t^ . 

X  The  French  measures  used  in  this  article  correspond  to  the  £nfi:li8h  as  follows :  the  mil- 
limetres. 03937  inch. ;  milliirram  =  .0154  graiu ;  decimetre  =  3.937  inches  ;  centimetre  = 
0.39371  inch.;  metre  =1.09*33  yard. 


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174  APPENDIX  TO  MEMOIR  OF  PELTIER. 

bled,  it  has  lost  tbem  all ;  it  is  tben  no  more  tban  a  very  tbin  and  diapbanons 
membrane  in  wbicb  no  organ  is  any  longer  perceptible.  In  tbis  state,  all  move- 
ment baa  ceased ;  tbe  particles  of  tbe  membrane  it«elf  become  disintegrated 
and  tbe  vorticella  dissolves  globule  by  globule :  at  otber  times  a  rapture  takes 
place  in  a  part  of  tbe  membiune,  tbe  internal  liquid  escapes,  and  tbe  animal 
bas  ceased  to  live. 

Reproduction  qf  if\fu$oria, — ^It  is  known  tbat  among  tbe  infusoria,  properly 
so  called,  reproduction  takes  place  commonly  by  fissiparity ;  tbey  continue  sep- 
arating into  two  parts,  and  tbus  form  new  beings.  This  mode  of  reproduction 
is  so  rapid  tbat  a  single  paramecia  observed  for  some  days  divided  itself  four 
times  in  24  or  30  hours,  producing  thousands  of  new  creatures  in  tbe  lapse  of  a 
few  days.  This  generation  only  proceeds  with  activity  when  an  exuberant 
nourishment  is  supplied  to  these  animals.  Peltier,  however,  produced  by  inani- 
tion, in  a  great  number  of  animalcules,  an  effect  analogous  to  that  which  results 
from  an  excess  of  nutrition. 

There  are  species  which  possess  a  contractile  dorsal  vessel,  in  which  we  can 
follow  the  progress  of  the  nutritive  liquid ;  such  are  the  digitated  naiadae.  If 
these  animals  be  subjected  to  inanition,  we  shall  see,  in  proportion  as  the  liquid 
is  impoverished,  a  contraction  of  tbe  dorsal  vessel,  which  is  less  stretched  out, 
and  stops  where  the  liquid  ceases  to  arrive,  because  it  has  been  absorbed  by  the 
anterior  parts.  When  tbis  movement  is  thus  arrested,  there  will  be  seen  to  be 
formed,  at  the  middle  of  the  body,  at  the  point  where  the  nutritive  liquid  ceaaes 
to  arrive,  and  where  the  contraction  of  the  vessel  stops,  two  large  absorbent 
vesicles,  which  imbibe  for  the  behoof  of  the  posterior  part  As  soon  as  these 
vesicles  enter  into  action  the  second  half  of  tbe  dorsal  vessel  resumes  its  contracdle 
movements ;  these  contractions,  be  it  understood,  take  their  origin  in  the  new 
vesicles,  and  have  no  communication  with  the  anterior  pait  nor  any  synchro- 
nism with  its  movement.  In  front  of  these  vesicles,  a  constriction  is  presently 
formed,  which  increases  by  degrees,  and  which  ends  by  completely  separating 
tbe  two  portions,  which  then  constitute  two  distinct  individuals. 

Tbe  anterior  portion,  better  organized  and  better  supplied  with  appendages 
for  alimentation,  has  more  vivacity,  more  energv,  than  the  other.  If  we  suc- 
ceed in  preserving  the  drop  of  water  seven  or  eight  days,  the  nutritive  matter 
diminishing  more  and  more,  there  occurs  for  the  two  halves  that  which  occurred 
for  the  entire  animal :  the  quantity  absorbed  by  tbe  anterior  parts  is  no  longer 
sufficient  for  the  total  alimentation,  and  the  posterior  part  is  left  in  a  state  of 
complete  inanition.  It  was  thus  that  Peltier  obtainea  in  one  instance  a  new 
separation  into  two  of  each  of  the  two  former  halves,  and  eventually  a  new 
separation  of  the  two  quarters  proceeding  from  the  anterior  half ;  the  two  sep- 
arated parts  of  theposterior  half  had  ceased  to  live  before  he  could  effect  a 
new  separation.  The  result,  therefore,  was  the  formation  of  six  individuals 
proceeding  from  the  separation  of  the  parts  which  the  dorsal  vessel  could  no 
longer  supply  with  nourishment 

Peltier  has  verified  the  same  frict  with  regard  to  the  pustulous  kerones ;  bav** 
in^  subjected  these  animals  to  protracted  inanition,  he  perceived  that,  in  the 
middle  of  the  body,  an  indentment  was  formed  which  went  on  constantly 
increasing,  and  finally  separated  the  animal  into  two  parts ;  the  anterior  half 
continued  to  live,  it  appeared  even  to  acquire  new  energy  by  the  loss  of  the 
posterior  half  of  its  substance,  while  this  latter  often  died  at  once,  though  some- 
times it  remained  alive  for  a  certain  intervaL  In  every  case,  tbe  instant  of  the 
death  of  the  individual  restored  to  liberty  and  their  own  spontaneity  the  rest 
of  the  globules  which  happened  to  be  in  its  interior.  Peltier  observed  also 
similar  peculiarities  in  the  kidney-shaped  cyclidaB. 

M.  Dujardin  had  inferre<l  from  his  researches  that  certain  animals  might  be 
produced  by  means  of  lobes  of  their  substance  abandoned  by  them  on  the 
bodies  to  which  they  attach  themselves.    Peltier  has  confirmed  this  idea  by 


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APPENDIX  TO  MEMOIB  OF  FELTIEB.  175 

nuraerons  observations  on  the  common  and  the  scntelliform  aroellsB.  The 
mother-arcclla  begins  by  extending,  under  the  form  of  a  larse  disk,  a  portion 
of  her  membrane.  This  portion  of  membrane  is  attached  to  the  homy  shell  by 
prolongations  at  regnlar  intervals.  It  is  at  first  perfectly  smooth,  of  great  trans- 
parence, and  coQtainfl  no  other  substance ;  when  its  formation  is  finished,  a  por- 
tion of  the  glntinoofl  matter  of  the  mother  flows  upon  it.  In  one  instance  Pel- 
tier saw  this  glutinous  substance  flow  too  abundantly  on  the  new  membrane 
and  leave  but  about  a  sixth  of  it  for  the  mother ;  the  current  now  stopped,  then 
retrograded^  and  an  inverse  current  was  established  for  the  benefit  of  the  primi- 
tive  arcella.  An  instant  afterwards,  when  the  original  current  had  been  re-es- 
tiblished  and  again  conveyed  the  vivifying  matter  on  the  young  disk,  it  once 
more  surpassed  the  bounds  and  left  the  arcella  too  much  impovenshed.  It  was 
not  nntil  after  five  or  six  oscillations  of  this  sort,  the  amplitude  of  the  flow 
diminishing  each  time,  that  a  due  distribution  was  effected  and  the  interoommu- 
nicatioD  ceased.  The  vascular  filament  which  united  the  two  arcellaB  gradually 
became  thinner,  then  entirely  separated,  and  two  minutes  afterwards  the  two 
distinct  animalcules  withdrew  one  from  the  other,  both  thrusting  out  their  arms 
and  performing  their  customary  digitationa  This  mode  of  generation  is  cer- 
tainly very  remarkable ;  we  here  see  the  half  of  a  living  creature  flowing  out- 
wardly and  forming  with  this  excreted  moiety  an  animal  in  all  respects  similar 
to  the  moiety  remaining. 

Peltier  observed,  in  1830,  another  example  of  generation  by  ah  efflux  of  sub- 
stance still  more  curious  than  the  former,  for  here  the  efflux  was  not  sponta- 
ncons.  He  had  placed  between  twQ  glasses,  under  the  microscope,  a  drop  of 
water  in  which  there  was  a  very  large  specimen  of  Muller's  vesicular  leucophra: 
in  slightly  compressing  the  two  glasses,  the  external  membrane  was  broken  and 
perhaps  a  hundred  of  the  globules  which  fill  the  animal  were  extruded.  Many 
of  these  were  scattered  al^ut  in  being  projected  by  the  pressure,  but  others 
clnn^  together  in  a  space  of  small  extent.  The  former  remained  apart,  and 
nothmg  was  remarkea  in  them  but  the  tremulous  motion  of  light  bodies.  The 
globules  of  the  agglomerated  portion,  on  the  contrary,  gradually  drew  closer 
together,  grouped  themselves,  and  finally,  at  the  end  of  an  hour,  formed  a 
fijmere  whose  contour,  of  a  brilliancy  inclined  to  nacreous,  indicated  the  forma- 
tion of  a  membrane.  At  the  end  of  two  hours  there  was  perceivable  in  the  cir- 
comference  the  reflection  of  the  liquid  in  motion,  and  shortly  afterwards  the 
ofidUations  of  very  fine  cilia.  The  leucophra  was  now  complete  and  presently 
revolved  upon  itself,  then  spontaneously  changed  its  place  and  traversed  the 
drop  of  water.  Thus  this  little  animal  was  produced  externally  by  the  agglome- 
ntion  of  the  substance  which  had  been  made  to  issue  mechanically  ^m  the 
mother. 

Trantformations  qf  zoosperms. — Peltier  had  followed  with  much  attention  the 
snccessive  transformations  of  zoosperms,  especially  those  of  the  frog.*^  He 
rfjowed  first  that  the  spermatic  liquor  expressed  from  the  testicles  contains,  in 
winter,  only  simple  spherical  globules.  As  adolescence  approaches,  and  the 
season  of  copulation,  these  globules  become  covered  with  black  points  and  small 
projections,  which  latter  speedily  elongate,  forming  each  a  cone,  the  point  of 
which  appears  filamentous  and  soon  undergoes  mucn  enlargement ;  at  the  same 
time  the  filaments  which  terminate  these  cones  grow  more  and  more  distinct  and 
present  the  appearance  of  a  tuft  of  hairs.  The  cones  thus  terminated  by  fila- 
ments consist  of  small  masses  of  zoosperms,  attached  by  the  head  to  the  black 
points  of  the  central  globule,  and  free  in  their  caudal  extremity. 

As  long  as  these  globules  swim  in  their  natural  liquor,  no  movement  is  per- 
ceived ;  but  if  there  be  mixed  with  it  blood  from  the  neighboring  vems  and 
arteries,  the  point  of  the  tufted  cone  partially  opens  and  some  of  the  filaments 
which  terminate  it  commence  oscillating  with  their  terminal  parts.    If  blood 

«  Joum4d  VInstUtU,  1638,  t  vi,  p.  132.    Idem.,  1840,  t  viii,  p.  392. 

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176  APPENDIX  TO  MEMOIR  OF  PELTIER. 

txiken  from  another  organ  than  the  testicles  be  added,  the  movement  is  comma 
nicated  to  a  still  greater  number,  the  expansion  of  the  tofts  increases,  the  oscil- 
lation extends  to  half  the  length  of  the  iibrils,  and  the  posterior  portion  of  the 
zoosperms  may  then  be  perfectly  recognized ;  if  a  still  more  heterogeneoos  liqaid 
be  added,  such  as  river  or  pond  water,  the  movement  becomes  general  and  the 
whole  body  of  the  filament  oscillates.  After  a  few  instants,  some  of  these  fila- 
ments are  seen  to  detach  themselves  from  the  primitive  nucleus ;  presently  all 
successively  quit  it,  become  so  many  complete  zoosperms,  and  leave  the  parent 
globule  coverod  with  brownish  points  where  they  had  been  attached. 

Once  become  free,  the  zoosperms  undergo  new  transformations  ^  their  anterior 
part  bends  in  an  arch  more  or  less  elongated ;  this  arch,  by  closing,  constitutes 
a  ring  in  some  and  an  oblovg  mesh  in  others.  A  little  later  their  anterior  part 
has  assumed  the  shape  of  a  cupel,  fringed  with  vibratile  cilia ;  but  before  enter- 
ing into  this  last  state,  these  zoosperms  have  passed  through  intermediate  forms, 
giving  them  the  appearance  of  difierent  animalcules,  by  which  circumstance 
observers  have  been  often  deceived.  Such,  according  to  the  researches  of  Peltier, 
are  the  successive  transformations  presented  by  the  zoosperms  of  the  fit)ff. 

Structure  and  contraction  qf  tJie  muscles. — ^Peltier  also  occupied  himself 
with  the  structure  of  the  muscles  and  the  phenomenon  of  contraction.  He  even 
availed  himself  of  several  difierent  methods,  that  he  might  study  them  with 
greater  profit.  Sometimes  he  simply  examined  the  muscular  fibres  with  the 
microscope,  sometimes  he  proceeded  by  crushing  them  on  the  porte-object  glass; 
again,  he  unravelled  them  by  means  of  the  finest  needles.  He  often  operated 
abo  on  muscles  desiccated  by  heat,  for  this  process  also  yields  good  results.  He 
studied  likewise  the  structure  of  the  muscles  in  certain  microscopic  animals 
which  have  muscles  in  a  rudimentaiy  state,  and  composed  of  one,  two,  or  three 
fibrils.  In  a  word,  he  had  employed  all  the  means  which  science  could  furnish 
him,  and  the  following  are  the  results  to  which  he  was  conducted  :• 

The  muscles  are  composed  of  distinct  cylinders,  of  a  diameter  of  from  ^^  to 
3'^  of  a  millimetre.  Seen  with  the  microscope,  these  cylinders  seem  divide  by 
rather  transparent  longitudinal  lines  and  by  darker  transverse  lines.  This 
causes  them  to  appear  somewhat  like  an  assemblage  of  small  graduated  scales 
of  a  perfect  regularity'.  The  cylinders  in  question  are  formed  of  fibrils  in  juxta- 
position, while  the  fibrils  themselves  are  constituted  by  a  tube  filled  with  minute 
grains,  the  diameter  of  which  varies,  in  difierent  animials,  from  -g^  to  ^  ^^  of  a 
millimetre. 

In  studying  these  fibrils  it  is  seen  that  the  globules  are  ranged  in  snccesston 
one  above  the  other  in  their  sheaths,  that  they  touch  and  press  one  another, 
while  the  globules  situated  in  the  same  transverse  range,  and  pertaining  each  to 
a  difierent  tube,  are  separated  by  a  double  membrane  extremely  transparent. 
When  a  ray  of  light  traverses  a  muscular  fibre,  diffiraction  takes  place  quite 
around  each  globme,  except  at  the  point  of  contact  of  the  globules  superposed 
in  the  same  ^eath.  It  thus  forms  an  image  unequally  illuminated,  being  less 
so  at  the  part  in  contact  than  in  the  rest  of  the  outline  of  the  globules.  Hence 
it  results  that  the  transverse  lines  which  connect  all  these  obscure  points  are 
darker  than  the  longitudinal  lines;  and  from  this  we  see  in  what  consisted  the 
eiTor  of  the  physiologists  who  thought  that  these  transverse  fibres  were  formed 
by  nervous  filaments,  wound  in  a  helix  around  the  muscular  fibre. 

The  globules  of  the  elementary  fibrils  are  strongly  adherent  to  one  another 
and  to  their  sheaths,  for  it  is  very  rare  to  find  portions  of  the  latter  devoid  of 
tlieir  globules. 

When  certain  micix»scopic  animals  are  deprived  of  life  by  long  inanition,  the 
whole  contractile  membrane  is  seen  to  be  formed  of  aligned  globules.  In  this 
case  also  the  different  phases  of  the  phenomenon  of  contraction  may  be  followed 
with  facility.     It  will  be  seen  that  the  arrangement  in  zigzag  has  nere  replaced 

*  Annalei  dt$  ScienccM  Naturdlts,  2d  series.    Zoology,  vol.  iz,  p.  69. 


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APPENDIX  TO   MEMOIR   OP   PELTIER.  177 

tbe  arrangement  in  a  straight  serial  line.  Tbe  sheath  is  shortened  in  obeying 
this  new  arrangement;  it  folds  slightly  on  itself,  like  the  finger  of  a  glove  whose 
two  ends  are  pressed  nearer  together.  The  elasticity  of  the  sheath,  however, 
renders  this  oormgation  very  dimcnlt  to  be  perceived. 

On  the  structure  qfthe  nerves. — ^When  Charles  Bell  had  published  his  treatise 
on  the  distinction  of  the  nerves  of  the  face  into  nerves  of  movement  and  nerves 
of  sensation,  Magendie  proceeded  to  inquire  whether  there  were  not  something 
analogous  in  the  rachidian  nerves,  and  soon  thereafter  proved,  in  effect,  that  the 
posterior  roots  of  these  nerves  presided  over  the  sensibility,  while  the  anterior 
roots  governed  the  power  of  movement.  It  was  natural  to  suppose  that  these 
two  sorts  of  nerves  had  a  different  stmctore  and  constitution.  Peltier  applied 
himself  to  this  interesting  question,  and  we  will  reAU  the  principal  facts  which 
he  made  public* 

The  nerves  of  sensibility  have  not  a  texture  similar  to  those  of  movement, 
and  moreover  each  of  them  in  particular  varies  according  to  the  proximity  of  its 
insertion  in  the  organ  or  of  its  exit  from  the  cerebro-spinal  centre. 

In  removing  further  from  the  cerebro-spinal  centre,  the  cellular  tissue  of  ^he 
nerves  increases  and  becomes  more  resistant;  it  circumscribes  more  and  more  the 
modollarv  pulp,  and  in  the  end  forms  for  it  distinct  sheaths.  At  first  there  are 
bat  small  portions  of  this  pulp  thus  circumscribed  and  enclosed  in  the  sheaths; 
the  rest  surrounds  them  and  fills  the  interstices  which  separate  them.  The 
number  of  these  sheaths  continually  increases,  and  the  free  pulp  diminishes  in 
the  same  proportion.  The  nearer  we  approach  the  termination  of  the  nerves,  the 
more  glutinous  does  this  pulp  become  and  the  greater  the  cohesiveness  it  acquires. 

The  nerves  which  are  ramified  in  the  muscles  are  formed  of  tubes  of  about 
T^jf  of  a  millimetre ;  the  membrane  which  constitutes  them  is  of  little  consist- 
ency; at  the  least  pressure  it  yields  unequally,  and  i^e  medullary  substance 
which  it  contains  forms  varicosities.  The  nearer  the  periphery,  the  fewer  the 
varicosities,  because  the  sheath  becomes  more  resistant  and  the  pulp  diminishes. 
These  tubes  or  nervous  fibrils,  however,  always  preserve  a  considerable  part  of 
their  globules  in  line,  whatever  the  pressure  exerted  on  them.  Towards  their 
insertion  they  are  finer,  more  regular,  and  more  numerous ;  the  globules  of  the 
ptjlp  are  there  better  aligned,  their  position  is  fixed,  pressure  no  longer  displaces 
them,  and  these  nervous  fibrils  might  be  readily  confounded  with  the  muscular 
fibrils,  if  the  transverse  lines  found  in  the  latter  were  not  wanting. 

Arrived  at  the  muscle  to  which  it  is  destined,  the  nervous  filament  sends  forthy 
at  variable  distances,  bundles  of  elementary  fibrils  which  have  become  extremely 
thm.  They  are  in  diameter  about  -g^  of  a  millimetre,  and  are  only  formed  of 
a  series  of  contiguous  globules ;  scarcely  does  pressure  any  longer  discover  a 
httle  free  pulp  in  their  interstices.  These  bundles  of  nervous  fibrils  are  dis- 
persed over  all  the  adjacent  muscular  fibrils,  in  the  midst  of  which  they  success- 
ively disappear,  without  our  beinff  able  to  see  how  they  terminate.  It  might 
almost  be  believed  that  the  muscular  fibril  is,  as  regards  a  part  of  its  substance, 
hut  a  continuation  of  the  nervous  fibril.  , 

The  nerves  of  sensibility  have  a  different  constitution  from  the  preceding. 
They  contain  less  of  the  nervous  pulp  in  a  state  of  semi-fluidity ;  on  compression 
no  varicosities  are  produced ;  their  fibrils  are  more  tenuous ;  they  have,  at  first, 
a  diameter  of  from  yj^  to  jIjj  of  a  millimetre,  but  towards  the  organ  in  which 
they  are  inserted  of  not  more  than  fix)m  ^^^  to  ^  |^  of  a  millimetre.  Their 
globules  are  much  smaller,  being  not  larger  than  about  j^^  of  a  millimetre ; 
they  are  regularly  aligned,  and  pressure  does  not  displace  them.  These 
fibrils  often  cross  one  another  in  their  progress.  A  certain  number  of  them, 
nnited  in  little  bandlets,  form,  in  crossing,  lozenges  elongated  at  the  point  of 
their  intersection ;  these  bands  are  strongly  adherent,  and  cannot  be  detached 
hut  by  tearing  them. 

"*  Journal  I'InstUut,  1839,  t.  vli.  p.  113. 
12  867  r^  T 

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178  APPENDIX   TO   MEMOIR   OP  PELTIER. 

II. — Static  electricity. 

Difference  qf  static  and  dynamic  electricity. — Electricity  may  present  itself  in 
two  distinct  conditions ;  it  may  be  in  repose  or  in  movement.  In  the  first  case 
it  is  said  to  be  in  a  static,  in  the  second  in  a  dynamic,  state.  The  phenomena 
which  it  produces  in  these  two  cases  are  very  diflferent. 

This  distinction  is  to  be  found  in  all  treatises  on  physics ;  but  no  author  has 
insisted  so  much  as  Peltier  on  the  diflference— on  the  almost  constant  opposition, 
indeed,  which  exists  between  the  phenomena  produced  by  static  electricity  and 
those  produced  by  dynamic  electricity ;  by  electricity  in  repose  or  in  movement.* 

Static  electricity,  says  !^ltier,  is  double  j  each  of  its  forms  is  collected,  con- 
trolled, and  maintained  separately.  They  do  not  become  manifest  exc-ept  in 
this  state  of  insulation  and  of  separation.  They  may  be  preserved  thus  sepa- 
rated by  means  of  insulating  bodies,  and  their  action  then  is  as  enduring  as  their 
insulation.  Static  electricity  is  accumulated  at  the  surface ;  its  effects  reduce 
themselves  to  the  phenomena  of  attraction  and  repulsion.  When  twa  bodies 
are  charged  with  the  same  electricity  they  separate  from  one  another ;  when 
charged  with  contrary  electricities  they  approacu  one  another,  &c. 

Dynamic  electricity  exhibits  constantly  opposite  properties.  It  is  not  double; 
it  cannot  be  collected,  coerced,  or  preserved.  To  have  a  constant  dynamic  effect, 
it  is  necessary  that  the  cause  itself  should  act  in  a  constant  manner.  It  seeks 
not  the  surface ;  on  the  contrary,  it  is  propagated  through  the  interior  of  bodies 
and  has  relations  only  with  ponderable  quantities  of  matter.  Like  currents 
attract  one  another ;  unlike  currents  repel  one  another.  Finally,  dynamic  elec- 
tricity has  an  extreme  diversity  of  action ;  it  alters  the  temperature  of  bodies, 
vaporizes  or  decomposes  them,  magnetizes  iron  and  steel,  causes  deviation  of  the 
magnetic  needle,  &c. 

The  two  orders  of  phenomena,  static  and  dynamic,  are  rarely  coexistent ;  it  ia 
only  when  the  current  has  ceased,  through  a  forcible  interruption,  that  a  static 
effect  appears ;  so,  too,  it  is  only  when  free  course  is  given  to  the  cause  of  the 
static  effect  that  the  dynamic  effect  is  reproduced ;  but  the  two  effects  never  are 
and  never  can  be  simultaneously  produced  by  the  same  portion  of  electricity. 
When  these  two  effects  make  their  appearance  at  the  same  time,  as  happens  in 
the  case  of  an  insufficient  conductor,  the  portion  of  electricity  which  passes  pro- 
duces only  dynamic  effects,  and  the  portion  of  electricity  arrested  produces  only 
static  effects. 

Belation  qf  static  and  dynamic  actions. — Peltier  had  measured  the  extent  of 
the  electric  phenomena,  both  static  and  dynamic,  which  may  be  produced  by  the 
oxidation  of  a  milligram  of  zinc.  By  causing  the  electricity  produced  by  a 
given  quantity  of  substance  to  pass  successively  from  the  dynamic  to  the  static 
condition,  and  from  the  static  to  the  dynamic,  he  found  that  the  quantity  of  sub- 
stance necessary,  in  order  to  produce  the  dynamic  effect  of  one  degree  of  a  good 
multiplier,  may  yield  a  static  effect  of  7,069  degrees  of  the  electrometer  of  his 
own  invention,  and,  moreover,  that  the  static  effects  which  it  produces  are  as  the 
square  of  its  dynamic  effects ;  hence  the  quantity  of  oxidized  substance  which 
doubles  a  dynamic  effect,  quadruples  the  static  effect  which  springs  from  it.t 

Electric  capacity  qf  the  metals. — Peltier  first  demonstrated  that  the  metals 
have  not  equal  capacities  for  receiving  the  same  static  electricity  from  a  constant 
source  j  thus,  zinc  takes  and  rettuns  more  positive  than  negative  electricity,  while 
the  contrary  takes  place  with  copper.  Grold  is  likewise  more  apt  than  silver 
and  platina  to  become  charged  with  positive  electricity. J 

*  See  AnnaUs  de  Chimie  et  de  Pkynqut^  1838,  t.  67,  p.  422:  a  memoir  of  PelUer  on  the 
qnaDtities  of  djDamic  and  static  action  produced  by  the  oxidation  of  a  milligramme  of  i' 
See  also  the  article  Galvanism  of  the  Dutionnaire  Univtrs.  d'Histoirt  NatunlU. 

t  AnnaUa  de  Chimie  et  de  Physique^  1838 ;  memoir  before  cited. 

t  CompteS'tendus  de  VAcademie  des  Sciences,  1835,  t.  ],  pp.  360  and  470. 


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APPENDIX   TO  MEMOIR   OF   PELTIER  179 

After  having  sufficiently  verified  this  fiact,  Peltier  sought  to  find  whether  it  was 
the  consequence  of  a  special  force  or  the  result  of  a  permanent  electric  state, 
and  he  ascertained  that  in  their  natural  state,  or  that  of  equilibrium,  bodies  pos- 
sess different  quantities  of  static  electricity,  and  that  consequently  the  proximity 
of  a  metal  which,  like  platina  for  instance,  is  negative  in  its  natural  state  of 
equilibrium,  influences  the  neighboring  bodies,  rendering  them  more  positive, 
and,  in  consequence,  more  apt  to  receive  and  retain  positive  electricity.  From 
this  it  results  that  two  condensing  plates,  the  one  of  gold,  the  other  of  platina, 
influence  one  another ;  the  platina  renders  the  gold  more  apt  to  receive  and 
retain  positive  electricity,  and  the  gold  renders  the  platina  more  apt  to  receive 
from  it  negative  electricity.  If  these  two  plates  be  placed  in  contact  they  take 
reciprocally  that  electricity  for  which  they  have  most  aptitude. 

We  must  not  confound  this  peculiar  property  of  the  metals  with  the  electro- 
motive force  of  Volta.  Contact  is  here  of  no  account,  for  the  same  results  are 
obtained  without  contact,  only  in  this  case  the  results  are  somewhat  lessened  by 
the  distance. 

After  having  verified  these  facts,  Peltier  expressed  them  in  the  most  general 
manner,  by  saying  that  the  metals  have  different  capacities  for  collecting  the 
same  static  electricity  from  a  constant  source.  But  it  was  impossible  for  him  to 
arrive  at  the  cause  of  this  difference.  Since  that  time,  the  researches  of  M.  de 
la  Rive,  and  especially  those  of  M.  Edmond  Becquerel,  would  seem  to  have  suf- 
ficiently elucidated  the  problem.  These  two  savants  have  demonstrated  in  effect 
that  the  metals  least  liable  to  be  tarnished  are  yet,  in  reality,  oxidized  in  the 
open  air;  but  very  slowly  and  very  slightly,  which  had  theretofore  prevented 
the  physicists  from  perceiving  it.  The  quantity  of  platina  oxidized  is  unques- 
tionably very  minute,  but  the  experiments  of  Faraday,  of  Peltier,  and  of  Bec- 
querel have  proved  that  it  needs  but  the  oxidation  of  an  almost  imperceptible 
quantity  of  metal  to  produce  considerable  quantities  of  static  electricity;  if, 
therefore,  platina  is  always  naturally  negative  in  relation  to  gold,  it  is  because 
it  oxidizes  to  a  greater  degree;  if  it  is  also  negative  in  relation  to  zinc,  this  is 
referable  to  the  fiEict  that  the  zinc  employed  is  always  covered  with  a  coat  of 
oxide  which  preserves  the  metal  from  all  ulterior  alteration. 

MocUfications  in  the  torsion  balance, — For  a  long  time  there  was  nothing  avail- 
able for  the  purpose  of  indicating  the  tension  of  static  electricity,  except  the 
gold-leaf  electrometer  and  the  torsion  balance.  The  fonner  instrument  possesses 
great  sensibility,  but  unfortunately  does  not  afford  a  measure;  the  latter,  on  the 
contrary,  gives  exact  measures,  but  has  not  the  sensibility  requisite  for  delicate 
experiments;  it  has  besides  some  serious  defects.  Peltier  adapted  to  the  torsion 
balance  modifications  which  eliminated  these  defects,  and  designed,  besides,  au 
electrometer  which  unites  the  precision  and  measurement  of  the  torsion  balance 
^h  the  sensibility  of  the  best  gold-leaf  electroscopes.  We  shall  speak  in  suc- 
cession of  the  torsion  balance,  as  modified  by  Peltier,  and  of  his  electrometer. 

The  torsion  balance,  as  it  was  employed  by  Coulomb,  had  the  inconvenience 
of  not  maintaining  in  electric  equilibrium  the  two  balls  between  which  the  elec- 
tricity under  experiment  is  distributed.  When  one  of  the  two  loses  more  than 
the  other,  whether  by  reason  of  its  own  asperities  or  that  of  the  neighboring 
bodies,  the  humidity  of  the  air  and  the  imperfect  insulation  of  the  supports 
which  is  the  consequence  thereof,  or  through  whatsoever  other  accidental  cause, 
there  results  an  inequality  of  action,  of  which  the  resultant  is  no  longer  the 
expression  of  the  repulsive  quantities  alone ;  for  as  soon  as  the  inequality  of 
charge  .supervenes,  the  action  becomes  complicated  from  the  repulsion  of  the 
similar  electricities,  and  from  the  attraction  produced  by  the  excess  of  one  of 
the  balls  over  the  contrary  electricity  of  the  other  ball,  which  the  former  devel- 
opes  by  influence.  , 

With  a  view  to  avoid  these  causes  of  error,  Conlomb  took  infinite  precautions 


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180  APPENDIX  TO   MEMOIR   OP  PELTIER. 

to  assure  himself  that  during  the  whole  time  of  the  experiment  the  total  loss 
should  be  very  small^  and  consequently  the  difference  still  smaller.  When  the 
experiment,  however,  lasts  a  long  time,  and  in  damp  weather,  we  cannot  neglect 
this  difference  in  the  electric  state  of  the  balls,  since  it  involves  a  considerable 
one  in  the  results.  On  the  other  hand,  there  are  many  experiments  in  which  it 
is  proposed  to  measure  the  successive  addition  or  subtraction  of  the  electric 
forces,  which  cannot  be  done  with  an  instrument  of  which  the  active  parts  are 
insulated  one  from  the  other. 

Peltier  corrected  these  defects  by  applying  to  the  torsion  balance  two  import- 
ant modifications.  In  the  first  place  he  established  a  permanent  communication 
between  the  movable  disk  and  the  fixed  ball ,-  secondly,  he  soldered  this  last  to 
a  metallic  rod  which  projects  laterally,  and  which,  after  having  left  the  ball,  is 
bent  vertically  in  order  to  receive  the  condensing  plates  or  any  other  apparatus. 
The  following  is  briefly  a  description  of  this  instrument : 

The  torsion  balance  as  modified  by  Peltier  presents  at  its  upper  part  a  micro- 
meter, like  that  of  Coulomb's  balance.  A  cocoon  thread,  devoid  of  torsion^  is 
attached  to  the  windlass  of  this  micrometer  by  its  upper  extremity,  and  bears  at 
its  lower  end  a  metallic  needle,  terminated  on  one  hand  by  a  proof  plane^  and 
on  the  other  by  a  balance  weight  of  gum-lac.  The  needle  has  on  its  lower  £ace, 
and  in  the  line  of  prolongation  of  the  cocoon  thread,  a  point  of  platina  descending 
vertically.  This  point  is  immersed  in  a  capsule  of  glass,  into  which  has  been 
previously  introduced  diluted  sulphuric  acid.  The  capsule  is  carefully  surrounded 
with  resin,  and  rests  on  a  plate  of  copper.  This  plate  may  be  raised  or  lower  by 
means  of  a  bent  lever,  whose  leg  is  situated  without  and  passes  underneath  the 
footstand  of  the  instrument.  The  fixed  ball,  as  has  been  already  said,  is  etA- 
dered  to  a  copper  rod  which  projects  laterally  through  the  glass  case  whidi 
covers  the  instrument,  and  then  rises  vertically,  so  as  to  receive  the  condensing 
plates  or  other  apparatus.  J^  fine  wire  proceeds  firom  the  rod  which  snpports 
the  fixed  ball,  and  directs  itself  towards  the  capsule  filled  with  sulphuric  acid ; 
having  reached  this  capsule  the  wire  is  bent  at  a  right  angle,  and  descends  into 
the  acid.  When  the  instrument  is  to  be  used  the  capsule  is  elevated  by  means 
of  the  bent  lever;  when  the  experiment  is  finished  it  is  lowered,  and  the  point  of 
platina  and  the  wire  are  no  longer  immersed  in  the  acid. 

Peltier  placed,  moreover,  two  graduated  circles,  one  on  the  footstand  of  the 
instrument,  and  the  other  on  the  upper  plane  of  the  casing.  These  two  circles 
correspond ;  consequently,  if  the  visual  ray  is  made  to  pass  by  the  same  degrees 
in  the  two  circles,  the  deviation  of  the  needle  may  be  read  without  the  possi- 
bility of  error. 

Those  who  are  a  little  conversant  with  electricity  will  readily  comprehend  the 
object  and  advanti^es  of  the  arrangements  here  indicated.  By  means  of  these 
modifications,  in  enect,  the  tension  remains  perfectly  equal  between  the  fixed 
ball  and  the  proof  plane,  even  when  the  experiments  last  some  time,  or  when  the 
electricity  which  is  to  be  measured  is  either  augmented  or  diminished. 

Electrometer, — ^We  pass  now  to  a  description  of  the  electrometer  of  Peltier.* 
On  a  socle  or  footstand,  three  decimetres  in  diameter,  is  pasted  a  dial-plate  of 
pasteboard,  graduated  to  360  degi*ees ;  at  five  centimetres  above  the  centre  of 
this  dial  is  the  extremity  of  a  rod  of  copper  having  a  section  of  seven  millime- 
tres. This  rod  is  slightly  curved,  and  bends  back  almost  at  a  right  angle  when  it 
arrives  above  the  zero.  It  then  penetrates  vertically  into  the  footstand  from  which 
it  is  insulated  by  resin ;  it  is  there  again  bent  round  so  as  to  proceed  laterally; 
then,  at  a  distance  of  a  few  centimetres,  it  rises  vertically  to  receive  t^e  plates 
of  Volta  or  any  other  apparatus.  On  the  inner  extremity  of  this  rod,  just  above 
the  centre  of  the  dial,  is  soldered  a  small  plate  of  tempered  steel,  polished  and 
slightly  concave.  ^ 


^  Annales  dt  Ckimie  et  de  Pkw9kue,  t  62,  p.  4*22. 

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APPENDIX  TO  MEMOIR   OF  PELTIER.  181 

This  concave  surface  is  destined  to  receive  the  pivot  of  a  needle  formed  of  a 
veiy  fine  copper  wire.  The  needle  is  a  decimetre  in  length,  and  is  thus  equal  to 
the  radius  of  the  dial.  Its  pivot  is  soldered  to  its  posterior  part ;  consequently 
it  must  be  maintained  in  equilibrium  by  a  small  counterpoise  of  gum-lac.  The 
piyot  is  of  tempered  steel,  and  terminated  by  as  fine  a  point  as  possible.  The 
copper  wire  which  forms  the  needle  is  slightly  curved,  in  order  that  its  greatest 
portion  in  length  may  be  placed  in  contact  with  the  rod,  and  receive  irom  it  a 
greater  influence.  To  give  a  direction  to  it  we  place  at  the  centre,  forming  one 
body  with  this  rod  and  with  the  pivot,  a  very  small  wire  of  tempered  steel,  very 
feebly  magnetized,  to  which  is  imparted  only  the  quantity  of  magnetism  rigor- 
ously necessary  to  draw  the  large  needle  near  the  horizontal  rod. 

To  obtain  the  maximum  of  sensibility,  it  is  necessary  that  the  movable  needle 
should  not  be  of  steel ;  for  however  little  magnetism  might  be  given  it  or  be 
received  by  it,  whether  from  its  position  in  the  magnetic  meridian,  or  through 
oxidation,  it  would  act  on  the  particles  of  iron  contained  in  all  the  coppers  of 
commerce,  and  thus  alter  the  great  sensibility  of  this  instrument. 

The  electrometer  is  covered  with  a  glass  cylinder,  the  upper  flat  surface  of 
which  presents  another  graduated  circle,  corresponding  to  the  lower  circle.  In 
this  way  the  visual  ray  passes  by  the  same  degrees  in  the  two  circles,  and  thus 
no  erroc  of  parallax  is  to  be  apprehended. 

Peltier  had  further  added  a  movable  armature.  This  was  a  plate  of  copper, 
of  the  length  of  the  needle,  and  placed  at  the  same  height  It  was  worked  by 
means  of  a  horizontal  lever,  situated  below  t^e  foot-stand.  This  armature  con- 
siderably augmented  the  sensibility  of  the  instrument ,-  unfortunately  it  some- 
what embarrassed  the  phenomena,  and  the  instrument  lost  in  point  of  exactness; 
hence  Peltier  seldom  employed  it. 

The  manner  of  using  this  electrometer  is  very  simple.  The  apparatus  is 
placed  in  the  magnetic  meridian,  so  that  the  needle  may  touch  lightly  the  fixed 
rod.  The  instrument  being  thus  adjusted,  we  touch  the  exterior  ball  or  the 
'  plate  with  the  body  charged  with  the  electricity  which  we  wish  to  measure,  and 
immediately  the  needle  deviates  by  a  certain  number  of  degrees,  which  may  be 
read  on  the  dial.  Thus  we  have  results  perfectly  comparable;  the  fixed  rod  and 
the  movable  needle,  always  in  metallic  contact,  maintain  infallibly  an  equilibrium 
of  electricity. 

However  light  the  indicating  needlA,  their  weight  occasions  a  slight  friction 
on  the  concave  plane  which  supports  the  pivot.  This  friction  gives  to  the  instru- 
ment a  small  resistance  which  prevents  it  from  obeying  at  the  instant,  when 
very  weak  quantities  of  electricity  are  either  added  or  withdrawn.  To  overcome 
this  resistance,  it  is  sufilcient  in  general  to  strike  lightly  on  the  table  which 
supports  the  electrometer. 

For  those  who  have  an  electrometer,  but  no  torsion  balance,  it  is  necessary 
that  the  electrometer  should  be  capable  of  being  transformed  at  will  to  a  torsion 
balance.  Peltier  added,  therefore,  to  his  electrometer  different  pieces,  with  a 
new  of  rendering  this  transformation  possible  and  easy.  The  pieces  are  the 
following:  1®.  A  gallows  formed  of  a  foot  of  copper  or  ivory,  screwed  in  the 
pedestal ;  of  a  vertical  staff  of  glass,  25  centimetres  in  length,  and  of  a  hori- 
zontal bridge  of  copper,  the  free  extremity  of  which  corresponds  exactly  to  the 
centre  of  the  dial-plate.  2®.  An  apparatus  destined  to  carry  the  wire  and  pos- 
sessing two  very  distinct  movements— one  horizontal  and  circular,  the  other  ver- 
tical and  rectilinear.  3**.  A  silver  wire  of  the  utmost  fineness,  terminated  at  its 
lower  extremity  by  a  small  cylinder  of  gum-lac,  having  benei^th  it  two  small 
copper  hooks  designed  to  carry  the  needle. 

In  order  to  transfonn  the  electrometer  into  a  torsion  balance,  it  is  enough  to 
lower  the  wire  by  means  of  the  vertical  and  rectilinear  movement  above  indi- 
cated, to  seize  the  needle  with  the  two  hooks,  and  again  sufficiently  raise  the 
whole  J  by  this  means,  in  effect,  the  indicating  neeme,  instead  of  being  sup- 


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182  APPENDIX  TO   MEMOIR   OF  PELTIER. 

l>orted  by  the  point  of  the  pivot  resting  in  the  steel  cup,  is  suspended  by  the 
silver  wire,  without  being,  however,  in  njetallic  contact  with  it,  since  it  is  sepa- 
rated from  it  by  the  small  cylinder  of  gum-lac. 

When  these  changes  have  been  made,  the  electrometer  has  become  a  torsion 
balance ;  only,  if  w^e  wish  to  use  it  as  such,  it  is  necessary  to  withdraw  from 
the  indicating  needle  the  small  wire  of  magnetized  steel,  or  still  better,  to  have 
a  spare  needle  for  exchange.  There  remains  but  one  other  condition  to  fulfil  in 
order  that  the  torsion  baliuice  should  be  completely  prepared ;  that  is,  to  estab- 
lish the  communication  between  the  needle  and  the  capsule,  though  with  the 
exclusion  of  all  friction. 

In  the  torsion  balances,  Peltier  employs  acidulated  water,  because  th&  point 
t'hich  descends  into  the  liquid  is  of  platina;  but  here,  as  the  point  is  a  pivot  of 
steel,  even  pure  water  cannot  be  used,  much  less  acidulated  water,  for  the  pivot 
would  be  soon  oxidized.  Doubtless  this  communication  might  be  established 
by  means  of  mercury  poured  into  the  little  cup ;  but  this  metal  is  too  resistant, 
and  detracts  much  from  the  sensibility  of  the  instrument.  There  is,  besides,  aa 
inconvenience  in  using  it;  its  resistance  prevents  the  needle  from  placing  itself 
perfectly  at  its  centie  of  gravity;  whence  it  results  that  the  suspending  wire, 
instead  of  being  vertical,  has  a  slight  inclination,  and  consequently  the  needle 
has  a  tendency  to  fall  to  one  side.  The  liquid  which  suits  best  is  a  solution  of 
potash,  for  this  preserves  unimpaired  the  polish  of  iron  and  steel,  and  suffices  as 
a  conductor  for  the  electricity  of  tension  between  two  bodies  in  such  close  prox- 
imity as  the  steel  cup  and  its  pivot. 

At  first  Peltier  had  given  to  his  electrometer  dimensions  somewhat  large.  It 
was  then,  in  effect,  a  cabinet  instrument;  but  afterwards,  when  he  occupied  him- 
self with  meteorology,  he  perceived  the  necessity  of  reducing  these  dimensions, 
in  order  to  render  it  more  manageable  and  portable ;  he  therefore  constructed 
an  electrometer  of  small  size  and  very  nearly  conformed  to  the  proportions  of 
an  ordinary  electroscope.  This  instrument  has  been  also  adjusted  to  the  use  for 
which  it  was  to  serve.  The  fixed  rod  no  longer  communicates  outside  laterally 
and  by  the  foot-stand ;  its  interior  extremity,  that  which  is  above  the  centre  of 
the  dial,  is  curved  from  below  upwards,  and  issues  from  the  casing  by  its  upper 
wall;  it  is  then  prolonged  vertically  for  two  decimetres,  and  is  smmounted  by 
a  hollow  metallic  ball,  eight  centimetres  in  diameter.  This  is  the  atmospheric 
electrometer  of  Peltier.  • 

We  must  not  quit  this  subject  without  mentioning  that  these  electrometers  all 
require  that  a  table  giving  the  ratio  of  the  forces  to  the  arc  of  deviation  should 
be  constructed  for  each  of  them.  It  is  the  same,  in  effect,  with  electrometers 
as  with  galvanometers:  their  angular  deviation  is  not  proportional  to  the  forces. 

III. — ^Dynamic  electkicitt. — ^voltaic  pile. 

0/  the  pUe  qf  VoUa  and  the  theory  qf  contact — ^The  most  usual  source  of 
dynamic  electricity  is  the  pile  of  Volta.  This  is  one  of  the  most  admirable 
instruments  with  which  the  genius  of  man  has  enriched  science,  and  numerous 
physicists  have  occupied  themselves  with  its  theory. 

Volta  supposed  that  at  the  contact  of  two  heterogeneous  metals,  there  is  a 
force  which  constantly  decomposes  their  natural  electricity ;  that  this  force  pro- 
jects on  the  one  side  positive  and  on  the  other  negative  electricity ;  that  the 
interposed  liquid  serves  only  as  a  conductor  to  allow  the  recombination  in  tbe 
neutral  fluid  of  the  two  opposite  currents.  It  was  this  decomposing  power 
placed  at  the  contact  of  the  metals  that  he  called  the  electro-motive  force.  This 
theory  has  received  the  name  of  the  theory  of  contact. 

According  to  this  theory,  the  liquid  acts  but  as  a  conductor ;  an  experiment 
of  Davy's,  however,  soon  evinced  the  inexactness  of  this  assertion.  After  hav- 
ing constructed  a  battery  of  cups,  of  Conner  and  iron,  Davy  first  poured  pure 


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APPENDIX  TO  MEMOI&  OF  P£LTI£R.  183 

water  in  tbe  jars ;  the  iron  became  positively  electrified,  and  was  oxidized ;  the 
copper,  on  the  contrary,  was  negatively  electrified,  and  disengaged  hvdrogen. 
In  a  second  experiment,  in  place  of  pure  water,  Davy  poured  into  the  jars  sul- 
phur of  potassium  j  immediately  the  iron  became  negative,  and  disengaged 
hydrogen,  while  the  copper  became  positive,  and  was  oxidized.  The  poles  of 
the  pile  were  therefoi'e  inverted,  and  the  direction  of  the  current  had  been 
changed  with  the  nature  of  the  liquid  body  interposed. 

Experiment  qf  Peltier,  proving  that  there  is  no  electro-motive  force  on  the  con- 
tact of  the  two  metals. — We  are  also  indebted  to  Peltier  for  an  experiment  which 
completely  overthrows  the  theory  of  Volta,  and  which  proves,  in  the  most  posi- 
tive manner,  that  there  is  not  an  electro-motive  force  at  the  contact  of  the  two 
elements  of  zinc  and  copper.  As  this  experiment*  is  of  the  highest  importance 
for  the  theory  of  the  pile,  we  shall  report  it  with  some  details.* 

We  plunge  in  two  separate  vases,  well  insulated  and  filled  with  the  same 
liquid,  the  extremities  of  a  pair,  zinc  and  copper.    We  first  immerse  the  end  of 
a  wire  of  platina  d  in  the  vase  A  which  has  received  the  zinc,  and  the  other  end 
of  the  wire  communicate"  ""^^^^ 
the  ground.     By  means 
other  wire  of  platina  e, 
is  kept  insulated  by  a  i 
of  gum-lac  /,  we  succesi 
put  in  communication  th< 
the  copper,  and  the  liq 
the  vase  B  which  has  re< 
the  copper,  with  one  of  th 
densing  plates  g  of  an  el 
meter  J.    Agreeably  to  tUs  at- 

rangement,  the  liquid  cannot  possess  free  electricity,  since  it  communicates  with 
the  ground,  and  the  zinc  can  as  little  possess  it,  since  the  electro-motive  force, 
according  to  the  theory,  results  from  the  contact  of  the  zinc  and  copper.  It  is  not 
thus  that  the  distribution  is  efi*ected  :  the  liquid  of  the  vase  A  is  neutral,  but  the 
zinc,  the  copper,  and  the  liquid  B,  are  negative  in  the  same  degree.  We  place 
now  the  end  d  of  the  platina  wire,  communicating  with  the  ground,  in  the  vase 
B,  and  interrogate,  in  the  same  manner,  by  means  of  the  insulated  platina  wire  e, 
the  copper,  the  zinc,  and  the  liquid  of  the  vase  A,  which  is  then  insulated.  The 
liquid  of  B  is  necessarily  neutral,  as  well  as  the  copper  which  is  plunged  in  it, 
but  the  same  is  the  case  with  the  zinc,  which  is  also  neutral ;  the  water  of  the 
vase  A  alone  is  positive. 

This  experiment  demonstrates  that  the  electricity  of  a  zinc  and  copper  pair  is 
not  produced,  as  Volta  thought,  by  the  contact  of  the  two  metals  j  it  proves, 
moreover,  that  it  is  produced  on  the  contact  between  the  acidulated  liquid  A 
and  the  portion  of  zinc  which  is  immersed.  There  could  be,  then,  no  longer  any 
doubt  about  the  error  of  Volta  j  for,  on  his  theory,  the  zinc  and  copper  would 
be  m  difierent  electric  states,  and  this  experiment  proves,  on  the  contrary,  that 
they  are  both  one  and  the  other  in  the  same  state. 

Since  the  electricity  proceeds,  not  firom  the  contact  between  the  two  heteroge- 
neous metals,  and  is  produced  on  the  surface  of  the  zinc  moistened  by  the  acid- 
ulated liquid— on  the  surface  which  the  acidulated  liquid  attacks  chemically — 
everything  tends  to  the  conclusion  that  it  is  the  chemical  action  itself  which  pro- 
duces the  electricity.  This  opinion,  proposed  for  the  first  time  in  1801  by  Par- 
rot, supported  by  the  experiments  of  Febroni,  Wollaston,  Faraday,  and  Becquerel, 
was  again  considered,  in  1828,  by  M.  de  la  Rive,  to  whom  pertains  the  honor  of  hav- 
ing first  made  known,  in  a  clear  and  satisfactory  manner,  the  true  theory  of  the  pile. 
CJiemical  theory  of  the  pile,  by  dela  Bive. — ^According  to  this  distinguished 

*  Peltier,  Essai  aur  la  co-ordination  dea  cauaea  des  phenominaa  ^lectriquea. — ^Memoir  of  for- 
eign savanU  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  of  Brusselis,  vol.  19,  p.  34  of  the  memoir,  note. 

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184  APPENDIX  TO   BI£MOIB   OF  PELTIER. 

physicist,  the  origin  of  the  electricity  of  the  pile  of  Volta  is  the  chemical  action 
which  takes  place  between  the  acidulated  liquid  and  the  zinc.  The  negative 
electricity  diffuses  itself  over  the  metal  attacKed,  the  positive  electricity  difiusea 
itself  in  the  acidulated  liquid.  These  electricities  are  afterwards  neutralized, 
each  on  its  side,  with  the  opposite  electricities  of  the  adjacent  pairs,  and  the 
same  fact  reappears  as  far  as  the  two  extremities  of  the  pile^  which  alone  aie  in 
possession  of  free  electricity.  In  a  well-constructed  pile,  according  to  M.  de  la 
Bive,  there  is  a  neutralization  of  aU  the  intermediate  electricities ;  all  the  nega- 
tive portions  are  neutralized  by  equal  positive  portions,  proceeding  from  the 
pairs  in  juxtaposition ;  there  are  none  free  but  the  electricities  of  the  two  extreme 
elements,  and  these  polar  electricities  have,  in  order  to  become  neutralized,  only 
i^ie  arc  interposed  between  them  or  a  return  by  the  pile. 

From  this  it  is  evident  that  the  quantity  of  electricity  found  at  the  poles  of  a 
battery  is  independent  of  the  number  of  pairs,  and  that  the  number  of  pairs 
must  only  augment  the  difficulty  of  recomposition  backwards ;  that  is  to  say, 
must  augment  the  tendency  of  the  electricity  to  combine  forwards.  But  in  phys- 
ics it  is  not  enough  to  advance  a  theory  more  or  less  satisfactory :  it  is  necessary  to 
demonstrate  it ;  it  is  necessary  to  prove  the  reality  by  numerous  and  positive  experi- 
ments which  can  leave  no  doubt  or  uncertainty ;  it  is  necessary,  in  a  word,  to  antici- 
pate all  objections  and  answer  them  in  advance.    This  is  what  Peltier  has  done.* 

Summary  of  Feltier's  researches  on  the  VoUaicpUe, — ^According  to  Peltier,  in 
a  current  there  are  two  very  different  things  to  be  distinguished :  the  quantity 
and  the  intensity.  The  quantity  is  the  number  of  electnc  perturbations  which 
traverse  a  conductor  in  a  unit  of  time.  The  intensity  is  the  power  which  a  car- 
rent  possesses  of  overcoming  the  resistance  of  the  conductors  presented  to  it. 

Peltier,  to  whom  we  are  indebted  for  having  clearly  established  this  distinc- 
tion, has  demonstrated  by  multiplied  experiments  that  in  a  battery  the  quantity 
of  electricity  produced  is  in  a  ratio  with  the  number  of  molecules  pertaining  to 
one  and  the  same  surface,  and  undergoing  a  change  in  their  equilibrium ;  but 
that,  in  the  estimate  of  the  quantity  of  electricity  which  passes  by  the  conduct- 
ors in  the  state  of  a  current,  it  is  necessary  to  regard  the  resistance  of  these 
conductors,  because  these  resistances  almost  always  cause  a  portion  of  the  quan- 
tity of  electiicity  produced  to  be  in  return  neutralized.  He  has  shown  that 
when  the  resistance  of  the  conductors  is  null,  the  quantity  of  electricity  which 
passes  by  the  closed  circuit  is  proportional  to  the  quantity  of  molecules  attacked 
on  the  same  surface. 

He  has  proved  that  when  a  battery  is  well  constructed  and  the  circuit  without 
resistance,  the  entire  pile  gives  no  more  electricity  than  a  single  one  of  its  pairs ; 
consequently  that  when  it  is  desirable  to  have  a  current  of  quantity,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  use  a  batteiy  with  pairs  of  large  dimensions. 

It  was  generally  thought  that  in  a  battery,  when  one  pair  was  smaller  than 
the  others,  this  small  pair  decided  the  quantity  of  the  whole  current.  Peltier 
proved  that  this  opinion  was  not  wholly  exact.  No  doubt  this  small  pair  dimin- 
ishes the  quantity  of  the  current.  In  consequence  of  its  resistance,  which  is  greater 
by  reason  of  its  very  littleness,  it  forces  a  portion  of  the  electricity  which  reaches 
it  to  recombine  behind  it,  but  it  gives  passage  as  a  simple  conductor  to  the  rest 

By  means  of  positive  experiments,  Peltier  has  demonstrated  that  the  intensity 
of  a  current,  that  is  to  say,  the  power  it  possesses  of  ovei-coming  obstacles,  is 
only  due  to  the  greater  obstacles  situated  behind  to  prevent  retrogradation  of 
the  two  polar  electricities  by  the  battery.  Now,  these  obstacles  may  be  of  two 
sorts :  they  may  proceed  from  the  reduplication  in  a  battery  of  the  same  pairs, 
or  else  from  a  more  profound  alteration  in  the  state  of  equilibrium  of  the  mole- 
cules. In  the  iirst  case,  the  intensity  is  proportional  to  the  number  of  pairs ;  in 
the  second,  it  depends  on  the  power  of  action  of  the  disturbing  substance. 

*  See  Annai9$  de  Chimie  et  de  Phyiique,  18^,'  t.  G3,  p.  245 :  the  note  of  Peltier  entitled 
•*  Definition  of  the  words  electric  quantity  and  intensity,  drawn  from  direct  experiments.'* 


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APPENDIX  TO  MEMOIR  OF  PELTIER.  185 

Peltier  bas  also  proved  that  a  current  endowed  with  a  great  intensity  is  iden- 
tical with  a  corrent  which  possesses  but  a  feeble  one^  and  that  these  currents  of 
great  and  feeble  intensity  produce  the  same  effects  on  bodies  when  they  traverse 
them  in  equal  quantities.  He  has  established,  by  two  series  of  new  experiments, 
the  one  dynamic,  the  other  static,  that  in  a  battery  well  constructed  there  is  a 
neutralization  of  all  the  intermediate  electricities ;  that  all  the  negative  portions 
are  neutralized  by  equal  positive  portions  proceeding  firom  the  pairs  in  front  of 
them,  and  that  there  are  no  free  electricities  but  those  of  the  extreme  elements, 
which,  to  become  neutralized,  have  only  the  arc  interposed  between  them,  or  a 
return  by  the  battery.  Finally,  he  proved  that  it  was  always  by  its  quantity 
that  a  current  acted,  but  on  the  condition  of  being  accompanied  by  a  sufficient 
intensity ;  for,  without  this  intensity,  the  current  could  not  pass  in  suitable  quan- 
tity to  produce  action ;  the  resistance  of  the  conductors  would  oppose  itself  to 
that  action. 

We  proceed  now  to  indicate  the  chief  experiments  by  means  of  which  Peltier 
has  demonstrated  the  principles  above  stated.  These  experiments  are  almost 
all  derived  firom  the  memoir  of  Peltier,  already  cited,  on  the  electric  quantity 
and  intensity. 

Experiments  qf  Peltier  relative  to  the  quantity  and  intensity  qf  a  current. — 
If  we  take  a  voltaic  pair  consisting  of  two  fine  wires,  zinc  and  copper,  immerse  it  in 
common  water,  and  complete  the  circuit  by  a  copper  wire  of  the  length  of  300 
metres,  there  is  a  continuous  current  in  this  closed  circuit.  If  this  wire  be  pre> 
sented  above  a  magnetized  needle,  the  needle  will  not  be  deflected  from  its  posi- 
tion of  equilibrium  in  the  magnetic  meridian ;  the  action  of  the  current  will  not 
he  powerful  enough  to  overcome  the  influence  of  the  terrestrial  magnetism. 
Bat  if  this  needle  be  surrounded  with  100  or  200  coils  of  the  long  wire,  there 
will  be  at  once  a  notable  deviation ;  if  the  number  of  coils  be  increased  to  2,000, 
the  deviation  will  extend  as  far.  as  60  degrees. 

In  this  experiment,  the  primitive  current  has  not  been  changed  or  altered. 
We  have  only  produced  a  factitious  quantity  by  conducting  it  2,000  times  around 
a  magnetized  needle,  so  that  it  may  act  as  the  primitive  quantity  multiplied  by 
2,000.  It  is  very  evident  in  this  experiment  that  it  is  by  the  quantity  that  the 
power  of  action  has  been  enhanced,  and  not  by  some  other  modiflcation.  It  is, 
therefore,  through  its  quantity  that  a  current  acts  on  the  magnetized  needle. 

If,  now,  we  take  a  thermo-electric  pair,  zinc  and  copper  of  five  square  milime- 
tres,  heat  one  of  the  solderings  to  40  degrees,  and  complete  the  circuit  by  the 
sort  of  multiplier  which  we  had  previously  formed,  the  needle  will  be  not  at  all 
deflected ;  the  electricity  will  not  pass.  But  if  we  retrench  1,800  coils  and 
shorten  the  conductor  to  this  extent,  the  multiplier,  now  reduced  to  200  coils, 
will  begin  to  give  notable  deviations.  If  we  reduce  it  to  10  coils,  the  deviation 
H-ill  be  considerably  augmented.  If,  in  fine,  we  reduce  it  to  a  single  coil, 
formed  of  a  strip  of  copper  containing  as  much  substance  as  the  2,000  coils,  the 
lieviaiion  may  proceed  even  to  60  degrees. 

The  quantity  of  electricity  produced  in  this  experiment  by  the  thermo-electric 
pair  is  evidently  2,000  times  greater  than  that  of  the  above  hydro-electric  pair, 
since  we  obtain  the  same  deviation  with  a  single  coil  as  with  the  factitious  quan- 
tity given  by  the  reduplication  of  the  coils.  Nor  is  this  all :  in  the  first  experi- 
ment the  length  of  the  conducting  wire  was  easily  traversed  by  the  hydro- 
electric current ;  the  inertia  of  the  matter  was  overcome  without  difficulty  and 
without  appreciable  loss  of  the  current.  In  the  second  experiment  this  inertia 
could  not  be  overcome ;  the  power  of  action  was  insufficient,  and  it  wa«  neces- 
sary to  reduce  the  circuit  to  a  very  small  length  for  the  electricity  to  be  able  to 
traverse  it.  There  are  two  quite  distinct  conditions,  then,  which  we  must  not 
confound :  to  act  by  the  quantity y  or  to  overcome  the  resistance  of  the  conduct- 
ors by  a  power  independent  of  the  quantity,  and  which  Peltier  called  intensity, 
reserving  the  name  of  tension  for  static  electricity. 


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186  APPENDIX  TO  MEMOIR   OF  PELTIl^R. 

To  throw  better  light  on  the  nature  of  these  phenomena,  Peltier  varied  tho 
experiments.  He  formed  a  quintuple  helix  of  240  coils ;  in  other  words,  on  a 
helix  of  240  coils  he  superposed  a  second  in  all  respects  similar,  but  insulated 
from  the  first,  then  a  third,  a  fourth,  and  finally  a  fifth.  This  quintuple  helix 
was  so  constnicted  that  the  homologous  ends  might  be  united  and  then  form 
but  one  helix  of  240  coils,  having  five  times  more  of  substance  ]  they  might 
also  be  united  in  a  battery,  that  is  to  say  the  end  of  the  first  might  be  joined 
to  the  beginning  of  the  second,  the  end  of  the  second  to  the  beginning  of  the 
third,  &c. ;  forming  thus  a  helix  of  1,200  coils,  being  a  helix  five  times  longer, 
but  having  five  times  less  substance  than  each  spire. 

When  a  magnetized  bar  is  placed  in  this  apparatus  to  produce  a  current  of 
induction,  resmts  exactly  inverse  are  obtained  according  as  one  or  the  other 
of  these  last  arrangements  is  employed.  Suppose  that  we  unite  the  helices  by 
then*  homologous  ends,  and  that  we  have  taken  a  rheometer  of  a  single  coil, 
the  deviation  will  increase  as  the  number  of  helices  united  by  their  homologous 
ends ;  that  is  to  say,  as  the  quantity  of  substance  modified.  Thus,  assuming 
that  with  one  helix  we  have  5®  of  deviation,  with  two  we  shall  have  10°,  with 
three  15°,  and  proportionally  with  five  25°.  If  we  replace  the  galvanometer 
of  one  coil  by  a  multiplier  of  2,000  coils,  we  shall  have  35°  of  deviation  with 
a  single  helix.  But  we  obtain  no  more  by  employing  two,  three,  four,  or  five 
helices,  still  supposed  to  be  united  by  their  homologous  ends. 

Suppose  now  that  in  place  of  uniting  the  five  helices  by  their  homologoos 
ends,  we  imite  them  in  a  battery,  and  that  we  make  use  of  the  rheometer  of 
one  coil ;  we  shall  have  5°  of  deviation  with  a  single  helix,  and  we  shall  obtain 
no  more  with  two,  three,  four,  or  five  helices  united  in  battery.  On  the  other 
hand,  suppose  that  we  employ  the  rheometer  of  2,000  coils,  the  deviation  of  the 
needle  will  go  on  increasing  in  proportion  as  we  augment  the  number  of  helices, 
and  it  will  attain  its  maximum  or  90°  after  the  fourth. 

Thus  we  see  there  is  complete  opposition  between  the  results,  the  reason  of 
which  is  simple :  with  a  rheometer  of  a  sinrfe  coil,  the  resistance  of  the  con- 
ductor may  be  considered  as  null.  When  the  helices  are  united  by  their  homo- 
logous ends,  the  quantity  of  substance  altered  is  augmented,  and  consequently 
the  quantity  of  electricity  produced.  Now,  as  the  conductor  offers  no  resist- 
ance, this  constantly  increasing  quantity  of  electricity  passes  without  difficulty 
and  gradually  augments  the  angular  deviation  of  the  needle.  On  the  contrary, 
when  wft  take  a  rheometer  of  2,000  coils,  tho  resistance  of  the  conductor  is 
great,  the  quantity  of  electricity  produced  is  in  vain  augmented  ;  no  more  of  it 
passes,  it  retuiiis  backward  and  is  neutralized  by  the  electrometer  itself.  The 
sole  means  of  making  more  pass,  is  to  unite  the  helices  in  battery ;  then,  in 
effect,  we  augment  the  difficulties  to  the  retrogradation  of  the  two  electricities* 
and  force  them  consequently  to  recombine  in  advancing.  Peltier  formed  still 
another  multiple  helix,  of  which  the  wires  were  of  diflerent  and  proportioned 
magnitudes.  The  result  was  still  that  the  quantity  was  given  by  the  mass,  and 
the  intensity  by  the  i-eduplication  of  the  spires.  He  repeated  the  same  experi- 
ments with  thermo-electric  and  with  hydro-electric  pairs.  These  gave  analo- 
gous results;  the  quantity  depended  on  the  quantity  of  matter  altered  in  each 
element,  and  the  intensity  on  the  number  of  interposed  pairs  undeigoiug  the 
same  alterations.  We  shall  content  ourselves  with  speaking  of  the  results 
yielded  by  the  hydro-electric  pairs. 

In  one  experiment,  five  sciuare  centimetres  of  a  volt^c  pidr,  immersed  in 
acidulated  water,  gave  two  proportional  degrees : 

10  square  centimetres  gave 40° 

15  square  centimetres  gave 60° 

20  square  centimetres  gave 80° 

In  this  experiment  the  conductor  was  short  and  very  large,  consequently  the 
resistance  might  bo  considered  as  null ;  on  repeating  the  same  experiments  with 


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APPENDIX  TO  MEUOIB   OF  PELTIEK. 


187 


a  batterv  of  six  pairs  of  the  same  dimensions,  the  same  results  were  obtained, 
and  not  a  degree  more. 

If,  on  the  contrary,  the  interposed  arc  conducts  feebly,  the  angular  deviation 
is  no  longer  proportional  to  the  surface  immersed  In  another  series  of  experi- 
ments, Peltier  caused  a  current  to  pass  into  a  trough  full  of  water,  in  which  he 
conld  interpose,  at  pleasure,  diaphragms  of  platina,  and  he  reached  the  follow- 
ing results : 


Kimber  of  pain  in  action. 

0  diaphragm. 

2  diaphragm!. 

3  diaphragm!. 

Degref,  F(nttt, 

5              5 

40          102 

60          391 

65          519 

Dtgrtf,  FtfruM, 
3              3 
21             91.2 
32             48.5 
43           123 
50           228 
55           302 

DtgTta,  Forcu, 
3              3 
14             H 
24             25 
32            18.5 
40           105 
45.         160 

Dtgrem,    Force*, 
1               1 

19             19 

20             20 

26              28 

31              44 

35              64 

The  galvanometer  employed  in  this  experiment  was  an  instrument  of  430  coils. 

The  mspection  of  this  table  suffices  to  remove  all  doubts  :  as  long  as  there 
was  no  diaphragm,  two  pairs  were  sufficient  to  give  40  degrees  of  galvanometric 
deviation,  equivalent  to  102  of  force ;  when  there  were  two  diaphragms,  five 
pairs  were  needed  to  arrive  at  the  same  angular  deviation.  When  there  was 
one  diaphragm,  three  pairs  gave  32^=48.5  of  forces ;  with  two  diaphragms 
tbere  was  but  24**=25  j  to  regain  the  32°  it  was  necessary  to  employ  four  pairs. 
With  three  diaphragms  there  resulted  for  three  pairs  only  20° =20 ;  for  four 
pairs  only  26° =28.  To  regain  or  nearly  regain  the  32^=48.5,  it  was  neces- 
sary to  employ  five  pairs.  In  effect,  by  taking  three  pairs,  there  resulted,  with 
one  diaphragm,  32  =48.5,  with  two  diaphragms  24° =25,  with  three  dia- 
phragms 20° =20.  Thus  the  quantity  of  the  current  continued  diminishing  in 
proportion  as  the  resistance  of  the  conductor  augmented.  Further,  to  regain  that 
quantity,  it  sufficed  to  increase  the  number  of  pairs  ]  then,  indeed,  the  resistance 
of  the  conductor  wjw  overcome  and  the  same  quantity  of  electricity  passed  anew. 

The  inspection  of  this  table  proves,  therefore,  that  to  have  the  same  number 
of  degrees  after  a  different  number  of  alternatives,  it  is  necessary  to  modify  the 
electric  source,  and  that  the  same  deviation  can  never  be  reproduced  after  the 
addition  of  a  diaphragm,  if  the  number  of  pairs  be  not  augmented.  The  table 
shows,  also,  that  the  loss  of  the  current  is  so  much  less  as  the  cunent  has 
already  traversed  a  greater  number  of  diaphragms.  Thus,  we  find  in  the  second 
line  for  two  pairs  102,  21.2,  14,  and  12.  The  first  diaphragm,  therefore,  has 
caused  the  current  to  lose  ^  of  its  quantity  ;  the  second,  § ;  the  third,  \,  '  It  is 
not,  as  has  been  said,  that  the  electricity,  better  sifted,  passes  mure  easily 
through  the  new  obstacles  opposed  to  it  j  the  electricity  has  not  changed  its 
nature,  but  it  is  that  after  having  traversed,  say  two  diaphragms,  if  a  third  bo 
presented  to  it*,  it  has,  in  order  to  retrograde,  to  smmount  anew  the  resistance 
of  the  first  two  diaphragms ;  it  is  no  longer  simply  the  obstacle  of  the  battery 
which  opposes  itself  to  its  equilibration  in  returning,  there  are  besides  the  two 
diaphragms  which  it  has  already  passed.  From  this  it  results  that  the  more 
diaphragms  the  current  has  traversed,  the  more  resistance  it  finds  in  its  return, 
and  the  less  loss  it  sustains  consequently  by  the  interposition  of  another  dia- 
phragm. 

From  what  precedes  we  shall  readily  comprehend  the  giavity  of  the  error 
committed  by  physicists,  and  especially  by  the  German  physicists,  who,  in  their 
experiments  on  currents,  in  general  only  consider  the  cun-ent  itself,  and  take 
little  or  no  account  of  the  electro-motor.  A  current,  however,  is  not  an  ideal 
existence  which  can  be  divorced  fi*om  the  source  which  gives  rise  to  it. 

Ohm  and  Gauss  have,  in  their  formulas,  recognized  as  a  principle  that  metnllic 
^Ju^ds  oppose  to  the  passage  of  electric  currents  a  resistance  always  directly 


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188  APPENDIX  TO  HEMOm  OF  PELTIER. 

proportional  to  their  length,  and  inversely  proportional  to  the  sur£ELce  of  their 
transverse  section.  It  would  be  desirable,  certainly,  that  this  law  might  be 
considered  exact ;  but  unfortunately  it  is  not  so,  for  Peltier  has  demonstrated 
that  there  are  very  great  differences  between  the  losses  undergone  by  a  current 
which  traverses  different  len^hs  of  the  same  wire  according  to  the  kind  of  eleo- 
tro-motor  employed ;  according  as  we  have  to  do  with  a  hydro-electric  pile,  a 
thermo-electric  pile,  or  with  electricity  by  induction.  Further,  for  the  same 
electro-motor  the  results  vary  according  to  the  greater  or  less  power  of  the  dis- 
turbing action.*  . 

Beply  qf  Peltier  to  an  otjection  made  to  the  chemical  theory  of  the  voltaic  pile. — 
The  partisans  of  the  theory  of  contact  had  often  objected  that  it  is  not  always 
the  bodies  most  strongly  attacked  which  give  most  electricity.  How,  said  they, 
should  chemical  action  be  the  cause  of  currents,  when  we  obtain  by  the  least 
oxidation  of  zinc  in  pure  water  a  current  superior  to  that  ffiven  by  copper 
plunged  in  nitric  acid,  which  devours  it  in  a  few  instants  1  Peltier  has  supplied 
the  explanation  of  this  apparent  anomaly,  t 

To  liave  full  fnombreuxj  currents,  it  is  not  only  necessary  that  there  should 
be  much  electricity  produced,  but,  moreover,  that  the  two  electricities  should  be 
collected,  each  separately,  at  the  moment  of  their  production  j  this  takes  place 
with  the  zinc,  but  does  not  take  place  with  the  copper.  When  an  acid  attacks 
and  oxidizes  the  zinc,  that  oxide  remains  adhereiU;  to  the  metallic  plate ;  the 
negative  electricity  can  therefore  easily  diffuse  itself  over  this  last.  On  the 
contrary,  when  the  acid  attacks  copper,  the  resulting  oxide  does  not  remain 
adherent  to  the  metal ;  it  falls  into  the  acidulated  liquid,  leaving  the  copper  still 
bright  and  clean.  Of  course,  in  this  case,  there  must  be  a  vast  quantity  of 
electricity  lost  j  in  effect,  the  chemical  combination  is  no  longer  accomplished, 
as  in  the  preceding  case,  in  contact  with  a  good  conductor ;  it  takes  place  in  the 
midst  of  an  acidulated  liquid ;  it  hence  results  that  the  negative  electricity  is 
recombined,  in  part  at  least,  with  the  positive  electricity  which  is  present  in  the  acid. 

What  has  been  said  above  explains  the  utility  of  the  amalgamation  of  the 
positive  elements  in  batteries ;  the  combination  of  the  oxygen  of  the  solution 
not  being  capable  of  accomplishment  except  in  the  interstices  of  the  mercury, 
the  electric  phenomenon  is  enveloped  by  a  conductinff  metal,  and  the  resinous 
electricity,  thus  collected  from  all  parts,  is  propagated  through  the  conductor  to 
become  again  neutralized  with  the  vitreous  elcctncity  abandoned  to  the  liquid. 

IV. — Cyano-polarimbtry. 

Peltier  had  occupied  himself  much  with  that  branch  of  the  physical  sciences 
which  treats  of  li^ht.  It  will  be  readily  understood  that,  desiring  to  penetrate 
as  far  as  possible  into  a  knowledge  of  the  intimate  structure  of  bodies,  he  would 
not  neglect  the  study  of  optics.  There  is,  indeed,  no  science  more  useful  or 
necessary  in  this  point  of  view,  for  there  is  none  in  which  molecular  actions  and 
influences  aie  more  distinctly  defined;  there  is  none  of  which  the  general  theory 
is  so  complete  and  satisfying.  Independently  of  many  other  circumstances,  this 
is  referable  to  a  fact  which  has  not  perhaps  been  sufficiently  remarked.  Fur  the 
study  of  caloric,  of  electricity,  of  magnetism,  there  is  always  need  of  instru- 
ments, and  these  instruments,  products  of  our  industry  and  ingenuity,  are  always 
more  or  less  awkward  j  we  must  have  recourse  to  the  thermometer,  the  galvan- 
ometer, the  diffei-ent  compasses  of  declination,  inclination,  &c.  For  light,  on 
the  contrary,  we  need  them  not ;  the  instrument  has  been  conferred  on  us  ready 
made  by  nature,  and  is  of  an  admirable  sensibility:  it  is  the  eye.  Peltier  had 
given,  therefore,  much  attention  to  the  phenomena  of  light  and  had  perfectly 

*  Peltier :  Commanication  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences  on  electric  condactibitity .  Compiti 
rendus,  t.  1,  pp.  *203,  ia%. 

t  See  Comptes  rindm  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  of  Paris,  1637,  t.  4,  p.  65,  and  the 
Dictionnairt  Univers.  d'Histoire  haturtUe,  article  Galvanism. 


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APPENDIX  TO  MEMOIR  OF  PELTIER.  189 

mastered  them;  but  be  bad  experimented  little,  and  all  that  remains  to  ns  of 
bis  in  this  branob  of  pbyeics  is  tbe  improvement  wbicb  be  applied  to  tbe  cyano- 
polarimeter  of  Arago. 

Every  one  knows  bow  mucb  tbe  aznre  color  of  tbe  sky  varies  witb  tbe  qaan- 
tity  and  state  of  tbe  vapors  diffused  in  tbe  atmospbere;  every  one  knows  al^o, 
since  tbe  discovery  of  M.  Arago  and  tbe  researobes  of  MM.  Qnetelet  and  Dele- 
zenne,  tbat  tbe  air  polarizes  lisbt  and  tbat  tbe  intensity  of  tbis  polarization  is 
not  tbe  same  at  all  points  of  tbe  sky,  nor  tbe  same  for  the  same  point  at  all 
bonrs.  There  was  nothing,  for  a  long  time,  wherewith  to  measure  the  variations 
of  tbe  azure  of  tbe  sky  but  the  cyanometer  of  Saussure;  for  the  cyanometer  of 
Arago,  as  designed  by  him  in  1817,  had  never  been  realized.  As  to  the  polari- 
zation of  tbe  atmosphere,  there  existed  for  its  study  only  tbe  polariscope  of 
Savart  and  tbat  of  Arago.  But  the  cyanometer  of  Saussure  is  a  very  imperfect 
instrument  which  can  yield  none  but  very  uncertain  results ;  as  regards  the 
polariscopes  of  Savart  and  Arago,  they  are  both,  it  is  true,  extremely  sensitive, 
but  as  they  are  destitute  of  tbe  means  of  measurement,  they  could  not  serve  for 
exact  observations. 

In  the  sitting  of  25tb  of  October,  1841,  Arago  communicated  to  tbe  Academy 
of  Sciences  a  polarimeter  of  his  own  invention.  This  instrument  was  the 
polariscope  proposed  by  tbe  same  savant  in  1811,  but  to  wbicb  a  particular 
apparatus  had  been  adapted.  Tbe  polariscope  of  Arago  becomes  a  polarimeter 
by  tbe  sole  addition  of  one  or  more  plates  of  glass  witb  parallel  faces,  placed 
in  front  of  the  old  instrument.  These  plates  are  movable.  A  graduated  circle 
indicates  tbe  inclination  under  which  tbe  light  has  traversed  them,  before  pene- 
trating into  tbe  polariscope,  properly  so  called.  The  proportion  of  polarized 
light  contained  in  the  pencil  observed  is  deduced  from  the  angle  at  which  it  is 
necessary  to  adjust  the  plates  of  glass  in  order  to  perceive  no  longer  any  trace 
of  color  athwart  the  whole  apparatus. 

In  tbe  sitting  just  mentioned,  Arago  bad  presented  to  tbe  academy  the  instru- 
ment as  constructed  and  arranged  by  himself;  at  a  succeeding  session,  Novem- 
ber 15,  be  submitted  to  tbe  inspection  of  the  academy  this  same  polarimeter 
constructed  upon  his  model,  but  executed  by  M.  Soleil ;  this  instrument  is  known 
as  the  cyano-polarimeter  of  Arago.  Capable  of  serving  at  once  as  a  cyanometer 
and  polarimeter,  it  was,  beyond  doubt,  greatly  superior  to  the  instruments  pre- 
vioQsly  in  use  for  studying  the  variations  of  the  blue  color  of  tbe  sky  and  the 
differences  in  the  quantity  of  light  po]j&rized  by  tbe  atmosphere ;  yet  was  it  not 
without  defects:  first,  as  concerns  cyanometry,  it  wanted  several  important 
means  of  measurement;  then,  as  regards  polarimetry,  it  cotild  in  reality  render 
service  in  only  two  rectangular  planes :  in  tbe  plane,  namely,  of  tbe  meridian, 
and  in  that  of  tbe  equator  of  tbe  aerial  sphere,  of  which  tbe  sun  is  one  of  tbe 
poles,  and  tbe  anti-sun  the  other  pole;  outside  of  these  two  planes,  it  could  be 
of  no  utility.  Peltier  applied  himself  to  correct  these  defects,  and  completely 
succeeded  in  doing  so. 

Optical  principles  of  cyanometry i — If  we  take  a  crystal  having  a  single  axis 
of  double  refraction,  such  as  Icelajid-spar,  tbe  beryl,  &c.,  and  cut  from  its  mass 
a  slip  of  wbicb  the  two  faces  shall  be  exactly  perpendicular  to  tbat  axis,  and 
if  we  then  cause  a  ray  of  polarized  white  light  to  fall  perpendicularly  on  tbis 
Blip,  so  that  it  shall  traverse  tbe  crystal  exactly  in  the  du-ection  of  its  axis,  the 
ray  will  undergo  modification.  If  we  now  analyze  it  on  its  emergence  witb  an 
achromatic  double-refracting  prism,  taking  care  to  place  the  principal  section  of 
this  prism  in  the  plane  itself  of  the  polarization  of  the  ray,  the  ordinary  image 
contains  the  entire  ray;  tbat  is  to  say,  the  complimentary  tints  are  black  and 
white,  and  there  is  no  coloration.  Quartz,  however,  forms  an  exception  to  tbis 
rule.  When,  in  effect,  a  ray  of  polarized  white  light  is  made  to  pass  through  a 
lamina  of  quartz  (rock  crystal)  cut  perpendicularly  to  the  axis,  and  this  ray,  as 
in  tbe  previous  case,  exactly  follows  tbe  direction  of  tbe  axis,  if  we  in  like  man- 


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190  APPENDIX  TO  HEMOIB   OF  PELTIER. 

ner  analyze  it  at  its  emergence  with  an  achromatic  donble-refiracting  prism,  we 
shall  see  two  images  always  colored  and  presenting  complementary  colors  which 
change  when  the  bi-refracting  prism  is  made  to  revolve.  The  reason  of  this 
difference  is  the  following: 

A  ray  of  white  light  polarized  is  a  ray  of  which  all  the  constituent  colored 
rays  have  vibrations  which  are  always  executed  in  the  same  plane.  Now,  if 
such  a  ray  be  made  to  pass  through  a  crystal  with  a  single  aads,  the  planes  of 
polarization  of  these  different  rays  are  not  modified.  The  colored  rays  iseae 
from  it  as  they  had  entered,  and  consequently  the  bi-refracting  prism  employed 
to  study  the  white  ray  at  iti9  emergence  can  produce  no  other  phenomena  than 
those  which  it  produces  with  all  ordinary  polarized  rays. 

It  is  not  the  same  when  quartz  is  employed.  This  mineral,  in  effect,  has  the 
property  of  deflecting  the  plane  of  polarization  of  the  diffsrent-colored  rays 
constituting  the  polarized  white  ray.  The  lamina  of  quartz  turns  these  different 
planes  around  its  axis,  so  that  the  planes  might  be  said  to  follow  a  spiral  situated 
within  the  crystal ;  the  plane  of  polarization  of  the  red  ray  is  the  least  deflected, 
being  that  which  makes  the  smallest  angle  with  the  primitive  plane  of  polariza- 
tion; on  the  contrary,  the  plane  of  polarization  of  the  violet  ray  is  most  deflected, 
being  that  which  makes  the  greatest  angle  with  the  above  definitive  plane.  It 
is  thus  seen  that  in  the  deflection  of  their  planes  of  polarization,  the  rays  follow 
the  order  of  their  respective  refrangibilities,  beginning  with  the  least  refrangible. 
When,  therefore,  the  polarized  white  ray  issues  from  the  lamina  of  quartz,  the 
colored  rays  which  constitute  it  have  each  their  plane  of  special  polarization — 
have  each  particular  and  different  planes  in  which  their  vibrations  are  performed. 
When  we  proceed,  then,  to  analyze  such  a  ray  with  an  achromatic  double-refinct- 
ing  prism,  the  colors  are  distributed  in  unequal  proportions  among  the  ordinary 
and  extraordinary  pencils,  which  consequently  produce  colored  and  complimentary 
images. 

The  planes  of  polarization  of  the  colored  rays  which  have  traversed  the  axis 
of  a  lamina  of  quartz  deviate  firom  their  primitive  position  by  a  quantity  propor- 
tional to  the  thickness  of  the  lamina.  They  exhibit  a  double  angular  deviation 
for  a  double  thickness,  and,  at  the  moment  of  their  emergence  they  present  pre- 
cisely the  position  in  which  they  would  occur  if  they  had  been  made  to  turn 
uniformly  in  the  same  direction  around  the  axis  during  their  transit  through  the 
lamina.  From  this  it  will  be  seen,  that  by  ^ving  to  the  lamina  of  quartz  a 
sufficient  thickness,  the  primitive  plane  of  poh^rization  of  a  ray  might  be  made 
to  turn  even  several  semi-circumferences.  This  shows  that  there  is  a  fundamental 
difference  between  the  action  of  the  quartz  on  a  polarized  white  ray,  and  that  of 
a  prism  of  glass  on  a  ray  of  natural  light;  it  is,  in  effect,  that  the  first  is  a  molec- 
ular action,  while  the  second  is  due  only  to  the  difference  of  refractive  power  of 
the  surfaces. 

By  giving  a  suitable  thickness  to  the  lamina  of  quartz,  we  may  obtain,  there- 
fore, such  a  tint  as  is  desired  for  a  given  position  of  the  principal  section  of  the 
prism.  M.  Ar^go  has,  with  reason,  chosen  the  thickness  which  gives  a  pure 
blue  of  the  second  order  in  the  ordinary  image;  this  thickness  is  in  general  from 
six  to  seven  millimetres. 

It  results  from  what  has  been  said,  that  the  intensity  of  the  blue  color  in  the 
ordinary  ray  depends  upon  the  perfection  of  the  polarization  of  the  ray  which 
falls  on  the  lamina  of  quartz,  on  the  thickness  of.  that  lamina,  and  on  the  posi- 
tion of  the  bi-refracting  prism.  For  a  constant  thickness  of  the  lamina  and  an 
equally  constant  position  of  the  bi-refracting  prism,  the  intensity  of  the  color 
can,  therefore,  only  depend  on  the  greater  or  less  perfection  in  the  polarization 
of  the  incident  ray;  in  other  words,  on  the  relative  polarization  of  that  ray. 
Now,  when  the  pile  of  glasses  in  the  cyano-polarimeter  is  perpendicular  to  the 
incident  ray,  the  polarization  is  null,  and  consequently  the  coloration  is  equally 
null.     The  more  the  pile  is  hiclined  and  the  incidence  of  the  ray  oblique^  the 


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APPENDIX   TO  MEMOIR   OP  PELTIER.  191 

more  perfect  is  tbe  polarization  and  tbe  more  intense  the  bine  color  of  the  ordinary 
raj.  For  a  pile  of  eight  glasses,  the  polarization  may  be  considered  as  perfect 
when  the  ray  of  light  reaches  it  under  an  incidence  of  10  degrees;  it  is  at  that 
point,  therefore,  that  we  should  have  the  most  intense  blue,  and  it  is  evidently 
this  angle  which  might  serve  as  a  point  of  departure,  were  it  not  for  the  circum- 
stance which  I  am  about  to  mention.  The  pile  of  glasses  transmits,  in  effect, 
only  a  part  more  or  less  considerable  of  the  incident  light,  and  reflects  the  rest. 
Now,  when  the  incidence  of  the  ray  is  too  oblique,  the  quantity  of  reflected 
light  is  so  much  augmented  that  more  is  lost  in  vivacity  of  color  by  the  reflec- 
tion, than  is  gained  by  the  perfection  of  the  polarization.  There  is,  therefore, 
an  angle  at  which  the  polarized  ray  gives  a  maximum  of  the  image;  that  point 
passed,  the  ray  still  gains  in  polarization,  but  loses  considerably  in  brightness. 
it  is  thought  by  most  authors  that  this  maximum  is  obtained  when  the  pile  of 
glasses  makes  with  a  perpendicular  to  the  ray  an  angle  of  55^^;  in  other  words, 
when  the  ray  reaches  the  pile  under  an  incidence  of  35®*  It  is  in  fact  under 
this  angle  that  we  obtain  the  maximum  of  absolute,  bi^t  not  of  relative  polari- 
zation. 

This  is  the  angle  also  that  Peltier  has  taken  as  being  that  which  gives  the 
maximum  blue.  I  confess,  however,  that  it  has  appeared  to  me  that  we  should 
still  gMn  by  continuing  to  incline  the  pile.  We  lose,  it  is  true,  a  little  in  light, 
but  to  me  it  has  seemed  that  the  blue  tint  became  more  pronounced.  I  think 
that  the  angle  which  gives  the  maximum  of  coloration  is  rather  between  25®  and 
30®  than  at  35® ;  it  may  be,  however,  that  this  would  vary  according  to  the  indi- 
vidual. 

OptkaH  principles  ofpolarimetry. — ^We  now  pass  to  polarimetry.  In  researches 
on  this  subject,  the  observer  is  always  supposed  at  the  centre  of  a  sphere  of 
which  the  sun  is  one  of  the  poles  and  the  anti-sun  the  other.  This  sphere  has 
its  meridian  and  its  equator,  endowed  with  the  properties  which  characterize 
those  great  circles. 

We  will  suppose,  then,  the  axis  of  the  objective  tube  to  be  in  the  plane  of 
the  meridian,  the  pile  also,  and  moreover  rectangular  with  the  incident  ray ;  we 
will  suppose,  in  fine,  that  the  index  of  the  ocular  points  to  the  zero  of  the 
graduatcKl  circle.  If  now,  by  means  of  the  vertical  joint,  the  objective  tube  be 
carried  successively  to  all  points  of  the  meridian  of  the  optical  sphere  which  we 
are  considering,  the  following  is  what  we  observe :  the  rays  proceeding  directly 
from  the  sun  and  those  little  distant  from  them  give  no  signs  of  polarization, 
and  consequently  no  coloration  in  the  images,  but  in  proportion  as  the  angle  of 
the  radius  vector  with  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun  is  enlarged,  the  signs  of  polar- 
ization supervene  and  coloration  makes  its  appearance.  The  extraordinary 
image  takes  the  blue  color,  and  the  ordinary  image  assumes  the  orange-yellow 
complementary  tint. 

The  intensity  of  the  tints  increases  up  to  about  90®,  that  is  to  say,  to  about 
the  point  of  intersection  of  the  meridian  and  equator;  thence  it  decreases  till 
aboat  150®.  This  number  attained,  we  find  the  neutral  point  for  whose  discov- 
ery we  are  indebted  to  M.  Arago.  Beyond  this,  polarization  is  again  reproduced, 
but  in  an  opposite  direction;  that  is,  the  plane  of  polarization  of  tnese  new 
polarized  rays  is  perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  polarization  of  the  preceding; 
consequently  it  is  no  longer  the  extraordinary  image  which  is  colored  blue ;  it  is 
the  ordinary  image. 

This  singular  change  in  the  plane  of  polarization  of  the  reflected  rays  results 
from  the  circumstance  that  that  portion  of  the  sky  no  longer  reflects  the  rays 
proceeding  dicectly  from  the  sun  in  so  great  quantity  as  the  rays  proceeding 
from  the  different  illuminated  points  at  the  horizon.  Consequently  the  neutral 
of  M.  Arago  evidently  results  from  the  union  of  equal  rays  polarized  rectanga- 

*  Peclet,  Traite  de  Phyiique,  $  1439,  p.  447. 

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192  APPENDIX  TO  MEMOIR  OF  PELTIER. 

larly,  for  sucli  rays  condnct  themselves  like  the  lays  of  natnral  light  M.  Arago 
has  remarked,  moreover,  that  this  point  does  not  always  correspond  to  the  ver- 
tical plane  passing  by  the  son,  but  that  it  is  sometimes  found  diverted  to  the 
right  or  to  the  le^  when  the  reflection  is  altered  in  one  of  the  reflecting  sectcnnBy 
whether  this  alteration  proceeds  from  the  presence  of  donds,  or  from  that  of 
diflnsed  vapors,  or  from  the  neighborhood  of  a  mountain,  &c. 

We  will  not  enter  into  further  details  on  this  subject;  it  may  suffice  to  direct 
the  reader's  attention  to  the  original  researches  of  M.  Arago,  as  well  as  to  those 
of  MM.  Quetelet  and  Delezenne.*  It  may  be  stated,  however,  that  a  second 
neutral  point  has  been  found  by  M.  Babinet,  about  30^  above  the  setting  sun, 
and  a  third  by  Mr  Brewster,  below  the  setting  sun ;  but  these  two  neutral  points 
are  rather  difficult  to  be  observed.  All  these  neutral  points,  it  may  be  added, 
exist  only  in  the  meridian  or  in  the  great  circles  but  slightly  remote  from  it. 

We  have  supposed  that  the  pile  was  placed  in  the  plane  of  the  meridian,  and 
that  it  presented  itself  perpendicularly  to  the  incident  ray.  If  during  the  move- 
ment communicated  to  the  eye-glass  along  the  meridian,  we  incline  the  pile  on 
the  axis  of  the  luminous  pencil,  the  intensity  of  the  colors  will  be  seen  to  dimin- 
jsh  'y  in  a  word,  the  pile  then  depolarizes  the  atmospheric  ray.  It  depolarizes  it, 
however,  unequally,  according  to  the  direction  that  is  given  to  its  inclination; 
for  if  it  is  inclined  towards  the  sun  it  depolarizes  rapidly  and  completely,  while 
if  it  is  inclined  in  the  other  direction,  towards  the  opposite  pole,  it  depolarizes 
much  less  and  often  very  little. 

If  now  the  tube  of  the  eye-glass  be  turned  in  its  collar,  so  that  the  plane  of 
the  pile  shall  be  perpendicular  to  the  meridian,  and  if,  in  this  new  position  the 
pile  be  inclined  on  the  incident  ray,  the  intensity  of  the  tints  is  augmented* 
instead  of  diminishing  as  in  the  previous  case.  Thus,  in  the  first  position,  that 
of  the  pile  in  the  plane  of  the  optical  meridian,  the  pile  in  inclining  depolarized 
the  rays  of  the  atmosphere;  in  the  second,  on  the  contrary,  it  adds  new  polar- 
ized rays  to  those  which  already  existed. 

Instead  of  placing  the  instrument  in  the  plane  of  the  meridian,  the  observer 
may  place  it  in  the  plane  of  the  equator;  suppose,  then,  the  objective  tube  of 
the  polarimeter  in  this  latter  plane,  and  that  the  pile  also  be  in  the  same 
plane,  and  thus  presents  itself  perpendicularly  to  the  incident  rays ;  if  now  we 
direct  the  instrument  in  succession  to  all  points  of  the  equator,  from  the  maxi- 
mum point,  which  has  its  place  on  the  meridian  at  the  intersection  of  these  two 
gieat  circles,  to  the  horizon,  we  shall  find  the' extraordinary  image  colored  blae; 
moreover  that  it  preserves  the  same  intensity  in  the  whole  line  of  the  equatorial 
circle;  only  in  approaching  the  horizon,  the  tint  becomes  a  little  weakened, 
through  the  vapors  diflused  in  the  strata  of  air  very  near  the  surface  of  the  globe. 
We  have  supposed  the  pile  in  the  plane  of  the  equator  and  perpendicular  to  the 
incident  rays;  if  we  incline  it  on  those  rays  the  intensity  of  the  colors  is  aug- 
mented; if,  on  the  contrary,  we  place  it  perpendicularly  to  that  plane  its  inclina- 
tion depolaoizes  the  atmospheric  rays  and  renders  the  images  colorless. 

Thus  in  the  two  great  rectan^Lax  circles  which  we  have  been  considering, 
one  forming  the  meridian  of  the  optical  sphere  and  the  other  its  equator,  the 
extraordinary  ray  is  blue,  the  ordinary  ray  has  the  complementary  tint,  orange 
yellow ;  the  pile  adds  to  the  atmospheric  polarity  when  it  is  parallel  to  the 
equator,  while,  on  the  contrary,  it  depolarizes  when  perpendicular  to  it  As  to 
the  horizon,  if  we  examine  it  at  the  moment  of  the  rising  or  setting  of  the  sani 
it  will  be  found  that  the  coloration  is  null  for  the  rays  which  proceed  directly 
from  that  luminary ;  that  it  increases  up  to  about  90^ ;  that  it  then  diminishes  till 
about  180^,  where  it  is  at  its  minimum ;  that  it  recovers  anew  till  about  270% 
where  is  found  a  second  maximum,  to  again  disappear  when  it  ^lls  within  the 
too  direct  rays  of  the  sun. 

*  See  the  Corrtspondanee  Math6matiqu$  de  M.  Quetelet,  t.  1,  pp.  275  and  338. 

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APPENDIX   TO   MEMOIR   OP  PELTIER.  193 

From  the  above,  it  is  seen  that  the  maximnro  of  coloration  is  always  found  in 
the  extraordinary  image,  \\'ith  the  sun  at  90".  Now,  it  is  evident  that  this  should 
be  80,  since  the  angle  of  maximum  polarization  for  the  air  is  precisely  at  45". 

If  we  look  wnth  the  objective  tube  of  the  polarimeter  towards  a  point  of  the 
heavens  situated  outside  of  the  optical  mendian  and  equator,  the  blue  of  the 
extraordinary  image  is  altered ;  it  becomes  violet,  or  else  green,  according  to 
the  direction  of  the  displacement.  This  change  in  the  tint  of  the  images  indi- 
cates an  equivalent  change  in  the  plane  of  the  reflector  or  polarizer.  To  regain 
tLe  blue,  it  is  necessary  to  turn  the  bi-refracting  prism  by  an  angular  quantity 
equal  to  the  supposed  angular  deviation  of  the  reflector,  with  a  view  to  replacing 
the  principal  section  of  the  prism  in  the  same  relation  that  it  had  with  the  plane 
of  the  polarized  ray  before  this  deviation  of  the  reflector;  we  therefore  turn  the 
ocular  tube  which  bears  the  bi-refracting  prism,  until  we  shall  have  recovered 
the  blue;  then  we  carefully  note  the  number  of  degrees  by  which  it  has  been 
tamed,  for  it  is  this  notation  which  gives  the  position  of  the  plane  of  polanza- 
tion  in  the  point  of  the  atmosphere  which  we  maj^  bo  studying.  Unluckily,  the 
rotation  which  has  been  communicated  to  the  ocular  to  restore  the  blue  of  the 
extraordinary  image,  has  at  the  same  time  destroyed  the  blue  of  the  ordinary 
image  which  proceeds  from  the  pile  and  from  the  other  lamina  of  quartz — that  is 
to  say,  the  blue  which  is  to  serve  as  a  point  of  comparison ;  it  was  requisite, 
therefore,  to  find  the  means  of  reproducing  the  normal  blue  of  the  ordinary 
image. 

To  attain  this  result,  Peltier  covered  the  cap  of  the  left  and  his  lamina  of 
quartz  with  another  cap,  turning  with  easy  friction.  In  this  new  cap  he  set  a 
lamina  of  mica  of  a  thickness  sumcient  to  restore  to  the  image  its  normal  blue  by 
tuning  the  cap  on  itself,  and  placing  by  this  means  the  principal  section  of  the 
lamina  of  mica  in  the  plane  necessary  to  obtain  this  restoration  of  the  blue. 

V. — Meteokology. 

Introduction, — Astronomical  and  meteoi:ological  phenomena  are,  beyond  ques- 
tion, the  first  which  must  have  attracted  the  attention  of  man.  The  diurnal 
movement  of  the  sun,  its  annual  movement  and  the  periodical  retmn  of  the 
seasons,  must  have  so  much  the  more  interested  him  as  they  bore  directly  on  his 
existence  and  his  mjlterial  well-being.  On  the  other  hand,  the  astounding  spec- 
tacle of  storms,  the  lightning  and  the  thunder,  could  as  little  fail  strongly  to 
impress  his  imagination.  Everything,  therefore,  would  lead  us  to  conclude 
that,  firom  the  earliest  times,  mankind  have  been  seriously  occupied*  with  the 
study  of  the  different  phenomena  of  astronomy  and  meteorology. 

But  if  these  two  sciences  were  bom  at  the  same  time,  they  are  far  from  having 
made  the  same  progress.  Astronomy  has  long  ago  attained  a  certainty  so  great 
that  it  may  be  considered  in  this  respect  the  first  of  all  the  sciences  of  observa- 
tion ;  meteorology,  on  the  contrary,  is  still  in  its  infancy.  The  reason  of  this 
difference  is  easily  comprehended.  The  movements  of  the  heavenly  bodies  are 
subjected  to  a  small  number  of  very  simple  laws,  always  identical ;  meteorolo- 
gical phenomena,  on  the  contrary,  are  generated  by  the  action  of  a  host  of  dif- 
ferent causes,  all  widely  diverse,  and  highly  variable  as  to  their  nature,  their 
mode  of  action,  their  power  and  their  mutual  influence.  But  this  is  not  all :  to 
arrive  at  the  point  it  has  attained,  astronomy  has  had  to  ask  little  succor  from 
the  other  sciences ;  it  has,  in  some  sort,  had  need  only  of  direct  observation  for 
the  registration  of  facts,  and  of  mathematics  for  their  co-ordination  and  the 
dedaction  of  consequences.  It  is  not  so  with  meteorology,  for  meteorology  is 
most  frequently  only  the  application  of  the  different  laws  of  physics  to  a  par- 
ticalar  class  of  phenomena,  and  could  not  exist  in  an  independent  manner ; 
meteorology,  therefore,  could  make  no  real  progress  until  other  sciences,  and 
especially  physics,  were  sufficiently  advanced  to  constitute  a  satisfactory  body  of 

13  8  67 

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194  APPENDIX  TO   MEMOIR   OP  PELTIER. 

doctrines.  Now,  the  most  important  part  of  physics  for  meteorology,  electricity, 
dates  back  scarcely  a  century.  The  discovery  of  the  Leyden  jar  by  3Iasschen- 
broeck  and  Cuneos  dates  from  1746,  the  experiments  of  t)alibard  and  of  Frank- 
lin from  1752;  what  could  meteorology  be  before  that  epoch!  Evidently  it 
could  corsist  only  of  theories,  of  suppositions  more  or  less  vague  and  unmeaning; 
in  fact,  before  that  epoch,  but  little  consideration  was  applied  to  it.  It  was 
quite  otherwise  after  the  period  in  question  ;  the  discovery  of  Musschenbroeck 
had  aroused  all  thinking  minds ;  the  analogy  between  the  electric  spark  and 
the  thunderbolt  appeared  evident ;  all  the  world  threw  itself  with  lu^or  into 
the  study  of  electrical  phenomena  on  the  one  hand,  and  of  meteorological  phe- 
nomena on  the  other ;  a  groat  number  of  savants  devoted  themselves  to  the 
study  of  atmospheric  electricity,  and  if  the  results  at  which  they  arrived  had 
not  at  first  all  the  precision  that  might  be  desired,  they  always  maintained  an 
interest  which  fostered  and  kept  alive  the  general  attention. 

The  number  of  savants  who  occupied  themselves  with  experiments  on  atmo- 
spheric electricity  in  the  second  half  of  the  eighteenth  century  was  very  con- 
siderable. Some  of  these,  like  Lemonnier,  Ronayne,  Head,  Schubler,  made 
use,  by  preference,  of  fixed  apparatus,  while  others,  like  Ilomae,  the  prince 
Galitzin,  Musschenbroeck,  Van  Swinden,  the  duke  de  Chaulnes,  Bertholon, 
Franklin,  Cavallo,  joined  thereto  the  use  of  the  electrical  kite.  Beccaria,  who 
had  at  first  experimented  only  with  fixed  apparatus,  employed  also  the  electrical 
kite  at  a  later  date. 

The  results  at  which  these  savants  arrived  were  most  contradictory.  Romas, 
Galitzin,  Musschenbroeck  remarked  from  the  beginning  that  the  electric  signs 
varied  with  the  course  of  the  kite  ;  on  the  other  hand,  Beccaria,  Read,  Schiib- 
ler,  complained  of  the  little  accordance  of  the  fixed  apparatus ;  hence  it  was 
impossible  to  reach  a  conclusion  even  approaching  certainty.  Yet,  as  doubt  is 
always  painful  to  the  human  mind,  it  came  to  be  admitted  generally,  on  the  one 
part,  that  the  air  was  electrical ;  on  the  other,  that  the  electricity  of  the  air 
proceeded  from  the  evaporation  which  takes  place  at  the  surface  of  the  soil. 
For  the  substantiation  of  this  opinion,  reliance  was  placed  on  the  old  experi- 
ments of  Volta,  Lavoisier,  and  Laplace,  and  on  the  more  recent  ones  of  M. 
Ponillet.  These  experiments  consisted  in  projecting  water  on  a  body  raised  to 
a  high  temperature ;  but  it  was  M.  Ponillet  alone  who  had  employed  a  crucible 
of  platina  m  place  of  an  oxidizable  metal  as  the  other  physicists  had  done.  In 
these  experiments  the  vapor  formed,  almost  always  yields  electricity,  and  when 
it  does  so  it  is  always  vitreous  electricity. 

The  first  thing  which  Peltier  did  was  to  repeat,  while  he  also  simplified,  the 
experiment  of  Ponillet,  and  he  showed  that  the  formation  of  vapors  only  gives 
an  appreciable  electricity  when  the  vase  has  a  temperature  of  at  least  110 
degrees ;  that  below  that  temperature  the  instruments  can  no  longer  collect  any, 
and  that,  in  fine,  even  at  that  temperature  they  can  only  collect  it  when  there 
has  been  calefaction  and  then  decrepitation  of  the  drop  of  water  projected.* 
The  high  temperature  and  the  assemblage  of  phenomena  necessary  to  nuuntain 
separate  the  electricities  produced,  never  meet  together  in  our  ambient  medium ; 
never  does  the  vapor,  when  it  rises  on  the  surface  of  the  soil,  possess  any  con- 
siderable tension ;  hence  spontaneous  evaporation  gives  no  electrical  «gnSy 
unless  under  circumstances  wholly  peculiar. 

Spontan^us  evaporation  being  incapable  of  communicating  electricity  to 
vapors,  and  those  of  the  atmosphere  containing  considerable  quantities  of  it, 
Peltier  felt  engaged  to  seek  the  true  origin  of  that  electricity.  He  recorred, 
therefore,  to  an  old  experiment  of  Saussure  and  Ermann,  which  in  their  hands 
had  been  barren  of  results ;  and  as  this  experiment  may  be  considered  as  the 

*  See  the  note  of  Peltier  contained  in  Vin$tUut,  vol.  ix,  p.  31 ;  and  his  memoir  on  aims- 
spheric  dutrieity,  Ann.  de  Chim.  et  de  phys.,  3  series  iv,  p.  385. 


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APPENDIX   TO  MEMOIR  OF  PELTIEB.  195 

fandamental  baais  of  all  meteorology,  we  judge  proper  to  recite  it  here  with 
Bome  details. 

A  place  is  selected  perfectly  uncovered  and  commanding  all  the  environing* 
objects ;  an  electroscope  is  to  bo  taken  furnished  with  a  stem  of  about  four 
decimetres,  surmounted  by  a  ball  of  polished  metal  of  a  radius  of  from  three  to 
four  centimetres,  with  a  view  to  augment  the  effects  of  influence  and  to  avoid 
tlie  efflux  of  the  electricity  which  may  be  repelled  into  the  upper  part ;  the 
instrument  is  to  be  held  with  one  hand,  the  equilibrium  to  be  managed  with  the  ^ 
other,  in  putting  in  communication  the  stem  and  the  foot.  All  the  reac- 
tions being  equal  on  one  part  and  the  other,  the  gold  leaves  of  the  electroscope 
Mi  straight  and  mark  zero.  In  this  state  of  equilibrium  the  instrument  may 
be  left  in  contact  with  the  free  air  for  a  whole  day  under  a  clear  sky  without 
the  least  sign  of  electricity  being  manifested ;  it  may  even  be  moved  and  the 
air  agitated ;  as  long  as  the  instrument  is  kept  at  the  same  altitude  it  remains 
com^etely  insensible.  But  if,  instead  of  leaving  it  in  the  same  horizontal  stra- 
toin  of  air,  it  be  elevated  from  four  to  five  decimeters,  the  gold  leaves  are  at 
ODce  seen  to  diverge  and  to  indicate  a  vitreous  tension.  If  the  instrument  be 
replaced  at  the  point  of  departure  the  leaves  again  fall  exactly  to  2ero  ;  if  it  be 
Bank  lower  than  this  point  of  equilibrium  the  leaves  diverge  anew,  but  now 
they  are  charged  with  resinous  electricity.  On  raising  it  again  to  the  point  of 
departure  the  instrument  resumes  its  zero,  and  retains  nothing  of  the  free  elec- 
tricities which  it  has  for  an  instant  shown. 

Smce  no  free  electricity  has  remained  in  the  instrument  the  air  has  of  course 
communicated  nothing  to  it,  and  the  electrical  signs  which  the  instrument  had 
presente^l  proceeded  only  from  the  electricity  developed  in  its  interior  by  the 
influence  of  a  neighboring  body  in  proportion  as  it  was  brought  nearer  to  or 
removed  further  from  it,  by  elevating  the  instrument  above  the  point  where  it 
had  been  in  equilibrium  or  depressing  it  below  that  point :  it  suflices,  in  effect, 
to  replace  the  instrument  at  the  same  point  to  cause  them  to  disappear.  They 
were,  I  repeat,  nothing  more  than  signs  of  electricity  by  influence,  such  as  may 
be  perceived  in  bodies  which  are  brought  near  to  or  removed  from  another  body 
charged  with  free  electricity,  a  phenomenon  which  may  be  reproduced  in  the 
closet  by  placing  one's  self  on  a  resinous  or  a  vitreous  surface.  The  conse- 
quence of  this  experiment  is  that  dry  air  is  not  electrical  of  itself;  that  the 
earth  has  a  resinous  tension,  and  space  a  vitreous  tension.  We  may,  in  effect, 
interpret  this  experiment  in  relation  to  space,  or  in  relation  to  the  earth.  In  the 
first  case  we  say  if,  after  having  placed  an  electroscope  in  equilibrium  at  a  cer- 
tain height,  we  raise  it  to  a  greater  height,  we  approximate  the  terminal  ball  to 
the  celestial  space  or  to  the  vitreous  body.  This  latter  then  acts  with  more  effi- 
cacy ;  it  decomposes  a  portion  of  the  natural  electricity  of  the  ball,  attracts  the 
resinous  and  repels  the  vitreous  in  the  gold  leaves  which  diverge  and  indicate  a 
vitreous  tension.  In  the  second  case  we  say  if,  after  having  placed  an  electro- 
scope in  equilibrium  at  a  certain  height,  we  raise  it  to  a  greater  height,  the 
foot  of  the  instrument,  forming  with  the  arm  which  lifts  it  the  extremity  of  a 
point  more  elevated  and  conducting,  becomes  charged  thereby  with  a  more  con- 
siderable resinous  tension ;  the  resinous  electricity  thus  accumulated  in  the  pla- 
tina  and  in  the  armatures  acts  now  with  more  force,  decomposes  the  natural 
electricity  of  the  upper  part  of  the  instrument,  repels  the  resinous  in  the  termi- 
nal metallic  globe,  and  attracts  the  vitreous  in  the  gold  leaves  which  diverge. 
As  may  be  seen,  these  two  interpretations  end  in  the  same  result ;  but,  accord- 
ing to  the  ideas  of  Peltier  on  electricity,  the  last  alone  is  logical  and  admissible. 

Peltier  may  be  considered  as  the  founder  of  meteorology.  No  doubt,  before 
him,  a  great  number  of  distinguished  savants  had  occupied  themselves  with  this 
branch  of  knowledge;  among  the  more  recent  it  might  suffice  to  mention 
MM.  de  Humboldt,  Boussingault,  Kaemtz,  Quetelet,  Lament,  Arago,  Gasparin, 
&^;  &c.    But  all  these  savants  starting  with  the  erroneous  principle  that  the 


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196  APPENDIX' TO   MEMOIR   OF   PELTIER. 

air  is,  in  itself,  electrical,  and  that  it  is  vitreous,  had  not  been  able  to  draw  any 
general  conclusion,  to  deduce  any  law  from  their  observations.  There  had  been, 
unquestionably,  meteorological  observations  at  once  cm-ious,  interesting  and 
exact ;  there  had  been,  indeed,  a  great  number  of  them  ;  but  as  nothing  con- 
nected, co-ordinated,  concatenated  them  with  one  another,  meteorology  as  a  sci- 
ence did  not  yet  erist ;  it  was  Peltier  who  founded  it,  for  it  was  ho  who  first 
stated  its  laws ;  of  this  the  reader  will  be  convinced  by  a  perasal  of  the  sum- 
nmry  review  which  we  propose  to  give  of  the  discoveries  and  ideas  of  Peltier 
on  this  subject,  based  on  his  published  researches.* 

The  principal  works  of  Peltier  on  meteorology  are  the  following :  first,  his 
Traite  des  trombeSj  (on  water-spouts,)  published  in  1840;  his  memoir  on  the 
electricity  of  the  atmosphere,  published  in  1842  in  the  Annales  de  Chimic  et  de 
PhymquCj  (3d  series,  vol.  iv,  p.  385;)  his  memoir  on  fogs,  which  may  be  found 
in  the  15th  volume  of  the  M(moir€S  de  VAcademie  de  Bru^elleSj  and  has  been 
reproduced  in  the  Annales  de  Ch.  et  de  Physique j  vol.  vi,  p.  129 ;  his  writings 
on  electric  meteorology i  printed  in  the  Archives  d^jSlectricitd  de  Gimkvey  1844,  vol. 
iv,  p.  173;  finally,  his  great  memoir  on  barometric  variations,  published  in  vol- 
ume 18th  of  the  Memoires  de  VAcademie  de  BruxelUs,  To  these  should  be  added 
certain  articles  of  the  JDictionnaire  Universel  des  Sciences  Naturelles  (etoiles 
filantes,  foudre,  galvanism,  grele,  &c.,)  and  many  other  less  important  commu- 
nications, composed  in  the  foim  of  letters,  whether  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences 
of  Paris  or  to  the  Societe  Phildmatique, 

Distribution  of  diurnal  vapors  under  the  double  influence  qf  the  earth  and  the 
tropical  current, — The  diurnal  vapors  situated  between  the  earth  and  the  tropical 
current,  that  is  to  say,  between  two  like  forces  acting  in  a  contrary  direction,  are 
divided  into  three  very  distinct  strata.!  The  lowest,  that  which  receives  most 
immediately  the  resinous  influence  of  the  globe,  becomes  vitreous.  The  portion 
next  to  the  siuface  cannot,  it  is  true,  long  retain  its  electricity,  for  the  proximity 
of  the  earth  too  greatly  facilitates  its  efflux ;  it  is  only  the  zone  placed  at  some 
distance  which  is  sufficiently  insulated  to  preserve  a  part  of  its  own.  The  infe- 
rior vapors,  in  assuming  the  globular  form,  become  white  and  humid ;  they  form 
the  ordinary  fogs,  which  so  easily  resolve  themselves  into  dew  or  drizzling  rain 
through  the  attraction  of  the  globe. 

The  cause  which  develops  in  the  inferior  vapors  a  vitreous  electricity  is  also 
found  in  the  tropical  cuiTent,  charged  like  the  globe  with  resinous  electricity  ;  it 
repels  from  above  downwards  the  resinous  electricity  of  the  diurnal  vapors,  as 
the  earth  repels  it  from  below  upwards.  The  most  elevated  portion  of  these 
vapors,  being  thus  subjected  to  a  resinous  influence,  becomes  also  charged  witt 
vitreous  electricity.  As  they  grow  opaque,  these  vapors  assume  a  tint  of  glow- 
ing white,  and  form  the  beautiful  cumulus  or  brilliant  cirrus  which  appears  at  a 
great  elevation.  The  vapors  which  receive  the  resinous  electricity,  repelled 
from  above  downwards  by  the  tropical  current  and  from  below  upwards  by  the 
earth,  extend  in  large,  slaty  bands  which  can  acquire  no  great  thickness,  since 
they  are  confined  by  these  two  antagonistic  forces.  In  a  word,  the  diurnal 
vapors,  such  as  rise  every  day  in  all  countries,  and  which  diffuse  themselves 
between  the  earth  and  the  tropical  current,  are  divided  into  three  well-defined 
and  distinct  strata,  as,  in  summer  and  in  the  country,  may  readily  be  discerned 
after  the  setting  of  the  sun.  A  light,  whitish  mist  is  then  observed  in  contact 
with  the  earth;  above  this  appear  large  grayish  strata;  still  higher,  white 
masses  of  cumulus,  or  sometimes  the  refulgent  cirrus  which  seems  to  stretch 
away  towards  the  tropical  current. 

*  It  has  been  deemed  proper  to  restrict  the  translation  to  a  few  beads  only  of  this  review, 
and  tlie  reader  mast  be  left,  therefore,  in  a  measare  to  his  own  surmise  as  refi^ards  the  degree 
in  which  filial  veneration  maj  have  prompted  the  absolute  claim  here  advauc«)d  on  bohialf 
of  Peltier  to  be  regarded  as  the  foander  of  meteorological  science. — Tr. 

t  Peltier,  Mimotrt  de  M€t6orologie  £lectrique ;  Archivet  d'£lectricU6de  Gentve,  1844,  rol. 
iv,No.  14.  -»  n 


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APPENDIX  TO  MEMOIR   OF  PELTIER.  197 

The  saccession  of  electrical  signs  is  accordingly  as  follows :  the  earth  is  res- 
InoQS ;  the  inferior  vapors  which  give  rise  to  the  white  mists  are  vitreous ;  the 
middle  vapors,  which  produce  by  their  condensation  the  large,  slate-gray  strata, 
are  resinous ;  the  superior  vapors,  which  in  their  turn  generate  the  voluminous 
white  cumulus,  are  vitreous ;  and,  finally,  the  tropical  current  which  overtops 
the  whole  is  again  resinous,  like  the  earth. 

In  a  medium  so  movable  as  the  air,  and  subject,  moreover,  to  so  many  differ- 
ent influences,  this  triple  distribution  has  stability  only  foi:  the  succession  of 
vapors  in  time  and  space,  and  not  for  those  which,  at  a  given  moment,  form  the 
triple  superposition.  Wo  have  before  said  that  the  inferior  vapors  retained  but 
for  a  short  time  their  vitreous  electricity,  and  that  they  quickly  resolved  them- 
selves into  drizzling  rain  5  but  that  is  not  all.  When,  through  the  lowering  of 
the  temperature,  the  vapors  have  ceased  to  ascend  and  to  thus  feed  the  superior 
zone,  the  cumulus  which  is  suspended  therein  disappears  by  degrees  under  the 
fomi  of  elastic  vapors.  This  new  transformation  is  effected  so  much  the  more 
rapidly  as  the  air  at  that  altitude  is  drier,  and  as  the  electric  action  of  the  trop- 
ical current  is  more  intense. 

The  inferior  vitreous  vapors,  those  which  presented  themselves  under  the  form 
of  mist  or  fog,  being  resolved  into  drizzle  or  dew,  the  visible,  superior,  vitreous 
vapors,  those  which  presented  themselves  under  the  form  ojf  cumulus,  having 
returned  to  the  state  of  elastic  vapors,  there  remains  in  the  atmosphere  nothing 
but  the  intermediate  vapors,  which  are  alone  seen  at  evening  and  at  night, 
extended  in  long,  opaque  curtains,  forming  clouds  of  a  slaty  gray.  Sun*ounde<l 
by  an  electricity  of  the  same  nature  as  the  globe  and  the  tropical  current,  the 
repulsion  which  these  clouds  encounter  on  each  side  retards  their  re- vaporization ; 
they  repass  into  the  state  of  elastic  vapoi-s  only  when,  notwithstanding  the 
re-vaporization  of  the  white  and  vitreous  clouds,  the  air  is  still  far  from  satura-  - 
tion ;  they  change  their  state  by  the  sole  force  of  hygrometric  affinity,  and  not 
by  the  help  of  electric  attractions,  as  takes  place  in  regard  to  the  two  other 
zones.  Hence  it  often  happens  that  we  still  see,  the  next  morning,  portions  of 
these  grayish  strata  not  re-vaporized,  and  which  present  themselves  under  the 
form  of  (ftirk  spots,  or  even  extensive  black  bands,  strongly  relieved  by  their 
deep  color  in  the  midst  of  the  ruddy  hues  of  the  dawn. 

On  the  influence  of  hydro-meteors  on  tlie  distribution  qf  temperature  at  the  sur- 
face qf  tlie  ground, — ^The  temperature  of  a  place  depends  not  alone  on  its  lati- 
tude ;  it  depends  also  on  its  longitude.  Thus  Eastport,  in  America,  and  Stock- 
holm, in  Sweden,  have  a  mean  temparature  of  about  5**./>,  and  yet  their  latitude 
differs  by  14  degrees.  New  York  and  Naples  are  in  the  same  latitude,  but  the 
mean  temperature  of  winter  at  Naples  is  9**.9,  while  that  of  New  York  is — V,20, 
the  difference  being  11.1  degrees. 

By  uniting  by  lines  all  the  points  for  which  the  mean  temperature  is  the  same, 
we  obtain  curves  which  Humboldt  first  traced  on  maps,  and  which  are  desig- 
nated under  the  name  of  isothermal  curves.  These  lines  are  veiy  far  from  form- 
ing parallels  with  the  equator :  thus  the  isothermal  line  of  10°  passes  successively 
by  Fort  George,  (lO'^.l) ;  by  Erasmus  Hall,  near  New  York,  (10°.7) ;  by  Dublin, 
(9^56)  J  bv  London,  (10.4);  byHarlem,(10°.0);  ^ndbv  Odessa,  (9^86);  that  is  to 
say,  by  46M8  of  north  latitude;  40^37;  53°.21;  5^.31;  52^23;  and  46^28. 
The  extent  of  the  divergence  is  therefore  about  13**.  From  this  wo  see  that  the 
angle  under  which  the  rays  of  the  sun  striko  the  earth  is  not  the  only  element 
which  determines  the  temperature  of  a  place.  Several  other  causes,  in  efiect, 
contribute  their  action. 

The  trade  winds  impelling  towards  the  equator  masses  of  air  proceeding  from 
high  latitudes,  refresh  the  intertropical  regions.  On  the  contmr}',  the  warm 
wind  of  the  southwest,  which  proceeds  from  the  equator  and  which  sinks 
towards  the  earth  in  proportion  as  it  advances  nearer  the  poles,  communicates  to 
the  regions  which  it  touches  a  portion  of  its  heat  and  moderates  the  rigor  of 


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APPENDIX  TO  HEMOIB  OF  PELTIEB. 


their  climate.  Hence,  for  the  equator,  calculation  gives  stronger  temperatures 
than  those  realized  by  direct  observation.  In  higher  latitudes,  on  the  contrary, 
the  values  to  which  it  leads  us  are  too  small.  These  two  results  are  satisfiEiCto- 
rily  explained  by  the  opposite  influence  of  the  trade  winds,  which  warm  the 
poles  and  cool  the  equator.  The  cmxents  of  the  ocean  join  their  action  to  that  of 
the  currents  of  the  atmosphere,  and  concur  in  warming  the  countries  of  the  north. 
Such  is,  beyond  all,  the  case  with  the  Gulf  Stream,  which,  after  bathing  the  coasts 
of  the  United  States,  presses  on  in  summer  as  far  as  Iceland  and  even  the  shores 
of  Norway. 

The  causes  which  have  been  signalized  are  evidently  of  a  nature  to  modify 
the  temperature  of  the  places  on  which  they  act,  but  they  could  not  have  suffi- 
cient power  to  explain  the  great  differences  which  are  sometimes  observed 
between  localities,  although  in  near  proximity.  They  cannot  especially  explain 
the  constant  decrement  of  temperature  in  the  different  localities  of  Europe  and 
of  central  Asia,  in  proportion  as  we  advance  into  the  interior  of  the  land. 

If  we  depart  from  the  western  coast  of  Europe  and  proceed  du-ectlv  towards 
the  east,  always  advancing  un  Jer  the  same  latitude,  we  shall  observe  the  follow- 
ing meteorological  phenomena :  1.  In  proportion  as  we  advance  towards  the 
east,  the  mean  tempemtures  of  the  year  continue  to  become  progressively  lower 
at  the  places  by  which  we  pass.  This  fact  is  still  more  remarkable  if,  instead 
of  taking  the  mean  temperatures  of  the  year,  we  simply  take  the  mean  tempera- 
tures of  the  wintei'S,  2.  It  will  be  found,  moreover,  that  the  mean  quantity  of 
rain  that  falls  in  a  year  goes  on  diminishing  in  proportion  as  we  advance  from 
the  west  towards  the  east.  3.  Finally,  it  will  be  observed  that  the  relative 
quantity  of  water  which  falls  in  winter  continues  also  to  diminish ;  in  other 
words,  if  we  represent  by  1.00  the  annual  quantity  of  water,  it  will  be  found 
that  in  proceeding  towards  the  east  the  quantity  of  water  which  falls  in  winter 
becomes  a  fraction  less  and  less  considerable  of  the  whole  quantity. 

These  three  facts,  namely,  the  diminution  of  the  temperature,  the  diminution 
of  the  annual  quantity  of  water,  and  the  diminution  of  the  fraction  of  water 
which  falls  in  winter,  are  easily  observed  in  proportion  as  we  advance  into  the 
interior  of  the  continent,  proceeding  from  west  to  east.  We  will  cite  several 
examples : 

Mean  temptraiure  qf  winter  for  one  and  the  same  parallel  at  different  longitudes. 


Kamat  of  localltiet. 


Edinburgh  . 
Copenhagen 

Tilsit 

Moscow.... 

Kazan 

Isle  of  Man. 
Coxhaven .. 
Stralsund... 
Dantzig.... 
Konigsberg. 
Wilna 


Latitude. 


55  58 

55  41 

55  04 

55  47 

55  48 

54  12 

53  53 

54  19 
54  21 
54  42 
54  41 


LoDgitade  eait 
of  ParU. 


5  30 
10  15 
19  33 
35  13 
47  10 

6  50W. 
6  24E. 

10  45 

16  18 

18  09 

22  58 


Mean  temperature  of 
winter  id  Centifmde 
degree*. 


+  3  47 

—  0  42 

—  3  06 
—10  05 
—12  29 
+  5  5»j 
+  0  03 

—  0  17 
^  I  91 

—  3 

—  4 


60 


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APPENDIX  TO  MEMOIR   OF   PELTIER.  199 

We  will  cite  farther  as  extreme  points  the  islands  of  Feroe  and  lakoutsk : 


NuictofloealMet. 

Lfttitade. 

o       ' 
G2      2 
6-2      1 

Longitude  oast 
ofParii. 

degrees. 

TborehaTen 

o        / 
8    30W. 
127    24  E. 

o        / 
+  4      3 
—38      9 

IftkoQtsk 

It  has  been  oar  purpose,  as  far  as  possible,  to  introduce  into  these  tables  only 
places  of  little  elevation  above  the  level  of  the  sea ;  so  that,  in  effect,  there  were  no 
corrections  to  make  in  regard  to  the  height.  Yet  there  are  exceptions,  Moscow 
being  148  metres  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  Kazan  58,  Wilna  and  lakoutsk 
117.  These  heights,  however,  are  much  too  insignificant  to  have  any  notable 
influence  on  the  results,  for  it  is  usual  only  to  admit  a  diminution  of  1°  Centi- 
grade for  200  metres  of  elevation. 

The  preceding  tables  suffice  to  show  the  rapid  decrease  of  the  mean  tempera- 
tnre  of  winter  for  the  same  latitudes  in  advancing  from  west  to  east.  The  dimi- 
nution of  the  absolute  quantity  of  rain  in  the  year  and  the  diminution  of  the 
absolute  and  relative  quantity  of  rain  in  winter  are  not  less  evident.  If  we  count 
the  namber  of  days  of  rain  for  the  different  countries  of  Europe,  we  have  the 
followiag  table : 

Number  qfdays  of  rain  in  different  regions  qf  Europe. 


Kamei  of  regions. 

Knmber  of  dayi 
of  rain  In  the 
yev. 

Knmber  of  daji 
of  rain  in  win- 
ter. 

Batio  of  tbia  last  qnan- 
tity  to  the  former  in 
hvndredths. 

England 

152 
152 
J47 
141 
138 
90 
60 

40.3 
37 

35.6 
32.6 
29 
16 
6 

26.5 

Western  France 

24.3 

Interior  of  France 

24.2 

P**inff  of  Germany  .... 

23.1 

Western  Russia 

21 

Kaxan 

17  5 

Id^ontok 

10 

Ifi  instead  of  taking  the  number  of  days  of  rain,  we  take  the  quantity  of  rain 
expressed  in  millimetres,  we  arrive  at  the  same  result : 

Quantity  qfrain  in  the  different  regions  qf  Europe. 


Names  of  oonntriei. 

Annual    quan- 
Utyofrain. 

Quantity  of  rain 
during  winter. 

Ratio  of  this  lattqnan* 
tltj  to  the  former  in 
hnndredtlis. 

Western  Cncrlftzid. ............ ...... 

mm, 
950 
680 
650 
540 
480 
350 
250 

mm. 
251 
159 
127 
98 
82 
52 
25 

26.4 

W'estera  France   

23.4 

Sastcm  France 

19.5 

Pluos  of  Crermanv.... .............. 

18.2 

Western  Roseia 

17 

Kuao 

15 

lakoutsk 

10 

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200  APPENDIX   TO  MEMOIR   OF  PELTIEEL 

For  further  details  on  this  subject  recourse  may  be  had  to  the  great  treatise  on 
meteorology  of  Ka^mtz,  in  3  volumes,  pp.  450,  500 ;  the  smaller  treatise  on 
meteorology  by  the  same  author,  translated,  with  notes  by  Ch.  Martins,  p.  138 
and  seq.j  the  memoirs  of  Gasparin  on  the  distribution  of  rains  in  Europe, 
(BibliotMque  Universelle,  t.  38,  pp.  54  and  264 ;)  and  the  Atlas  Physique  of 
Berghaus,  charts  10  and  12  of  the  meteorology,  p.  19  and  seq.  of  the  text. 

The  tables  above  given  establish,  therefore,  the  three  facts  in  question  :  the 
diminution  of  temperature,  the  diminution  of  the  annual  quantity  of  water,  and 
the  diminution  of  the  relative  quantity  of  water  falling  in  winter.  What,  now, 
is  the  cause  of  these  three  phenomena  t  what  is  the  bond  which  connects  them  f 
It  is  this  which  we  propose  to  explain  while  expressing  ourselves  with  all  the 
reserve  which  is  proper  on  such  a  subject. 

The  winds  of  the  southwest  bear  from  the  Atlantic  ocean  a  large  quantity  of 
clouds  and  vapors ;  these,  nearly  throughout  Europe,  are  the  winds  pre-emi- 
nently rainy.  The  clouds  are  fonned  of  globules  of  transparent  vapor  and  of 
globules  of  opaque  vapor,  both  kept  apart  by  the  latent  caloric  and  the  elec- 
tricity, which  render  them  mutually  repellant.  If  any  cause  abstracts  from  a 
cloud  the  greater  part  of  its  electricity,  one  of  the  two  forces  which  co-operated 
to  keep  the  globules  separate  is  suppressed.  The  globules  of  transparent  vapor 
approach  one  another,  are  condensed,  and  transfonned  into  opaque  vajKirs ;  the 
globules  of  opaque  vapor,  for  the  same  reason,  pass  into  a  liquid  state,  the  dens- 
ity of  the  cloud,  its  specific  gravity,  is  augmented,  the  cloud  sinks  and  falls  on 
the  earth  in  the  form  of  rain.  On  arriving  at  the  surface  the  cloud  disengages 
the  latent  heat  it  possessed,  and  thus  the  soil,  bi&  well  as  the  ambient  air,  is  ren- 
dered warm. 

The  quantity  of  rain  which  falls  annually  is  naturally,  all  else  being  equal, 
more  abundant  in  westera  Europe  than  in  the  interior  of  that  continent;  the 
forests,  the  mountains,  especially  when  wooded,  radiate  much  electricity ;  they 
neutralize,  therefore,  the  electricity  of  the  clouds,  and  thus  induce,  in  a  manner 
more  or  less  indirect,  their  precipitation.  When  this  current  fiora  the  southwest 
reaches  Germany  it  is  already  deprived  of  a  great  part  of  its  vapors.  When  it 
arrives  in  Russia,  there  remains  still  less  of  them ;  finally,  in  Siberia  there  is 
scarcely  any  at  all  remaining.  It  thus  appears  that  the  quantity  of  water  which 
falls  in  a  year  must  continue  always  diminishing  as  we  penetrate  into  the  interior 
of  the  continent ;  it  is  evident,  consequently,  that  the  quantity  of  latent  heat 
abandoned  by  the  clouds  must  also  progressively  diminish,  and  that  the  tempera- 
ture must  undergo  a  corresponding  abatement.  These  facts  are  more  marked  in 
winter  than  at  any  other  season,  because  then  the  wind  from  the  southwest  brings 
a  less  quantity  of  vapors,  while  these  are  less  elevated  and  consdjuently  termi- 
nate at  lower  latitudes.  Another  canse,  moreover,  concurs  in  augmenting  the 
asperity  of  the  cold  in  the  interior  of  Russia :  this  is  the  intensity  of  the  mdia- 
tion  which  takes  place  in  consequence  of  the  great  serenity  of  a  sky  which  is 
obscured  by  neither  cloud  nor  vapor. 

It  results  from  what  has  been  just  said,  that  a  locality  in  Europe  situated  to 
the  east  of  a  chain  of  mountains  should  always  be  colder,  all  else  being  equal, 
than  a  locality  situated  to  the  west.  The  chain  of  mountains  in  effect,  by  pre- 
cipitating a  great  quantity  of  vapors,  must  have  abstracted  a  considerable  por- 
tion of  the  latent  heat,  which  is  hence  naturally  in  deficiency  on  the  other  side ; 
moreover,  if  these  places  are  situated  in  a  latitude  somewhat  high,  where  the 
clouds  are  already  very  low,  this  effect  will  be  still  more  decided.  This  in 
reality  is  wliat  occurs  as  respects  Sweden  and  Norway  in  reference  to  the  Scan- 
dinavian Alps.  We  may  cite  as  an  example  Drontheim  in  Norway,  and  Um^ 
on  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia,  in  Sweden,  (see  VInstitut  of  18th  February,  1846,  p  61, 
the  communication  of  M.  Martins.)  These  two  cities  are  nearly  in  the  same 
latitude,  and  yet  the  mean  temperature  of  Drontheim  during  winter  is  —4**. 75, 
while  that  of  *Um^o  is — 10°.2,  a  difference 


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APPENDIX  TO  MEMOIR  OP  PELTIEEL  201 

The  same  fact  is  observed,  if  we  compare  together  Bergen  and  Stockholm. 
Bergen  is  in  60**  23'  north  latitude,  and  west  of  the  Scandinavian  Alps ;  Stock- 
holm is  in  59°  20',  and  east  of  that  chain  of  mountains.  Bergen  is  therefore  one 
degree  farther  north  than  Stockholm,  and  yet  the  mean  temperature  of  winter 
at  Bergen  is  +  0°.79,  while  at  Stockholm  it  is  — 3°.61,  a  difference  of  4°.4.  Besides 
this,  the  quantity  of  water  w^ich  falls  in  a  year  at  Bergen  is  enormoup ;  it  reaches 
2,250  millimetres,  and  in  winter  598.  At  Stockholm,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
quantity  of  water  which  falls  in  the  year  is  but  about  520  millimetres,  and  the 
fell  in  winter  76.  In  the  latter  place,  then,  there  falls  in  winter  about  eight 
tim^  less  of  water  than  at  Bergen.  Moreover,  if  the  total  quantity  of  rain  fall- 
ing in  a  year  be  represented  by  100,  it  will  be  s^n  that  at  Bergen  there  falls  in 
winter  26.6,  while  at  Stockholm  there  falls  but  14.8.  These  two  places,  there- 
fore, fully  confirm  the  facts  which  we  have  above  indicated,  and  lend  their  sup- 
port to  the  explanation  which  we  have  given. 

Hydrometeors  influence  also  the  mean  temperature  of  summer;  in  general, 
when  we  penetrate  into  the  interior  of  Europe,  pursuing  always  the  same  line  of 
latitude,  the  mean  temperature  of  summer  will  be  found  progressively  growing 
higher;  the  difference,  however,  being  not  so  great  as  for  the  winter,  and  in  the 
inverse  direction.  This  is  generally  attributed  to  the  fact  that  on  the  borders 
of  the  ocean  there  are  frequent  sea  mists  which  veil  the  sun.  Thus  the  coun- 
tries situated  near  the  western  coast  of  Europe  have  summers  somewhat  less  hot 
and  winters  rather  less  cold  than  the  countries  situated  in  the  interior  of  the  con- 
tinent in  the  same  latitude.  Hence  the  climates  have  been  distinguished  as 
eqnal  or  marine  climates,  and  continental  or  excessive  climates. 

If  the  explanation  which  we  have  given  of  the  inclination  of  the  isothermal 
lines  towards  the  equator  in  the  interior  of  the  continent  bo  true,  it  is  evident 
that  the  isochimenal  lines  (lauq  equal,  /etfiutv  winter)  should,  for  a  certain  extent 
of  their  course,  be  perpendicular,  or  nearly  so,  to  the  direction  of  the  southwest 
wind — ^that  is  to  sav,  to  the  direction  of  the  wind  pre-eminently  a  rainy  one. 
Now  this  is  in  reality  the  case.  The  number  of  observations  is  not  yet  suffi- 
ciently great  to  enable  us  to  trace  these  curves  with  exactness ;  but  they  suffice 
to  show  the  general  direction  of  several  of  them.  If  we  take,  for  instance,  the 
localities  at  which  the  mean  temperature  of  winter  varies  between  —1®  and 
—1°  5,  we  find  that  this  isochimenal  line  passes  successively  by  Odessa,  Dant- 
^ig,  Lund  in  Denmark  and  Ullensvang  in  Norway.  This  cur\^e  extends, 
therefore,  in  latitude  from  46"  28  to  60'  20 ;  it  thus  traverses  14  degrees  of  lati- 
tnde  and  is  almost  perfectly  perpendicular  to  the  direction  of  the  southwest  wind. 
The  same  is  very  nearly  the  case  with  other  isochimenal  cui-ves ;  they  all  decline 
strongly  towards  the  south  in  proportion  as  they  withdraw  from  the  western  coast 
of  Europe  in  advancing  eastwardly  into  the  interior  of  the  continent. 

It  may  be  proper  in  addition  to  cite  Venice,  Paris,  and  Edinburgh ;  the  first  is 
ffltnated  in  45''  26  of  latitude,  the  second  in  48°  50,  the  third  in  5^  57.  Now,  in 
these  three  cities  the  mean  temperature  of  winter  is  very  nearly  the  same ;  at 
Venice  and  Paris  it  is  -f3°  3,  and  at  Edinburgh  -f  3°  6. 

Sometimes,  as  the  sequel  of  abundant  rains,  and  especially  tempestuous  rains, 
a  decided  lowering  of  the  temperature  is  obser\'ed.  This  fact,  at  first  glance, 
seems  in  contradiction  with  the  theory  of  isothermal  curves  which  wo  have  pro- 
pounded ;  yet  it  is  by  no  means  so.  Almost  always  after  a  storm  the  sky  grows 
clear,  if  only  for  a  few  hours;  the  air  of  the  middle  and  interior  regions,  unbiur- 
dened  of  the  great  masses  of  vapor  .which  have  been  precipitated  in  the  form  of 
rain,  then  presents  a  certain  degree  of  relative  dryness ;  the  earth,  on  the  con- 
trary, is  soaked  with  rain ;  there  takes  place,  therefore,  at  its  suifaco  an  extremely 
abnndant  evaporation,  which  withdraws  in  a  few  instants  a  considerable  quan- 
tity of  heat  from  the  earth  and  the  air  in  contact  with  it.  It  is  this  subtmction 
of  caloric  which  produces  the  cold  in  question. 

The  temperature  indicated  by  the  thermometer,  moreover,  is  not  always  in  accord- 


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202  APPENDIX  TO  MEMOIR  OF  PELTIEB. 

ance  witli  the  sensation  experienced  by  living  beings.  Often,  in  fact,  individoals 
realize  a  much  sharper  cold  or  intense  heat  than  the  thermometer  seems  to  verify; 
this  depends  evidently  on  the  hygrometric  condition  of  the  air.  In  its  natoral 
state  the  body  of  man  is  always  covered  with  a  film  of  humidity,  an  insensible 
transpiration.  If  the  air  is  calm  and  saturated  with  humidity  there  will  be  no 
evaporation  on  the  surface,  and  complaint  will  be  made  of  oppressive  heat ;  if, 
on  the  contrary,  the  air  is  dry  and  agitated  by  the  wind,  the  evaporation  will  b8 
considerable,  and  a  disagreeable  sensation  of  cold  will  be  complained  of,  alto- 
gether dbproportioned  to  the  thermometric  indications. 

Before  concluding  this  section  a  word  should  be  said  of  the  effect  of  denuding 
mountains  of  their  trees  on  the  annual  mean  quantity  of  rain,  on  its  distribution, 
and  consequently  on  the  climate.  This  influence,  long  denied,  is  now  every- 
where admitted — ^facts  speak  loudly  enough  for  that.  As  to  the  explanation, 
we  shall  endeavor  to  give  it. 

The  clouds  which  are  in  the  middle  region  of  the  atmosphere  are  almost  always 
resinous.  As  long  as  their  electric  tension  is  moderate  and  inferior  to  the  tension 
of  the  earth,  this  latter  repels  them  and  keeps  them  at  a  greater  height  than 
comports  with  their  specific  gravity.  When  these  clouds  pass  above  naked 
and  woodless  mountains,  inasmuch  as  the  mountains  more  nearly  approach 
them,  the  action  in  question  is  more  efficacious,  and  the  clouds  are  forced  to 
ascend  somewhat  higher  in  consequence  of  the  energetic  repulsion  exerted  by 
the  mountains.  In  this  case  the  clouds  pass  without  a  discharge  of  rain.  If,  on 
the  contrary,  the  clouds  have  a  considerable  electric  tension,  this  tension  is  more 
powerful  than  that  of  the  earth.  When,  therefore,  these  clouds  pass  over  moun- 
tains destitute  of  trees,  their  resinous  electricity  represses  the  resinous  electricity 
of  the  mountains  into  the  interior  of  the  sbU,  decomposes  a  portion  of  their 
natural  electricity,  and  attracts  the  vitreous  to  the  surface.  The  phenomena  of 
repulsion  are  then  changed  into  the  phenomena  of  attraction,  and  the  cloud  ia 
wholly  precipitated,  and  that  with  violence,  upon  the  mountain. 

When  the  country  is  mountainous  and  wooded,  the  occurrence  is  quite  different. 
I  have  already  said  that  vapors,  transparent  or  opaque,  were  kept  at  distance  by 
two  forces,  heat  and  electricity ;  that  all  the  phenomena  which  diminished  by 
their  action  one  or  the  other  of  these  two  forces,  induced  indirectly  the  con- 
densation of  the  vapors,  and  consequently  the  precipitation  of  a  part  of  them. 
These  principles  are  directly  applicable  to  the  question  with  which  we  are 
engaged.  When  masses  of  transparent  or  opaque  vapors,  charged  with  resin- 
ous electricUy,  pass  above  wooded  mountains,  the  vitreous  electricity  developed 
by  influence  in  the  soil  flows  off  by  the  trees,  which  furnish  thousands  of  points, 
and  neutralizes  a  part  of  the  resinous  electricity  of  the  super-jacent  masses  of 
vapor.  The  vapors,  being  less  repelled,  draw  together  and  are  condensed,  the 
transparent  vapors  into  opaque  vapors,  and  these  into  drops  of  rain  which  fall  in 
a  regular  manner  and  in  measure  proportionate  to  their  formation. 

In  sum,  then,  the  cloud,  in  the  case  of  mountains  naked  and  divested  of  wood» 
either  passes  without  discharge  or  is  precipitated  in  its  entire  mass ;  the  result  is 
an  incessant  oscillation  from  great  drought  to  deluges  of  rain ;  in  wooded  moun- 
tains, on  the  contrary,  the  rains  are  gentle  and  continuous.  From  this  we  may 
see  that  to  denude  mountains  of  their  woods  does  not  perhaps  diminish  the 
annual  quantity  of  rain,  but  that  it  modifies  the  distribution  of  the  nun,  or,  to 
speak  with  more  exactness,  its  mode  of  precipitation. 


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THE  ROYAL  INSTITUTION  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN. 


Bt  Ed.  Maillt. 


[TRAHSLATSO  BT  C.  A.  ALEXAITDER  FOR  1BE  SMITHSONIAlf  IHSTITUTIOV.*] 


I. — Count  bttmford,  principal  founder  of  the  royal  institution. 

"  The  Royal  Institution  of  London,"  says  Cuvier,  in  his  FAoge  historique  of 
Count  Buraford,  "enjoys  an  unsurpassed  reputation  as  an  establishment  for  pro- 
moting the  progress  of  the  sciences  and  their  application  to  public  utility."  In 
proceeding  to  give  some  account  of  the  Institution,  it  is  deemed  proper  to  prefix 
a  few  words  respecting  the  distinguished  man  to  whom  it  was  chiefly  indebted 
for  its  origin. 

Benjamin  Thompson,  afterwards  known  as  Count  Rumford,  was  bom  in  1753, 
in  the  English  colonies  of  North  America,  at  a  place  then  called  Rumford,  but 
now  Concord.  Devoted  at  an  early  age  to  the  study  of  science,  he  adopted  the 
profession  of  teacher  for  a  livelihood,  but,  by  an  advantageous  marriage,  when 
Bcarcely  more  than  19  years  old,  he  secured  for  himself  entire  independence  in 
his  pursuits.  He  had  accepted  the  grade  of  major  in  the  militia  of  his  native 
province  when  the  war  of  the  Revolution  broke  out,  and  was  led  by  the  connec- 
tions of  family  and  personal  predilection  to  take  the  part  of  the  royal  govern- 
ment He  served  with  courage  and  address,  and  after  the  evacuation  of  Boston 
by  the  British  troops  in  1776,  was  sent  with  impoiiant  despatches  to  London, 
where  he  acquired  the  confidence  of  Lord  George  Germaine,  secretary  of  state 
for  the  colonies,  and  was  by  him  attached  to  that  department  of  the  public  ser- 
vice. In  1780,  Mr.  Thompson  was  advanced  to  the  post  of  under-secretary  of 
state,  but  the  disasters  of  the  royal  army,  the  constant  object  of  his  solicitude  and 
activity,  continuing  to  accumulate,  the  young  minister  "felt  that  he  could  not 
Berve  with  honor  a  sinking  cause,  without  serving  it  at  the  peril  of  his  life.''  t 
Having  raised  a  regiment  of  dragoons  in  America,  he  proceeded  to  take  command 
of  it  and  distinguished  himself  in  several  affairs.  At  the  cessation  of  hostilities, 
he  returned  to  England  and  was  knighted  by  the  King,  eventually  obtaining 
permission  to  enter  the  service  of  Charles  Theodore,  elector  of  Bavaria,  by  whom 
he  was  soon  received  into  favor. 

Sir  Benjamin  Thompson  (which  was  the  title  he  bore  on  his  arrival  at  Munich, 
m  1784)  became  successively  aide-de-camp,  chamberlain,  and  privy  councillor 
to  the  elector ;  was  created  lieutenant  general  of  his  armies ;  and  when,  on  the 
death  of  the  Emperor  Joseph  II,  Charles  Theodore  was  called  to  the  functions 
of  vicar*  of  the  empire,  the  latter  promptly  took  advantage  of  the  prerogative 
attached  to  that  position  to  advance  his  favorite  to  the  dignity  of  Count,  giving 
him  the  title  of  his  native  village  in  New  Hampshire. 

Count  Rumford  passed  14  years  at  the  court  of  Munich ;  charged  at  once  with 

*  From  the  Anumaire  de  V Ob$ervatoirt  Royal  de  Bruxdk$^  par  A.  QjoeteUt,  dineUur  de  cef 
UdUiaemeiU,  8(c.,  8(e. 
t  Q.  Cavier,  ^loge  Historique  du  ComU  de  Rumford, 


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204  THE  KOTAL  INSTITUTION  OP  GREAT  BRITAIN. 

the  administration  of  war  and  tbe  direction  of  tbe  police,  he  applied  Limself,  on 
the  one  hand,  to  the  melioration  of  the  condition  of  the  soldier,  and,  on  the  other, 
to  the  suppression  of  mendicity  by  organizing  a  boose  of  labor  for  the  poor.  He 
had  never  lost  sight  of  the  sciences,  his  earliest  predilection.  Researches  on  the 
cohesion  of  bckiies  and  on  the  force  of  powder  hail  procured  his  admission,  in  1779, 
into  the  lloyal  Society  of  London.  In  bis  new  position  he  undertook  experi- 
ments on  the  nature  of  heat  and  light,  as  well  as  on  the  laws  of  their  propaga- 
tion, with  a  view  to  supplying  large  assemblages  of  persons  with  economical 
nourishment,  clothing,  warmth,  and  artificial  illumination.  It  is  not  within  the 
scope  of  this  paper  to  discuss  these  researches  of  Count  Rumford ;  they  will  l>e 
found  detailed  in  his  Essays,*  Suffice  it  to  say  that  light  and  heat  became  the 
engrossing  subjects  of  his  philosophic  attention.  Thus  we  find  him,  in  1796, 
establishing  a  prize  at  London  "  for  new  discoveries  tending  to  the  improvement 
of  the  theories  regarding  fire,  heat,  light,  and  colors,  and  for  the  inventions  and 
processes  by  which  the  production,  preservation,  and  employment  of  heat  and 
light  may  be  facilitated.'! 

In  1798  he  proceeded  to  London  as  minister  plenipotentiary  of  the  elector 
of  Bavaria,  but  was  held  to  be  disqualified  for  fulfilling  the  functions  of  that 
office  by  the  fact  of  his  being  still  regarded,  in  point  of  law,  as  a  British  subject, 
and  incapable,  therefore,  of  representing  a  foreign  power  at  the  British  comrt. 
Soon  afterwards  he  learned  the  death  of  the  prince,  his  benefactor,  and,  fore- 
seeing that  he  would  have  scarcely  less  difficulty  in  resuming  his  old  than  in 
exercising  his  new  functionSjf  he  turned  with  habitual  earnestness  to  other  pur- 
suits, and,  in  becoming  the  principal  founder  of  the  Royal  Institution,  of  which 
his  favorite  ideas  formed  the  basis,  established  one  of  his  best  claims  to  lasting 
remembrance. 

The  latter  years  of  Count  Rumford  were  passed  in  retirement.  In  1802  he 
transferred  his  residence  to  Paris,  where  he  contracted  a  second  marriage,  with 
the  widow  of  Lavoisier.  This  union  proved  unhappy,  and  was  terminated  after 
three  years  by  a  private  separation.  lie  then  retired  to  a  country  house  at 
Auteuil,  about  four  miles  from  Paris,  and  there  devoted  his  time  to  the  embel- 
lishment of  his  domain,  and  to  the  cultivation  of  chemistry  and  experimental 
philosophy.     Here  he  died,  August  21,  1814,  at  the  age  of  sixty-one  years. 

11. — The  fikst  prospectus  of  the  royal  institution. 

The  first  meeting  of  the  founders  and  directors  of  the  Institution  took  place 
the  9th  of  March,  1799,  at  the  mansion  of  Sir  Joseph  Banks,  those  present 
being  Sir  Joseph,  the  earls  of  Morton  and  Spencer,  Count  Rumford,  Richard 
Clark  and  Thomas  Bemaid.  Sir  Joseph  was  named  president,  and  Thomas 
Bernard  secretary.  The  prospectus  of  the  establishment,  for  the  preparation  of 
which  Count  Rumford  was  designated,  bore  the  following  title :  "  Proposals  for 
fonning,  by  subscription  in  the  metropolis  of  the  British  empire,  a  public 
institution  for  diflusing  the  knowledge  and  facilitating  the  general  introduc- 
tion of  useful  mechanical  inventions  and  improvements  j  and  for  teaching,  by 
courses  of  philosophical  lectures  and  experiments,  the  application  of  science 
to  the  common  purposes  of  life — ^l)y  Benjamin,  Count  Rumford,  F.  R.  S.,"  &c.; 
in  octavo,  54  pp. ;  Cadell  &  Davies,  1799. 

The  following  extiact  from  the  prospectus,  given  by  the  BlUhtheque  Britan- 
ique  (sciences  and  arts)  of  Geneva,  for  the  year  last  mentioned,  will  convey  an 
idea  of  the  objects  of  the  new  establishment : 

When  the  directors  shall  have  chosen  a  site,  there' shall  be  prepared  larp^e  and  airy  apart- 
ments to  receive  and  exhibit  the  mechanical  inventions  and  improvements  which  seem  to 

*  See  also  the  ^logt  by  the  Baron  Cuvier,  already  referred  to. 

t  See  the  History  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London.    Count  Rumford  founded  a  similar  prise 
At  Philadelphia,  United  States. 
I  The  new  elector,  Maximilian  Joseph,  conferred  on  him  a  pension  of  30,000  francs. 


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THE  BOTAL  INSTITUTION   OP  GREIT   BRITAIN.  205 

anprovomcnts  which  seem  to  merit  public  attention ;  and  moi*e  especially  sach 
kinds  of  apparatus  as  tend  to  multiply  the  conveniences  of  life ;  to  promote 
domestio  economy ;  to  form  the  taste  and  facilitate  the  exercise  of  useful  indus- 
try. Efforts  shall  be  made  to  procure  the  most  perfect  models  for  each  object. 
The  following  will  deserve  particular  attention :  Chimneys  for  cottages,  with 
appropriate  utensils ;  complete  kitchen  for  a  farm-house,  with  all  its  furnishings } 
complete  kitchen,  suitable  for  a  family  in  easy  circumstances ;  rooms  for  wash- 
bff,  drying,  and  ironing  clothes  for  a  rich  family  or  hospital,  with  boilers  and 
other  necessary  utensils ;  German,  Swedish,  and  Russian  stoves  for  heating 
apartments  and  passages. 

**  In  order  that  those  who  visit  the  establishment  may  acquire  just  ideas  of  these 
different  inventions,  and  of  the  circumstances  which  constitute  the  particular 
merit  of  each  of  them,  working  models  shall,  as  far  as  possible,  be  used  for 
exhibition ;  and  it  is  evident  that  the  greater  part  of  those  just  spoken  of  are 
Busceptiblo  of  being  presented  in  that  fomi.  In  the  different  apartments,  chim- 
neys contrived  on  the  best  principles  shall  be  provided,  to  serve  as  models  for 
constmctors,  and  fires  shall  be  constantly  kept  burning  therein  during  cold 
weather.  In  the  same  apartments,  models  of  grates,  adapted  both  for  ornament 
and  economy,  shall  be  exhibited,  as  well  as  models  of  ornamental  stoves,  in  the 
form  of  elegant  chimney-places,  for  large  saloons,  dining-rooms,  &c. 

*'  It  is  proposed  also  to  introduce  small  models  (though  such  still  as  shall  be 
capable  of  being  put  in  operation)  of  that  curious  and  usefid  machine,  the 
steam-engine ;  models  also  of  the  apparatus  for  brewing,  with  improved  fur- 
naces ;  of  large  stills,  with  the  new  condensers ;  of  extensive  ranges  for  the 
kitchens  of  hospitals  and  the  marine,  with  improved  fire-places.  Place  should 
be  found  likewise  for  models  of  ventilators  for  renewing  the  air  of  apartments 
and  the  interior  of  ships ;  of  hot-houses,  with  all  the  known  improvements ;  of 
lime-kilns  of  divers  construction;  of  steam-boilers  for  preparing  the  food  of 
domestic  animals ;  of  rustic  houses,  upon  different  plans ;  of  wheels  for  spinning, 
and  looms  for  the  production  of  fabrics  especially  suited  for  the  poor,  and  calcu- 
lated to  furnish  them  employment  at  home  j  together  with  models  of  all  the  new 
inventions  proper  to  promote  the  advancement  of  agriculture ;  those  of  bridges, 
constructed  on  various  principles ;  and,  in  fine,  of  all  that  the  directors  shall 
deem  deserving  of  public  attention  in  point  of  utility  and  convenience.  Each 
article  shall  be  accompanied  by  a  detailed  description,  and  exact  drawings,  and 
a  designation  be  given  of  the  name  and  abode  of  the  artist  engaged  in  its  pro- 
duction, vnih  the  price  of  his  work. 

'*  In  order  to  realize  the  second  object  of  the  Institution,  that,  namely,  of  show- 
ing the  application  of  science  to  the  different  requirements  of  life,  a  course  of 
public  lectures  on  natural  philosophy,  accompanied  by  experiments,  shall  be 
established.  For  the  use  of  this  course  there  shall  be  a  cabinet  of  physics  and 
a  laboratory  of  chemistry. 

**Among  the  different  subjects  treated  of  in  these  lectures,  particular  attention 
should  be  given  to  that  of  neat  in  its  application  to  the  various  uses  of  life ; 
combustion,  and  the  relative  quantities  of  heat  furnished  by  different  combusti- 
bles; the  management  and  economy  of  fire;  the  causes  on  which  depends  the 
heat  of  different  substances  used  for  clothing ;  the  effects  of  heat  and  cold,  both 
m  a  stationary  and  circulating  atmosphere,  upon  the  human  body,  whether  in  a 
«ate  of  health  or  sickness ;  the  effects  of  vitiated  and  confined  air  on  respira- 
tion; the  means  of  rendering  ordinary  dwellings  agreeable  and  healthy;  the 
construction  of  ice-houses  and  preservation  of  ice  in  summer ;  the  prevention  of 
ailments  indifferent  seasons  and  climates ;  the  cooling  of  liquids  without  the 
ose  of  ice,  &c. 

"Vegetation  and  the  effects  of  different  manures,  with  the  method  of  prepar- 
ing and  adapting  the  latter  to  various  soils,  should  receive  attention  ;  also  the 
changes  which  tuimentary  substances  undergo  in  the  different  processes  of  cook- 


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206  THE   ROTAL  INSTITUTION  OP   GREAT  BRITAIN. 

ing,  as  well  as  in  those  of  digestion ;  the  chemical  principles  involved  in  the 
tanning  of  leather,  with  the  objects  to  which  artisans,  who  may  seek  to  perfect 
so  important  a  process,  should  direct  their  efforts ;  the  chemical  prinicples  of  the 
art  of  making  soap,  of  bleaching,  of  dyeing,  and,  in  general,  of  all  the  mechan- 
ical arts  which  bear  a  relation,  more  or  less  direct,  to  manufactures. 

"  There  shall  be  five  classes  of  contributors :  1,  subscribers  at  50  guineas,  pay- 
able once  for  all ;  2,  subscribers  at  10  guineas,  likewise  payable  but  once ;  3, 
subscribers  at  two  guineas ;  4,  testators  or  benefactors ;  5,  persons  who  pay  the 
ticket  of  admission.  Of  these,  the  first  class  are  the  proprietors  of  the  estab- 
lishment. They  alone  elect  the  directors  and  visitors,  and  can  alone  exercise 
office.  The  establishment  will  be  gratuitously  conducted  by  nine  directors. 
There  shall  be  also  nine  visitors." 

'*  Such  an  institution,"  adds  the  editor  of  the  Bibliothique  BritanniquCy  "  is 
calculated  to  form  an  epoch  in  the  history  of  civilization."  In  the  month  of 
July,  1799,  there  were  already  138  subscribers  at  50  guineas  a  head,  103  at  10 
guineas,  and  97  at  two  guineas.  The  capital  of  the  society,  therefore,  was  at 
that  time  7,950  guineas,  besides  194  guineas  contributed  by  annual  subsciip- 
tion.     The  first  meeting  of  the  proprietors  had  taken  pllEice  April  20  previous. 

III. — SiTTJATION  OF  THE  ESTABLISHMENT  AT  THE  BEGINNING  OP  1800 — ^DR. 
GARNETT,  THE  FIRST  PROFESSOR  OF  NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY. 

The  charter  of  the  new  corporation,  which  by  permission  of  George  III  had 
assumed  the  title  of  Royal  Institution  of  Great  Britain,  bears  date  January  15, 
1800.  It  was  published  with  a  new  prospectus,  mainly  of  a  descriptive  charac- 
ter; the  indefatigable  activity  of  Count  Rumford  having  hastened  the  execution 
of  the  ideas  contained  in  his  first  appeal  to  the  public.     It  is  here  said : 

•  •  •  i<  r£\^Q  tardiness  with  which  improvements  of  every  kind  are  intro- 
duced, even  such  as  are  of  the  most  evident  utility,  is  a  remarkable  fact;  it  stands 
in  striking  contrast  with  the  avidity  of  the  public  in  adopting  the  frivolous 
changes  created  by  caprice  or  folly,  and  which  circulate  in  society  under  the 
auspices  of  fashion.  •  •  •  The  Royal  Institution  has  two  principal  objects : 
one,  to  spread  promptly  and  introduce  into  all  the  ramifications  of  society  a 
knowledge  of  inventions  and  useful  improvements,  drawn  fh>m  the  experience 
and  practice  of  all  nations ;  the  other,  to  make  known  the  applications  of  which 
scientific  discoveries  are  susceptible,  to  the  advantage  of  the  arts  and  manufac- 
tures of  this  country,  and  the  augmentation  of  domestic  enjoyment  and  con- 
venience. •  •  •  The  directors  have  purchased  (June,  1799)  a  commodious 
and  spacious  edifice  on  Albemarle  street,  where  large  and  airy  apartments  axe 
in  course  of  preparation  for  exhibiting  such  mechanical  inventions  or  improve- 
ments as  may  be  thought  to  merit  public  attention.  Particularly  will  those 
inventions  be  exemplified  which  tend  to  increase  domestic  comfort  and  economy, 
to  improve  the  taste,  or  advance  the  industry  directed  towards  objects  of  utility. 

''An  amphitheatre  will  be  arranged  for  lectures  and  demonstrations,  accom- 
panied by  a  laboratory  and  complete  collection  of  instruments  of  experimental 
physics  and  chemistry.  This  branch  of  instruction  will  be  confided  to  savants 
of  the  highest  merit.  •  •  •  A  place  has  been  provisionally  prepared  in 
which  three  com-ses  are  given :  First,  a  course  of  natural  philosophy  on  the 
principles  of  astronomy,  electricity,  magnetism,  mechanics,  hydrostatics,  pneu- 
matics, and  optics.  The  meetings  take  place  every  Tuesday,  at  2  o'clock,  and 
this  course  b  paiticularly  directed  to  the  instruction  and  amusement  of  persons 
who,  without  having  leisure  or  opportunity  to  explore  thoroughly  these  different 
branches  of  natural  knowledge,  still  desire  to  know  whatever  most  strongly 
provokes  curiosity.  Second,  a  course  of  chemistry  and  its  application  to  the 
aits,  to  manufactures,  and  the  requirements  of  life.  The  meetmgs  take  place 
Wednesdays  at  2  o'clock.    Third^  a  complete  and  scientific  course  of  experi- 


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THE  BOTAL  INSTITUTION  OF  GREAT   BRITAIN.  207 

mental  physics,  in  which  the  propositionB  are  first  demonstrated  mathematically, 
afterwards  illustrated  by  experiments,  and  finally  applied  to  the  various  uses  of 
the  arts  and  domestic  economy.  The  meetings  occur  three  days  in  the  week,  at 
8  o'clock  in  the  evening." 

The  professor  who  had  charge  of  this  course  was  Dr.  Gamett.  In  Nicholson's 
joamal  it  is  said,  under  the  date  of  .April  1,  1800:  **The  course  of  physics  and 
of  chemistry  opened  by  Dr.  Gamett,  in  the  apartments  of  the  Royal  Institution, 
ifl  followed  with  the  most  marked  attention  by  a  numerous  and  distinguished 
auditory." 

Thomas  Gamett  was  bom  in  1765  or  1766,  at  Casterton,  in  Westmoreland. 
He  received  the  degree  of  doctor  of  medicine  at  Edinburgh,  in  1788,  and  prac- 
ticed his  art  successfully  at  London,  at  Bradford,  at  Kuaresborough,  and  at  Liv- 
erpool. Called  in  1796  to  Glasgow  to  teach  chemistiy,  he  afterwards  quitted 
that  city  in  order  to  occupy  at  the  Royal  Institution  the  chair  which  had  been 
offered  him  by  Count  Rumford.  Dr.  Gamett  died  at  London  June  28, 1802,  in 
the  prime  of  life.  We  owe  to  him  a  compendium  entitled.  Outlines  of  a  Course 
of  Lectures  on  Chemistry,  Delivered  at  the  Royal  Institution  of  Gi.'eat  Britain. — 
Londony  1801. 

IV.— The  smxATioN  of  thb  establishment  in  may,  1801,  and  april,  1802. 

To  M.  Pictet,  one  of  the  editors  of  the  Btbliotheque  Britanniquey  who  visited 
London  in  1801,  we  owe  the  following  notices  of  a  report  made  by  Count  Rum- 
ford  to  the  directors  and  visitors  of  the  Institution,  in  the  month  of  May  in  that 
year; 

'^The  sums  subscribed  for  the  execution  of  the  proposed  plans  amount  at 
present  to  d£23,000,  without  comprising  <£7,000  generously  offered  by  a  small 
number  of  the  proprietors  (which  subvention  will,  however,  not  be  needed)  to 
apply  deficiencies  in  the  cost  of  new  buildings.  Those  already  acquired  are 
veiy  extensive.  The  ground  on  which  the  principal  edifice  stands  was  originally 
occopied  by  four  private  dwellings,  and  the  location  is  central  to  that  part  of 
London  to  whose  inhabitants  the  establishment  most  naturally  appeals  for  an 
enlightened  interest,  (ATbetnarle  streetj  Piccadilly, J  Professors  and  demonstra- 
tors in  physics,  chemistry,  and  mechanics  have  been  engaged,  and  lectures  are 
given  in  two  spacious  amphitheatres,  one  of  which  will  contain  300,  the  other 
900  persons.  An  ample  laboratory  having  been  provided,  a  manager  and  opera- 
tor have  been  nominated,  and  negotiations  are  on  foot  with  a  skilful  German 
chemist  to  serve  as  assistant  to  those  two  individuals.  Shops  for  the  constniction 
of  models,  furnished  with  the  most  complete  assortment  of  tools  that  could  be 
procored,  have  been  placed  in  order,  under  a  master- workman,  who  will  have 
cbaige  of  all  the  physical  apparatus  pertaining  to  the  Institution.  The  opera- 
tives engaged  are :  a  mathematical  instrument  maker,  a  constructor  of  models, 
a  cabinet  maker,  a  carpenter,  a  workman  in  brass  and  copper,  another  in  tin,  and 
still  another  in  sheet  iron.  To  these  will  be  added  a  brick  maker  and  mason, 
who  will  be  instructed  and  rendered  competent  to  instruct  other  workmen  in  the 
art  of  constructing  chimneys,  ovens,  furnaces,  &o..  upon  the  principles  recently 
applied  to  the  management  of  fire  and  the  economy  of  fuel. 

**  There  has  been  established  in  the  apartment  of  the  janitor  a  complete  kitchen 
raitable  for  a  family  of  small  means,  with  an  oven  for  roasting  of  the  most  sim- 
ple construction,  a  chimney  place  adapted  to  cottages,  a  steaming  kettle,  &c. 
All  these  objects  are  open  to  the  inspection  of  those  who  frequent  the  Institution. 
It  is  proposed  also  to  establish  a  principal  kitchen,  which  shall  be  rendered  as 
complete  as  possible  in  every  particular.  It  will  include  ovens  for  baking,  others 
for  roasting,  steam  boilers  of  every  construction ;  and  in  order  that  every  one 
may  learn  to  avail  himself  of  this  diversified  apparatus  daily  use  will  be  made 
of  it  m  the  Institution,  and  certain  persons  be  specially  chiurged  with  showing 


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208  the;  botal  institution  op  great  Britain. 

it.  And  in  order  that  the  proprietors  and  subscribers  may  be  enabled  to  judge, 
bpexperience,  of  the  merit  of  such  or  such  method  of  cooking,  or  of  any  new 
viand  which  may  be  suggested,  a  dining-room  has  l)een  provided  at  the  Institu- 
tion, in  which  the  directors  will,  from  time  to  time,  prescribe  experimental  din- 
ners, of  which  the  proprietors  and  subscribers  shall  be  invited  to  partake,  the 
whole  at  the  expense  of  the  guests. 

"A  conversaHon-saloon  has  been  provided.  ♦  ♦  ♦  One  of  the  divisions  on 
the  ground  floor  has  been  assigned  for  a  printing-office,  which  pertains  exclu- 
sivelv  to  the  Institution.  It  is  particularly  designed  for  printing  its  joumalp,* 
which  will  probably  be  issued  once  a  week,  and  of  which  three  numbers  have 
already  appealed.  These  memoirs  will  contain  not  only  the  detail  of  all  that 
is  done  at  the  Institution  and  in  England  relative  to  the  introduction  of  inven- 
tions or  useful  improvements,  but  also  a  selection  from  everything  of  foreign 
production  which  can  be  of  advantage  to  the  country.  ♦  ♦  ♦  As  the  prin- 
cipal object  of  the  establishment  is  to  promote  improvements  in  the  mechanical 
arts,  to  stimulate  and  encourage  the  exercise  of  genius  and  industry,  bearing  on 
objects  of  practical  and  imme<liate  utility,  it  has  been  decided  to  introduce 
nothing  which  has  reference  to  the  three  learned  professions :  theology,  law,  and 
medicine. 

"  A  department  will  shortly  be  arranged  for  the  accommodation  of  18  or  20 
young  pei"sons  destined  for  different  mechanical  professions.  An  evening  school 
will  be  established  with  this  view,  in  which  will  be  taught  the  art  of  designing, 
practical  geometry,  and  the  elements  of  mathematics." 

We  are  indebted  to  the  BihlioiMque  Britannique  (vol.  xx,  1802)  for  the  state- 
ments which  follow,  taken  from  the  report  of  Count  Rumford,  April  26,  1802: 

"  The  new  amphitheatre,  where  the  lectures  are  given,  is  finished ;  notwith- 
standing its  large  dimensions,  a  voice  uttered  in  a  low  tone  can  be  heard  fix)m 
one  extremity  to  the  other,  and  neither  echo  nor  resonance  is  remarked  when  a 
high  tone  is  employed.  Light  is  admitted  from  above  by  means  of  a  cylindrical 
lanteni  of  double  glass,  and  complete  obscurity  is  obtained  by  lowering  the 
movable  top  of  this  lantern  to  the  level  of  the  ceiling.  The  saloon  is  of  a 
semi-circular  form,  with  the  addition  of  a  parallelogram  equal  in  length  to  the 
diameter  of  the  circular  part  (60  feet)  and  15  feet  in  width.  Eleven  ranges  of 
seats  ascend  fi-om  the  floor  to  a  gallery  which  contains  three  additional  ranges. 
The  amphitheatre  is  warmed  in  winter  by  steam,  which  is  made  to  circulate  in 
tubes  of  copper  conducted  under  the  first  range  of  benches,  ♦  ♦  ♦  The 
depot  of  models  is  a  saloon  44  feet  long  by  33  wide,  and  comprises  a  large  num- 
ber of  new  and  useful  mechanical  inventions.  ♦  ♦  ♦  The  chemical  labora- 
tory is  finished,  as  are  likewise  the  workshops,  which  are  all  in  activity.  The 
great  kitchen  is  in  operation,  and  is  furnished  with  a  complete  battery.  •  • 
The  price  of  subscription  has  been  considerably  advanced,  so  that  while  the 
expenditure  amounts  to  but  063,894,  (97,350  francs,)  the  receipts  have  risen  to 
oe8,484,  (212,000  francs.)  The  Royal  Institution  may  thus  be  considered  as 
completed  and  firmly  established.'' 

V. — The  engagement  of  humphret  davt. 

From  what  has  been  said  above,  we  may  form  an  exact  idea  of  Hhe  plan  which 
had  been  proposed  by  Count  Rumford  in  creating  the  Royal  Institution.  This 
plan,  however,  was  destined  soon  to  undergo  essential  modifications,  and  nothing 
more  greatly  contributed  to  the  change  than  the  engagement  of  Humphrey 
Davy  by  Rumford  himself. 

Mr.  Underwood  and  Dr.  Hope  (their  names  deserve  commemoration)  having 
spoken  in  the  most  eulogistic  terms  of  the  young  chemist  of  Penzance,  Count 
Rumford  entered  into  negotiations  with  Davy  in  January,  1801,  and,  16th  Feb- 

"Journals  of  the  Royal  Institution  of  Great  Britain. 

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THE   EOYAL   INSTITUTION    OP   GREAT   BRITAIN.  209 

mary  following,  the  future  president  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London  was  enrolled 
in  the  service  of  the  Institution  as  assistant  professor  of  chemistry,  director  of 
the  laboratory,  and  joint  editor  of  the  journals  of  the  establishment.  The  pro- 
ceedings of  the  directors  import  that,  he  should  be  allowed  to  occupy  a  room  in 
the  house,  l>e  furnished  with  coals  and  candles,  and  be  paid  a  salary  of  100 
guineas  a  year.* 

Davy  arrived  in  London  the  1  Ith  of  March.  His  first  lecture  completely 
justified  the  expectations  of  his  patrons,  nor  was  he  long  in  becoming  extremely 
popular  through  his  natural  eloquence,  his  chemical  acquirements,  and  the  suc- 
cess which  crowned  all  his  experiments.  His  first  interview  with  Rumford,  it 
would  seem,  had  not  been  favorable.  At  the  almost  childish  appearance  of  the 
candidate,  his  rather  provincial  manner,  accompanied  by  some  remains  of  the 
Cornish  dialect.  Count  Rumford,  who  did  not  shine  in  point  of  afiability,  became 
more  frozen  than  usual ;  it  was  with  difficulty  that  Davy  obtained  leave  to  give, 
in  a  private  apartment  of  the  house,  a  few  lectures  on  the  properties  of  gases ; 
hnt  he  needed  nothing  more.  **From  the  first,  the  variety  of  his  ideas,  their 
ingenious  combinations,  the  warmth,  the  vivacity,  the  perspicuity,  even  the  nov- 
elty of  their  mode  of  statement,  all  the  charms  that  the  combined  talents  of  the 
poet,  the  orator,  and  the  philosopher  could  lend  to  the  instructions  of  the  chemist, 
enchanted  the  small  number  of  those  who  had  ventured  to  come  and  hear  him. 
With  so  much  enthusiasm  did  they  speak  of  him  that  at  the  second  lecture  the 
room  which  had  been  assigned  him  could  not  contain  the  throng  which  presented , 
itself,  and  it  was  necessary  to  transfer  his  couree  to  the  great  amphitheatre  of 
the  establishment.  The  youthfulness  of  a  professor  just  emerging  from  adoles- 
cence, his  handsome  face,  his  ingenuous  manner,  scarcely  contributed  less  than 
his  eloquence  to  conciliate  affection."     (Cuvicr,  Eloge  Historique,  dx.) 

Davy  (bom  Decetnber  17, 1778,  at  Penzance,  a  small  town  of  Cornwall)  was 
then  22  years  of  age.  Son  of  a  carver  in  wood,  ho  had  early  entered,  as  appren- 
tice, the  office  of  a  skilful  surgeon  of  his  native  place,  who  at  the  same  time  con- 
ducted a  pharmaceutical  establishment.  It  w-as  Davy's  intention  to  become  a 
physician,  but  the  plan  of  study  which  ho  had  traced  for  himself  embraced  seven 
languages,  from  English  to  Hebrew,  and  all  the  moral  and  physical  sciences, 
from  theology  and  astronomy  to  rhetoric  and  mechanics.  It  is  somewhat  remark- 
able that  he  does  not  seem  to  have  seriously  occupied  himself  with  chemistry 
until  he  had  attained  his  19th  year.  From  that  time  he  devoted  himself  to  it 
with  all  the  ardor  of  his  temperament ;  and  his  eldest  sister,  who  lent  her  sci-vices 
to  assist  him,  well  remembered  the  damage  sustained  by  her  dresses  from  coito- 
sive  substances.     (Paris,  Life  of  Davy  J 

His  resources  were  very  limited,  like  those  of  Priestley  and  Schcelo  at  their 
entrance  upon  the  aame  career.  His  apparatus  consisted  principally  of  phials, 
wine  glasses,  tea  cups,  tobacco  pipes,  and  earthen  pipkins,  and  his  materials 
were  chiefly  the  mineral  acids,  the  alkalies,  and  some  other  articles  of  which  nso 
is  made  in  medicine.  Ho  commenced  his  experiments  in  his  slccping-room,  and 
when  he  had  need  of  fire,  descended  with  his  vessels  to  tho  kitchen.  (Memoirs 
of  the  Life  qf  Sir  Humphrey  Davy,  by  his  brother,  John  Davy,  London,  1836.) 
A  shipwreck  which  occurred  on  the  coast  procured  him  some  unexpected  resources. 
He  had  the  good  luck  to  lay  hands  on  a  box  of  surgical  instruments.  Among 
them  there  happened  to  be  a  common  syringe ;  of  this  ho  constructed  an  air 
pump!  '* During  his  whole  life,"  says  Cuvier,  "ho  continued  to  make  use  of 
everything  that  came  to  hand  in  the  serv^ico  of  his  researches ;  and  tho  sim- 
plicity of  his  apparatus  was  not  less  remarkable  than  tho  originality  of  his 
experiments  and  the  elevation  of  his  views." 

*  It  was  tho  inteution  of  CouDt  Rumford  to  try  Davy  as  professor,  and  to  givo  him  the 
succession  of  Dr.  Ganiett,  whose  services  the  Institution  was  on  the  point  of  losing.  "  Lit- 
tle accommodatiDg  in  his  disposition,  Count  Kumford  had  already  broken  with  his  professor 
3f  chemistry,  Dr.  Garnett.**     (G.  Cuvier,  Eloge  Historique  de  Sir  Humphrey  Duty!) 

14  8  67  n        ^ 

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210  THE   ROYAL  INSTITUTION   OF   QBEAT   BRITAIN. 

Dr.  Beddoes,  having  founded  at  Bristol  an  establishment  (the  Pneumatic  Insti- 
tution) where  the  therapeutic  properties  of  the  gases  might  be  carefully  studied 
and  tunied  to  account,  had  need  of  an  assistant.  On  the  recommendation  of 
Davies  Gilbert  (who  presided  over  the  Royal  Society  of  London  from  1827  to 
1830)  he  made  choice  of  the  young  Davy,  whose  merit  he  could  well  appreciate 
from  a  memoir  which  the  latter  had  sent  him  for  insertion  in  a  journal  which  he 
edited.  Davy  left  for  Bristol  October  2, 1798,  and,  the  year  following,  he  there 
discovered  the  properties  of  nitrous  oxide  gas,  (protoxide  of  nitrogen,)  a  discov- 
ery which  rendered  his  name  popular  in  the  three  kingdoms. 

VI. — The  first  course  of  chemistry  given  by  davy. — ^thb  discoveries 

MADE  BY  HIM  IN  THE  LABORATORY  OF  THE  INSTITUTION. 

We  have  shown  how  Davy  had  entered  the  Royal  Institution  and  the  success 
which  he  there  attained  as  professor.  His  lectm^es  took  place  on  Thursdays  at 
2  and  8  o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  and  on  Saturdays  at  2.  The  earlier  lectures 
of  the  afternoon  were  devoted  to  general  chemistry,  those  of  the  evening  to  its 
applications.  The  abstract  of  his  first  course  has  been  preserved;*  it  was 
divided  into  three  parts :  the  chemistry  of  ponderable  substances;  the  chemistry 
of  imponderable  substances ;  the  chemistry  of  the  arts. 

The  first  of  these  paits  treats:  (1)  of  chemical  forces  and  their  modes  of 
application  ;  (2)  of  uncompounded  substances  or  simple  principles ;  (3)  of  bodies 
compounded  of  two  simple  substances ;  (4)  of  bodies  compounded  of  more  than 
two  simple  substances ;  (5)  of  substances  compounded  of  different  compound 
bodies  and  of  simple  bodies  ;  (6)  of  the  general  phenomena  of  chemical  action. 
The  second  part  treats :  (1)  of  heat  or  caloric ;  (2)  of  light;  (3)  of  electrical 
influence;  (4)  of  galvanism.  The  third  part  treats:  (1)  of  agriculture;  (2). of 
tanning ;  (3)  of  bleaching ;  (4)  of  dyeing ;  (5)  of  metallurgy  ;  (6)  of  the  man- 
ufficturc  of  glass  and  porcelain ;  (7)  of  the*preparation  of  solid  and  liquid  ali- 
ments ;  (8)  of  the  employment  of  artificial  heat  and  light. 

Nominated  to  the  incumbency  of  the  chair  of  chemistry  May  31,  1802,  Davy 
resigned  it  April  5, 1813.  He  had  given  his  last  lecture  April  9, 1812,  the  day 
after  that  on  which  he  had  been  knighted  by  the  prince  regent,  and  the  eve  of 
his  nuptials  with  Mrs.  Apreece,  a  union  which  made  him  master  of  a  largo  for- 
tune. He  had  shed  great  lustre  on  the  Royal  Institution,  at  the  same  time  that 
ho  changed  the  character  which  had  pervaded  the  thought  of  its  founder.  The 
Institution  was  no  longer  a  school  of  arts  and  trades,  established  with  a  view 
to  the  most  numerous  class  of  society,  but  redounded  almost  exclusively  to  the 
profit  of  the  higher  classes.  "  Ladies  of  the  highest  rank,"  says  Cuvier,  "  fol- 
lowed his  lectmxjs,  together  with  lords  of  high  degree,  and  the  most  distin- 
guished of  the  young  men."  The.  spirit  of  research  was  introduced,  and  the 
labomtory  of  the  Institution  became  the  theatre  of  the  most  brilliant  discoveries. 
It  was  there  that  Davy  discovered  the  laws  of  electro-chemical  decomposition  ; 
succeeded  in  decomposing  the  fixed  alkalies,  established  the  true  nature  of 
chlorine,  and  the  philosophy  of  flame.  The  electric  battery  with  which  the 
scpaiation  of  ])otassium  and  of  sodium  was  effected,  and  which  is  still  preserved 
in  the  establishment  with  other  apparatus  used  by  Davy,  consisted  of  three  bat- 
teiies  combined,  one  of  24  square  plates  of  copper  and  zinc,  of  12  inches  to  the 
side,  another  of  100  plates  of  six  inches,  and  the  third  of  150  plates  of  four 
inches.  The  discovery  of  potassium  was  made  October  6,  1807.  The  pleasure 
which  Davy  experienced  at  seeing  the  small  globules  of  the  new  metal  spring 
through  the  crust  of  potash  and  kindle  on  contact  with  the  air  was  witnessed 
by  his  relative  and  assistant,  Edmund  Davy.    "  Our  professor  could  not  restrain 

*  A  Syllabus  of  a  Course  of  Lectures  on  Chnmistryj  delivered  at  the  Royal  InstitutioH  of 
Great  Britaiiit  by  H.  Davy,  professor  of  chemistry,  pp.  91,  octavo,  London,  Cadeli  <& 
Davies,  1802. 


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THE   BOTAL   INSTITUTION    OF   GREAT   BRITAIN  211 

his  delight,  and  began  dancing  around  the  room  in  a  transport  of  joy,  and  it 
was  some  time  before  he  recovered  sufficient  composure  to  continue  the  experi- 
ment.^ The  directors  and  principal  members  of  the  institution  afterwards 
caused  a  galvanic  battery  of  600  pairs  of  fom-inch  plates  to  be  constructed, 
and  this  again  was  replaced  by  a  battery  of  2,000  pauB.  This  powerful  artil- 
lery was  directed  against  the  earths,  and  the  new  metals  received  the  names  of 
barinm,  strontium,  calcium,  and  magnesium,  after  the  names  of  the  earths  from 
which  they  were  separated. 

The  limits  which  we  have  prescribed  to  ourselves  do  not  permit  us  to  follow 
Davy  after  his  retirement  firom  the  Institution.  ^^  If  I  relinquish  teaching,"  he 
wrote  to  his  brother  at  the  time  of  his  marriage,  '^  it  is  solely  with  the  piu7>oso 
of  having  more  time  to  devote  to  original  researches  and  to  the  advancement  of 
the  great  objects  of  science.''  But  from  1812  his  life  was  essentially  that  of  a 
traveller  and  man  of  the  world ;  he  was  created  baronet  in  1818,  three  years 
after  the  discovery  of  the  safety-lamp,*  and  died  at  Geneva  May  29,  1829. 

VII. — ^Nomination  of  dr.  young  to  the  chair  of  natural  philosophy. 

Towards  the  close  of  1801  the  directors  of  the  Royal  Institution  nominated 
to  the  chair  of  natural  philosophy  (physics  and  mechanics)  a  man  of  perhaps 
still  greater  genius  than  Davy,  the  celebrated  Dr.  Youn^. 

Thomas  Young  was  bom  at  Milverton,  in  Somersetslure,  June  13, 1773.    He 
was  an  infant  prodigy.     At  two  years  of  age  he  could  read  fluently ;  at  four  he 
could  recite  firom  memory  a  great  number  of  English  writers  and  even  Latin 
poems,  of  which,  however,  he  understood  not  a  word.     From  nine  to  fourteen 
he  learned,  besides  Greek  and  Latin,  the  French,  Italian,  Hebrew,  Persic,  and 
Arabic  languages ;  ^^  French  and  Italian,  incidentally,  for  the  purpose  of  satis- 
fying the  curiosity  of  a  comrade  who  had  in  his  possession  several  works  printed 
at  Paris,  whose  contents  he  was  desirous  of  knowing ;  Hebrew,  in  order  to  read 
the  Bible  in  the  original ;  Persic  and  Arabic,  with  a  view  to  the  decision  of 
the  question,  which  had  arisen  in  a  conversation  at  table,  whether  differences  exist 
between  the  oriental  languages  as  marked  as  those  which  exist  between  European 
languages.''     (Arago,  Biography  of  Tlwmas  Young,)    His  passion  for  knowl- 
edge was  unbounded,  and  no  obstacles  stopped  him  in  its  pursuit.    Having  seen . 
a  land-surveyor  at  work,  when  he  was  scarcely  eight  years  old,  he  applied  him- 
self to  learn,  by  means  of  a  dictionary  of  mathematics,  the  nature  of  the  opera- 
tions, and  soon  qualified  himself  to  make  the  calculations.     Still  later,  he  con- 
ceives an  ardent  taste  for  botany,  and  undertakes  to  constmct  a  microscope. 
For  that  purpose  he  must  first  know  the  theory  of  the  instrument ;  and,  as  he 
has  at  hand  nothing  but  a  book  bristling  with  analytic  formulas,  ho  studies 
the  differential  calculus  in  order  to  comprehend  it,  and,  between  times,  acquires 
great  skill  in  the  art  of  turnery.     His  favorite  maxim  was,  that  every  man  may 
do  what  any  other  man  has  done.    While  he  was  prosecuting  his  mc<lical  studies 
iu  Edinburgh,  which  had  been  conmienced  in  London,  he  acquired  so  much 
skill  in  funambulism  as  to  compete  with  a  famous  professor  of  the  art ;  and  at 
Gdttingen,  where  he  passed  nine  months,  and  where  ho  received  the  degree  of 
doctor  of  medicine,  he  attained  extraordinary  dexterity  as  a  vaulter  on  liorse- 
hack.    Profoundly  versed  in  the  theory  of  music,  ho  also  cultivatoil  his  powere 

*  See  the  History  qftke  Royal  Society  of  London,  where  will  be  found  other  details  reftp(>ct- 
log  Davy,  and,  among  the  rest,  respecting  the  mortificatiun  which  he  sustained  in  relation 
to  certain  means  he  had  proposed  for  preventing^  the  corrosion  of  the  copper  with  which  ves- 
sels are  hned.  I  add  an  extract  from  a  letter,  whicli  he  wrote  on  this  occasion  to  Mr.  Chil- 
dren :  "A  mind  of  much  sensibilitj  might  be  disf^usted,  and  one  mic^ht  be  led  to  say  :  Why 
labor  for  the  public  interest,  when  the  sole  recompense  is  abuse  7  They  havo  irritated  me 
more  than  I  should  have  been,  but  I  become  wiser  day  by  day,  calliuj?  to  remembrance 
Galileo  and  the  time  when  the  philosophers  and  benefactors  of  society  obtained  no  other 
recompense  for  their  services  but  the  stake." 


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212  THE   ROYAL   INSTITUTION   OF   GREAT  BRITAIN. 

of  execution  to  such  an  extent  that  Arago  says  of  him  in  the  biography  before 
cited :  "  Of  all  known  instruments,  including  even  the  Scotch  bagpipe,  it 
seems  certain  that  there  were  but  two  on  which  he  could  not  perform.''  His 
brilliant  discoveries  in  physics  are  well  known.  In  1818,  the  illustrious  author 
of  the  doctrine  of  interferences  of  light^  having  been  nominated  secretary  of  the 
bureau  of  longitudes,  and  charged  with  the  superintendence  of  the  Nautical 
Almanac,  turned  his  attention  to  astronomy,  and  abandoned  almost  entirely  the 
practice  of  medicine.  As  a  physician  his  services  had  never  been  in  any  great 
request.  He  was  suspected  of  being  too  learned,  and,  in  truth,  "  notwithstand- 
ing his  knowledge,  or,  perhaps,  even  by  reason  of  its  vast  extent,  he  was  wholly 
deficient  in  confidence  at  the  bedside  of  the  sick."* 

In  a  notice  of  the  Nautical  Almanac,  I  have  mentioned  the  vexations  which 
he  incurred  as  asti-onomer,  and  I  shall  not  here  return  to  the  subject. 

Dr.  Young  died  May  10, 1829  j  nineteen  days,  consequently,  before  his  former 
colleague,  Sir  Humphrey  Davy. 

VIII. — The  introductory  lecture  of  dr.  young. 

We  shall  here  consider  Dr.  Young  only  as  regards  his  cx>nnection  with  the 
Royal  Institution.  This  connection  was  of  no  long  continuance.  His  first 
lecture  was  given  January  20,  1802,  and  he  retired  after  having  filled  the  pro- 
fessorship two  years.  If  we  ai-e  to  believe  the  author  of  his  life  in  the  Biogra- 
phie  Univcrselle  of  iho  brothers  Michaud,  he  had  not  been  popular.  He  was 
reproached  with  being  too  laconic,  with  not  giving  sufficient  development  to  his 
explanations,  with  want  of  clearness.  But  the  learned  world  owes  to  his  con- 
nection with  the  Institutiou  a  work  of  the  highest  order,  which  appeared  in  1807, 
under  the  title  of  **A  Course  of  Ijccfures  on  Natural  Philosophy  and  the  Mechan- 
ical ArtSj^^  by  Thomas  Young,  ]M.  D.,  &c.  j  2  vols,  quarto,  comprising  together 
1,570  pages  and  58  plates.t 

The  first  lecture,  which  serves  as  an  introduction  to  the  course,  possess<^  so 
high  an  interest  that  we  deem  it  due  to  our  readers  to  place  it,  at  least  in  part, 
before  their  eyes ;  there  is  always  something  to  bo  gained  by  knowing  and 
reflecting  on  the  ideas  of  a  man  of  genius : 

"  It  is  to  be  presumed  that  the  greater  part  of  those  who  honor  with  their 
attendance  the  amphitheatre  of  the  lloyal  Institution,  already  know  the  nature 
of  the  objects  which  its  founders  and  promotere  have  been  endeavoring  to  attain ; 
yet  it  would  seem  by  no  means  superfluous  that  I  should  define  with  accuracy 
my  own  views  of  the  utility  which  is  likely  to  be  derived  from  it  and  the  most 
efi'ectual  means  of  accomplishing  its  purposes,  in  order  that  we  may  discover 
more  easily  the  best  route  to  be  pursued  in  our  common  progress  through  the 
regions  of  science,  and  that  those  who  are  desirous  of  accompanying  me  may 
kno>v  precisely  what  path  wo  mean  to  follow,  and  what  depaitments  will  more 
particularly  aiTCSt  our  attention.  ♦  ♦  ♦  The  primary  and  peculiar  object 
of  the  Institution  is  to  apply  to  domestic  convenience  the  improvements  which 
have  l)een  made  in  science,  and  to  inti-oduce  into  general  practice  such  mechan- 
ical inventions  as  are  o^decided  utility.  But.  while  it  is  chiefly  engaged  in 
this  pursuit,  it  extends  its  views,  in  some  measure,  to  the  promotion  of  the  same 
ends  which  pertain  to  the  special  province  of  other  litemry  societies  j  and  it  is 
the  more  impossible  that  these  objects  should  be  wholly  excluded,  as  it  is  upon 

'*  Biography  by  Arago. — "No  study,"  said  Dr.  Young,  *'  is  so  complicated  as  that  of  medi- 
cine.  It  surpasses  the  bounds  of  buman  intelligence.  Physicians  who  proceed  without 
attempting  to  comprehend  what  is  before  them,  often  see  as  far  as  those  who  placo  reliance 
in  basty  generalizations,  based  upon  observations  in  re^rd  to  which  all  analogy  is  in 
JefnulL'* 

t  Vouug  bad  published,  at  the  commencement  of  1802,  a  programme  6f  the  lectora 
wbicb  be  proposed  to  deliver  at  the  Royal  Institution,  under  the  utle  of  **  ^4  Syllmbu$  tf 
Lectures  on  Natural  and  Experimental  thilosophy^^*  in  a  quarto  volume  of  193  pages. 


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THE   ROYAL   INSTITUTION   OP   GREAT   BRITAIN  213 

the  advancement  of  these  that  the  specific  objects  of  the  Institution  mntit  ulti- 
mately depend.  It  follows  that  the  dissemination  of  physical  and  chemical 
knowledge  becomes  a  truly  essential  part  of  the  design  of  the  Royal  Institu- 
tion ;  and  this  department  must^  in  the  natural  order  of  arrangement,  be  anterior 
to  the  application  of  the  sciences  to  practical  uses.  To  exclude  all  knowledge 
except  that  which  has  been  aU-oady  applied  to  immediate  utility,  would  be  to 
rednce  our  faculties  to  a  state  of  servitude,  and  to  fi-ustmte  the  very  purposes 
which  we  are  laboring  to  accomplish.  No  discovery,  however  remote  in  its 
nature  from  the  subjects  of  daily  observation,  can  with  reason  be  pronounced 
wholly  inapplicable  to  the  benefit  of  mankind. 

"  It  has  seemed  to  me,  therefore,  to  be  not  only  the  best  beginning,  but  also  an 
ohject  of  high  and  permanent  importance  in  the  plan  of  the  Royal  Institution, 
to  direct  public  attention  to  the  cultivation  of  the  elementary  doctrines  of  nat- 
ural philosophy,  as  well  speculative  as  practical.  Those  who  possess  the  genu- 
ine spirit  of  scientific  investigation,  and  who  have  tasted  the  pure  satisfaction 
arising  from  an  advancement  in  intellectual  acquirements,  are  contented  to  pro- 
ceed in  their  researches,  without  inquiring  at  every  step  what  they  gain  by  their 
newly  discovered  lights,  and  to  what  practical  purposes  they  are  applicable ;  they 
receive  a  sufficient  gratification  from  the  enlargement  of  their  views  of  the  con- 
stitution of  the  universe,  and  experience,  in  the  immediate  pursuit  of  knowledge, 
that  pleasure  which  othere  wish  to  attain  more  circuitously  by  its  means.  And 
it  is  one  of  the  principal  advantages  of  a  liberal  education,  that  it  creates  a  sus- 
ceptibility of  an  enjoyment  so  elegant  and  so  rational. 

"A  considerable  portion  of  my  audience,  to  whose  information  it  will  be  my 
particular  ambition  to  accommodate  my  lectures,  consists  of  that  sex  which,  by 
the  custom  of  civilized  society,  is  in  some  measure  exempted  from  the  more  labo- 
rious duties  that  occupy  the  time  and  attention  of  the  other  sex.  The  many 
leisure  hours  which  are  at  the  command  of  females  in  the  superior  orders  of  soci- 
ety, may  surely  be  appropriated,  with  greater  satisfaction,  to  the  improvement  of 
the  mind  and  the  acquisition  of  knowledge,  than  to  such  amusements  as  are 
only  designed  for  facilitating  the  insipid  consumption  of  supei-fluous  time.  The 
hoars  thus  spent  will  unquestionably  become,  by  a  little  habit,  as  much  more 
agreeable  at  the  moment,  as  they  must  be  more  capable  of  afibrding  self-appro- 
bation upon  reflection.  And  besides,  like  the  seasoning  which  reconciled  the 
Spartans  to  their  uninviting  diet,  they  will  even  heighten  the  relish  for  those 
pursuits  which  they  interrupt ;  for  mental  exercise  is  as  neccssaiy  to  mental 
enjoyment,  as  corporal  labor  to  corporal  health  and  vigor.  In  this  point  of 
view,  the  Royal  Institution  may  in  some  degree  supply  the  place  of  a  subordin- 
ate university  to  those  whose  sex  or  situation  in  life  has  denied  them  the  advan- 
tage of  an  aicademical  education  in  the  national  seminaries  of  learning. 

*'  But  notwithstanding  the  necessity  of  introducing  very  copiously  speculations 
of  a  more  general  nature,  we  must  not  lose  sight  of  the  original  objects  of  the 
Royal  Institution ;  and  we  must  therefore  direct  our  attention  more  particularly 
to  the  theory  of  practical  mechanics  and  of  manufactures.  In  these  depart- 
ments we  shall  find  some  deficiencies  which  may,  without  much  difiiculty,  be 
supplied  from  scientific  principles;  and  by  an  ample  collection  and  display  of 
models,  illustrative  of  machines  and  of  inventions  of  all  kinds,  we  may  proceed 
m  the  most  direct  manner  to  contribute  to  the  dissemination  of  that  kind  of 
knowledge  which  is  more  particularly  our  object.  So  that  wo  must  be  more 
practical  than  academies  of  science,  and  more  theoretical  than  societies  for  the 
improvement  of  arts  j  while  we  endeavor  at  the  same  time  to  give  stability  to 
our  proceedings  by  an  annual  recurrence  to  the  elementary  knowledge  which  is 
subservient  to  both  classes  of  institutions,  and,  as  far  as  wo  arc  able,  to  apply 
to  practice  the  newest  lights  which  may,  from  time  to  time,  be  thrown  on  pai'- 
ticular  branches  of  mechanical  science.  It  is  thus  that  we  may  most  effectually 
perform  what  the  sophists  of  antiquity  but  verbally  professed,  to  bring  down 
philosophy  from  the  heavens,  and  make  her  an  inhabitant  of  the  eaitlL^  t 

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214  THE   EOTAL    INSTITUTION   OF   QBE  AT   BRITAIN. 

*'  To  those  who  are  engaged  in  the  pi^actical  cultivation  of  various  arts  conda- 
cive  to  the  conveniences  of  life,  these  lectures  may  be  of  utility  by  furnishing 
them  with  well-established  principles,  applicable  to  a  variety  of  caees  which 
may  occasionally  occur  to  them,  when  a  little  deviation  from  the  ordinary  rou- 
tine of  their  profession  may  be  necessary.  Unfortunately,  the  hands  that  exe- 
cute are  too  often  inadequately  supported  by  the  head  that  directs  ;  and  much 
labor  is  lost  for  want  of  a  little  previous  application  to  the  fundamental  doc- 
trines of  the  mechanical  sciences.  Nor  is  any  exorbitant  portion  of  time  oi 
industry  necessary  for  this  purpose ;  for  it  happens  that  almost  all  practical 
applications  of  science  depend  on  principles  easily  learned.  •  •  ♦ 

We  may  also  be  able  to  render  an  important  service  to  society,  and  to  confer  a 
still  more  essential  benefit  on  individuals,  by  repressing  the  pi^mature  zeal  of 
unskilful  inventors.  We  need  only  read  over  the  monthly  accounts  of  patents 
intended  for  securing  the  pecuniary  advantages  of  useful  discoveries,  in  order  to 
be  convinced  what  expense  of  time  and  fortune  is  continually  lavished  on  the 
feeblest  attempts  to  innovate  and  improve.  If  we  can  be  successful  in  convinc- 
ing such  inconsiderate  enthusiasts  of  their  I'eal  ignorance,  or  if  we  can  show  them 
that  even  their  own  fairy  ground  has  been  preoccupied,  we  may  save  them  from 
impending  ruin,  and  may  relieve  the  public  from  the  distraction  of  having  its 
attention  perpetually  excited  by  unworthy  objects.  The  ridicule  attendant  on 
the  name  of  a  projector  has  been  in  general  but  too  well  deserved  j  for  few, 
very  few,  who  have  aspired  at  improvement,  have  ever  had  the  patience  to  sub- 
mit their  inventions  to  such  experimental  tests  as  common  sense  would  suggest 
to  an  impartial  observer.  We  may  venture  to  affirm  that  out  of  every  hundred 
of  fanci^  improvements  in  arts  or  in  machines,  ninety  at  least,  if  not  ninety- 
nine,  are  either  old  or  useless ;  the  object  of  our  researches  is,  to  enable  ourselves 
to  distinguish  and  adopt  the  hundredth.  But  while  we  prune  the  luxuriant 
hoots  of  youthful  invention,  we  must  remember  to  perform  our  task  with  len- 
ency,  and  to  show  that  we  wish  only  to  give  additional  vigor  to  the  healthful 
branches,  and  not  to  extirpate  the  parent  plant. 

"  The  Repository  of  the  Institution,  as  soon  as  it  can  be  properly  furnished, 
will  be  considered  as  a  supplementary  room  for  apparatus,  in  which  the  most 
interesting  models  exhibited  and  described  in  the  lectures  will  be  placed  for 
more  frequent  inspection,  and  where  a  few  other  articles  may  perhaps  deserve 
admission,  which  will  not  require  so  particular  an  explanation.  To  those  who 
have  profited  by  the  lectures,  or  who  are  already  too  far  advance  to  stand  in 
need  of  them,  our  rooms  for  reading  and  for  literary  conversation  may  be  a 
source  of  mutual  instruction.  Our  library  in  time  must  contain  all  those  works 
of  importance  which  are  too  expensive  for  the  private  collections  of  the  gener- 
ality of  individuals,  which  are  necessary  to  complete  the  knowledge  of  partic- 
ular sciences,  and  to  which  references  will  occasionally  be  given  in  the  lectures 
on  those  sciences.  Our  journals,  free  from  commercial  shackles,  will  present  the 
public  from  time  to  time  with  concise  accounts  of  the  most  interesting  novelties 
in  science  and  the  useful  arts ;  and  they  will  furnish  a  perpetual  incitement  to 
their  editors  to  appropriate,  as  much  as  possible,  to  their  own  improvement, 
whatever  is  valuable  in  the  publications  of  their  cotemporaries.  When  all  the 
advantages  which  may  reasonably  be  expected  from  this  Institution  shall  be 
fully  understooil  and  impartially  considered,  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  few  persons  of 
liberal  minds  will  be  indiflerent  to  its  success,  or  unwilling  to  contribute  to  it 
and  to  participate  in  it. 

**  To  that  regulation  which  forbids  the  introduction  of  any  discussions  connected 
with  the  learned  professions  I  shall  always  most  willingly  submit  and  most 
punctually  attend.  It  requires  the  study  of  a  considerable  portion  of  a  man's 
life  to  qualify  him  to  be  of  use  to  mankind  in  any  of  them  j  and  nothing  can  be 
more  peraicious  to  individuals  or  to  society  than  the  attempting  to  proceed  prac- 
tically upon  an  imperfect  conception  of  a  few  first  principles  only.     In  physic 


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THE   ROYAL   INSTITUTION   OF   GREAT   BRITAIN. 


215 


the  wisest  can  do  but  little,  and  the  ignorant  can  only  do  worse  than  nothing ; 
and  jnst  as  anxiously  as  we  are  disposed  to  seek  whatever  relief  the  learned  and 
experienced  may  be  able  to  afford  us,  should  we  cautiously  avoid  the  mischievous 
interference  of  the  half-studied  empiric ;  in  politics  and  in  religion,  we  need  but 
look  back  on  the  history  of  kingdoms  and  republics,  in  order  to  be  aware  of  the 
mischiefs  which  ensue  when  '  fools  rush  in  where  angels  fear  to  tread.' " 

IX. — CONTINFATION  OF  THE  INTRODtlCTOKY  LECTURE. 

"  Deeply  impressed  with  the  importance  of  mathematical  investigations,  both 
for  the  advancement  of  science  and  for  the  improvement  of  the  mind,  I  thought 
it  in  the  first  place  an  indispensable  duty  to  present  to  the  Boyal  Institution  in 
my  syllabus  a  connected  system  of  natural  philosophy,  on  a  plan  seldom  if  ever 
before  executed  in  the  most  copious  treatises.  Proceeding  from  the  simplest 
axioms  of  abstract  mathematics,  the  syllabus  contains  a  stnct  demonstration  of 
eveiy  proposition  which  I  have  found  it  necessary  to  employ  throughout  the 
whole  extent  of  natural  philosophy.  In  the  astronomical  part  only,  some  obser- 
^'ations  occur  unsupported  by  mathematical  evidence.  Here,  however,  it  was  as 
impracticable  as  it  would  have  been  useless  to  attempt  to  enter  into  investiga- 
tions, which  in  many  instances  have  been  extended  far  beyond  the  limits  even 
of  Newton's  researches.  But  for  the  sake  of  those  who  are  not  disposed  to 
undertake  the  labor  of  following,  with  mathematical  accuracy,  all  the  stops  of 
the  demonstrations  on  which  the  doctrines  of  the  mechanical  sciences  are  founded, 
I  shall  endeavor  to  avoid,  in  the  whole  of  this  course  of  lectures,  every  intri- 
cacy which  might  be  perplexing  to  a  beginner,  and  every  argument  which  is 
fitter  for  the  closet  than  for  a  public  theatre.  Here  I  propose  to  support  the 
same  propositions  by  experimental  proofs ;  not  that  I  consider  such  proofs  as  the 
most  conclusive,  or  as  more  interesting  to  a  truly  philosophic  mind  tlian  a 
deduction  from  general  principles,  but  b^use  there  is  a  satisfaction  in  discover- 
ing the  coincidence  of  theories  with  visible  effects,  and  because  objects  of  sense 
are  of  advantage  in  assisting  the  imagination  to  comprehend  and  memory  to 
retain  what,  in  a  more  abstracted  form,  might  fail  to  excite  sufficient  attention. 
This  combination  of  experimental  with  analogical  arguments  constitutes  the 
principal  merit  of  modem  philosophy. 

"  With  regard  to  the  mode  of  delivering  these  lectui-es,  I  shall  in  general 
entreat  my  audience  to  pardon  the  formality  of  a  written  discourse  in  favor  of 
the  advantage  of  a  superior  degree  of  order  and  perspicuity.  It  would  unques- 
tionably be  desirable  that  every  syllable  advanced  should  be  rendered  perfectly 
easy  and  comprehensible,  even  to  the  most  uninformed ;  that  the  most  inattentive 
might  find  sufficient  variety  and  entertainment  in  what  is  submitted  to  them  to 
excite  their  curiosity,  and  that  in  all  cases  the  pleasing,  and  sometimes  oven  the 
sarprising,  should  be  united  with  the  instructive  and  the  important.  But  when- 
ever there  appears  to  be  a  real  impossibility  of  reconciling  these  various  objects, 
I  shall  esteem  it  better  to  seek  for  substantial  utility  than  temporary  amuse- 
ment ;  for  if  we  fail  of  being  useful  for  want  of  being  sufficiently  popular,  we 
remain  at  least  respectable ;  but  if  we  are  unsuccessful  in  our  attempts  to  amuse, 
we  immediately  appear  trifling  and  contemptible.  It  shall,  however,  at  all  times 
he  my  endeavor  to  avoid  each  extreme,  and  I  tnist  that  I  shall  then  only  be 
condemned,  when  I  am  found  abstnise  from  ostentation  or  uninteresting  from 
Bnpineness.  The  most  difficult  thing  for  a  teacher  is  to  recollect  how  much  it 
cost  himself  to  learn,  and  to  accommodate  his  instruction  to  the  apprehension  of 
the  uninformed ;  by  bearing  in  mind  this  observation,  I  hope  to  be  able  to  ren- 
der my  lectures  more  and  more  intelligible  and  familiar  5  not  by  passing  over 
difficulties,  but  by  endeavoring  to  facilitate  the  task  of  oveixjoming  them ;  and 
if  at  any  time  I  appear  to  have  failed  in  this  attempt,  I  shall  think  myself  hon- 
ored by  any  subsequent  inquiries  that  my  audience  may  be  disposed  to  make. 


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216  THE   ROYAL   INSTITUTION   OF   GREAT   BRITAIN. 

"  Wo  havo  to  extend  our  views  over  the  wbolo  circle  of  natural  and  artificial 
knowledge,  to  consider  in  detail  the  principles  and  application  of  the  philosophy 
of  nature  and  of  art.  ♦  •To  insist  on  the  propriety  of  a  distinct  and 
logical  order  is  unnecessary ;  for,  however  superfluous  we  may  deem  the  scholastic 
forms  of  rhetoric,  it  is  confessedly  advantageous  to  the  judgment  as  well  as  to 
the  memory  to  unite  those  things  which  ai*e  naturally  connected,  and  to  separate 
those  which  are  essentially  distinct.  When  a  traveller  is  desirous  of  becoming 
acquainted  with  a  city  or  country  before  unknown  to  him,  he  naturally  begins 
by  taking  from  some  elevated  situation  a  distant  view  of  the  distribution  of  its 
parts ;  and  in  the  same  manner,  before  we  enter  on  the  particular  consideration 
of  the  subjects  of  our  researches,  it  may  be  of  use  to  form  to  om*8elves  a  general 
idea  of  the  sciences  and  arts  which  are  to  be  placed  among  them.  ♦  •  • 
The  division  of  the  whole  course  of  lectures  into  three  parts  was  originally  sug- 
gested by  the  pei-jodical  succession  in  which  the  appointed  hours  recur ;  but  it 
appears  to  be  more  convenient  than  any  other  for  the  regular  classification  of 
the  subjects.  The  general  doctrines  of  motion,  and  their  application  to  all  pur- 
l)oses  variable  at  pleasure,  supply  the  materials  of  the  first  two  parts,  of  which 
the  one  treats  of  the  motions  of  solid  bodies,  and  the  other  of  those  of  fluids^ 
including  the  theory  of  light.  The  third  part  relates  to  the  particular  history 
of  the  phenomena  of  nature,  and  of  the  affections  of  bodies  actually  existing  in 
the  universe,  independently  of  the  art  of  man ;  comprehending  astronomy,  geog- 
raphy, and  the  doctrine  of  the  properties  of  matter,  and  of  the  most  general  and 
powerful  agents  that  influence  it.* 

"  The  synthetical  order  of  proceeding,  from  simple  and  general  principles  to 
their  more  intricate  combinations  in  particular  cases,  is  by  far  the  most  compen- 
dious for  conveying  information  with  regard  to  sciences  that  are  at  all  referable 
to  certain  fundamental  laws.  For  these  laws  being  once  established,  each  fact, 
as  soon  as  it  is  known,  assumes  its  place  in  the  system,  and  is  ret^ned  in  the 
memory  by  its  relation  to  the  rest  as  a  connecting  link.  In  the  analytical  mode, 
on  the  contrary,  which  is  absolutely  necessary  for  the  first  investigation  of  truth, 
we  are  obliged  to  begin  by  collecting  a  number  of  insulated  circumstances,  which 
lead  us  back  by  degrees  to  the  knowledge  of  original  principles,  but  which,  until 
we  arrive  at  those  principles,  are  merely  a  burden  to  the  memory.  For  the  phe- 
nomena of  nature  resemble  the  scattered  leaves  of  Sybilline  pi-ophecies ;  a  word 
only  or  a  single  syllable  is  written  on  each  leaf,  which,  when  separately  consid- 
ered, conveys  no  instruction  to  the  mind ;  but  when  by  the  labor  of  patient  investi- 
gation every  fragment  is  replaced  in  its  appropriate  connection,  the  whole  begins 
at  once  to  speak  a  perspicuous  and  harmonious  language.        ♦         ♦         * 

"Before  proceeding  to  the  examination  of  the  several  parts  of  our  plan,  we 
must  pause  to  consider  the  mode  of  reasoning  which  is  the  most  generally  to  be 
adopted.  It  depends  on  the  axiom  which  has  always  been  essentially  concerned 
in  every  improvement  of  natural  philosophy,  but  which  has  been  more  and  more 
employed,  ever  since  the  revival  of  letters,  under  the  name  of  induction.  That 
like  causes  produce  like  effects,  or  that  in  similar  circumstances  similar  conse- 
quences ensue,  is  the  most  general  and  most  important  law  of  nature;  it  is  the 
foundation  of  all  analogical  reasoning,  and  is  collected  from  constant  experience 
by  an  indispensable  and  unavoidable  propensity  of  the  human  mind.  ♦  •  ♦ 
In  the  application  of  induction,  the  greatest  caution  and  circumspection  are  neces- 
sary ;  for  it  is  obvious  that  before  we  can  infer  with  certainty  the  complete  simi- 
larity of  two  events,  we  must  be  perfectly  well  assured  that  we  are  acquainted 

*  This  third  part  should  include,  along  with  the  properties  of  matter  and  the  particolar 
action  of  its  particles,  the  whole  of  chemical  science ;  but  the  varietj  and  importance  of 
the  researches  of  chemistry  require  a  separate  and  minute  discussion,  and  the  noTeltjr  as  well 
as  beauty  of  many  of  the  experiments  with  which  the  labors  of  our  contemporaries  have 
enriched  this  branch  of  knowledge,  and  which  will  be  repeated  in  the  amphitheatre  of  the 
Institution  by  the  professor  of  chemistry,  suffices  to  make  this  part  of  natural  philosophy  the 
most  interesting  of  all  the  sciences. 


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THE  ROYAL   INSTITUTION   OP   GREAT   BRITAIN  217 

with  every  circumstance  which  can  have  any  relation  to  their  caases.  The  error 
of  some  of  the  ancient  schools  consisted  principally  in  want  of  sufficient  precau- 
tion in  this  respect ;  for  although  Bacon  is  with  great  justice  considered  as  the 
author  of  the  most  correct  method  of  induction,  yet,  according  to  his  own  state- 
ment, it  was  chiefly  the  guarded  and  gradual  application  of  the  mode  of  argu- 
ment that  he  labored  to  introduce.  He  remarks  that  the  Aristotelians,  from  a 
hasty  observation  of  a  few  concurring  facts,  proceeded  immediately  to  deduce 
universal  principles  of  science  and  fundamental  laws  of  nature,  and  then  derived 
from  these,  by  their  syllogisms,  all  the  particular  cases  which  ought  to  have  been 
made  intermediate  steps  in  the  inquiry.  Of  such  an  error  we  may  easily  find  a 
familiar  instance.  .We  observe  that,  in  general,  heavy  bodies  fall  to  the  ground, 
nnless  they  are  supported ;  it  was  therefore  concluded  that  all  heavy  bodies  tend 
downwards ;  and  since  flame  was  most  frequently  seen  to  rise  upwards,  it  was 
therefore  inferred  that  flame  was  naturally  and  absolutely  light.  Had  sufficient 
precaution  been  employed  in  observing  the  effects  of  fluids  on  falling  and  on 
floating  bodies,  in  examining  the  relations  of  flame  to  the  circumambient  atmo- 
sphere, and  in  ascertaining  the  specific  gravity  of  the  air  at  different  tempera- 
tores,  it  would  readily  have  been  discovered  that  the  greater  weight  of  the  colder 
air  was  the  cause  of  the  ascent  of  the  flame — flame  being  less  heavy  than  air,  but 
yet  having  no  positive  tendency  to  ascend.  And  accordingly  the  Epicureans, 
whose  arguments,  as  far  as  they  related  to  matter  and  motion,  were  often  more 
accurate  than  those  of  their  cotemporaries,  had  corrected  this  error  j  for  we  find 
in  the  second  book  of  Lucretius  a  very  just  explanation  of  the  phenomenon : 

**  See  with  what  force  yon  river's  crystal -stream 
Resists  the  weight  of  many  a  massive  beam. 
To  sink  the  wood  the  more  we  vainiy  toil, 
The  higher  it  reboauds  with  swift  recoil. 
Yet  that  the  beam  would  of  itself  ascend 
No  man  will  rashly  venture  to  contend. 
Thus,  too,  the  flame  has  weight,  though  highly  rare, 
Nor  mounts  but  when  compelled  by  heavier  air.'* 

"  It  may  be  proper  to  notice  here  those  axioms  which  are  denominated  by  New- 
ton rules  of  philosophizing,  although  it  must  be  confessed  that  they  render  us 
very  little  immediate  assistance  in  our  investigations.  The  first  is  that '  no  more 
causes  are  to  be  admitted  as  existing  in  nature  than  are  at  once  true  and  sufficient 
for  explaining  the  phenomena  to  bo  considered  j '  the  second,  '  therefore  effects 
of  the  same  kind  are  to  be  attributed,  as  far  as  possible,  to  the  same  causes ;' 
thirdly,  *  those  qualities  of  bodies  which  cannot  be  increased  nor  diminished, 
and  which  are  found  in  all  bodies  within  the  reach  of  our  experiments,  are  to  be 
considered  as  geneml  qualities  of  all  bodies  existing;'  fourthly,  *in  experi- 
mental philosopliy,  propositions  collected  by  induction  from  phenomena  are  to  be 
esteemed  either  accurately  or  very  nearly  true,  notwithstanding  any  contrary 
hypothesis,  until  other  phenomena  occur  by  which  they  may  either  be  corrected 
or  confuted.' 

"As  an  illustration  of  the  remark  that  these  axioms,  though  strictly  true,  are  of 
little  real  utility  in  assisting  our  investigations,  I  shall  give  an  instance  from  the 
subject  of  electricity.  Supposing  that  we  wish  to  determine  whether  or  no  the 
electinc  fluid  has  weight,  we  are  to  inquire  whether  or  no  gravitation  is  one  of 
tbose  properties  which  are  described  in  the  third  rule,  and  whether  that  rule  will 
authorize  us  to  apply  it  to  the  electric  fluid  as  one  of  those  qualities  of  bodies, 
vt^hich  cannot  be  increased  or  diminished,  which  are  found  in  all  bodies  Avitliiu 
the  reach  of  oiu:  experiments,  and  which  aie  therefore  to  be  considered  as  general 
qualities  of  all  bodies  existing.  Now,  it  appears  to  be,  in  the  first  place,  uncer- 
tain whether  or  no  the  increase  and  diminution  of  gravity,  from  a  change  of  dis- 
tance, is  strictly  compatible  with  the  terms  of  the  definition  j  and  in  the  second 
place,  we  are  equally  at  a  loss  to  decide  whether  or  no  the  electric  fluid  can  with 


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218  THE   BOTAL   INSTITUTION   OF   GREAT  BRITAIN. 

propriety  be  called  a  body,  for  it  appears  in  some  respects  to  be  \*bolly  different 
from  tangible  matter,  while  it  has  other  qualities  in  common  with  it.  Such  are 
the  difficulties  of  laying  down  general  laws  on  so  comprehensive  a  scale  that  we 
shall  find  it  more  secure  to  be  contented  to  proceed  gradually  by  closer  induc- 
tions in  particular  cases.  We  shall,  however,  be  seldom  much  embarrassed  in 
the  choice  of  a  mode  of  argumentation.  The  laws  of  motion,  which  will  be  the 
iii-st  immediate  subject  of  discussion,  have  indeed  sometimes  been  referred  to 
experimental  evidence,  but  we  shall  be  able  to  deduce  them  all  in  a  satisfactory 
manner,  by  means  of  our  general  axiom,  from  reasonings  purely  mathematical, 
which,  wherever  they  are  applicable,  are  unquestionably  preferable  to  the  imper- 
fect evidence  of  the  senses,  employed  in  experimental  investigations." 

X. — Summary  of  dr.  young's  course  of  lectures. 

A  scientific  publication*  of  that  epoch  takes  the  following  notice  of  the  work 
of  we  have  just  been  speaking : 

"  When  Dr.  Young  accepted  the  chair  of  physics  in  the  Royal  Institution,  lie 
regarded  that  position  as  demanding  of  him  something  else  than  a  simple  oom- 
piktion  from  elementary  treatises ;  consequently  he  engaged  in  researches  amon^ 
original  authorities,  in  examining  attentively  and  uniting  in  a  single  system  aU 
that  related  to  the  principles  c€  mechanical  science,  and  all  that  could  contrib- 
ute to  the  improvement  of  the  useful  arts.  In  following  this  plan  he  has  redaced 
the  fundamental  doctrine  of  movement  to  simple  mathematical  axioms  in  a  more 
immediate  manner  than  had  before  been  done,  and  he  has  facilitated  the  appli- 
cation of  those  principles  to  all  the  cases  which  present  themselves  in  practice. 
He  has  investigated  by  a  gieat  number  of  experiments  the  force  or  tenacity  of 
materixils  of  every  kind ;  a  labor  of  which  the  results  arc  highly  important  to 
the  engineer  and  the  architect.  He  has  simplified,  extended  and  elucidated  the 
theory  of  the  movement  of  waves,  that  of  the  circulation  of  the  blood,  and  of 
the  propagation  of  sound.  He  has  studied  the  curvature  of  images  produced  by 
lenses  and  mirrors  ]  he  has  examined  in  detail  the  functions  of  the  eye,  and  rep- 
resented in  a  very  comprehensive  and  very  exact  manner  the  phenomena  of  colored 
light ;  he  has  also  pointed  out  some  new  cases  of  the  production  of  colors.  He 
has  reduced  the  theory  of  tides  to  a  very  simple  form ;  and  his  researches  on  the 
cohesion  and  capillary  action  of  fluids  are  anterior  to  those  of  M.  de  Laplace. 
He  has  made  different  comparative  experiments  on  the  elasticity  of  the  steam  of 
boiling  water,  on  evaporation  and  the  hygrometric  indications ;  in  fine,  his  work 
is  strewn,  to  a  large  extent,  with  new  inventions  and  practical  applications. 

'^  The  second  volume  begins  with  the  mathematical  elements  of  the  physical 
sciences.  Here  are  found  all  the  propositions  requisite  for  forming  a  complete 
series  of  demonstrations  applicable  to  all  the  important  cases  which  occur  in  that 
depai-tment  of  scientific  inquiry.  The  author  has  excluded  only  some  of  the 
more  complex  calculations  of  astronomy.  A  considerable  portion  of  the  volame 
is  occupied  by  a  comprehensive  catalogue  of  works  relating  to  physics  and  the 
arts,  methodically  subdivided,  and  accompanied  with  such  strictures  as^  in  the 
judgment  of  the  author,  were  due  to  their  respective  degrees  of  merit. 

XI. — The  course  of  natural  philosophy  given  at  the  royal  institxj- 

TION  BY  DOCTOR  DALTON. 

After  the  retirement  of  Toung,  Dalton,t  the  celebrated  author  of  the  (Uomic 
theory,  was  invited  to  London  to  give  a  course  of  natural  philosophy  at  the 

*  Nichulson*$  Journal.  Oar  extract  ia  derived  from  the  Biblioikique  Dritanniquet  U  xxxviL 
No.  4,  April,  1808. 

f  John  DaltoD,  horn  September  5,  1766,  at  Ea^lesfield,  in  Comberland,  died  July  97, 
1644,  at  Manchester,  where  he  had  passed  hit  lite  in  making^  chemical  analyses  for  tbe 
manufacturers,  the  price  of  which  varied  from  a  few  shillings  to  a  sovereign,  and  in  giving 


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THE   ROYAL   INSTITUTION   OF   GREAT   BRITAIN.  219 

InstitutioD.  He  has  himself  recorded,  in  a  letter  to  one  of  his  friends,  what 
occurred  on  this  occasion,  and  the  relations  which  he  had  borne  to  Davy.  "I 
was  presented,"  he  says,  *Ho  Mr.  Davy,  whose  rooms  at  the  Royal  Institution 
adjoin  mine.  He  is  a  most  a^eeable  and  intelligent  young  man,  and  of  an  evening 
we  have  some  interesting  conversations.  His  chief  defect,  as  a  philosopher,  is 
that  he  does  not  smoke.  Mr.  Davy  advised  me  to  spare  no  labor  on  my  first 
lecture.  He  told  me  that  the  world  hereabouts  would  be  disposed  to  form  its 
opinions  from  this  introduction :  consequently  I  resolved  to  write  my  first  lectuio 
throughout;  to  do  nothing  but  give  a  statement  of  what  it  was  my  intention  to 
Qodertake,  and  to  expatiate  on  the  importance  and  utility  of  the  science.  I  studied 
and  wrote  for  nearly  two  days;  1  then  calculated,  almost;  to  a  minute,  the  time 
which  my  lecture  would  occupy,  adapting  my  di8coni*8c  to  a  duration  of  50  min- 
Dtes.  The  day  before  that  on  which  I  was  to  deliver  my  lecture,  Davy  and  I 
repaired,  in  the  evening,  to  the  amphitheatre,  where  I  read  my  lecture  to  the  end, 
while  he  remained  stationed  in  the  farthest  corner;  next,  ho  read  while  I  i-epre- 
sented  the  auditory.  We  then  discussed  our  respective  styles.  The  next  day  I 
read  my  discourse  before  a  company  of  150  to  200  persons,  which  was  more  than 
had  been  expected.  When  I  had  finished  there  was  general  applause,  and  a 
great  many  of  the  audience  came  forward  to  compliment  me.  Since  that  occa- 
sion I  have  rarely  written  at  all,  relying  solely  on  experiment  and  verbal  expla- 
nation. In  general,  my  experiments  have  been  highly  successful,  and  I  have 
not  once  become  embarrassed  in  my  statements ;  so  that  now,  when  I  enter  the 
lecture  room,  I  feel  scarcely  more  concern  than  when  I  smoke  a  pipe  with  you 
on  Sunday  and  Wednesday  evenings."  To  believe,  however,  an  eminent  critic, 
Dalton  must  unconsciously  have  put  too  high  an  estimate  on  a  success,  of  which 
the  politeness  of  the  audience  seems  to  have  defrayed  the  chief  expense,  and  to 
which  the  simplicity  and  singularity  of  the  man  contributed  probably  more  than 
any  talent  he  possessed  as  a  professor.  "  It  would  be  difficult  to  conceive,"  says 
the  writer  referred  to,  (Quarterly  Review,  No.  XCVI,)  **  anything  more  awk- 
ward and  inadequate  than  his  manner  of  treating  the  gieat  physical  truths  l)efore 
him.  His  experiments  in  public  frequently  failed;  his  delivery  was  dry,  indis- 
tinct, and  without  expression,  and  he  was  far  from  possessing  the  language  and 
power  of  illustration  necessary  to  the  professor  who  deals  with  the  lofty  themes 
of  philosophy,  and  by  means  of  which  Davy  and  Faraday  have  shed  so  brilliant 
a  hghi  on  their  great  discoveries." 

Dalton  survived  Davy  and  Young,  and,  in  1830,  was  chosen  to  replace  tlie 
former  as  one  of  the  foreign  associates  of  the  French  Academy  of  Sciences.  In 
1832,  having  gone  to  Oxford  to  be  present  at  the  meeting  of  the  British  Asso- 
dation,  he  received  from  the  University  the  diploma  of  Doctor  of  Civil  Law; 
and  hence,  modest  and  simple  as  he  was,  a  man  whose  chief  pleasures  on  earth 
were  the  pipe  and  playing  at  bowls,  he  was  to  be  seen,  for  several  days,  invested, 
whenever  ho  went  abroad,  with  the  red  robe  of  the  doctorate.  Ho  allowed  him- 
self, at  the  instance  of  Mr.  Babbage,  to  be  presented  at  court,  and  that  gentle- 
man has  recounted  for  us  all  the  incidents  of  this  grand  event  in  the  life  of  the 
philosopher  of  Manchester.  Lord  Brougham,  at  that  time  Lord  Chancellor, 
offered  his  services  to  make  the  presentation,  and  had  already  spoken  of  it  to  the 
King;  but  difficulties  supervened.  Dalton,  in  his  quality  of  Quaker,  could  not 
assume  the  uniform  of  the  court,  which  would  have  required  him  to  wear  a 
sword.  It  was  suggested  to  dress  him  in  the  robe  of  a  doctor  of  laws  of 
Oxford ;  but  red  was  not  a  color  admissible  by  Quakers.  Luckily,  the  sight  of 
Dalton  was  of  such  a  nature  as  did  not  enable  him  to  distinguish  colors ;  he 
labored  under  a  sort  of  blindness  as  regards  them.     There  remained  the  cap  of 

|m>ns  on  cfaemittry  and  mathematics,  at  the  rate  of  two  8billiugs  and  a  half  per  hour  whea 
m  bad  but  one  scholar,  and  one  and  a  half  only  for  each  scholat-  when  he  had  two  or  more. 
la  ]833|  the  covemmeDt  had  spoDtaneously  granted  hitn  a  pension  of  150  pounds,  which 
pennon  was  doubled  in  18:M>. 


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220  THE   EOYAL   INSTITUTION   OF   GREAT   BRITAIN. 

velvet ;  but  lie  was  made  to  observe  that  the  cap  was  usually  carried  in  the 
hand,  and  that  it  was  rather  the  sign  of  a  dignity  than  a  covering  for  the  head. 
"  These  difficulties  being  overcome,"  continues  Mr.  Babbage,  "  the  doctor  came 
one  morning  to  breakfast  with  me.  We  were  alone,  and,  after  breakfast,  I 
recited  the  ordinary  forms  of  a  levee,  and,  placing  some  chairs  to  represent  the 
different  officers  of  the  reception  room,  I  stationed  the  doctor  in  the  midst  of 
the  circle  to  represent  the  King.  I  then  said  to  my  fnend  that  I  would  i*epre- 
scnt  a  greater  man  than  the  King;  that  I  would  personate  Dr.  Dalton;  that 
I  would  enter  at  the  farthest  door,  make  the  tour  of  the  circle,  and  bow  before 
his  Majesty;  and  that  thus  he  would  have  an  idea  of  the  ceremony  in  which  he 
was  to  take  a  part.  In  passing  in  front  of  the  third  chair,  before  arriving  at 
the  King,  I  deposited  my  card  on  the  chair,  apprising  the  doctor  that  this  was 
the  post  of  the  lord  in  attendance  who  took  the  cards  and  handed  them  to  the 
succeeding  officer,  who  announces  them  to  the  King.  In  passing  before  the 
philosopher  I  kissed  his  hand,  and,  moving  afterwards  around  the  rest  of  the  circle 
of  chairs,  I  thus  gave  him  his  first  lesson  as  a  courtier."  A  second  rehearsal 
having  taken  place,  Dalton  made  his  entrance  at  Saint  James's  in  the  midst  of 
an  assembly  in  which  figured  seveml  of  the  high  dignitaries  of  the  Anglican 
church.  "I  intimated  to  the  bishop  of  Gloucester,"  adds  Mr.  Babbage,  **t{iat 
I  had  beside  me  a  Quaker,  but  at  the  same  time  assured  him  that  my  peaceable 
friend  was  far  from  meditating  any  attempt  against  the  Church.  The  effect  was 
electric  on  the  whole  party ;  Episcopal  eyes  had  never  witnessed  such  a  specta- 
cle in  such  a  society,  and  I  am  not  without  apprehension  that,  notwithstanding 
my  assurances,  some  of  the  prelates  may  have  thought  the  Church  seriously  in 
danger."  As  to  Dalton,  he  came  out  of  the  affair  very  creditably.  The  King 
addressed  to  Mm  several  questions,  to  which  he  replied  without  being  at  aU 
disconcerted. 

XII.— COUKSE  OF  MORAL  PHILOSOPHY  BY  SYDNEY  SMITH. 

Sydney  Smith,  (bom  1768,  died  February  22,  1845,)  one  of  the  founders  of 
the  Edinburgh  ItevieWj  whom  we  must  not  confound  with  the  celebrated  admiral 
of  the  same  name,  miived  in  London  towards  the  close  of  1803.  Ho  quickly 
became  noted  as  a  preacher,  and  obtained  great  consideration  in  the  highest  soci- 
ety. The  directors  of  the  Institution  were  at  that  time,  as  they  have  never 
ceased  to  be,  on  the  watch  for  all  talents  capable  of  reflecting  lustre  on  their 
establishment;  they  invited  Smith  to  give  a  course  of  moral  philosophy,  embrac- 
ing all  the  operations  of  the  mind.  "  I  did  not  know,"  said  he,*  forty  years 
afterwards,  "  the  first  words  of  moral  philosophy,  but  I  had  need  of  200  pounds 
to  furnish  my  house.  The  success  was  prodigious.''  Smith  is  pleased  to  exag- 
gerate his  ignorance.  He  had  passed  five  years  at  Edinburgh,  and  had  enjoyed 
opportunities  of  hearing  Dugald  Stewart  and  Thomas  Brown  in  their  favorite 
science. 

The  first  course  X5ommenced  in  November,  in  1804,  the  second  was  delivered 
in  the  spring  of  1805,  and  the  third  the  following  year.  Conversation,  during 
the  winter  of  1804-1805,  turned  scarcely  on  anything  else  but  the  young 
Roscius  and  his  lectures.  He  had  from  600  t^  800  auditors,  {Quarterly  JReview, 
No.  xcvii.)  Yet,  if  wo  are  to  believe  the  celebrated  Review  founded  by  Sydney 
Smith,  it  would  be  impossible  to  conceive  an  assembly  less  prepared  to  compre- 
hend the  mysteries  of  the  understanding  than  a  metropolitan  audience  at  that 
epoch.t 

•  Letter  addressed  to  Dr.  Whewell  in  1843.     QjnarUrly  Review^  No.  xcvii. 

t  Edinburgh  Review,  No.  zci.  The  lectures  of  SrdQej  Smith  bave  been  published  in  1849, 
at  London,  under  the  title :  Elementarff  SkUcKes  of  Moral  PhUoiophj/,  delitered  at  Ike  Ro^ 
iHStUutioM,  in  the  years  1804,  1805,  and  1806. 


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THE   ROYAL   INSTITUTIOJf   OF   GREAT   BRITAIN.  221 

XIII. BrANDE,  the  SUCCESSOU  of  DAVY,  AT  THE  KOYAL  INSTITPTION. 

'  It  has  been  seen  that  Davy  gave  his  last  lecture  at  the  Iloyal  Institution  April 
9^  1812,  but  did  not  resign  the  chair  till  a  year  afterwards.  In  the  interval,  Mr. 
W.  T.  Brande  (born  at  London  January  il,^  1788)  was  invited  by  the  directors 
to  prepare  a  coui'se  of  trial  lectures,  which  was  delivered  in  1813,  and  was 
immediately  followed  by  his  nomination  to  the  vacant  chain  The  same  year 
Copley's  medal  was  awarded  to  him  by  the  Royal  Society  for  his  communica- 
tions on  the  alcohol  contained  in  fennented  liquors,  and  other  memoirs  published 
In  the  Philosophical  Transactions.  In  1816  he  replaced  Walloston  as  one  of  the 
secretaries  of  the  Royal  Society,  and  occupied  that  post,  for  which  he  ha*!  been 
designated  by  Wollaston  himself,  till  1826. 

Mr.  Brando  has  been  successively  superintendent  of  the  chemical  operations 
at  the  College  of  Pharmacists,  in  London,  professor  at  the  Royal  Institution,  and 
warden  at  the  English  Mint.  •  tie  resigned  his  chair  at  the  Institution  March 
16, 1852,  and  gave  his  last  lecture  April  3.  The  following  are  the  terms  in 
which  ho  took  leave  of  his  auditors : 

"I  have  aimed  in  this  course  to  show  the  intimate  relation  which  exists 
between  abstract  science  and  the  useful  arts,  between  the  refinements  of  modern 
chemistry  and  the  improved  and  extended  condition  of  some  of  our  principal 
manufactures ;  and  having  terminated  that  course,  it  remains  for  me  to  take 
leave  of  youy/1  can  say  conscientiously  that  it  is  with  reluctance  that  I  quit 
my  chair,  bufthe  hoarseness  to  which  I  am  subject  has,  for  some  time,  so  interfered 
with  ray  lectures,  and  is  so  evidently  aggravated  by  the  exertion  of  speaking, 
tli£^  the  measure  has  become,  if  not  a  necessity,  at  least  an  act  of  prudence. 
/ '' **  I  have  been  oflScially  attached  to  the  Institution  for  a  penod  of  40  years. 
During  the  greater  part  of  that  time,  from  1815  to  1848,  I  gave  also  a  series  of 
lectures  and  demonstrations  on  theoretical  and  practical  chemistry  in  the  labor- 
atory beneath  us.  They  were  designed  for  students  of  eveiy  kind,  and  took 
place  three  times  a  week,  from  October  to  May.  They  were  the  first  lectures 
given  in  London  in  which  the  attempt  was  made  to  embrace  so  extensive  a  view 
of  chemistry  and  its  applications,  comprising  technical,  mineralogical,  geological 
and  medical  chemistry ;  and  I  recur  to  them  with  much  satisfaction,  because  I 
can  legitimately  claim  lor  them  the  merit  of  having  sustained  the  plan  of  this 
Institution  and  ailded  to  its  usefulness ;  of  having  aided  in  diffusing  the  knowl- 
edge and  love  of  science,  to-day  so  general ;  of  having  done  this  for  students  of 
every  graclp  and  of  all  classes;  and  of  having  thus  fulfilled  one  of  our  pnncipal 
objects.  - 

"As  regards  tho  lectures  which  are  given  in  this  amphitheatre,  I  will  not  dis- 
semble that  I  relinquish  them  with  regret.  The  instruction  here  given  in  chem- 
istry has  to  me  been  always  a  pleasure ;  and  it  has  not  been  nor  can  it  be 
granted  to  more  than  a  very  few  to  teach  it  with  success,  and  to  such  an  audi- 
tory, for  so  long  a  period.  •  ♦  •  Other  thoughts  still  press  upon  me,  when 
I  look  back  upon  tho  long  years  which  I  have  passed  within  these  walls.  I 
rejoice  that  I  leave  the  Institution  more  prosperous,  in  all  respects,  than  at  any 
former  epoch ;  its  scientific  reputation  better  established,  its  foundation  more 
8ohd,  its  halls  more  frequented,  its  usefulness  better  recognized ;  and  I  cannot 
but  see  in  it  a  fruitful  source  of  the  popularity  of  science,  and  the  extension  of 
schools  destined  for  scientific  instruction,  features  which  so  eminently  distinguish 
the  present  age,  and  which  are  especially  manifest  in  this  powerful  metropolis. 
*  *  •  When  I  regard  tho  Royal  Institution  under  a  pcrso)ial  point  of  view, 
I  reverence  it  as  my  abna  mater,  where,  while  vet  a  scholar,  I  listened  to  tho 
pregnant  eloquence  of  Davy,  before  I  enjoyed  Lis  acquaintance  and  shared  his 
fncndship ;  where  I  was  distinguished  by  tho  patronage  of  Sir  Joseph  Banks ; 
where  I  was  chosen  by  Wollaston  to  succeed  himself  as  secretary  of  the  Royal 


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222  THE   ROYAL  INSTITUTION  OP  GREAT  BRITAIN. 

Society ;  where  I  have  been  frequently  brought  into  contact  with  the  chiefs  of 
science,  of  literature,  and  of  art ;  where  Faraday  became  my  pupil,  my  col- 
league, and  my  friend." 

Mr.  Brande  was  named  honorary  professor,  and  the  chair  of  chemistry  was 
given,  in  4863,  to  Mr.  Edward  Frankland. 

XIV.  —  Mr.  faeaday.  —  his  outset  in  life.  —  his  researches   and 

LECTURES. 

Mr.  Faraday  (Michael)  was  bom  in  1794,  at  Newington.  His  father,  who 
was  a  farrier  in  narrow  circumstances,  early  apprenticed  him  to  a  book-binder  of 
London.  At  spare  moments,  the  young  Michael  occupied  himself  with  the  con- 
struction of  the  instruments  of  physics ;  he  even  succeeded  in  making  an  electrical 
machine.  It  occurred  one  day  to  his  master  to  show  these  objects  to  a  customer 
of  his,  Mr.  Dance ;  and  the  latter  was  so  much  pleased  with  them  that  he  pro- 
cured for  this  apprentice,  at  once  book-binder  and  physicist,  permission  to  attend 
the  four  last  lectures  of  Davy  at  the  Royal  Institution,  of  which  Mr.  Danco 
himself  was  one  of  the  earlier  membere.  Faraday,  seated  in  the  gallery,  heard 
with  attention  and  took  notes,-  so  that  he  was  able  to  write  out  the  lectures  and 
send  them  to  Davy,  with  a  brief  and  modest  mention  of  himself  and  a  request 
to  be  employed  in  the  operations  of  the  laboratory  of  the  Institution.  Davy 
was  struck  with  the  perspicuity  and  accuracy  of  the  memoir,  and,  having  satis- 
fied himself  of  the  talents  and  industry  of  the  author,  offered  him,  at  the  begin- 
ning of  1813,  the  place  of  assistant,  which  had  become  vacant  at  the  Institution. 
Faraday  promptly  accepted  it,  and,  at  the  close  of  the  year,  accompanied  Davy 
to  the  continent  in  the  capacity  of  confidential  secretary.  On  his  return  to 
London,  in  1815,  he  resumed  his  functions  at  the  Royal  Institution,  of  which  ho 
was  named  director  in  1825,  and  two  years  afterwards  became  one  of  the  pro- 
fessors in  ordinary. 

The  scientific  researches  of  Mr.  Faraday  date  from  1820.  They  have  been 
conducted,  like  those  of  Davy,  in  the  laboratory  of  the  Institution,  at  the  cost 
of  the  establishment,  and  without  any  assistance  on  the  part  of  the  state.  Ho 
has  himself  indicated  their  principal  object  in  a  few  lines  : 

"  I  had  early  conceived  the  opinion,  I  may  even  say  the  conviction,  that  the  differ- 
ent forms  under  which  the  forces  of  matter  manifest  themselves  have  a  common 
origin ;  or,  in  other  words,  have  so  direct  a  relation  towards  and  dependence 
upon  one  another,  that  they  are  in  some  sort  convertible  among  themselves  and 
possess  equivalents  of  power  in  their  action/' 

His  efforts  have,  therefore,  been  directed  towards  the  reciprocal  relations  of 
heat,  light,  magnetism,  and  electricity  ;  and  he  has  succeeded  in  demonstrating 
that,  to  a  certain  point,  the  imponderable  bodies,  as  they  were  heretofore  called, 
are  so  many  different  manifestations  of  one  and  the  same  force.  To  speak  here 
only  of  light,  it  may  bo  mentioned  that,  after  several  abortive  trials  which  failed 
to  shake  a  conviction  founded  on  philosophic  considerations,  he  has  succeeded 
in  magnetizing  and  electrifying  a  ray  of  light,  and  in  illuminating  a  magnetic 
line  of  force. 

Nor  are  these  the  sole  researches  of  Mr.  Fai-aday,  though  to  them  his  name 
has  become  more  especially  attached. 

"  The  memoirs  which  ho  has  published  on  other  subjects,*  and  his  public 
lectures,  evince  the  extent  of  his  inquiries.  His  rare  merit  as  a  professor  is 
attested  by  the  thousands  of  persons  who  flock  every  year  to  hear  him.  Pos- 
terity will  applaud  the  ardor  with  which  he  has  always  embraced  philosophic 
truths,  without  allowing  any  unworthy  jealousy,  as  so  often  happens,  to  distort 


•  Mr.  Faraday  has  succeeded  in  liquefying  and  even  solidifying  several  gases  regarded  as 
permanent ;  among  others,  carbonic  acid. 

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THE  ROTAL  INSTITUTION   OP   GREAT  BRITAIN.  223 

them  in  his  eyes ;  nor  will  it  fctil  to  recognize  in  him  a  penetrating  and  exact 
reftsoner,  endowed  with  powers  of  imagination  which  commnnicate  a  degree  of 
poedc  vigor  to  his  conceptions ;  a  genios  of  extraordinary  resources  when  exper- 
iments are  to  be  devised  for  realizing  his  ideas,  and  singalarly  skilful  in  execut- 
ing them ;  a  scientific  writer,  clear,  candid,  and  judicious,  and  often  rising  to 
eloquence,  when  the  grandeur  of  the  subject  is  capable  of  inspiring  enthu- 
siasm."— Quarterly  BevieWj  No.  LXXIX. 

Mr.  Faraday  received  from  the  University  of  Oxford  the  degree  of  doctor  of 
laws,  in  1832,  the  same  year  when  it  was  conferred  on  Dal  ton.  He  is  one  of 
the  eight  foreign  associates  of  the  French  Academy  of  Sciences,  as  were  also 
his  distinguished  predecessors,  Davy,  Young,  Dalton,  and  Count  Rumford,  the 
founder  of  the  establishment.  Ho  is  regarded,  in  England,  as  the  boast  and 
itaj,  decus  et  tutamen,  of  the  Royal  Institution. 

XV.— Mr.  JOHN  TYNDALL,  PROFESSOR  OP  NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY  SINCE  1853. 

The  professor  of  natural  philosophy  at  the  Institution  has,  from  1853,  been 
Mr.  John  Tyndall,  doctor  in  philosophy  of  the  University  of  Marburg.  He 
was  born  at  London,  July  ^1,  1820,  and  pursued  his  studies  at  Marburg  and 
Berlm ;  he  is  known  as  the  author  of  numerous  researches  on  the  glaciers,  and 
a  work  entitled  Heat  Considered  as  a  Mode  qf  Movement,  a  course  of  twelve 
lectoies  delivered  at  the  Royal  Institution,  and  which  has  been  translated  into 
French  by  the  Abb6  Moigno. 

The  theory  set  forth  in  these  lectures  considers  heat  as  an  effect  of  a  move- 
ment of  vibration  communicated  to  the  molecules  of  bodies.  Count  Rumford, 
who  was  the  originator  of  this  theory,  "  recognized  a  proof  of  it  in  the  continual 
prodoction  of  heat  which  takes  place  from  movement.  The  boring  of  a  bronze 
cannon,  for  instance,  in  a  short  time  throws  the  water  into  ebullition,  and  this 
ehollition  lasting  as  long  as  the  movement  which  produced  it,  be  found  it  diffi- 
cult to  conceive  now,  in  such  a  case,  a  matter  of  any  kind  could  be  disengaged; 
for  then  it  would  necessarily  be  inexhaustible."  (G.  Cuvier,  Eloge  Uistorique  de 
Runrford,)  The  molecular  movement  may  be  generated  by  friction,  percussion. 
And  compression,  as  well  as  by  combustion.  The  mutual  convertibility  of  heat 
and  mechanical  action  has  been  demonstrated,  and  it  is  practicable  to  calculate 
the  mechanical  equivalent  of  heat,  by  which  is  to  be  understood  the  weight  which, 
raised  to  the  height  of  one  metre,  is  the  eqoivalent  of  the  heat  necessary  to 
raise  by  one  degree  centigrade  the  temperature  of  a  kilogram  of  water.* 

XVI. — Chairs  founded  at  the  royal  institution  by  mr.  john  fuller. — 

.      the  prize  founded  by  MRS.  -ACTON. — THE  PRESENT  ORGANIZATION  OF 
the  INSTITUTION. 

In  1833  Mr.  John  Fuller  founded,  at  tho  Royal  Institution,  two  chairs,  one 
of  chemistry,  the  other  of  physiology  j  the  former  was  given  for  life  to  Mr. 
Faraday  j  tho  incumbent  of  the  latter  is  elected  every  third  year.  Tho  two 
professors  bear  the  name  of  Ftdlerian  Professor,  from  the  name  of  the  founder. 
In  1838,  Mrs.  Acton  invested  the  sum  of  ^61,000,  from  the  interest  of  which 
the  Institution  is  to  award,  once  in  seven  years,  100  guineas  to  the  author  of 
the  best  essay  on  the  benevolence  of  the  Almighty  as  manifested  by  scientific 
discoveries. 

Tho  Royal  Institution  of  Great  Britain  is  under  the  patronage  of  Queen  Vic- 
toria. The  charter  granted  it  by  George  III,  in  1800,  was  confirmed  and 
extended,  in  1810,  by  act  of  Parliament.     It  is  an  association  of  persons  devoted 


*Tbe  labor  which  coDsists  in  raisinff  425  kilo^ms  to  the  height  of  a  metre  is  capablo 
of  being  prodoced  by  the  quantity  of  neat  requisite  to  raise  by  one  degree  the  temperature 
of  a  kilogram  of  water :  in  other  words,  425  kitogrammetres  are  equivalent  to  a  calorie. 


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224  THE   ROYAL  INSTITUTION   OP   GREAT   BRITAIN. 

to  science  and  desirous  of  promoting  its  progress ;  its  principal  objects  being : 
(1)  To  stimulate  to  scientific  and  literary  researches;  (2)  to  teach  the  princi- 
ples of  inductive  and  experimental  science  ;  (3)  to  show  the  application  of  these 
principles  to  the  different  arts  of  life  j  (4)  to  afford  opportunities  for  study.  It 
comprises : 

1.  Public  lectures,  designed  to  siipply  what  books  or  private  instruction  can 
rarely  give,  namely,  experimental  exhibitions,  comprehensive  designs  or  detailed 
descriptions  of  objects  connected  w4th  science  or  art.  They  usually  embrace  a 
short  course  at  Christmas,*  and  at  least  six  courses,  before  and  after  Easter,  the 
season  extending  from  the  middle  of  January  to  the  middle  of  June.  The 
usual  subjects  of  these  courses  are  some  of  the  branches  of  the  science  of  induc- 
tion, such  as  mechanics,  chemistry,  heat,  light,  electricity,  astronomy,  geology, 
botany,  and  physiology.  There  are  also,  on  occasion,  courses  upon  subjects  of 
general  interest,  such  as  literature,  the  fine  arts,  and  music.t 

2.  Weeldi/  meetings  of  the  members  of  the  Institution.  These  meetings  take 
place  every  Friday  evening  during  the  season.  They  were  established  in  1826, 
the  members  having  each  the  privilege  of  introducing  two  of  his  friends  by 
Ticket.  The  object  of  these  reunions  is  to  bring  into  contact  men  of  letters  and 
savants,  and  to  furnish  the  opportunity  of  communicating,  by  discourses  in  the 
amphitheatre,  either  new  views  or  new  applications  of  known  truths,  or  of 
demonstmting  experimentally  and  of  rendering  familiar  by  description  new 
results  which  have  been  recently  recorded  in  the  scientific  memoirs  of  philosophic 
societies.  Extracts  from  these  discourses,  prepared  by  the  speakers,  are  printed 
in  the  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Institution,  a  copy  of  which  is  sent  to  each 
member.  The  Proceedings  began  to  appear  in  1851 ;  they  constitute  a  sequel 
to  the  Journals  of  the  Institution,  which  began  to  be  published  in  1802,  but 
had  undergone  long  interruptions. 

3.  A  laboratory,  for  the  cultivation  and  advancement  of  the  chemical  and 
electrical  sciences,  by  means  of  original  investigations  and  experiments.  It  is 
in  this  laboratory  that  the  researches  of  Davy  and  of  Faraday,  as  has  been 
already  said,  were  made,  embracing  a  period  of  more  than  half  a  century. 

4.  A  library  of  about  33,000  volumes,f  comprising  the  best  editions  of  the 
Greek  and  Latin  winters  and  of  the  fathers  of  the  Church ;  histories  of  the  Eng- 
lish counties ;  works  of  science  and  literature,  of  art  and  archeology  ;  memoirs 
of  the  principal  scientific  academies  and  institutions  of  the  world,  with  numerous 
historical  and  other  treatises. 

5.  A  reading  Iwll  for  study.  Here  are  to  be  found  various  series  of  memoirs 
and  scientific  publications,  whether  English,  French,  German,  or  Italian,  and  a 
great  number  of  works  relating  to  the  natural,  medical  and  mathematical  sciences. 

6.  A  reading-room  for  journals,  furnished  with  the  principal  reviews,  maga- 
zines, and  jouraals  of  England,  Fi-ance,  and  Germany.  The  Institution  sub- 
scribes to  a  circulating  libmry  with  the  view  of  giving  the  members  an  oppor- 
tunity of  seeing  the  newest  works  as  soon  as  published. 

7.  A  museum,  containing  a  lar^e  selection  of  specimens  of  mineralogy  and 
geology,  collected  by  Davy,  Hatchett,  Wollaston,  &c.,  and  much  of  the  original 
apparatus  employed  by  Cavendish,  Davy,  Faraday,  and  others  who  have  been 

*  This  course  has  been  loDg  given  by  Mr.  Faraday ;  it  was  specially  designed  for  a  juve- 
nile audience  and  comprised  six  lectures,  the  subjects  of  whi".h  for  the  years  1857-*58  to 
]dGO-*Gl  were:  Static  electricity  ;  the  properties  of  metals;  the  diflferent  forces  of  matter; 
the  chemical  theory  of  a  candle. 

tOf  these  courses  those  which  have  obtained  most  success  in  late  years  are  :  a  course  in 
nine  lectures  on  the  History  of  Italy  in  the  Middle  Ages,  given  in  1658  by  M.  Lacaita ;  and 
a  course  in  nine  lectures  on  the  Science  of  Language^  given  in  1861  by  M.  Max  Mailer,  and 
which  has  been  printed  and  translated  into  French. 

t  This  is  the  enumeration  for  1863  ;  it  must  be  now  much  greater.  A  new  catalogue  of 
the  librarr,  accompanied  by  an  index  of  authors  and  subjects,  has  been  published  by  tbe 
keeper,  Mr.  Vincent.  It  includes  a  chronological  list  of  pamphlets,  dating  from  the  reign 
of  James  I. 


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THB  ROYAL  INSTITUTION   OF  GREAT  BRITAIN.  225 

professors  of  the  establishment ;  together  with  many  other  objects,  given  in 
great  part  by  the  members. 

The  collection  of  minerals  dates  from  the  year  1804.  In  a  review  of  that 
period,  (Biblioth6que  Britannique,  t.  zsviii,  1805,)  it  is  said,  with  reference  to 
the  Institution : 

''  This  establishment  hag  not  ceased  to  extend  and  prosper.  A  considerable 
ihnd  has  been  destined  for  a  library,  and,  last  year,  a  sum  of  <£4,000  was  pro- 
cored  by  private  subscription  for  the  purpose  of  forming  a  mineralogical  collec- 
tion, to  be  attached  to  the  establishment  under  certain  conditions,  with  a  labora- 
tory exclusively  intended  for  the  regular  assay  of  mines.  The  first  idea  of  this 
useful  undertaking  is  due  to  Messrs.  GieviUe,  St.  Aubyn,  and  Hume,  distin* 
guished  amateurs  of  mineralogy  and  well  known  on  the  continent.  They  remark 
in  their  prospectus  that,  while  on  one  hand  the  private  working  of  mines  is  con- 
ducted in  England  with  a  combination  of  pecuniaty,  mechanical  and  chemical 
means  of  which  no  other  country  affords  an  equivalent,  on  the  other  hand  there 
exists  not  a  state  in  Europe  where  persons  desirous  of  being  instructed  in  this 
important  branch  of  human  knowledge  find  so  little  help  in  public  institutions. 
This  consideration  leads  them  to  propose  to  form  by  subscription :  1,  a  scientific 
collection  of  minerals  on  a  large  scale,  comprising  the  most  recent  discoveries, 
and  arranged  in  the  order  best  adapted  for  offering  complete  sets  and  all  the 
most  interesting  facts  in  mineralogy^  2,  an  office  or  bureau  of  assay,  exclusively 
destined  to  the  advancement  of  mineralogy  and  metallurgy.  Each  of  these  two  . 
establishments  shall  be  conducted  by  a  man  of  the  first  merit  in  his  line  and 
entirely  devoted  thereto,  a  condition  necessary  for  the  progress  of  science,  for, 
although  private  and  occasioDal  researches  may  produce  some  interesting  dis- 
coveries, the  perseverance,  which  is  always  crowned  by  success,  can  only  be 

expected  from  a  savant  exclusively  devoted  to  this  particular  branch  of  study.'' 
•  #••••• 

Thus  it  would  seem  to  have  been  in  contemplation  to  annex  to  the  Royal 
Institution  something  like  a  school  qf  mines;  but  this  project  was  abandoned  for 
want  of  encouragement  on  the  part  of  the  government  and  the  proprietors  of 
mines. 

XVII. — Continuation  of  the  present  organization — ^the  financial 

SITUATION. 

The  meniherSj*  after  having  been  regularly  presented,  are  balloted  for,  the 
first  Monday  in  each  month,  and  pay  at  tueir  admission  10  guineas,  (five  guineas 
as  a  first  annual  payment,  and  five  as  a  contribution  to  the  fund  of  the  library,) 
or  60  guineas  in  place  of  all  payments.  They  are  admitted  to  all  the  lectures 
mven  at  the  Institution,  the  libraries,  the  museum,  the  meetings  on  Friday,  and 
have  the  right  of  voting  at  the  monthly  reunions.  They  can  also  introduce, 
by  ticket,  two  friends  to  each  of  the  weekly  evening  meetings,  and  their  fami- 
lies have  the  privilege  of  attending  the  lectures  at  reduced  prices.  Further, 
by  means  of  a  supplementary  subscription  of  20  guineas  once  paid,  or  three 
guineas  41  year,  each  member  can  introduce  personally  or  by  written  order  a 
visitor  to  each  public  lecture. 

The  annual  subscribers  to  the  Institution  pay  five  guineas,  with  an  additional 
guinea  to  the  library  fund,  at  the  time  of  then:  admission.  They  are  admitted 
to  all  the  public  lectures  given  in  the  amphitheatre  of  the  Institution,  to  the 
libraries  and  the  journal-room,  but  they  have  not  the  privilege  of  being  present 

•The  Boyal  Institution  connted,  in  1863, 17  honorary  members,  the  Prince  of  Wales, 
the  King  of  Wartemberg,  the  Prince  of  Hesse,  and  14  learned  foreigners,  amon^jr  whom 
are  M.  Plateau,  professor  at  the  University  of  Ghent,  and  Ad.  Qaetelet,  both  elected  m  1649. 
The  Prince  of  Wales  was  elected,  in  1863,  vice-patron  of  the  Institution,  to  replace  the 
pMnoe  consort,  Albert,  who  had  exercised  Uie  same  fimctions  since  1843,  and  who  had  been 
assidoons  in  his  attendance  on  the  lectures  and  soirees  of  Friday. 

15  8  67  n        ^ 

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226  THE   ROYAL  INSTITDTION  OP  GREAT  BRITAIN. 

at  the  evening  reunions.  The  widows  of  members,  and  the  sons  and  daugJUers 
of  the  same,  if  above  the  age  of  21,  are  admitted  for  the  season  to  all  the 
courses  and  to  the  museum  on  the  payment  of  one  guinea;  and  to  each  special 
course  on  the  paj-ment  of  a  half-guinea  for  each  course.  The  subscribers  to  the 
courses  pay  two  guineas  for  all  the  courses,  extending  from  Christmas  to  mid- 
summer, and  a  guinea  for  each  special  course.  For  the  Christmas  courses, 
youths  below  16  years  pay  each  a  half-guinea. 

The  members  of  the  Koyal  Institution  meet  Ist  of  May  in  general  assembly 
to  hear  the  annual  report  of  the  visitors  on  the  condition  of  the  establishment, 
to  revise  the  accounts,  and  to  elect  a  president,  treasurer,  secretary,  fifteen  direct- 
ors, and  as  many  visitors.  The  vice-presidents,  six  in  number,  are  chosen  by 
the  president  from  among  the  directors.  The  treasurer  may  also  be  designated 
for  this  office. 

The  property  of  the  institute— consisting  of  buildings  valued  at  oC  15,000; 
fumitiure,  <£  1,400;  library,  (£6,500;  laboratory  and  mechanical  apparatus, 
dCl,400;  collection  of  minerals,  dCSOO — was  estimated,  December  31,  1862,  at 
a  Bum  of  c£24,600,  (615,000  francs.)  It  possessed  at  the  same  period  a  capital 
of  c£29,341  V  783,525  francs)  vested  in  consols.  This  capital,  which  amounted, 
December  31,  1857,  to  but  d£25,166,  had  risen  to  cC30,108  at  the  end  of  1862. 
At  this  last  date  the  total  annual  revenue  of  the  Institution  amounted  to  oC5,532» 

The  expense  of  the  public  courses  for  1862  amounted  to  oC670,  of  which 
<£453  were  paid  to  professors  other  than  those  attached  to  the  establishment. 
These  latter  received :  The  professor  of  natural  philosophy,  who  lodges  in  the 
establishment,  <£300 ;  the  FuUerian  prqfessor  of  chemistry,  who  also  lodges  in 
the  establishment,  «£96,  besides  dC350  which  he  receives  as  director  of  the  labor- 
atory ;  the  FuUerian  prqfessor  of  physiology,  de96.  We  have  not  ascertained 
the  amount  of  the  sahuy  paid  the  professor  of  chemistry,  who  is  remunerated 
by  tlM  Institution. 


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MICHAEL  FARADAY-HIS  LIHE'AND  WORKS. 


BY  PROFESSOR  A.  DB  LA  RIYE.* 


Science  has  just  lost  one  o^  its  most  eminent  and  faithfnl  representatives. 
Faraday  died  on  Sunday,  the  25th  of  August,  1867,  at  Hampton  Court.  He 
was  bom  on  the  24tk  of  September,  1791,  at  Newington  Butts,  near  London. 
In  1804,  at  the  age  of  13,  he  was  apprenticed  to  a  bookbinder,  in  whose  work- 
shop he  remained  eight  years.  So  many  books  passed  through  his  hands  that 
he  could  not  resist  the  temptation  of  opening  and  reading  some  of  them. 
These  readings,  performed  in  the  evenings  after  the  work  of  the  day  was 
finished,  gave  him  a  taste  for  study,  and  in  particular  for  that  of  the  sciences. 
The  EncydoptBdia  Britarmica  first  of  all  introduced  him  to  some  notions  of  elec- 
tricity J  and  it  was  afterwards,  from  the  works  of  Mrs.  Marcet,  that  he  derived 
his  first  knowledge  of  chemistry.  His  labors  received  their  permanent  direc- 
tion firom  this  opening ;  their  essential  objects  were  electricity  and  chemistry. 

"  Do  not  fancy,"  he  said  to  me  in  a  letter  t  of  the  2d  of  October,  1858,  in 
which  he  gives  me  these  details,  "  that  I  was  a  profound  thinker  or  a  precocious 
child  ;  I  had  merely  a  good  deal  of  life  and  imagination,  and  the  tales  of  the 
Thousand  and  One  Nights  pleased  mo  as  much  as  the  Encyclopcedia  Britannica. 
'But  what  saved  me  was  the  importance  I  early  attached  to  facts.  In  reading 
Mrs.  Marcet's  book  on  chemistry,  I  took  care  to  prove  every  assertion  by  the 
little  experiments  which  I  made  as  far  as  my  means  permitted  ;  and  the  enjoy- 
ment which  I  found  in  thus  verifying  the  exactitude  of  the  facts  contributed 
essentially  to  give  me  a  taste  for  chemical  knowledge.  You  may  therefore 
easily  imagine  the  pleasure  I  experienced  when  I  subsequently  made  the  per- 
sonal acquaintance  of  Mrs.  Marcet,  and  how  delighted  I  was  when  my  thoughts 
went  backward  to  contemplate  in  her  at  once  the  past  and  the  present.  When- 
ever I  presented  her  with  a  copy  of  my  memoirs  I  took  care  to  add  that  I  sent 
them  to  her  as  a  testimony  of  my  gratitude  to  my  first  instructress." 

"  I  have  the  same  sentiments  towards  the  memory  of  your  own  father,"  adds 
Faraday,  "  for  he  was,  I  may  say,  the  first  who  encouraged  and  sustained  me, 
first  at  Geneva,  when  I  had  the  pleasure  of  seeing  him  there,  and  afterwards 
by  the  correspondence  which  I  regularly  maintained 'with  him." 

Faraday  here  alludes  to  a  journey  in  which  he  accompanied  Davy  to  Geneva 
in  1814,  and  in  which,  during  a  stay  which  he  made  with  his  illustrious  master 
at  my  father^s,  the  latter  quickly  discerned  the  merits  of  the  young  assistant, 
and  formed  relations  with  him  which  were  interrupted  only  by  death.  At  the 
time  when  he  travelled  with  Davy,  Faraday  was  his  assistant  at  the  Royal 
Institution  in  London;  and  I  must  say  that  he  has  more  than  once  expressed 
to  me,  both  by  letter  and  viva  voce,  his  thankfulness  to  the  eminent  chemist 
who  had  admitted  him  to  one  of  his  courses,  and  consented,  after  running 
through  the  notes  of  this  course  prepared  by  the  young  pupil;  to  take  him  for 
his  assistant. 

After  the  journey  just  referred  to,  Faraday,  with  the  exception  of  rare  and 

*  Translated  from  the  BiUiothique  UniverstUe^  October  25,  1867,  Arch.  dt»  Set,,  pp.  131- 
176. 

tThis  letter  was  addressed  to  me  on  the  occasion  of  the  death  of  Mrs.  Marcet,  and  the 
sotice  which  I  was  abont  to  publish  on  this  distinguished  woman.  (See  Bibl,  Univ, ,  nouvelle 
t^rje,  1856,  vol.  iii.) 


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228  MICHAEL  FARADAY — HIS  LIFE  AND  WORKS. 

short  absences,  never  again  quitted  the  Royal  Institution,  where  he  had  his 
laboratory  and  his  residence.  Married  to  a  lady  worthy  of  him,  and  who  shared 
and  understood  all  his  impressions  and  all  his  sentiments,  he  passed  a  life 
equally  peaceful  and  modest.  He  refused  all  the  honorary  distinctions  which 
the  government  of  his  country  wished  to  confer  upon  him ;  he  contented  him- 
self with  a  moderate  salary  and  with  a  pension  of  dCSOO  sterling,  which  fully 
sufficed  for  his  wants  ;  and  accepted  nothing  supplementary  to  this  except  the 
enjoyment,  during  the  summer,  in  the  latter  years  of  his  life,  of  a  country  house 
at  Hampton  Court,  which  the  Queen  of  England  graciously  placed  at  his  dis- 


Without  children,  a  complete  stranger  to  politics  or  to  any  kind  of  adminis- 
tration except  that  of  the  Boyal  Institution,  which  he  directed  as  he  would  have 
directed  his  own  house,  having  no  interest  but  that  of  science,  and  no  ambition 
but  that  of  advancing  it,  Faraday  was  of  all  savants  the  one  most  completely 
and  exclusively  devoted  to  the  Investigation  of  scientific  truth  of  which  the 
pre^nt  century  ofiers  us  an  example. 

One  may  easily  understand  what  must  be  produced  under  such  circumstanoes 
by  a  life  thus  wholly  consecrated  to  science,  when  to  a  strong  and  vigorous  intel- 
lect is  joined  a  most  brilliant  imagination.  Every  morning  Faraday  went  into 
Jiis  laboratory  as  the  man  of  business  goes  to  his  office,  and  then  tried  by  expeti- 
ment  the  trath  of  the  ideas  which  he  had  conceived  overnight,  as  ready  to  give 
them  up  if  experiment  said  no,  as  to  follow  out  the  consequences  with  rigorous 
logic  if  experiment  answered  yes.  His  every-day  labor  experienced  no  interrup- 
tion except  the  few  hours  which  he  devoted  from  time  to  time  to  the  exposition 
in  the  theatre  of  the  Boyal  Institution,  before  an  audience  equally  numerous 
and  select,  of  oertiun  parts  of  physics  and  chemistry.  Nothing  can  give  a 
notion  of  the  chann  which  he  impaired  to  these  improvised  lectures,  in  which 
he  knew  how  to  combine  animated  and  often  eloquent  language  with  a  judgment 
and  art  iu  his  experiments  which  added  to  the  clearness  and  elegance  of  his 
exposition.  He  exerted  an  actual  fascination  upon  his  auditors ;  and  when, 
after  having  initiated  them  into  the  mysteries  of  science,  he  terminated  his  lec- 
ture, as  he  was  in  the  habit  of  doing,  by  rising  into  regions  far  above  matter, 
space,  and  time,  the  emotion  which  he  experienced  did  not  fail  to  communicate 
itself  to  those  who  listened  to  him,  and  their  enthusiasm  had  no  longer  any 
bounds. 

Faraday  was,  in  fact,  thoroughly  religious,  and  it  would  be  a  very  imperfect 
sketch  of  his  life  which  did  not  insist  upon  this  pe(iuliar  feature  which  charac- 
terized him.  His  Christian  convictions  occupied  a  great  place  in  the  whole  of 
his  being ;  and  he  showed  their  power  and  sincerity  by  the  conformity  of  his 
life  to  his  principles.  It  was  not  in  arguments  derived  from  science  that  he 
sought  the  evidences  of  his  fiuth ;  he  found  them  in  the  revealed  truths  at 
which  he  saw  that  the  human  mind  could  not  anive  by  itself  alone,  even  though 
they  are  in  such  great  harmony  with  that  which  is  taught  by  the  study  of 
nature  and  the  marvels  of  creation.  Faraday  had  long  and  justly  perceived 
that  scientific  data,  so  movable  and  variable,  cannot  suffice  to  give  to  man  a 
solid  and  impregnable  basis  for  hb  religious  convictions ;  but  he  at  the  same 
time  showed  by  his  example  that  the  best  answer  which  the  nian  of  science  can 
give  to  those  who  assert  that  the  progress  of  science  is  incompatible  with  these 
convictions,  is  to  say  to  them,  And  yet  I  am  a  Christian. 

The  sincerity  of  his  Christianity  appeared  in  his  actions  as  much  as  in  his 
W4>rds.  The  simplicity  of  bii  life,  the  rectitude  of  his  character,  the  active 
benevolence  which  he  displayed  in  his  relations  with  others,  gained  him  general 
^teem  and  affection.  Always  ready  to  render  services,  he  could  quit  his  labo- 
ratory when  his  presence  elsewhere  was  necessary  to  a  friend  or  useful  to 
humanity.  We  see  him  putting  his  knowledge  under  contribution  both  for 
inquiries  upon  questions  o(  public  health  or  industrial  applications,  and  to  g\v 


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MICHAEL  FARADAY — HIS  LIFE  AND  WORKB.  229 

practical  advice  to  an  artisan  or  examine  the  discovery  of  a  d^uiant  in  the  sci- 
entific career.  Only,  as  I  have  abeady  said,  with  these  exceptions,  he  made  it 
a  role  not  to  allow  himself  to  be  tnmed  aside  from  the  labors  to  which  he  had 
consecrated  his  life  by  occupations  of  another  kind,  or  by  those  pretended  duties 
of  society  which  waste  time,  abridge  intellectual  life,  (already  so  short,)  and 
very  often  leave  nothing  behind  them  but  emptiness  and  regret.  It  was  not 
that  he  could  not  be  eminently  sociable  when  necessary,  or  that  he  did  not 
allow  himself  some  relaxations  when,  fdtigued  with  work,  ho  needed  some 
repose.  But  these  were  only  accidental  circumstances  in  his  life,  which  was  so 
exclusively  devoted  to  his  laboratory. 

The  scientific  career  of  Faraday  was  equally  fortunate  and  complete.  Named 
as  early  as  1823  a  correspondent  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  of  Paiis,  he  was 
called  in  1844  by  this  same  academy  to  occupy  one  of  its  eight  foreign  asso- 
ciateships,  after  having  been  associated  successively  with  all  the  leanied  bodies 
of  Europe  and  America.  He  was  by  no  means  insensible  to  these  scientific 
honors,  which  he  accepted  with  genuine  satisfaction,  whilst  he  constantly  refused 
every  other  kind  of  honorary  distinction. 

But  it  is  time  to  commence  the  more  important  part  of  this  notice,  that  which 
is  to  be  devoted  to  the  examination  of  the  works  of  Faraday.  Only  I  may, 
perhaps,  be  allowed,  before  speaking  of  the  works  themselves,  to  say  a  few 
words  of  the  manner  in  which  Faraday  worked. 

Is  it  true  that  the  man  of  science  who  u-ishes  to  interrogate  nature  must  set 
himself  face  to  face  with  his  apparatus,  make  them  act  to  derive  facts  from* 
them,  and  wait  until  these  facts  nave  appeared,  in  order  to  deduce  their  conse- 
quences, and  all  without  any  preconceived  idea  f  Most  certainly  the  philoso- 
pher who  could  advance  such  an  opinion  has  never  experimented,  and  in  any 
case  this  method  has  nevei*  been  that  of  discoverers  ]  it  was  assuredly  not  the 
one  adopted  by  Faraday. 

There  is  a  second  method  also  which  was  not  his.  although  it  is  truly  worthy 
of  attention,  and  often  fertile  of  results.  This  consists  in  taking  up  known 
phenomena  and  studying  them  with  great  precision,  carefully  determining  all  ' 
the  elements  and  numerical  data,  so  as  to  deduce  therefi'om  the  laws  wliich 
govern  them,  and  often  also  to  show  the  inexactitude  of  the  laws  to  which  they 
were  supposed  to  bo  subjected.  This  method  requires  great  previous  study, 
^eat  practical  talent  in  the  construction  of  apparatus,  remarkable  sagacity  in 
the  interpretation  of  the  results  furnished  by  experiment,  and,  lastly,  much  per- 
severance and  patience.  It  is  true  that  it  leads  with  certainly  to  a  result  j  and 
this  is  its  good  side  ;  but  the  difiicult  conditions  which  it  imposes  are  so  many 
obstacles  which  prevent  its  being  generally  followed,  except  by  the  highest 
intellects. 

A  third  method,  very  difierent  from  the  last  mentioned,  is  that  which,  quitting 
the  beaten  track,  leads,  as  if  by  inspiration,  to  those  great  discoveries  which  open 
new  horizons  to  science.  This  method  in  order  to  be  fertile  requires  one  condi- 
tion— a  condition,  it  is  true,  which  is  but  rarely  met  with — ^namely,  genius. 
Now  this  condition  existed  in  Faraday.  Endowed,  as  he  himself  perceived,  with 
much  imagination,  he  dared  to  acWance  where  many  others  would  have  recoiled ; 
Ids  sagacity,  joined  to  an  exquisite  scientific  tact,  by  furnishing  him  with  a  pre- 
sentiment of  the  possible,  prevented  him  from  wandering  into  the  fantastic. 
Still  always  wishing  for  facts,  and  accepting  theories  with  difficulty,  he  was 
nevertheless  more  or  less  directed  by  preconceived  ideas,  which,  whether  true  or 
false,  led  him  into  new  roads,  whero  most  frequently  he  found  what  he  sought, 
sometimes,  indeed,  what  he  did  not  seek,  but  where  he  constantly  met  with  some 
important  discovery. 

Buch  a  method,  if  indeed  it  can  be  called  one,  although  barren  and  even 
dangerous  ^ith  mediocre  minds,  produced  great  things  in  Faraday's  hands-^ 
thanks^  as  we  have  said,  to  his  genius,  but  thanks^  also,  to  that  love  of  truth 


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230  MCIHAEL  FARADAY — HIS  LIFE  AND  WORKS. 

which  characterized  him,  and  which  preserved  him  from  the  temptation  bo  often 
experienced  by  every  discoverer,  of  seeing  what  he  wishes  to  see  and  not  seeing 
what  he  dreads. 

The  works  which  have  issued  from  his  brain,  so  well  organized,  are  nnmerons 
and  varied ;  they  relate  essentially,  as  we  have  already  stated,  to  chemistry  and 
electiicity.  Those  on  the  latter  subject  are  by  far  the  most  numerous  and  import- 
ant ;  we  shall,  therefore,  devote  to  them  the  greater  part  of  this  notice,  after  giv- 


ing a  summary  exposition  of  the  others. 

I.  In  1816,  Davy  received  a  specimen  of  native  caustic  lime  from  Tuscany.  i 

He  gave  it  to  Faraday  for  analysis,  and  found  that  the  account  given  was  so      v 


perfect  that  he  had  it  printed,  and  accompanied  it  with  some  observations.  This 
success,  by  giving  Faraday  confidence  in  his  own  strength,  encouraged  him  to 
attempt  other  original  researches.  He  published  (in  1817  and  1818)  an  investi- 
gation of  the  passage  of  gases  through  narrow  tubes,  from  which  it  appeared 
that  the  velocity  of  the  flow  of  elastic  fluids  does  not  depend  upon  their  density 
alone,  but  also  upon  their  individual  nature.  Various  otner  points  of  chemistry 
and  physics,  besides  those  which  had  electricity  and  magnetism  for  their  object, 
attracted  his  attention  from  time  to  time  throughout  the  whole  of  his  scientific 
career.  Now  we  have  a  note  upon  the  combustion  of  the  diamond ;  then  an 
investigation  of  the  sounds  produced  by  the  combustion  of  gases,  or  by  the  super- 
position of  a  strongly-heated  iron  rod  upon  a  mass  of  copper  at  the  ordinary  tem- 
perature, (Trevelyan's  experiment ;)  and  then,  again,  researches  upon  the  limit 
of  vaporization,  or  upon  the  evaporation  of  mercury  at  low  temperatures.  We 
may  notice  two  important  memoirs— one  upon  the  explanation  of  certain  optical 
illusions  produced  by  bodies  in  motion,  the  other  describing  some  new  acoustic 
figures  proceeding  from  the  vibrations  of  the  stratum  of  air  in  contact  with  the 
surface  of  vibrating  plates.  His  elegant  discovery  of  regeloHon  (that  is  to  eay, 
of  the  power  possessed  by  two  fragments  of  ice  when  brought  together  to  become 
amalgamated  by  the  fact  of  their  simple  contact  at  a  temperature  above  32**  Fah- 
renheit) followed  into  its  consequences  as  it  has  been  by  Tyudall,  has  had  a 
much  greater  influence  than  perhaps  he  ever  expected.  In  all  these  notices,  even 
the  least  important  of  them,  we  find  an  original  idea,  a  new  and  striking  point 
of  view,  which  enables  us  at  once  to  recognize  Famday.  And,  in  connection 
with  this,  how  can  we  omit  to  mention  his  simple  and  clear  explanation  of  table-  J 
tiu'ning,  and  the  ingenious  experiment  by  which  he  so  clearly  shows  the  muscu  f 
lar  eflbrts  made  unconsciously  by  the  persons  who,  by  laying  their  hands  upon 
th^  table,  cause  its  movement  t 

Let  us  now  dwell  for  a  few  moments  upon  some  researches  of  longer  dura- 
tion, the  publication  of  which  preceded,  and  also  in  great  part  accompanied,  his 
great  works  on  electricity. 

In  1820  Faraday  described  two  new  compounds  of  chlorine  and  carbon. 
One  of  them  is  solid,  transparent,  and  colorless ;  it  crystallizes  in  little  prisms 
and  in  laminsB,  and  is  obtained  by  exposing  to  the  direct  action  of  the  sun  bicar- 
bonated  hydrogen  gas  with  a  large  proportion  of  chlorine.  The  other  contains 
less  chlorine ;  it  is  liquid  and  colorless,  possesses  great  density,  and  is  prepared 
by  passing  the  former  through  an  incandescent  tube,  from  which  chlorine  is  set 
free.  The  discovery  of  these  two  compounds  filled  up  an  important  gap  iu  the 
history  of  chemistry. 

Subsequently,  (in  1825,)  by  the  compression  of  the  gas  obtained  from  coal, 
Faraday  obtained  a  new  compound,  which,  no  less  interesting  than  the  preced- 
ing from  a  scientific  point  of  view,  had  besides  a  great  industrial  importance. 
This  was  a  bicarburet  of  hydrogen  in  a  liquid  state,  which  was  found  to  bo  a 
mixture  of  several  compounds  endowed  with  various  degrees  of  volatility,  and 
which  could  be  separated  by  distillation.  Every  one  knows  the  advantage,  in 
the  production  of  colors,  derived  from  this  by  the  illustrious  chemist  Hofmaun, 
when  he  extracted  aniline  from  it. 

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MICHAEL  FABADAT — HIS  LIFE  AND  WOBKS. 


231 


The  discovery  of  this  bicai'buret  of  hydrogen  was  only  an  incident  in  the 
researches  which  Faraday  had  undertaken  in  1823,  upon  the  condensation  of 
^ases  into  liquids.  His  mode  of  operation  in  this  investigation  consisted  in 
placing  in  one  extremity  of  a  i-ecurved  tube,  closed  at  both  ends,  the  necessary 
ingredients  for  the  production  of  the  gas,  and  plunging  the  other  extremity  in  a 
fi-eezing  mixture.  The  gas,  evolved  in  a  closed  space,  speedily  condensed  into 
a  liquid  state  in  the  refrigerated  extremity  of  the  tube.  In  this  way  chlorine, 
sulphurous  acid,  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  carbonic  acid,  protoxide  of  nitrogen, 
cyanogen,  ammonia,  and  hydrochloric  acid  were  successively  reduced  to  a  liquid 
state.  With  the  exception  of  chlorine,  all  these  liquefied  gases  were  colorless 
and  perfectly  transparent ;  and  all  of  them  had  a  refractive  power  superior  to 
that  of  water.  The  attempts  made  to  reduce  the  other  gases,  especially  hydro- 
gen, oxygen,  and  nitrogen  to  a  liquid  state  were  fruitless.  Twenty  years  later 
(in  1844)  Faraday  resumed  these  experiments  by  directly  condensing  the  gases 
by  mechanical  processes  in  very  strong  and  hermetically  sealed  tubes,  refrige- 
rating them  by  means  of  the  mixture  of  ether  with  solid  carbonic  acid  pro- 
duced by  Tliilorier's  method.  The  condensation  could  be  brought  to  fifty 
atmospheres,  and  the  lowering  of  temperature  to  —  166°F.,  or  110°C.  below  0  . 
In  this  way  Faraday  succeeded  in  liquefying,  besides  the  gases  which  I  have 
already  mentioned,  olefiant  gas,  phosphuretted  hydrogen,  and  arseniuretted 
hydrogen,  as  also  fluosilicic  acid  ;  but  he  did  not  succeed  in  sohdifying  them. 
On  the  other  hand,  by  applying  his  new  process  to  the  gases  which  he  had  pre- 
viously liquefied,  he  brought  them  not  only  to  a  liquid  state,  but  even  to  that 
of  transparent  and  crystalline  solids ;  hydrochloric  gas  alone  of  these  latter 
would  not  become  solid,  whilst  hydriodic  and  hydrobromic  gas  were  successively 
liquefied  and  solidified.  i 

It  is  easy  to  understand  all  the  importance  of  an  investigation  the  result  of       / 
which  was  to  modify  completely  the  received  ideas  as  to  the  constitution  of  the 
permanent  gases  by  causing  them  to  enter  into  the  category  of  simple  vapore ; 
this  was  to  introduce  into  molecular  physics  a  new  and  important  notion,  the 
consequences  of  which  have  gradually  unfolded  themselves. 

It  is  also  to  a  question  of  molecular  physics  that  we  must  refer  the  memoir 
on  the  relations  of  gold  and  the  other  metals  to  light,  published  by  Faraday  in 
1857.  Among  other  interesting  facts  that  this  memoir  contains,  we  shall  cite 
that  of  a  leaf  of  beaten  gold,  which,  when  placed  upon  a  plate  of  glass, 
becomes  perfectly  transparent  and  colorless  when  it  is  brought  to  a  high  tem- 
perature, and  which,  when  seen  by  transmitted  light,  resumes  its  green  color 
when  it  is  subjected  to  strong  pressm'e.  A  great  number  of  experiments  upon 
the  pulverulent  deposits  of  various  metals  obtained  by  electrical  discharges 
transmitted  through  very  fine  wires,  led  to  remarkable  results  as  to  the  varia- 
tions of  color  arising  from  change  in  the  molecular  state  of  the  same  body.  We 
also  find  in  this  memoir  a  detailed  investigation  of  the  various  colors  presented 
by  difierent  solutions  of  gold,  and  especially  of  the  fine  ruby-red  tinge  obtained 
by  the  solution  of  a  quantity  of  gold  which,  if  agglomerated  into  a  smgle  mass, 
would  not  occupy  the  seven-hundred-thousandth  part  of  the  volume  of  water 
which  it  colors.  It  is  not  necessary  to  dwell  upon  the  interest  presented  by 
researches  having  for  their  object  the  study  of  the  influence,  still  so  imperfectly 
known,  of  the  molecular  stinicture  of  bodies  upon  their  relations  to  light,  and 
especially  upon  their  transparency. 

Among  the  numerous  works  of  Faraday  relating  to  the  applications  of  sci-       . 
ence  to  the  arts,  we  shall  confine  ourselves  to  citing  his  researches  upon  the      \J 
manufacture  of  steel,  and  of  glass  for  optical  purposes,  these  being  the  most 
important. 

It  was  by  the  analysis  of  the  Indian  steel  called  wootz  that  he  was  led,  in 
concert  with  Stodart,  to  compose  an  alloy  which  had  all  the  properties  of  this, 
by  combining  aluminium  with  uron  and  carbon.     In  a  letter  addressed  in  1820 

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232  MICHAEL  FARADAY— HIS   LIFE  AND  WORKS. 

to  Professor  De  la  Rive,*  he  relates  all  the  attempts  made  by  his  eollaboratcur 
and  himself  during  two  years  of  persevering  labor,  to  discover  the  most  satis- 
factory alloys.  He  indicates,  as  one  of  the  best,  that  of  rhodium  and  steel, 
and,  as  presenting  curious  peculiarities,  that  of  steel  and  silver ;  this  last  alloy 
does  not  become  a  true  combination  unless  the  silver  only  forms  one  five-lmn- 
dredth  part  of  it.  Platinum,  on  the  contrary,  combines  in  all  proportions  with 
steel,  but  it  does  not  furnish  so  good  an  alloy  as  rhodium  and  silver  for  the  con- 
struction of  cutting-instruments. 

Although  interesting  in  many  respects,  the  results  which  Faraday  obtained 
in  his  great  investigation  of  the  alloys  of  steel  were  not  proportionate  in  their 
importance  to  the  time  and  trouble  which  they  cost  him.  We  may  say  the 
same  of  the  laborious  researches  upon  the  manufacture  of  glass  for  optical  pur- 
poses, which  he  made  a  few  years  afterwards,  (in  1829.)  It  was  upon  the  initia- 
tive taken  in  1824  by  the  Royal  Society  of  Ix)ndon,  which  named  a  committee 
for  the  study  of  the  improvement  of  glass  with  a  view  to  its  optical  use,  that 
Faraday  was  called  upon  to  occupy  himself  with  it.  Whilst  he  pursued  the 
chemical  part  of  these  investigations,  DoUond  worked  up  the  glass,  and  Her- 
schel  subjected  it  to  the  test  of  experiment.  At  the  end  of  long  and  difficult 
experiments,  Faraday  ascertained  that  the  greatest  difficulty  in  the  way  of  the 
fabrication  of  a  good  flint  glass  (that  is  to  say,  a  very  refractive  glass)  was  the 
presence  of  streaks  and  striae  proceeding  from  a  want  of  homogeneity,  due,  in 
its  turn,  to  differences  of  composition  between  the  contiguous  portions  of  the 
same  glass.  The  employment  of  oxide  of  lead  in  the  composition  of  flint  glass 
was  the  cause  of  this  defectiveness,  which  could  not  be  avoided  even  by  making 
use  of  the  most  efficacious  means  of  rendering  the  mixture  perfect  while  in  a 
state  of  fusion.  Among  the  combinations  tried,  that  of  borate  of  lead  and  silica 
furnished  a  glass  endowed  with  optical  properties  still  more  strongly  marked 
than  those  of  flint  glass,  and  at  the  same  time  presenting  a  very  unifonn  stnic- 
tm'e.  This  glass,  which,  on  account  of  its  great  density  (double  that  of  flint 
glass)  has  been  named  heavy  glass,  is  found,  unfortunately,  to  have  a  slight 
yellowish  coloration,  which  renders  it  unfit  for  optical  purposes ;  but  the  labor 
which  Faraday  devoted  to  its  fabrication  has  not  been  lost ;  for,  as  we  shall  see 
hereafter,  this  same  glass,  in  the  hands  of  the  talented  experimenter,  became 
the  instrument  of  one  of  his  most  beautiful  discoveries. 

In  the  long  and  curious  memoir  which  he  published  upon  the  fabrication  of 
optical  glass,  Fai*aday  gives  a  minute  description  of  all  the  processes  employed 
by  him— of  the  construction  of  furnaces,  selection  of  crucibles,  me^ns  of  heating, 
various  artiiicos,  such  as  the  injection  of  platinum  in  powder  into  the  fused  glass 
to  cause  the  disappearance  of  bubbles,  &c.  It  is  a  genuine  instruction  in  chem- 
ical manipulation,  and,  as  it  were,  a  complement  to  his  treatise  on  this  subject, 
which  was  published  in  1827,  and  has  since  gone  through  three  editions.  Only 
those  who  are  called  uJ>on  to  experiment  in  tne  domains  of  physics  and  chem- 
istry can  appreciate  the  immense  service  which  this  treatise  has  rendered  to 
them,  by  teaching  them  a  multitude  of  processes  of  detail  so  valuable  for  them 
to  know,  and  of  which  a  description  was  previously  nowhere  to  be  found,  so 
that  every  one  was  obliged  to  undergo  an  apprenticeship  to  them  on  his  own 
account.  It  was  necessary  that  a  savant  who  for  so  many  years  had  been  strug- 
gling with  the  difficulties  of  experimentation,  and  who  had  been  able  to  sur- 
mount them  in  so  ingenious  a  manner,  should  give  himself  the  trouble  to 
describe  the  means  which  he  had  employed,  so  that  his  experience  might  be  of 
service  to  others.  Faraday  was  this  savant,  and  his  object  was  completely 
attained. 

Here,  perhaps,  before  proceeding  to  another  set  of  subjects,  we  ought  to 
speak  of  certain  of  Faraday's  theoretical  ideas  relating  to  general  physics,  and 
more  especially  to  the  nature  of  the  forces,  and  their  correlation  to  each  other 
and  to  the  essence  of  matter  j  but  we  prefer  not  to  discuss  the  opinions  emitted 


i 


•See  BM.  Univ,,  (1820,)  vol.  xiv,  p. 209. 

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MICHAEL  PABADAY — HIS  LIFE  AND  WORKS.  233 

by  him  upon  these  questions  until  after  the  exposition  of  his  works  on  electricity 
and  raagnetism.  We  must,  however,  at  once  admit  that  his  views  on  these  mat- 
ters are  very  contestable,  and  that,  if  they  inspired  him  to  make  experimental 
researches  of  the  highest  interest,  this  is  a  proof  that,  in  the  hands  of  a  man  of 
genius,  even  a  bad  theory  may  be  the  origin  of  the  most  beautiful  discoveries. 

II.  I  pass  now  to  the  examination  of  those  works  of  Faraday  which  relate 
to  electricity  and  magnetism.  It  is  not  without  embarrassment  that  I  approach 
tbis  examination  ;  for  these  researches  are  so  numerous  that  it  would  be  neces- 
sary to  extend  this  notice  beyond  all  bounds  in  order  to  give  only  a  simple 
analysis  of  them ;  and  they  are  at  the  same  time  so  varied  that  it  is  impossible 
to  explain  them  in  the  chronological  order  of  their  publication  without  confusion 
being  the  result.  Thus,  for  example,  the  researches  on  induction  are  interrupted 
by  others  on  electro-chemical  decompositions,  to  be  afterwards  resumed  and  com- 
pleted. Each  memoir  certainly  forms  a  complete  whole ;  but  one  memoir  is 
most  frequently  followed  by  another  the  subject  of  which  is  quite  different.  It 
seems  as*  if  the  author,  after  having  treated  one  question,  found  it  necessary  to 
recollect  himself  before  resuming  it,  and  to  divert  his  mind  from  it,  so  to  speak, 
by  taking  up  some  other  kind  of  work. 

It  has,  therefore,  appeared  to  me  that  the  best  thing  for  me  to  do  was  to  group 
all  these  various  works  under  a  few  distinct  heads,  so  as  to  be  able  to  give  their 
essence  without  requiring  to  enter  into  too  many  details.  The  first  would  include 
all  the  researches  relating  to  electro-chemistry ;  the  second  those  which  have  for 
their  object  induction,  whether  electro-dynamic  or  electro-static  j  and  the  third  the 
phenomena  relating  to  the  action  of  magnetism  and  dynamic  electricity  upon  light 
and  upon  natural  bodies  in  general.  It  is  true  that  there  are  some  works  which 
elude  this  classification,  as  mey  will  not  enter  into  any  one  of  our  three  divisions. 
Bat  these  are  less  important  works,  and  such  as  were  produced  as  occasions 
olfered ;  that  is  to  say,  they  are  the  fruit  of  some  particular  circumstance  which 
attracted  Faraday's  attention  to  some  special  point.  Such  is,  for  example,  the 
memoir  which  has  for  its  object  the  investigation  of  the  electrical  properties  of 
the  Cripnnotus — and  that  devoted  to  the  evolution  of  electricity  by  the  friction 
exerted  against  solid  bodies  by  the  globules  of  water  or  other  substances  carried 
up  by  vapor— experiments  undertaken  in  consequence  of  the  invention  of  Arm- 
strong's machine.  Lastly,  there  are  others  which  only  contain  the  more  or  less 
indirect  coii^seqnences  of  the  fundamental  discoveries,  which  will  be  explained 
in  one  of  the  three  subdivisions  under  which  we  have  grouped  them.  We  shall 
not  dwell  upon  any  of  these,  thinking  that  we  may  give  a  more  exact  and  com- 
plete idea  of  all  the  progress  which  Faraday  caused  the  science  of  electricity 
and  magnetism  to  make  by  confining  ourselves  to  pointing  out  in  some  detail 
the  most  prominent  parts  of  his  researches  upon  these  subjects. 

Faraday  commenced  with  chemistry  in  his  scientific  career;  it  is  therefore  not  ^ 
surprising  that  he  approaclied  electricity  by  the  study  of  electro-chemistry.  It  ^ 
was,  moreover,  towards  electro-chemistry  that  his  attention  must  have  been  first 
directed  in  that  laboratory  of  the  Royal  Institution  which  had  witnessed  the 
magnificent  discoveries  of  Davy  in  chemical  decompositions  effected  by  the  pile, 
and  especially  in  the  production  of  the  alkaline  metals.  In  taking  up  this  sub- 
ject Faraday  only  followed  the  traditions  left  to  him  by  his  predecessor. 

His  researches  upon  the  electrical  conductibility  of  bodies  constitute  a  first  U 
step  in  this  path.  The  business  was  to  ascertain  whether,  as  was  previously  ^ 
supposed,  the  presence  of  water  is  necessary  to  render  solid  bodies  conductors, 
and  whether  solid  non-metallic  (and  consequently  compound)  bodies  can  conduct 
electricity  without  being  decomposed.  Commencing  with  water,  which  is  an 
insulator  when  solid  and  a  good  conductor  in  the  liquid  state,  Faraday  shows 
that  a  great  number  of  compound  substances  are  in  the  same  case.  Such  are 
many  oxides,  some  chlorides  and  iodides,  and  a  multitude  of  salts,  which  do  not 
conduct  electricity  in  the  solid  state,  but,  without  any  intermixture  of  water. 


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234  MICHAEL  PABADAY — HIS  LIFE  AND   WORKS. 

Lecome  excellent  conductors  when  liquefied  by  heat,  and  are  not  decomposed  by 
electricity  with  separation  of  their  elements  in  the  same  way  as  aqueous  solu- 
tions. To  the  list  of  these  compounds  Faraday  adds  that  of  those  substances, 
either  simple,  like  sulphur  and  phosphorus,  or  compound,  such  as  the  periodides 
and  perchlorides  of  tin,  and  many  others,  which  continue  isolators  wlien  fused 
as  well  as  in  the  solid  state.  In  this  first  investigation,  notwithstanding  a  great 
number  of  experiments  in  which  he  employed  the  influence  of  heat  and  of  elec- 
tricity of  high  tension  in  the  study  of  the  conductive  power  of  ?olid  bodies,  he 
did  not  succeed  in  determining  very  accurately  the  conditions  of  electrical  con- 
ductibility ;  he  only  ascertamed  that,  with  one  exception,  which  he  justly 
regards  as  only  apparent,  there  is  not  a  solid  body  which,  on  becoming  conduct- 
ive by  its  passage  to  a  liquid  state,  is  not  decomposed  by  the  electrical  current. 
We  may  add,  so  as  not  to  return  to  the  subject,  that  Faraday  sometimes  had 
doubts  upon  this  point,  and  that  he  even  thought  that  water  could  conduct  elec- 
tricity without  being  decomposed.  Now  experiment  shows  that  in  all  cases, 
even  those  which  appear  most  favorable  to  this  opinion,  electricity  cannot  be 
transmitted  under  any  form  through  a  compound  liquid  body  without  this  body 
undergoing  electro-chemical  decomposition. 

As  to  the  causes  of  conductibility,  they  are  still  far  from  being  known  ;  when 
we  see  bodies,  such  as  the  gases,  becx>ming  conductors  when  greatly  rarefied, 
whilst  under  the  ordinary  pressure  they  are  perfect  insulators,  we  are  compelled 
to  come  to  the  conclusion  that  the  impossibility  that  we  find  of  explaining  this 
di£Ference,  as  well  as  so  many  others  presented  in  this  respect  by  solid  and 
liquid  bodies,  is  due  to  the  fact  that  we  have  not  yet  a  correct  notion  of  the 
molecular  constitution  of  bodies.  Perhaps  the  recent  theories  of  several  physi- 
cists, particularly  that  of  Clausius,  who  regards  the  particles  of  bodies  as  beinff 
in  a  constant  state  of  movement,  may  succeed  in  elucidating  this  subject,  which 
is  still  so  mysterious.  Faraday  himself  had  fully  foreseen  this  relation  between 
electrical  conductibility  and  the  ideas  which  we  may  fonn  as  to  the  nature  of 
matter.  In  a  remarkable  article  published  in  1844  he  showed,  upon  an  experi-  / 
mental  basis,  that  in  the  theory  according  to  which  a  body  is  regarded  as  con-  \L 
sisting  of  atoms  possessing  weight  separated  from  each  other  by  larger  or  f 
smaller  intermolecnlar  intervals,  there  are  a  multitude  of  facts,  some  of  which 
can  only  be  explained  by  assuming  that  the  atoms  are  the  conductore  ajid  the 
molecular  space  an  insulator,  and  the  others  by  supposing  that  the  interraolo- 
cular  space  is  the  conductor  and  the  atoms  insulators — a  contradiction  which  is 
inadmissible.  He  concluded  from  this  that  we  must  imagine  matter  to  bo  con- 
tinuous, or  ratber  imagine  the  atoms  to  be  simply  centres  of  force,  and  conse-  ^ 
quently  replace  the  atomistic  by  the  dynamical  theory.  We  shall  often  find 
traces  of  these  ideas  in  the  subsequent  works  of  Faraday  j  for  ourselves  we 
cannot  take  this  view.  We  are  convinced  that  it  is  not  by  denying  the  exist- 
ence of  matter,  properly  so  called,  and  admitting  only  that  of  forces,  that  we 
shall  succeed  in  solving  the  difficulties  under  consideration  and  many  others, 
but  rather,  following  the  example  of  Clausius  and  others,  by  modifying  the 
ideas  hitherto  accepted  as  to  the  mode  of  constitution  of  bodies,  and  replacing 
them  by  others  more  in  accordance  with  recent  discoveries. 

But  we  must  return  to  electro-chemistry,  I  have  already  said  that  Faraday 
first  occupied  himself  with  chemical  decompositions  effected  by  the  electrical 
current.  He  commences  by  effecting  the  decomposition  of  water  and  of  solu- 
tions by  moans  of  a  jet  of  ordinary  electricity,  rendered  as  continuous  as  possi- 
ble by  leaving  a  stratum  of  air  interposed  between  the  metallic  points  which 
convey  and  carry  off  the  electricity  from  a  machine,  and  a  strip  of  moistened 
paper  which  this  electricity  traverses.  He  observes  that  the  deposition  of  the 
elements,  separated  from  the  decomposed  liquid,  takes  place  against  the  surface 
of  the  air  which  is  in  contact  with  the  paper.  Then,  investigating  the  decom- 
positions effected  by  the  pile,  he  examines  the  various  explanations  which  have 


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MICHAEL  FARADAY — HIS  LIFE   AND   WORKS.  235 

been  given  of  this  phenomenon,  and  concludes  that  it  is  much  rather  a  chem- 
ical phenomenon  than  a  truly  electrical  one.  In  other  words,  it  is  a  peculiar 
form  of  aflSnity  which,  under  the  influence  of  electricity,  is  exerted  between  the 
neighboring  molecules,  so  that  the  decomposition  is  the  easier  in  proportion  as 
the  affinity  is  stronger.  He  shows  that  the  transfer  of  the  elements  can  only 
take  place  between  bodies  the  constituent  parts  of  which  have  an  affinity  for 
each  other :  and  if  these  elements  separate  in  a  free  state  against  the  surface  of 
the  metallic  poles  of  the  pile,  this  is  because  they  cannot  combine  with  the  sub- 
stance of  these  poles ;  for  whenever  this  combination  is  possible,  they  are  no 
longer  set  free.  Water  in  some  cases,  air  in  others,  as  we  have  already  seen, 
may  6er\-e  as  poles  just  as  well  as  solid  bodies.  Faraday  justly  rejects  the  old 
idea  of  certain  pnysicists  who  attributed  electi'o-chemical  decompositions  to  the 
ordinary  electrical  attractions  and  repulsions  exerted  upon  the  elements  of  a  con- 
ductive liquid  by  the  voltaic  poles  immersed  in  it.  The  metallic  wires,  or  other 
conductors,  which  transmit  electricity  into  a  liquid,  are  merely,  according  to 
him,  the  roads  by  which  the  electric  current  passes  into  the  liquid  ;  therefore,  to 
exclude  any  idea  of  electrical  tension,  which  is  more  or  less  implied  in  the  name 
pdie,  Faraday  proposed  to  substitute  for  the  denomination  poles  that  of  elec- 
trodes. He  likewise  applied  the  term  electrolysis  to  the  chemical  decomposition 
effected  by  electricity,  reserving  that  of  analysis  for  the  ordinary  chemical 
decompositions  in  which  electricity  does  not  assist.  Lastly,  he  gives  the  name 
of  electrolytes  to  those  compound  bodies  which  ar«  capable  oi  being  decom- 
j)08ed  by  the  electric  current. 

After  this  preliminary  and  general  study  of  the  subject,  Faraday  enumerates 
the  results  which  he  obtained  by  submitting  to  electro-chemical  decomposition  a 
very  great  number  of  compounds,  some  of  them  simple  acids  or  simple  bases, 
others  saline  combinations.  He  dwells  particularly  on  the  secondary  effects 
often  manifested  in  these  decompositions,  especially  in  the  case  of  aqueous  solu- 
tions, in  which  decomposition  of  the  water  and  of  the  substance  dissolved  takes  y^ 
place  at  the  same  time.  But  the  essential  point  of  his  researches  is  the  law  at^^^ 
which  he  arrived  as  to  the  definite  nature  of  electro-chemical  decomposition. 
He  demonstrates,  relying  solely  upon  experiment,  that  the  quantity  of  chemical 
action  exerted  by  an  electrical  current  is  proportionate  to  the  quantity  of  elec- 
tricity constituting  this  current ;  and,  further,  that  the  same  quantity  of  elec- 
tricity, or  the  same  current,  decomposes  chemically  equivalent  quantities  of  all 
the  compound  bodies  through  which  it  is  passed.  Thus,  if  we  place  one  after 
the  other  in  the  circuit  of  a  voltaic  pile,  several  pieces  of  apparatus  arranged 
for  the  decomposition  of  water  and  for  collecting  the  gaseous  products  of  this 
decomposition,  we  find  that  in  all,  even  when  the  degree  of  acidity  of  the  water 
and  the  form  and  size  of  the  electrodes  are  different  in  each,  the  same  current 
traversing  them  for  a  given  time  produces  the  same  quantity  of  gas,  and  conse- 
quently decomposes  the  same  quantity  of  water.  The  quantitv  of  water  decom- 
posed in  a  given  time,  appreciated  by  the  quantity  of  gas  evolved,  is,  therefore, 
the  exact  measure  of  the  quantity  of  electricity  which  has  produced  this  effect. 
Hence,  like  Faraday,  we  give  the  name  of  voltameter  to  the  very  simple  appa- 
ratus which  holds  acidulated  water  destined  to  be  decomposed  by  the  current, 
and  by  means  of  which  the  volume  of  gases  set  free  by  this  current  in  a  given 
time  may  bo  exactly  measured. 

The  second  principle,  that  the  same  quantity  of  electricity  decomposes  chem- 
ically equivalent  quantities  of  all  compound  bodies,  was  demonstrated  by  Fara- 
day by  placing  several  different  electrolytes  one  after  the  other  in  the  same  cir- 
cuit ;  as,  for  example,  acidulated  water  in  a  voltameter,  and  protochloride  of  tin 
and  chloride  of  lead  in  a  state  of  fusion ;  and  he  obtains  quantities  of  tin,  lead, 
chlorine,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen,  which  are  chemically  equivalent.  Then,  rising 
irom  the  effect  to  the  cause,  he  comes  to  the  conclusion  that  there  is  a  perfect 
equality  between  the  electricity  which  decomposes  a  body  and  that  which  is 


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'236  MICHAEL  FARADAY — HIS  LIFE   AND   WORKS. 

generated  by  the  chemical  action  which  produces  the  direct  decomposition  of  an 
equal  quantity  of  the  same,  or  of  a  chemically  equivalent  quantity  of  some  other 
body.  Ho  is  thus  led  to  pay  attention  to  the  theory  of  the  pile,  and  to  recog- 
nize that  the  power  of  this  apparatus  originates  in  chemical  action,  and  not  in 
the  contact  of  two  heterogeneous  metab — a  contact  which  is  not  necessary 
either  to  produce  a  spark  or  to  cause  a  chemical  decomposition. 

He  establishes,  in  the  first  place,  that,  either  to  effect  a  decomposition  or  to 
produce  a  spark,  a  plate  of  zinc  immersed  in  acidulated  water  is  sufficient  with- 
out its  being  necessary  to  bring  the  zinc  into  contact  with  any  other  metaL  He 
shows  that  in  every  pile  the  presence  of  an  electrolyte  (that  is  to  say,  a  liquid 
susceptible  of  being  decomposed)  is  indispensable  for  the  evolution  of  elec- 
tricity. Then,  distinguishing  in  the  electricity  generated  the  intensity  (or  the 
tension)  and  the  quantity,  he  studies  the  circumstances,  depending  either  on  the 
nature  of  the  chemical  action  or  the  number  of  voltaic  pairs  associated,  which 
exert  an  influence  on  these  two  characters  of  the  current.  In  a  word,  he  estab- 
lishes such  a  correlation  between  that  which  occurs  in  the  interior  of  a  pile,  and 
that  which  takes  place  in  the  electrolyte  interposed  between  the  poles  of  this 
pile,  that  it  is  impossible  not  to  admit  (with  him)  that  electrolytic  decompoa- 
tion  is  nothing  but  a  form  of  chemical  affinity  transferred  from  the  pile  into  the 
electrolyte  decomposed. 

Wishing  to  obtain  an  idea  of  the  quantity  of  electricity  which  is  asso<»ated 
with  the  particles  of  which  matter  is  composed,  he  endeavors  to  estimate  that 
which  is  necessary  for  the  decomposition  of  a  grain  of  water,  regarding  it,  as  he 
is  justified  in  doinff,  as  equivalent  to  that  produced  by  the  direct  chemical 
action  (of  the  acidulated  water  upon  the  zinc)  which  decomposes  this  grmn  of 
water.  He  arrives  at  this  incredible  result,  namely :  that  this  quantity  of  elec- 
tricity, appreciated  by  the  heat  evolved  by  it  in  traversing  a  fine  platinum  wire, 
is  superior  to  that  manifested  in  800,000  discharges  of  a  battery  of  Leyden  jars, 
charged  by  thirty  turns  of  a  powerful  plate-machine,  and  consequently  equiva- 
lent to  that  constituting  a  violent  flash  of  lightning. 

The  researches  of  which  I  have  been^  speaking  were  made  in  1833,  1834, 
and  1835.  I  had  previously  paid  attention  to  the  same  questions,  and  had 
arrived  by  somewhat  different  methods  at  the  same  conclusion  with  Faraday, 
namely :  that  it  is  in  chemical  action  that  resides  the  origin  of  the  evolution  of 
electricity  in  the  voltaic  pile.  Faraday  frequently  alludes  to  my  investigations 
in  a  very  kind  manner  j  and  subsequently  (in  1840)  he  wrote  me  a  letter  in 
which  he  said  that,  being  a  thorough  adherent  of  the  chemical  theory,  he  h^ad 
just  attacked  the  question  directly,  as  I  had  already  done,  by  demonstrating  that 
contact  alone,  if  not  accompanied  by  chemical  action,  is  not  a  source  of  elec- 
tricity. Tbe  memoir  in  which  he  probes  this  question  to  the  bottom  is  the  last 
which  he  devoted  to  this  department  of  electricity.  In  it,  by  means  of  a  multi- 
tude of  ingenious  experiments,  he  demonstrates  that  the  presence  of  an  electro- 
lyte (that  18  to  say,  of  a  liquid  which  is  at  once  a  compound  and  a  conductor  of 
electricity)  is  indispensable  for  the  production  of  electricity  in  a  voltaic  couple; 
he  varies  his  experiments  in  a  thousand  ways,  sometimes  by  exhausting  the 
number  of  chemical  compounds  employed  as  electrolytes,  sometimes  by  the  inter- 
vention of  temperature  or  of  other  agents ;  and  he  concludes  by  showing  by 
general  considerations  the  improbability  of  the  existence  of  a  force  of  contact. 

We  may  say  that  this  last  work,  a  precious  supplement  to  the  preceding  ones, 
has  rendered  perfectly  evident  the  truth  of  the  chemical  theory.  This  theory, 
foreseen  by  Wollaston  and  Fabroni,  but  opposed  by  most  of  the  physicists  of 
the  early  part  of  the  present  century,  had  found  a  powerful  argument  in  its  favor 
in  the  beautiful  experiments  of  the  elder  Becquerel  upon  the  electricity  developed 
by  chemical  actions.  It  was  then  (from  1825  to  1835)  that,  profiting  by  these 
experiments,  and  seeking,  on  my  own  part,  to  make  others  of  the  same  kind 
although  in  a  slightly  different  direction,  I  published  several  memoirs  to  support 


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MICHAEL  FARADAY — ^HIS  LIFE  AND  WORKS  237 

and  render  more  precise  the  chemical  theory  of  the  voltaic  pile.  But  I  cannot 
but  admit  that  we  are  indebted  to  Faraday  for  having  based  this  theory  upon 
iirefatable  proofs,  not  only  by  the  great  number  and  variety  of  his  researches, 
but  especially  by  his  beautiful  discovery  of  the  definite  decomposing  action  of 
the  electric  current — a  discovciy  which  established  between  the  external  chemical 
action  of  the  voltaic  pile  and  the  chemical  action  which  takes  place  in  the  interior 
of  this  apparatus,  a  relation  so  intimate  that  it  is  impossible  not  to  see  in  the 
latter  the  cause  of  the  former. 

III.  In  1831  Faraday  discovered  electrical  induction ;  it  is  the  most  important, 
although  perhaps  not  the  most  brilliant  of  his  discoveries.  Ten  years  before 
(in  1821)  he  had  observed  a  perfectly  new  phenomenon  in  the  science  of  elec- 
tro-dynamics— ^that  science  which  issued  complete,  as  we  may  say,  from  the  brain 
of  Ainpere,  after  (Ei-sted's  discovery.  Struck  by  the  experiments  of  the  great 
French  physicist  upon  the  mutual  attractions  and  repulsions  of  electrical  currents 
and  magnets,  Faraday  was  led,  by  theoretical  ideas  which  were  rather  disputable 
and  not  very  comfprmable  to  the  principles  of  mechanics,  to  assume  that  an  electric 
eorrent  must  tuni  round  the  pole  of  a  magnet  \i'ith  a  continuous  movement,  and 
reciprocally  that  the  pole  of  a  magnet  must  in  like  manner  turn  round  an  electric 
current.  He  verified  this  double  result  by  experiment ;  and  Ampere  soon  showed 
its  accordance  wiUi  his  theory,  adding  to  it  other  facts  of  the  same  nature.  It  is 
not  the  less  true  that  the  discovery  of  a  continuous  movement  of  rotation  due  to 
the  combined  action  of  a  magnet  and  an  electric  current  was  quite  unforeseen, 
and  at' the  same  time  very  important ;  for  up  to  that  time  there  was  no  example 
of  any  such  action  in  physics.  It  was  a  first  step  in  the  course  which  was  to 
lead  to  the  finding  of  a  relation  between  mechanical  movement  and  the  mole- 
cular forces. 

Arago  (in  1824)  was  the  first  who  directly  established  this  relation  bv  hie 
beantinil  discovery  of  magnetism  by  rotation  j  for  he  showed  that  simple 
mechanical  movement  could  render  a  body,  in  itself  non-magnetic,  capable  of 
acting  apon  the  magnet.  Faraday  advanced  still  further  in  1831  by  discover- 
ing that  it  was  sufficient  to  bring  towards,  or  remove  from,  a  metallic  wire  form- 
ing a  closed  circuit  another  parallel  wire  traversed  by  an  electric  current,  or 
amply  a  magnet,  in  order  to  develop  in  the  former  wire  an  electric  current.  He 
discovered  induction — that  phenomenon  which  so  many  others  had  sought  in 
vain,  although  suspecting  its  existence,  but  which  he  alone  had  succeeded  in 
prodnciDg. 

Let  us  dwell  for  a  moment  upon  his  fundamental  experiment.  Two  metal 
wires  covered  with  silk  are  rolled  together  round  a  cylinaer  of  glass  or  wood  ; 
tbe  two  wires  are  thus  isolated,  and  have  all  their  spires  approximate  and  par- 
allel. An  electric  current  is  passed  into  one  of  these  wires  f  immediately  a  cur- 
rent is  manifested  in  an  opposite  direction  in  the  neighboring  wire,  the  extremi- 
ties of  which  are  united  by  a  galvanometer ;  but  this  cuirent  only  lasts  for  a 
moment.  The  current  passing  through  the  first  wire  is  interrupted  j  immedi- 
'atelv  another  current  is  developed  in  the  second  wire,  which  is  momentary,  as 
in  the  former  case,  but  directed  in  the  same  way  as  the  producing  current, 
instead  of  in  the  contrary  direction.  The  momentariness  of  these  two  currents, 
and  the  fact  of  their  alternately  opposite  directions,  constitute  the  two  important 
characters  of  this  new  mode  of  production  of  electricity. 

Faraday  did  not  stop  at  this.  Starting  from  Ampdre's  idea  that  a  magnet  is 
only  an  assemblage  of  electric  currents  arranged  round  an  axis  in  a  manner 
▼cry  analogous  to  the  circulation  of  an  electric  current  through  a  metallic  wire 
foiled  into  a  coQ,  he  tried  the  replacement,  in  his  fundamental  experiment,  of 
the  wire  traversed  by  the  current  by  a  simple  magnet.  For  this  purpose  he 
twisted  a  single  wire  instead  of  two  into  a  coil  round  a  glass  or  wooden  tube  j 
then  he  introduced  a  magnet  into  this  tube,  and  ascertained  thai  a*  this  moment 
a  momentary  current  is  developed  in  the  coil  of  wire,  and  that  a  second,  equally 


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238  MICHAEL   FARADAY — HIS  LIFK  AND   WORKS. 

momentary,  but  in  an  opposite  direction,  is  developed  at  the  moment  when  the 
ma^et  is  withdrawn.  Here,  therefore,  was  realized  that  production  of  elec- 
tricity by  magnetism  which  Faraday  had  long  been  seeking,  convinced,  as  ho 
was,  that  as  electricity  produces  magnetism,  magnetism  in  its  turn  must  produce 
electricity. 

Is  it  necessary  to  follow  Faraday  in  the  multiplied  experiments  by  which  he 
demonstrates  that  the  electricity  developed  by  induction  possesses  all  the  proper- 
ties of  voltaic  electricity,  and  of  the  ordinary  electricity  produced  by  machines — 
that  it  heats  fine  metallic  wires,  gives  shocks,  and  even  produces  the  spark  f 
To  produce  an  electric  spark  by  means  of  the  action  of  a  simple  magnet,  is  ono 
of  those  striking  facts  wliich  give  to  the  discovery  leading  to  such  a  result  a 
popularity,  if  I  may  venture  so  to  express  myself,  which  is  reflected  upon  its 
author. 

Faraday  soon  showed  that  terrestrial  magnetism,  like  that  of  a  magnet,  can 
develop  electric  currents  by  induction  in  a  metallic  wiro  rolled  into  a  coil  or  a 
circle,  and  actuated  by  a  movement  of  oscillation  in  a  plane  perpendicular  to 
that  of  the  magnetic  meridian.  He  found  that  it  was  not  even  necessary  to 
employ  metallic  wires  to  ascertain  the  influence  of  the  terrestrial  magnetism 
upon  the  production  of  induced  cunonts,  but  that  it  sufiiced  to  set  a  metallic 
disk  (of  copper  for  example)  in  rotation  in  a  plane  peii>endicular  to  the  direc- 
tion of  the  inclination-needle  to  find  that  it  is  traversed  by  electric  currents 
passing  from  the  centre  to  the  circumference,  or  from  the  circumference  to  the 
centre,  according  to  the  direction  of  the  rotation.  Still  more  readily  does  the 
vicinity  of  a  magnet  to  a  similar  disk  set  in  rotation  in  any  plane  under  the 
influence  of  this  magnet  develop  in  it  induced  currents,  the  presence  of  which, 
directly  ascertained,  explains  in  a  perfectly  satisfactory  manner  the  phenomena 
of  magnetism  by  rotation  discovered  by  Arago. 

These  currents,  although  difficult  to  perceive,  must  nevertheless  possess  con- 
siderable power,  since  they  can  drag  a  rather  heavy  magnet  by  the  action  which 
they  exert  upon  it.  It  is  probable  that  this  power  is  due  less  to  their  individual 
intensity  than  to  their  number,  which  appears  to  be  very  considerable.  We 
may  cite  two  examples  which  prove  in  a  striking  manner  the  energy  which  this 
mode  of  production  of  induced  currents  may  acquire.  The  first  is  furnished  by 
a  curious  experiment  of  Farada/s,  in  which,  on  causing  a  cubical  mass  of  cop- 
per suspended  by  a  thread  between  the  poles  of  an  unmagnetized  electromagnet 
to  turn  upon  itself,  he  saw  this  mass  stop  suddenly  the  moment  he  magnetized 
the  electro-magn^et,  in  consequence  of  the  magnetic  action  exerted  by  the  cur- 
rents which  induction  had  set  up  in  the  copper.  We  find  the  second  exampU 
in  the  fact  observed  by  Foucault,  of  the  sudden  stoppage  which  is  likewise 
experienced  by  a  thick  disk  of  copper  set  in  rotation  between  the  poles  of  aa 
electro-magnet  the  moment  the  latter  is  magnetized.  This  stoppage  is  such  that 
it  can  only  be  surmounted  by  a  considerable  eflbrt,  and  the  disk  itself  becomes 
very  strongly  heated  if  the  rotation  be  continued  in  spite  of  the  resistance  it 
meets  with.  '  In  order  that  such  a  heating  eflect  should  be  produced  in  a  masa 
of  such  considerable  size,  and  that  we  should  experience  an  attractive  action  so 
strong  on  the  part  of  the  electro-magnet,  the  induced  currents  thus  produced 
must  be  of  very  great  power — a  power  which  they  owe  essentially  to  the  exoea- 
sive  rapidity  of  the  movement  generating  them. 

I  shall  not  follow  Faraday  through  all  his  works  upon  induction  which  accom- 
panied his  fundamental  discovery.  I  shall  only  refer  to  the  fact  that  in  1834 
he  discovered  a  new  important  fact,  namely :  the  production  of  an  induced  cnr- 
rent  tn  the  very  wire  that  conducted  the  inductive  current,  and  which  t^ee 
place  at  first  at  the  moment  when  the  latter  current  begins  to  circulate,  and 
then  at  that  when  it  ceases  passing.  If  this  wire  is  rolled  in  a  coil  round  a 
cylinder  of  soft  iron,  the  effect  produced  acquires  great  intensity  by  the  fact  of 
the  alternate  magnetization  and  demagnetization  of  the  iron  which  accompanies 


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MICHAEL  FARADAT — ^HIS  LIFE  AHD  W0BK8.  239 

tbe  passage  and  intennptioii  of  the  current  in  the  wire.  We  all  know  the 
advantage  that  has  been  taken  of  this  combination  in  the  construction  of  very 
poweifiil  apparatus.  We  also  know  how,  from  one  improvement  to  another, 
we  have  come  to  find  in  indaction,  and  consequently  in  the  simple  mechanical 
movement  which  gives  birth  to  it,  the  most  simple  and  economical  principle  for 
obtaining  electricity,  especially  with  regard  to  its  application  to  therapeutics 
and  illumination. 

The  discovery  of  electro-dynamical  induction  (that  is  to  say,  the  production 
of  a  current  by  the  influence  of  an  eicterior  current)  led  Faraday  to  examine 
more  closely  than  had  previously  been  done  into  the  phenomenon  of  statical 
induction — ^that  is  to  say,  the  development  at  a  distance  of  tension-electricity 
in  an  isolated  conductor  by  the  influence  of  an  electrized  body.  He  ascertained, 
what  no  one  had  previously  suspected,  that  the  nature  of  the  body  interposed 
between  the  source  of  electricity  and  the  conductor  submitted  to  the  action  of 
this  source  had  a  great  influence  upon  the  efiect  produced — ^that,  of  the  various 
bodies,  some  facilitated  the  development  of  electricity  at  a  distance,  whilst 
others  completely  stopped  it.  He  named  the  former  dielectrics  ;  and  he  proved 
that  these  dielectrics,  which  are  essentially  resins,  sulphur,  shellac,  oils  of  tur- 
pentine and  naphtha,  &c.,  enjoy  this  property  of  transmitting  electricity  by  influ- 
ence in  difierent  degrees,  whilst  there  is  not  in  this  respect  any  difference 
between  the  gases,  w'hich  have  the  same  dielectric  power,  whatever  their  nature 
or  their  density  may  be.  On  the  other  hand,  none  of  the  metals  are  dielectric; 
they  are  subject  to  the  electrical  influence,  but  do  not  transmit  it. 

l^m  the  investigation  which  we  have  just  summarized,  Faraday  drew  the 
eonclnsion  that  induction  does  not  take  place  at  a  distance,  but  that  it  is  effected 
by  the  intermediation  of  the  particles  interposed  between  the  inductor  and  the 
indacted  body.  He  assumed  that  these  particles  are  polarized  one  after  the 
other,  which  M.  Matteucci  afterwards  demonstrated  directly  by  experiment; 
that  consequently  the  mode  of  propagation  of  electricity  is  the  same  in  insu- 
lating as  in  conducting  bodies ;  and  that  the  various  substances  only  differ  from 
each  other  by  the  greater  or  less  facility  or  rapidity  with  which  this  polarization, 
necessary  for  the  transmission  of  electricity,  takes  place  in  them.  Then,  passing 
from  this  to  the  analysis  of  the  different  modes  in  which  electrical  discharges 
take  place,  some  obscure,  others  luminous,  some  electrolytic,  (that  is  to  say, 
accompanied  by  the  chemical  decomposition  of  the  conducting  body,)  others 
disraptive,  (that  is  to  say,  effected  by  the  mechanical  disjunction  of  the  particles 
of  the  interposed  substance,)  he  applied  himself  more  particularly  to  the  study 
of  the  various  forms  displayed  by  the  electric  spark  in  more  or  less  rarefied 
gases.  I  should  never  have  done  if  I  were  to  attempt  to  explain  all  the  experi- 
ments which  he  made  to  elucidate  these  different  points  and  to  arrive  at  an  idea 
of  the  actual  nature  of  the  electric  current.  The  identity  of  the  current,  what- 
ever may  be  its  origin — ^that  its  production  is  due  to  polar  forces  which  may 
exert  a  transverse  action,  as  is  the  case  in  electro-dynamical  phenomena — ^that 
these  polar  forces  emanate  from  contiguous  particles ;  such  are  the  principles 
which  Faraday  endeavored  to  establish  as  the  consequences  of  his  experimental 
researches,  at  the  same  time  that  he  rejected  the  idea  of  actions  at  a  distance, 
referring  all  electrical  manifestations  to  the  presence  of  ponderable  matter. 

Whether  or  not  we  completely  admit  all  Faraday's  ideas,  it  is  impossible  not 
to  acknowledge  the  immense  advance  which  he  caused  the  theories  of  electricity 
to  make^  either  by  demonstrating  by  experiment  the  falsity  of  certain  concep- 
tions generally  accepted  up  to  his  time,  or  by  opening  up  perfectly  new  points 
of  view  as  to  the  actual  nature  of  electrical  phenomena.  We  have  just  had  the 
proof  of  this  in  the  consequences  to  which  he  was  led  by  his  investigations  on 
statical  induction.  His  discoveries  in  electro-dynamical  induction  have  had 
still  more  important  consequences,  by  introducing  the  notion  of  mechanical  move- 
ment into  the  essence  of  electrical  movement,  and  thus  enabling  Weber  to  c^m- 


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240  MICHAEL  FARADAY — HIS  LIFE  AND   WORKS. 

bine,  in  an  equally  ingenious  and  satisfactory  manner,  the  mechanical  phenomena 
of  electro-dynamics,  discovered  by  Ampdre,  with  the  electrical  phenomena  due 
to  mechanical  movement,  discovered  by  Faraday. 

Ampere  and  Faraday :  two  names  which  will  always  be  united  by  the  inti- 
mate relation  of  their  works  to  the  history  of  the  science  of  electricity,  in  which 
they  have  opened  such  new  and  vast  horizons;  and  yet  minds  aa  dissimilar  iu 
their  mode  of  proceeding  as  similar  in  the  power  of  their  genius.  Both  Emi- 
nently endowed  with  that  faculty  of  divination  which  generates  great  discoveries, 
but  one  of  them,  Faraday,  aiTiving  at  them  by  impression,  by  a  kind  of  instinct 
which  never  deceived  him,  the  o3ier,  Ampere,  advancing  with  a  more  certain 
step,  having  as  his  instrument  those  calculations  which  ne  handled  with  sucb 
remarkable  ability,  and  thus  arriving  at  results  which  he  hardly  required  experi- 
ment to  confirm,  so  certain  was  he  that  this  would  not  contradict  him. 

IV.  I  now  pass  to  the  last  great  series  of  Faraday's  works.  I  have  said,  and, 
I  think,  proved,  that  induction  was  the  most  important  of  his  discoveries ;  I 
must  now  say  that  the  action  of  magnetism  and  electricity  upon  light  was  the 
most  brilliant.  Often  the  attempt  had  been  made  to  see  whether  magnetism  and 
electricity  exerted  any  direct  influence  upon  light ;  but  these  attempts  had  always 
failed.  Investigators  had  operated  upon  luminous  rays  travelling  in  the  air  or 
in  liquids,  and  endeavored  to  act  upon  them,  sometimes  by  strong  magnets,  some- 
times by  electric  currents  or  by  statical  electricity ;  but  these  attempts  had  led 
to  nothing,  abs^jlutely  nothing.  All  these  negative  investigations  have  never 
been  published,  but  they  have  nevertheless  been  made. 

Guided  by  theoretical  considerations  upon  the  mutual  correlation  of  the  forces 
of  nature,  Faraday,  after  many  fruitless  attempts,  succeeded  in  finding  the  con- 
nection which  exists  between  light  and  the  magnetic  and  electric  forces.  Instead 
of  taking  an  ordinary  ray,  ho  operated  with  a  polarized  ray;  instead  of  acting 
directly  upon  this  ray  by  means  of  a  magnet,  he  submits  it  to  the  influence  of 
magnetism  while  it  is  traversing  a  glass  prism  in  the  direction  of  its  len^h. 
This  prism,  terminated  by  two  square  and  parallel  bases,  the  surfaces  of  which 
are  well  polished,  and  which  are  those  by  which  the  4K>larized  ray  penetrates  and 
issues  from  the  prism,  is  placed  between  the  poles  of  an  electro-magnet  in  such  a 
manner  that  its  length  and,  consequently,  the  direction  of  the  transmitted  ray 
are  parallel  to  the  line  joining  the  magnetic  poles.  Lastly,  the  polarized  ray  on 
issuing  from  the  glass  prism  only  i-eaches  the  eye  after  passing  through  a  Nicol's 
prism,  which  serves  as  an  analyzer.  It  is  also  by  traversing  a  Nicol's  prism 
before  penetrating  into  the  glass  prism  that  the  ray  of  light  is  polarized ;  but 
tins  may  be  efiected  in  any  other  manner. 

It  is  well  known  that  by  turning  the  analyzing  prism  to  a  certain  angle  the 
polarized  ray  is  extinguished  in  such  a  manner  that  the  brilliant  spot  is  replaced 
by  a  black  spot.  If.  after  this  operation  has  been  efiected,  a  strong  electric  cur- 
rent is  passed  through  the  wire  surrounding  the  electro-magnet,  the  black  spot 
disappears  and  the  bright  one  again  makes  its  appearance.  Then  by  turning 
the  analyzing  prism  a  little  further  in  the  same  direction,  the  luminous  ray  is 
again  extinguished;  but  this  extinction  ceases  as  soon  as  the  magnetic  action  is 
suppressed  by  the  intennption  of  the  current  which  magnetized  the  electro- 
magnet. The  action  of  magnetism,  therefore,  consists  simply  in  causing  the 
plane  of  polarization  to  turn  by  a  certain  angle,  and  to  give  artificially  to  the 
glass,  while  it  is  under  the  magnetic  influence,  a  property  which  certain  sub- 
stances, such  as  quailz  and  essence  of  turpentine,  possess  naturally. 

Any  transparent  substance,  except  gases,  may  serve,  although  in  diflbrent 
degrees,  as  the  medium  for  magnetism  to  act  upon  the  polarized  ray.  But  that 
by  means  of  which  this  influence  is  best  manifested  is  tne  yellowish  heavy  glass 
;(borosilicate  of  lead)  which  Faraday  obtained  in  his  experimental  researches 
upon  the  fabrication  of  glass  for  optical  purposes.  He  happened  to  bavo  at 
band  several  specimens  of  this  glasis ;  and  it  was  by  using  one  of  these  for  per- 


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MICHAEL   FARADAY — HIS  LIFE  AND   WOfiKS.  241 

oovery  to  wbicb  I  have  jost  alluded  is  that  as  the  magnet  acts  by  attraction 
upon  magnetic  bodies,  it  acts  also  by  repulsion  upon  all -other  bodies  in  nature. 
fVom  this  it  results  that  whilst  a  rod  of  iron,  or  of  some  other  magnetic  sub- 
stance, suspended  between  the  poles  of  an  electro-magnet,  places  itself  axidUy, 
(that  is  to  say,  parallel  to  the  line  which  joins  the  poles,)  a  prism  of  heavy 
glass  (the  same,  for  example,  which  served  for  the  experiments  on  light)  places 
itself  equatorially,  (that  is  to  say,  transversely  to  this  line.)  A  rod  of  bismuth 
is  in  the  same  case }  and  this  metal  and  heavy  glass  are  the  substances  on 
which  this  repul»ve  action  of  the  magnet  is  most  distinctly  exerted ;  but  all 
boilies  in  nature  which  are  not  magnetic  (and  these  mo  by  far  the  most  numer- 
cms}  present  the  same  property,  although  in  various  dcgi'ces.  In  this  way 
Famday  comes  to  class  all  bodies  under  two  heads :  those  which  are  magnetic 
or  paranuxgnetk,  as  he  calls  them,  such  as  iron,  nickel,  &c. ;  and  those  which 
are  diamagneHc,  such  as  bismuth,  antimony,  heavy  glass,  &c.  The  character 
id  the  former  is  to  be  attracted  by  the  magnet,  that  of  the  latter  to  be  repelled 
by  it.  It  is  true  that  this  repulsion,  to  become  sensible,  requires  an  enormous 
magnetic  power  even  in  the  case  of  bodies  of  which  the  diamagnetism  is  most 
strongly  marked,  whilst  a  very  weak  magnet  is  sufficient  to  betray  its  action 
upon  the  magnetic  bodies,  such  as  iron,  steel,  nickel,  &c. 

It  therefore  required  very  powerful  means,  such  as  Faraday  employed,  for  the 
discovery  of  diamagnetism.  Nevertheless  a  distinguished  amateur  in  science, 
M.  Lebaillif  of  Paris,  had  shown,  as  early  as  1S28,  that  a  fmgmont  of  bismuth 
or  antimony  very  evidently  repels  a  delicately  suspended  magnetized  needle 
when  brought  as  near  as  possible  to  one  of  the  polos  of  the  needle,  but  without 
touching  it.  Mr.  Faraday  was  ignorant  of  this  circumstance  when  ho  published 
his  first  work  on  diamagnetism.  I  immediately  informed  hiui  of  it,  at  the  same 
time  indicating  the  journal  in  which  I  had  published  M.  Lebaillif 's  experiment, 
which  I  had  witnessed  at  the  time.  He  accepted  my  reclamation  in  the  most 
amicable  manner,  and  at  once,  with  his  usual  good  faith,  recognized  the  priority 
of  M.  Lebaillif  with  regard  to  bismuth  and  antimony. 

In  the  numerous  researches  which  Faraday  devoted  (from  1845  to  1855)  to 
diamagnetism  and  at  the  same  time  to  magnetism,  there  arc  some  important 
points  which  I  must  indicate.  Ho  discovered  the  remaikable  mfiucnce  exerted 
upon  this  kind  of  properties  by  the  molecular  constittitiun  of  bodies,  and  espec- 
ially by  crystallization.  He  showed,  for  example,  that  a  crystallizeil  lamina 
of  bismuth  or  antimony  can  place  itself  axially  between  the  poles  of  an  electi*o- 
magnet  like  a  magnetic  body,  as  well  as  equatorially,  and  that  the  position 
which  it  takes  depends  on  the  manner  in  which  it  is  suspended  relatively  to  the 
direction  of  its  cleavage.  He  endeavored  to  investigate  the  force  which  comes 
into  play  in  facts  of  this  order,  which  he  names  magneiocryslalUne  force )  whilst 
Pliicker,  on  his  part,  widened  its  field  by  his  beaiitiful  and  numerous  researches 
on  the  manners  in  which  crystals  place  themselves  between  the  poles  of  an 
electro-magnet ;  and  Tyndall,  the  worthy  successor  of  Faraday  at  the  Royal 
Institution,  by  his  ingenious  experiments  analyzed  the  ])henomeuon  in  its  gener- 
ality and  siicceeded  in  connecting  it,  in  a  perfectly  satisfactory  manner,  with 
the  laws  which  govern  magnetism  and  diamagnetism.  Subsequently  Tyndall 
succeeded  also  in  demonstrating,  by  a  decisive  experiuiont,  that  diamagnetism, 
like  magnetism,  is  due  to  a  polarity  caiised  by  the  influence  of  the  magnet  in 
the  diamagnetic  body,  but  with  this  difference,  that,  instead  of  opposite  poles, 
homonymous  poles  are  developed  by  the  poles  of  the  magnet.  Thus  fell  to  the 
ground  all  the  other  more  or  less  rash  attempts  at  explanation  which  had  been 
given  of  diamagnetism. 

Another  point  which  deserves  attention  is  the  investigation  which  Faraday 
made  of  the  magnetism  and  diamagnetism  of  gases.  He  arrived  at  this  curious 
result,  (observed  likewise  by  Edmond  Becquerel  at  the  same  time,)  that  of  all 
gases  oxygen  alone  is  magnetic,  and  this  in  a  very  marked  degree^  while  all  tho 

16  8  67  n  ^ 

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242  MICHAEL   FARADAY — HIS  LIFE  AND  WORKS. 

forming  the  experiment  just  described  that  he  discovered  the  magnetic  rotation 
of  the  plane  of  polarization,  a  phenomenon  which  would  probably  have  escaped 
him  if  he  had  made  use  of  ordinary  glass  at  first  starting.  Thus  the  long  and 
painful  labors  to  which  he  had  formerly  devoted  himself  without  any  great  suc- 
cess, in  order  to  discover  a  glass  fitted  for  the  fabrication  of  lenses,  were  not 
lost  to  science,  since  they  facilitated  his  enriching  it  with  one  of  his  finest  dis- 
coveries. 

Let  us  now  study  the  new  phenomenon  a  little  more  closely,  so  as  better  to 
sl^w  all  its  importance.  Some  substances,  we  have  said,  naturally  possess  the 
property  of  causing  the  plane  of  polarization  of  a  polarized  ray  traversing  them 
to  rotate  through  a  larger  or  smaller  angle ;  some  cause  it  to  turn  to  the  right^ 
and  others  to  the  left,  of  the  observer.  The  discovery  of  Faraday  was  that  the 
influence  of  magnetism  or  of  electric  currents  develops  this  same  property  in 
nearly  all  transparent  substances,  but  with  this  difference,  that  the  direction  of 
rotation  of  the  plane  of  polarization  depends  only  upon  the  position  of  the 
magnetic  poles,  or  the  direction  of  the  currents  with  relation  to  the  transparent 
substance.  The  law  is,  that  if  the  north  pole  of  the  electro-magnet  is  placed 
on  the  same  side  as  the  observer  who  receives  the  ray  into  his  eye,  and  conse- 
quently the  south  pole  on  the  side  by  which  the  polarized  ray  enters  into  the 
substance,  the  rotation  of  the  plane  of  polarization  takes  place,  to  the  observer, 
from  left  to  right.  It  takes  place  from  right  to  left  if  the  direction  of  the  cur- 
rent, and  consequently  that  of  the  magnetization,  be  changed.  The  action  of 
the  magnet  may  be  replaced  by  that  of  a  coil  in  the  axis  of  which  the  trans- 
parent substance  is  placed.  In  this  case,  again,  the  rotation  of  the  plane  of 
polarization  is  very  weU  observed  when  a  rather  strong  ciurent  is  transmitted 
through  the  wire  of  the  coil ;  and  the  direction  of  the  rotation  is  always  the 
same  as  that  of  the  cmTent. 

Thus,  whilst  in  substances  naturally  endowed  with  circular  polarization  the 
rotation  of  the  plane  of  polarization  always  takes  place,  according  to  the  nature 
of  the  substance,  either  to  the  right  or  left  of  the  observer,  in  Faraday's  experi- 
ment the  direction  of  this  rotation  only  depends  upon  the  direction  of  electric 
currents  or  the  relative  position  of  the  magnetic  poles,  since  it  is  completely 
independent  of  the  position  of  the  observer.  These  two  kinds  of  action  are 
therefore  not  identical,  and  we  cannot  say  that  by  the  influence  of  the  magnet 
or  of  electricity  wo  produce  in  all  transparent  bodies  exactly  the  same  property 
that  certain  substances  naturally  possess.  Faraday  well  shows  this  difference 
by  an  experiment  which  consists  in  producing,  by  an  ingenious  artifice,  the  inter- 
nal reflection  of  the  polarized  lay  npon  the  extreme  sudiaces  of  the  prism ;  this 
may  be  done  once  or  several  times  before  the  ray  is  allowed  to  escape,  and 
doubles,  triples,  or  quadruples  the  angle  of  rotation  of  the  plane  of  polariza- 
tion, according  as  the  i*ay  is  reflected  once,  twice,  or  three  tames.  But  when, 
instead  of  the  magnetic,  we  have  to  do  with  the  natural  rotary  polarization,  the 
result  is  quite  different,  the  return  of  the  reflected  ray  neutralizing  the  effect 
which  the  direct  ray  had  undergone  while  travelling  in  an  opposite  direction. 
In  this  case  the  angle  of  rotation  of  the  plane  of  polarization  reflected  twice, 
and  which  consequently  has  three  times  traversed  the  transparent  substance,  is 
no  greater  than  that  of  a  i*ay  which  has  only  traversed  it  once. 

The  general  phenomenon  so  unexpectedly  discovered  by  Faraday  has  hith- 
erto remained  unexplained,  notwithstanding  many  investigations,  and  especially 
the  persevering  and  remarkable  researches  of  M.  Verdet. 

It  has  not  even  been  possible  to  connect  it  with  some  other  property  of  bodies, 
although  each  substance  has  its  specific  magnetic  rotatory  power.  Faraday, 
however,  drew  from  it  a  general  consequence  which  led  him  to  another  dis- 
covery, namely:  that  magnetism  acts  upon  all  bodies,  since  all  transparent 
bodies  may  be  modified  under  its  influence  sufficiently  to  acquire,  in  different 
degrees  indeed,  a  power  which  they  do  not  possess  of  themselves.    The  dis- 


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MICHAEL  FARADAT — HIS  LIFE  AND  WORKS.  243 

other  gases  are  diamagnetic.  Considering  the  great  part  taken  by  oxygen  in 
the  composition  of  oar  atmosphere,  he  attempt^  to  explain,  by  the  magnetic 
properties  of  this  gas  combined  with  variations  of  temperature,  the  phenomenon 
of  the  dinmal  vai-iations  of  the  magnetic  needle  which  he  traced  over  all  parts 
of  the  surface  of  the  globe.  It  is  impossible  for  us  not  to  regret  a  little  the 
considerable  time  which  he  devoted  to  this  investigation,  especially  as  it  appears 
to  us  very  probable  that  it  is  not  in  the  action  of  the  atmosphere,  but  much 
rather  in  that  of  the  earth  itself,  or  perhaps  even  in  that  of  the  sun,  that  we 
must  seek  the  cause  of  all  the  phenomena  presented  by  the  magnetic  needle. 

Lastly,  a  third  point  remains  to  be  noticed,  namely,  that  which  relates  to  the 
investigation  of  the  magnetic  field  and  of  what  Faraday  denominates  the  lines 
of  magnetic  force.  According  to  him,  as  we  have  already  had  occasion  to 
remark,  there  is  no  such  thing  as  action  at  a  distance ;  consequently  the  mag- 
netic field  (that  is  to  say,  the  space  included  between  two  approximated  mag- 
netic poles,  such  as  those  of  a  horseshoe  magnet)  is  a  medium  from  which,  in 
every  one  of  its  points,  forces  emanate,  the  distribution  and  direction  of  which 
are  indicated  by  the  very  regular  an-angement  effected  by  fine  iron-filings 
placed  in  this  space.  The  lines  which  he  calls  lines  of  magnetic  force  thus 
become  visible  and  even  tangible.  But  they  exist  none  the  less  even  when  we 
cannot  see  them,  and  it  is  the  displacements  or  modifications  which  they  expe- 
rience by  the  presence  of  a  ponderable  body  in  the  medium  in  which  they  occur 
that  give  rise  to  all  the  remarkable  effects  of  which  the  magnetic  field  is  the 
scene.     Such  is,  in  a  few  words,  Faraday's  view  upon  this  particular  question. 

We  pass  in  silence  over  a  multitude  of  interesting  details  upon  diamagnetio 
polarity,  upon  the  distinction  to  be  set  up  between  magnetic  and  diamagnetio 
bodies,  and  upon  the  possible  relation  between  gravity  and  electricity.  In 
1850  Faraday  reverted  to  this  question,  which  he  had  previously  attempted,  but 
without  success.  We  see  that  it  is  with  regret  that  he  is  obliged  to  relinquish 
the  discovery  of  this  relation,  which  he  had  twice  sought  after ;  but  with  his 
usual  good  faith  he  admits  that,  although  convinced  that  it  exists,  he  was  una- 
ble to  find  any  fact  to  establish  it.  If  experiment,  which  he  knew  so  well 
how  to  employ  constantly,  gave  him  a  negative  response,  would  not  this  be 
because  his  point  of  view  was  not  correct  t  and  did  not  his  error  arise  from  his 
forming  too  vague  ideas  as  to  the  transformation  of  forces,  not  taking  suffi- 
ciently into  account  that  it  is  the  work  effected  by  the  force,  and  not  the  force 
itself,  that  must  be  considered  in  questions  of  this  kind  ! 

V.  We  have  passed  in  review  the  principal  labors  of  Faraday ;  and  it  only       / 
remains  for  us,  in  order  to  complete  this  notice,  to  endeavor  to  form  an  idea  of     jr 
the  special  character  of  these  labors,  and  of  the  influence  which  they  have 
exerted  on  the  progress  of  science. 

—The  first  character  that  strikes  us  is  their  number.  What  Faraday  published 
in  the  form  of  memoirs,  from  1820  to  1855,  is  incredible.  And  what  would  it 
have  been  if,  side  by  side  with  the  multitude  of  experiments  which  he  has  made 
known,  we  placed  in  a  parallel  series  those  which  he  never  published  ?  It  is 
true  that  if  he  has  left  them  buried  in  his  journal,  it  is  because  they  gave  him 
negative  results  ^  but  from  how  many  fruitless  essays  and  erroneous  attempts 
he  would  have  preserved  scientific  men  if  he  had  not  been  so  discreet ! 
«.A  second  character  is  the  exactitude  of  the  results  obtained  :  I  do  not  think 
that  Faraday  has  once  been  caught  in  a  mistake ;  so  precise  and  conscientious 
was  his  mode  of  experimenting  and  observing.  It  must  be  admitted  that  in 
him  the  hand  marvellously  seconded  the  head ;  he  was  of  remarkable  dexterity, 
and  possessed  a  practical  talent,  rare  and  precious  in  men  of  science,  which 
enabled  him,  when  necessary,  to  construct  and  modify  his  apparatus  for  himself| 
with  the  view  of  .attaining  with  more  certainty  the  desired  result. 
«,  A  third  character,  of  quite  a  different  kind  and  of  much  greater  value,  is  the 
OTiginahty  of  the  works  of  Faraday.    A  disciple  of  Davy,  he  undoubtedly 

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2i4  MICHAEL  FARADAT — HIS  LIFE  AND  WORKS. 

shows  traces  of  the  school  from  which  he  came,  especially  in  the  choice  of  the 
subjects  of  which  he  treats ;  but  he  does  not  blindly  follow  either  the  method 
or  the  steps  of  his  master,  and,  soon  quitting  the  beaten  track,  he  strikes  out  a 
path  for  himself.  What  is  this  path  ?  I  shall  be  asked.  This  is  not  easy  to 
say ;  but  I  will  nevertheless  attempt  it. 

At  the  commencement  of  the  present  century,  thanks  to  the  important  works 
of  which  it  had  been  the  subject,  the  science  of  physics  had  acquired  a  character 
of  precision  and  clearness  which  seemed  almost  to  make  of  it  a  mathematical 
science.  The  fine  treatise,  in  four  volumes,  on  Experimental  and  Mathematical 
Physics,  published  in  1816  by  M.  Biot,  gives  the  most  correct  and  complete  idea 
of  the  i>oint  at  which  this  science  had  arrived.  To  the  confusion  which  still 
reigned  in  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  between  the  various  depart- 
ments of  the  scienC'C,  to  the  ignorance  which  then  still  prevailed  upon  a  great 
number  of  these  departments,  succeeded  a  clear  and  substantial  analysis  of  all 
the  phenomena,  brought  under  simple  and  rigorous  laws.  Heat,  light,  elec- 
tricity, and  magnetism  were  regarded  in  it  as  so  many  distinct  agents,  having 
their  special  properties  and  obeying  their  own  laws.  Calculation  was  admirably 
iitted  to  these  clear  and  precise  conceptions ;  hence  we  find  it  greatly  used,  as 
iintness  the  very  title  of  M.  Biot's  treatise. 

The  great  discovery  of  CErsted,  (in  1820,)  upon  the  relations  existing  between 
electricity  and  magnetism,  began  to  diminish  confidence  in  this  tnoSe  of  con- 
sidering the  phenomena,  a  confidence  which  was  already  a  good  deal  shaken  by 
the  researches  of  Fresnel  and  Arago  upon  light.  The  br^ich  once  opened,  the 
foitress  was  soon  entered ;  and  among  the  most  intrepid  assailants  Faraday 
figures  in  the  front  rank.  By  his  researches  on  the  condensation  of  gases,  ho  c 
shows  that  there  is  nothing  absolute  in  the  laws  of  Mariotte  and  Gay-Lussac 
and  in  the  distinction  so  generally  accepted  between  vapors  and  permanent 
gases.  By  his  investigations  upon  voltaic  electricity,  he  establishes  between 
chemical  affinity  and  the  production  of  electricity  a  relation  so  intimate  that  it 
seems  as  if  the  one  was  only  a  form  of  the  other.  By  his  discovery  of  induc- 
tion, be  brings  in  mechanical  movement  as  an  important  element  in  the  produc- 
tion of  electrical  phenomena.  By  his  experiments  on  the  influence  of  the  mag- 
net  and  of  electricity  on  polarized  light,  and  by  those  which  were  the  conse- 
quence of  it,  he  opens  to  science  a  new  path  which  no  one  had  foreseen.  Ho 
succeeds  thus  in  establishing  between  the  natural  agents  which  we  name  light,  a 
heat,  electricity,  magnetism,  chemical  afiinity,  and  molecular  attraction  such 
intimate  relations,  such  a  connection,  that  it  is  impossible  not  to  think  that  we 
shall  one  day  succeed  in  demonstrating  that  they  are  only  different  forms  of  the 
same  agent.  No  doubt  he  is  not  the  only  one  that  has  followed  this  path. 
Many  others  have  brought  in  their  contingent  to  this  work  of  demolition  and 
reconstruction  j  but  he  was  one  of  the  first,  most  active,  and  most  persevering. 
Therefore  his  works,  I  have  no  doubt,  will  always  be  regarded  as  comer-stones 
in  the  new  edifice  which  we  are  now  endeavoring  to  construct. 

I  designedly  say,  tchich  we  are  endeavoring  to  construct;  for  we  must  care- 
fully avoid  thinking  that  it  is  already  constructed.  Since  the  fine  discovery  of 
the  mechanical  equivalent  of  heat,  it  seems  as  if  everything  had  been  said  and 
everything  were  easily  explained  by  means  simply  of  a  ponderable  matter,  an 
imponderable  aether,  and  a  mechanical  impulse.  Vidgarizere  of  science,  more 
anxious  to  produce  an  effect  than  to  remain  faithful  to  scientific  truth,  proclaim 
a  molecular  system  of  the  world  destined  to  form  a  pendant  to  the  M^caniquc 
Celeste  of  Laplace.  According  to  them,  nothing  is  more  simple,  nothing  clearer; 
attraction  itself,  which  has  been  the  object  of  the  study  of  so  many  sn)>erior 
minds,  is  merely  the  effect  of  an  impulse  easy  to  imaerstand.  A  dangerous 
illusion !  which,  if  it  succeeded  in  propagating  itself,  would  be  as  fatal  to  the 
true  progress  of  science  as  opposed  to  its  useful  diffusion ;  for  it  is  espedally 
upon  those  who  take  to  themselves  the  high  mission  of  popularizing  science 


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MICHAEL   FABADAY — HIS   LIFE  AND  WORKS.  245 

that  it  is  imperiously  incumbent  to  spread  none  but  correct  and  well-founded 


Let  us  not,  however,  exaggerate  anything,  or  refuse  to  recognize  in  the  too 
poative  ideas  which  we  have  just  combated  that  portion  of  truth  which  they 
may  contain.  With  this  purpose  let  us  try,  in  conclusion,  to  lay  down  in  few 
words  the  point  at  which,  in  our  opinion,  in  the  present  state  of  science  the 
important  question  of  the  unity  of  forces  has  arrived. 

After  having  for  a  long  time  arrested  the  progress  of  science  by  abstract  and 
general  considerations  upon  the  phenomena  of  nature,  the  philosophers  finished 
by  adopting,  with  Galileo,  the  experimental  method,  the  only  one  that  can  lead 
with  certainty  to  the  discovery  of  the  truth.  A  rigorous  and  profound  analysis, 
placed  at  the  service  of  this  method,  furnished  certain  and  fundamental  results. 
Beverting  to  a  synthetic  phase,  many  superior  minds  now  seek  by  means  of 
these  tediously  and  p^nfully  collected  materials  to  reconstruct  the  edifice  of 
which  the  raising  was  formerly  attempted  in  vain.  No  doubt  science  has  thus 
ent^ped  upon  a  fertile  course,  but  only  on  condition  of  advancing  with  sure  and 
consequently  with  slow  steps.  We  speak  of  the  unity  of  force,  and  of  the 
transformation  of  forces  one  into  the  other ;  but  do  we  know  what  are  forces  f 
do  we  know  their  nature  t  We  have  certainly  proved  transformations  of  move- 
ment, imd  shown  that  one  work  may  change  into  another  work,  mechanical 
motion  into  heat,  and  heat  into  mechanical  motion ;  these  are,  without  doubt, 
tbe  most  important  points  gained  by  science,  and  enable  us  to  get  a  glimpse 
of  the  existence  of  a  single  cause  manifesting  itself  in  various  forms.  But  it 
ifl  a  long  way  firom  this  to  the  discovery  of  this  cause,  this  single  force.  Shall 
we  some  day  arrive  at  it  t  It  is  possible  and  even  probable ;  and  in  this  case 
the  name  and  the  works  of  Faraoay  will  always  remain  associated  with  one  of 
the  greatest  problems  which  the  human  mind  can  entertain. 


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THE  JUSSIEUS*  AND  THE  NATURAL  METHOD. 


BY  M.  FLOURENS,  PERPETUAL  SECRETARY  OF  THE  FRENCH  ACADEMY  OF  StlEKCES. 


Translated  for  the  Smithsonian  Institution  by  C.  A.  Alexander. 


Introduction.  Few  books  of  botany,  or  even  natural  history,  have  had  more 
success  than  the  small  treatise  of  Magnolt  (I  say  small,  for  it  has  less  than  a 
hundred  pages,)  entitled :  Prodromus  Historias  GeneralU  Plantarum  in  quo 
JFamilite  Plantarum  per  tabulas  disjfonuntuvt  Monspelii,  1689.  The  fine  preface 
of  this  little  book — and  it  is  only  the  preface  which  is  fine— comprises  but  thirteen 
pages ;  and  the  name  of  Magnol,  (such  is  the  vitality  inherent  in  ideas  of  a 
nigh  order,  when  they  are  also  the  first,  and  touch  upon  some  great  problem, ) 
can  never  be  forgotten. 

"After  having  examined,"  says  Magnol,  "the  methods  most  in  use,  and  found 
that  of  Morison  insufficient  and  defective,  that  of  Ray  too  difficult,  f  I  thought 
that  I  could  perceive  in  plants  an  affinity,  according  to  the  degrees  of  which  it 
might  be  possible  to  arrange  them  in  different  families,  as  it  is  customary  to 
classify  animals.  This  relation  between  animals  and  vegetables  has  given  me 
occasion  to  reduce  plants  into  certain  families,  (for  thus  I  would  call  them  bj 
comparison  with  the  families  of  men;)  and  as  it  seemed  to  me  impossible  tu  derive 
the  character  of  these  families  from  the  fructification  alone,  I  have  chosen  the 
parts  of  the  plants  wherein  the  principal  characteristic  marks  are  met  with, 
such  as  the  roots,  stalks,  flowers,  and  seeds  ;  in  a  number  of  plants  there  is  even 
a  certain  similitude,  a  certain  affinity,  which  consists  not  in  the  parts  considered 
separately,  but  in  the  whole.  I  doubt  not  that  the  characters  of  families  may 
also  be  drawn  from  the  first  leaves  of  the  germ  at  its  exit  from  the  grain.  I 
have  therefore  followed  the  order  observed  by  those  parts  of  plants  in  which 
are  to  be  found  the  principal  and  distinctive  marks  of  families,  and,  without 
confining  myself  to  a  single  part,  have  often  considered  several  together." 

There  are  many  ideas  in  this  page,  and  all  of  a  striking  character.  Magnol 
perceives  iheXplants  may  be  arranged  in  Jamilies  as  we  arrange  animals ;  he 
seeks  the  parts  in  which  the  principal  chararteristic  marks  occur  ;  he  sees  that 
the  characters  of  families  may  he  derived  from  the  first  leaves  of  the  germ,  ^. 
And  yet  how  much  uncertainty  is  still  apparent — how  much  vagueness  I  Some- 
times he  considers  such  or  such  parts  separately,  the  roots,  the  flowers^  the 
seeds  ;  sometimes  he  considers  several  of  them  together ;  sometimes  he  con- 

*  An  account  of  several  members  of  the  distinfruished  scientific  family  of  Jussieu  will  be 
found  to  bo  embraced  in  the  present  article.  **  When,  in  1838,"  says  M.  Flourens,  **  I  had 
pronounced  before  the  academy  the  Eiogt  of  Laurent  de  Jussieu,  M.  Adricn  de  Jussieu  ex- 
pressed to  me  an  earnest  wish  that  the  study  should  be  extended  to  all  the  members  of  his  family, 
and  that  some  details  might  be  added  to  show  their  patriarchal  habits  and  the  ties  of  mutual 
lejrard  which  united  them.  He  then  confided  to  me  certain  private  manuscripts  which  his 
premature  death  has  devolved  on  me  the  duty  of  employing,  and  of  which  I  have  reproduced 
some  extracts  in  this  notice." 

t Magnol  was  the  first  who  introduced  into  the  Method  the  word  "family." 
i  This  method,  too  difficulty  though  very  teamed  {quamvis  docris8i:0Utnf)  indlCBkted  at  that 
early  period  the  grand  division  of  monocotyledom  and  dicotyledons :  hmc  ditisio  (that  of 
dicotyledons  and  monocotyledons)  ad  arbores  etiam  extendi  potest  :  siquidem  palma  et  con- 
generet  hoc  ^espectu  eodem  modo  a  reliquis  arboribus  differunt  quo  monocotyledones  a  reliquis 
herbis,    {Joannis  Rati,  Metftodus  Plantarum  Nova,  etc.,  lt$82.) 


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THE  JUSSIEUS  AND  THE  NATURAL  METHOD.  247 

aiders  the  whole  of  the  plant.  Hesitation  is  everywhere  conspicuous,  because 
the  inquirer  is  destitute  of  a  guiding  principle — the  principle  established  by 
Bernard  de  Jussieu  and  developed  by  his  nephew  Laurent — the  principle,  in  a 
word,  of  the  subordination  of  char  act  ers,  **  The  natural  method,"  said  Linnseus, 
**  has  been  the  first  and  will  be  the  last  term  of  botany,"  (methodus  ndturalis 
primns  et  ulttmusjinis  botanices  est  et  erit.J  To  this  end,  in  efifect,  have  tended 
all  persistent  and  comprehensive  researches.  When,  in  the  middle  of  the  six- 
teenth century,  Gesner  indicated  the  characters  drawn  from  the  fructification 
as  the  most  essential,*  he  pointed  out  the  right  path.  **  It  was  Gesner,"  says 
M.  Ouvier,  **  who  discovered  the  art  of  distinguishing  and  classing  plants  by  the 
organs  of  fructification,  the  art  which  has,  in  truth,  created  scientific  botany  ;"t 
when,  shortly  after  Gesner,  Csesalpiuus  founded  the  first  genera  on  the  root  and 
germ  ;|  when,  profiting  by  the  labors  of  Gesner  and  Gsesalpinus,  though  without 
acknowledgment,  Morisou  established  his  classification  on  the  seeds  :§  when 
Magnol  wrote  the  suggestive  page  just  read  ;]|  when  Toumefort  excluded 
from  the  constitution  of  genera  every  other  character  but  that  of  flowers  aud 
fruits  ;fl  when  Linnseus  published  his  Researches  respecting  Natural  Orders  ;** 
these  vigorous  intellects  did  but  follow,  by  successive  advances,  the  route 
opened  by  Gesner.  The  problem  of  the  natural  method  was  in  the  nature  of 
an  enigma,  which  they  transmitted  from  one  to  another,  and  of  which  the  two 
Jussieus,  Bernard  and  Laurent,  eventually  found  the  solution. 

The  Jussieu  family,  natives  of  a  small  town  in  the  mountains  of  the  Lyonnais, 
which  separate  the  basin  of  the  Loire  from  that  of  the  Sa6ne,  had  then  exercised, 
from  sire  to  son,  the  function  of  notary  for  several  centuries,  when,  about  1680, 
on6'of  its  members  quitted  Montrotier.  near  the  hamlet  which  bears  their  name, 
in  order  to  seek  his  fortunes  elsewhere.  This  more  enterprising  member,  whose 
name  was  Laurent,  having  taken  his  degrees  in  medicine,  established  himself 

*'  *  £x  his  (floreet fmctu)  enim  potius  quam foliis  stirpium natarse et cogoationes apparent.'* 
(  Ejnst,  ad  Theod,  Zuinggemm. )  ^'His  notits  (a  fructUf  semiDe  et  flore)  stapbisagriam  et  eon- 
aolidam  resralem  vulgo  dictum  aconito  congerem  facile  deprehendi."  (/Aio.)  **  Melissa  Con- 
stantinopolitana  ad  lamium  vel  urticam  mortaam  qaodam  modo  videtur  accedere,  seminis 
tamen,  onde  ego  cognatioDes  stirpiam  indicare  soleo,  figura  differt."  (Epist,  ^  Adolph, 
Oeeonem.) 

t  Bibliographie  universdley  article  Gesner, 

t  ** Partes  sunt  radix  et  germen:  ex  horam  igitur  differentiis  prima  genera  constituenda 
•out."     (De  jtlantisy  \,  cap,  13.) 

$  After  claiming  for  his  doctrines  equal  novelty  and  'vaMi\h\\\iy  {Plant arum  Hist.  Unit, 
OxoniensiSf  teu  herbarum  distribuiio  nova,  1715,)  pretensions  on  which  the  judgment  of 
Magnol  has  already  been  seen,  Morison  proceeds  to  say:  **Notas  genericas  et^sentiales  a 
seminibus  eorumque  similitudiue  petitas  per  tabulas  cognationis  et  affinitatis  disponentes 
stirpes  exbibebimus.  Difierentias  specificas  a  partibns  ignobilioribos,  scilicet  radice,  foliis 
et  caulibus,  odore,  sapore,  colore  desumptas  adscribemus." 

(j  It  ^OA  Pierre  Magnol  who  replaced  Toumefort  at  the  Academy  of  Sciences  as  titular 
member.  Magnol  did  not  reside  at  Paris,  but  against  such  merit  as  his  no  rule  is  valid.  I 
find  in  the  proceedings  of  our  ancient  academy  (February  6,  1709)  this  note  of  the  secretary, 
Fontenelle;  **Iread  to  the  company  a  letter  from  M.  Pontchartrain  to  the  Abb^  Bignou, 
'dated  Versailles,  February  5;  in  which  it  is  anounced  that,  for  the  nomination  of  the  3()th 
of  January,  the  Kin^  has  chosen  M.  de  Magnol,  though  a  non-resident,  on  account  of  his 
great  reputation  in  botany.  About  the  time  when  Morison,  Magnol,  Eay,  published  their 
general  views,  and  thus  opened  for  their  successors  the  way  to  the  study  of  the  botanical 
affinities,  Rivin,  by  a  few  pages  replete  with  philosophic  views,  anticipated  Linnaeus  in  sev- 
eral points  of  the  reform  which  was  required  in  the  nomenclature.  {Introductio  Generatis  in 
rem  Herbarium^  ]li90.)  Morison^s  work,  Plantarum  UnbelliJ'erarum  Distributio  Aora,  bears 
Iho  date  of  1672 ;  his  Plantarum  Historia  Universalis,  that  of  1680 ;  the  work  of  Ray,  Methoffus 
Plantarum  Nova y  jpc,  appeared  in  1(362;  that  of  Magnol  in  1689;  that  of  Rivin,  the  title 
or  which  has  been  just  cited,in  1690 ;  and  the  Elements  de  Botanique  of  Toumefort  in  1694. 
lu  every  department,  it  is  from  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century  that  the  first  steps  of 
the  great  pbilosiphic  movement  of  the  eighteenth  century  date  their  commencement. 

f  "  lIoDC,  cum  ita  sint,  genera  plantarum  statni  non  posse  liquet,  nisi  flores  simul  et  fructus 
adhibeautur."    {fsagoge  in  rem  Herbariam^  p.  57,  1700.) 

**  Frugmenta  Mcmodi  Naturalis  vel  Ordines  Nuturales,  1738. 

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248       'I'HE  JUSSIEUS  AND  THE  NATURAL  METHOD. 

finally  as  a  master  of  phannacy  at  Ljoo.  He  there  married  and  became  tbe 
father  of  sixteen  children,  three  of  whom,  Antoine,  Bernard,  and  Joseph,  have, 
on  different  grounds,  been  remarkable  among  the  most  celebrated  botanists  of 
an  epoch  of  unrivalled  brilliancy  as  regards  the  coltiTation  of  their  science. 

ANTOINB  DB  JUS6IBU. 

Destined  to  the  ecclesiastical  profession  and  educated  at  the  college  of  the 
Jesuits,  Antoine  had,  from  an  early  age,  substituted  for  the  rude  sports  of  youth 
the  observation  of  plants.  This  taste,  already  very  decided  in  the  child,  became  a 
passion  for  the  young  man.  "He  passed,"  says  his  biographer.  Grand- Jean  de 
Fouchy,  **  in  searching  for  plants  the  whole  time  which  his  duties  left  at  his  dis- 

?osal,  and  some  of  that,  perhaps,  which  those  duties  might  have  properly  claimed.** 
Vom  the  age  of  fourteen  years  he  explored,  in  his  berborizations,  the  environs 
of  Lyon,  la  Bresse,  Bagey,  Forez,  &c.,  and  even  a  part  of  Dauphiny.  To  find 
means  of  classifying  the  plants  he  collected,  he  addressed  himself  to  a  celebrated 
physician,  M.  Ooifron,  who  placed  in  his  hands  the  SlemcnU  de  Botanique  of 
Toumefort.  This  work  gave  a  fixed  direction  to  his  ideas ;  and  from  that  moment 
all  traces  of  the  ecclesiastic  disappeared. 

Having  terminated  his  collegiate  course,  he  ventured  to  avow  to  his  father 
that  he  felt  it  impossible  to  direct  his  thoughts  to  any  other  subject  than  the 
study  of  nature,  and,  after  some  irritation  and  reproaches,  this  father,  though 
chagrined  at  seeing  his  plans  disconcerted,  but  having  no  grounds  for  doubting 
the  sincerity  of  his  son,  yielded  so  far  as  to  give  him  permission  to  pass  from 
the  seminary  to  the  medical  school  of  Montpellier.  A  place  in  a  public  vehicle 
was  retained  for  the  fugitive,  but,  notwithstanding  the.  rigor  of  the  cold,  he 
made  his  journey  on  foot,  still  herborizing,  and  reserving  his  right  of  tra  sport 
onlv  for  the  purpose  of  sheltering  the  plants  coHected  on  the  way.  At  Mont- 
pellier, neither  his  medical  studies,  nor  even  several  years  of  practice  as  physi- 
cian, in  any  degree  estranged  him  from  botany,  for  he  had  there  had  the  advantage 
of  hearing  Magnol.  Thenceforward  his  most  earnest  wish  was  to  obtain  access  to 
the  instructions  of  Toumefort,  and  as  soon  as  circumstances  permitted  he  repaired 
ijo  Paris,  with  a  view  of  attending  the  annual  courses  of  that  great  botanist  at 
the  Jardin  Rayed,  This  was  in  1708,  and  Toumefort,  who  had  already  sustained 
the  accident  which  so  prematurely  removed  him,*  was  no  longer  teaching.  The 
surprise  of  Antoine  may  well  be  imagined  when,  not  later  than  the  following 
year,  he  found  himself  occupying,  at  the  age  of  twenty-three,  the  chair  from  which 
he  had  hoped  to  receive  instraction ;  for  Isnard,  who  had  been  at  first  nominated 
for  the  succession,  after  a  few  lectures  retired,  and  Antoine  was  then,  at  the  in- 
stance of  the  admurers  whom  he  had  left  at  Montpellier,  preferred  to  the  vacant 
place. 

The  volumes  of  our  Academy  contain  several  botanical  memoirs  of  Antoine 
Jussien  on  Fungit  on  coffeCf  the  iimarouba,  contrayerva,  torch-thislle,  catechu^ 
&c. ;  and  they  contain  also  five  on  fossil  remains,  both  of  animals  or  vege- 
tables, a  subject  of  study  then  entirely  new,  and  which,  for  that  reason,  would 
seem  worthy  of  a  passing  notice.  The  first  of  these  five  memoirs  has  for 
its  title:  An  examination  of  the  causes  of  the  impressions  of  plants  observed  am 
certain  stones  of  the  environs  of  Saint  Chaumont  in  the  Lyonnais,  (Memoiret  de 
VArademie  des  t>ciences,  1718  ;)  the  second  :  Physical  researches  on  the  pvtri- 
factvtns  of  different  parts  of  foreign  plants  and  animals  which  occur  in  Franr.t, 
(Ibid.i  1721 ;)  the  third :  On  the  origin  and  formation  of  a  species  of  convoluted 
stones t  called  horns  of  Ammon,  (lhid,t   1722;)  the  fourth  :    On  the  origin  of 

***  As  ho  was  ^in^  to  the  Academy  ot  Sciences  ho  had  his  hreast  violently  pressed  by  tbe 
axle  of  a  cart  which  He  could  not  avoid,  and  died  December  20,  1708,  aged  only  53  years.*' 
{Mimoire  Historique  et  LitUrairt  $ur  It  ColUgt  Royal  de  France,  par  Abbi  Coujetf  article 
TourHtforl,) 


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THE  JUSSIEUS  AND  THE  NATURAL  METHOD.      249 

gtomes  called  aSdern^  eyes  and  toad-stoncij  (Ibid.*  1723;)  and  the  fifth:  Ohser- 
rations  on  some  bones  of  a  head  of  the  hippopotamus,  (Ibid,,  1724.) 

Of  these  memoirs  the  most  important  is  the  first;  it  is,  so  to  speak,  the 
author's  memoir  of  discovery.  And  jet  how  far  was  the  learned  world  at  that 
date  from  any  just  conception  respecting  those  phenomena  of  remote  ages 
which  every  day  become  more  imposing  in  proportion  as  they  are  better  under- 
stood. If  we  listened  to  Antoine  de  Jussieu,  the  question  would  seem  to  relate 
only  to  certain  national  antiquities,  which  give  to  one  people  a  title  to  glorify 
themselves  above  others  on  account  of  their  possession.  *'  There  is  no  nation," 
he  says,  "  which  does  not  pride  itself  on  the  monuments  of  whatever  nature  which 
seem  to  indicate  the  antiquity  of  the  country ;  when  the  still  existing  remains 
of  human  labor  are  not  available  for  this  purpose,  recourse  will  be  had  to  any 
other  peculiarity  which  points  to  a  remote  origin.  Even  botany,  since  its 
recent  and  striking  progress  has  attracted  more  general  attention,  has  been  laid 
under  contribution  as  aliment  for  the  sentiment  in  question.  Thus  MM.  Lloyd 
and  Woodward  \Mve  arrogated  honor  to  England  from  the  discovery  of  stones 
on  which  have  been  observed  the  imsression  of  different  plants.  M.  Mill  claims 
the  same  distinction  for  Saxony,  and  M.  Leibnitz  has  enumerated  all  the  places 
in  Germany  which  may  pretend  to  the  possession  of  these  ancient  vestiges  of 
nature.  M.  Scheuchzer,  lastly,  extols  owitserland  for  an  unequalled  affluence 
in  these  impressions  of  vegetable  forms,  whose  types,  he  alleges,  existed  before 
the  deluge.*'  We  see  in  this  statement  with  how  much  fairness  Antoine  recog« 
nixes  the  title  of  other  nations  ;  but,  proceeding  to  assert  for  France  an  equality 
of  ad  van  tinges  in  this  respect,  he  says  :  '*  Of  this  I  had  an  opportunity  of  sat- 
isfying myself  when,  passing  through  the  province  of  the  Lyonnais  on  my  way  to 
Spain,  I  traversed  the  environs  of  Saint  Chaumont.'*  The  honor  of  France 
being  thus  assured,  he  enters  upon  the  subject  and  recounts  that  up  to  the  gate 
of  Saint  Chaumont  and  along  the  little  river  of  Oi^s  he  had  the  pleasure  of 
observing  on  most  of  the  stones  which  he  picked  up,  the  impressions  of  an 
infinitude  of  fragments  of  plants,  so  different  from  all  those  which  grow  in  the 
Lyonnais,  the  neighboring  provinces,  and  even  in  the  rest  of  France,  "  that  it 
aeemed  to  him  as  if  he  were  botanizing  in  a  new  world.** 

This  explorer  of  a  new  vorld,  and  relatively  much  more  neto  than  he  supposed 
it.  first  remarks  that  in  these  stones  the  impressions  of  plants  are  found  only 
on  the  surface  of  the  laminations.  He  next  remarks,  that  on  each  flake  or  lamina 
they  are  different  and  placed  in  different  directions,  and  the  number  of  these 
flakes,  the  facility  of  separating  them,  the  great  variety  of  plants  distinguishable* 
causes  him,  as  he  ingeniously  says,  "  to  regard  these  stones  as  so  many  volumes 
of  botany  which,  in  each  quarry,  compose  the  most  ancient  library  of  the  world, 
and  all  the  more  curious  masmuch  as  these  plants  either  'ixist  no  longer,  or,  if 
they  still  exist,  only  in  countries  so  remote  that  we  should  have  no  knowledge 
of  them  without  the  discovery  of  these  impressions."  I  have  italicized  the  words 
exist  no  longer,  as  being  in  effect  not  a  little  remarkable,  and  as  presenting,  though 
under  a  rather  hesitating  expression,  a  first  indication  of  the  grand  idea  of  the 
Buffons  and  Cuviers  on  lost  species. 

Among  the  thousands  of  strange  plants  which  have  left  their  traces  on  our 
rocks,  the  practiced  eye  of  Antoine  quickly  rec  ignizes  capillarias,  ceterachs, 
polypodiums,  adiantums,  osmnndas,  filiculas,  and  species  of  ferns  which  resem- 
ble, he  says,  *'  those  that  R.  P.  Piumier  and  M.  Sloane  have  discovered  in  the 
islands  of  America,  and  those  which  have  been  sent  from  the  East  and  West 
Indies."  He  recognizes  also  leaves  of  palms  and  other  foreign  trees,  peculiar 
stems,  seods,  &c.  But  how  does  it  happen  that  all  these  strange  plants,  these 
plants  of  India  and  America,  occur  in  this  country,  in  France,  in  the  Lyonnais, 
at  Saint  Chaumont  ?  Antoine  is  not  willing  to  have  recourse  to  the  deluge ;  he 
is  content  with  simpler  means :  '*  Without  being  obliged,"  says  he, ''  to  recur  either 
to  the  inundation  of  the  universal  deluge,  or  to  those  earthquakes  and  violent 


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250       THE  JUSSIEUS  AND  THE  NATUBAL  METHOD. 

concussions  which  have  produced  great  openings  through  which  the  waters  of 
the  sea  have  entered  ;  without  speaking  of  the  fearful  overtlirow  of  vast  moun- 
tains which,  in  their  fall,  have  occupied  a  great  space  in  the  bed  of  the  sea,  and 
thrown  its  waters  far  inland,  there  is  no  waiU  of  proof  that  the  greater  part  of 
outlands,  which  seem  to  have  been  inhabited  from  time  immemorial,  were  origi- 
nally covered  with  the  water  of  the  sea,  which  has  since  either  iiiaen^ibly  or 
suddenly  abandoned  them."  No ;  truly,  there  is  no  toant  of  proof  \\x9i  the  greater 
part  of  the  land  has  been  covered  by  the  waters  of  the  sea,  and  not  only  origi- 
ndlly,  as  Antoine  says,  but  repeatedly ;  for  originally  will  not  suffice ;  and  in 
the  present  case  it  is  evidently  necesaary  that  the  earth,  before  being  covered 
by  the  sea,  should  have  been  first  dry  land,  since  it  had  already  produced  /er- 
restrial  plants  ;  there  had  been,  therefore,  two  epochs,  and  there  are  two  facts : 
the  irruption  of  the  seas  and  their  retreat,  "  From  the  moment,"  says  Antoine, 
"  that  it  is  apparent  that  diflPerent  places  have  been  covered  with  water,  it  is  easily 
comprehended  that  impetuous  floods,  impelled  from  north  to  south,  and  again 
repelled  from  south  to  north,  whether  by  the  resistance  of  high  mountains  or  by 
violent  hurricanes,  have  swept  with  them  the  animals  and  vegetables  of  sourhecn 
countries,  and  that  in  this  reflux  the  waters  having  entered  and  remained  in 
the  recesses  where  certain  mountainous  formations  have  constituted  bays  or 
basins,  have  there  retained  these  light  bodies,  some  entire,  others  broken." 
Thus,  impetuous  floods  driven  to  and  fro,  violent  hurricanes^  arrangements  of 
mountains^  constitute  the  mechanism  which  Antoine  imagines  for  such  grand 
effects,  and  which  draws  from  Fontenelle  the  remark  that  *'  in  such  matters  it  is 
enough  to  obtain  the  faintest  glimpse  of  a  system."  It  was  enough  for  the  time. 
Limited  explanations  must  precede  comprehensive  ones  ;  and,  in  regard  to  the 
causes,  so  long  hidden,  of  the  displacement  of  seas,  one  could  scarcely  expect 
fiom  a  botanist  who  wrote  in  1718,  the  bold  and  profound  system  which  has 
been  only  granted  iii  these  latter  days  to  the  persistent  efforts  of  the  most  in- 
trepid of  our  geologists,  Leopold  von  Buch. 

I  may  dismiss  the  other  memoirs  more  briefly.  In  the  second  our  botanist 
examines  a  fossil  seed,  which  he  believes  to  be  that  of  the  arhor  tristis,  (Nyclante 
de  Vlnde,)  of  which  marvelling  travellers  had  related  that  it  blossoms  at  night, 
and  that  its  flowers  fall  at  daybreak,  because  they  open  in  the  evening  and  close 
in  the  morning;  in  the  third  he  considers  the  horns  of  Ammon,  which  he  takes 
for  the  shell  of  the  nautilus ;  no  wide  mistake,  since  these  fossils,  or,  as  we  now 
call  them,  ammonites,  a  species  wholly  lost,  were,  in  fact,  cepbalopods  mollusks, 
closely  allied  to  the  nautilus ;  in  the  fourth  he  treats  of  adders*  eyes  and  toad- 
stones,  which,  notwithstanding  their  absurd  names,  he  rightly  recognizes  for  the 
teeth  of  certain  fishes,  and  in  one  case,  with  rare  precision,  for  the  teeth  of  the 
pogonias;  and  in  the  fifth  he  discusses  certain  fossil  bones,  which  he  properly 
refers  to  the  hippopotamus ;  thus,  in  the  early  years  of  the  last  century,  presentiug 
some  curious  attempts,  to  which  their  date  at  least  gives  an  interest,  in  fields 
of  inquiry  which  have  most  largely  occupied  the  science  of  modern  times.  I 
find  the  same  sagacity,  and,  if  I  may  so  term  it,  precocious  curiosity  in  another 
memoir,  which  has  remained  unpublished,  and  which  is  entitled  ^*0n  the  necessity 
of  a  new  arrangement  of  plants  in  reference  to  the  foreign  ones  recently 
discovered,*'  The  author,  in  the  first  place,  earnestly  deprecates  any  intention  of 
interfering  with  the  method  of  Toumefort.  **  At  the  proposal,"  he  says,  "  of  a 
new  arrangement  of  plants,  there  is  perhaps  no  one  who  will  not  suppose 
that  some  innovation  is  contemplated  in  the  method  invented  by  M.  de  Tourne- 
fort,  and  that  it  is  on  the  ruins  of  the  work  of  that  illustrious  academician  that 
changes  of  importance  are  to  be  introduced,  under  pretext  of  rendering  more 
ea?y  the  study  of  botany ;  but  we  are  very  far  indeed  from  wishing  to  interfero 
with  an  arrangement  of  classes  and  genera  so  happily  conceived,  and  which  has 
united  the  suflVages  of  men  the  most  expert  in  this  science.  The  aim,  on  the  con- 
trary, is  only  to  give  to  that  method  a  new  degree  of  perfection  resulting  from 


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THE  JUSSIEUS  AND  THE  NATURAL  METHOD.       251 

the  obeervationa  made  by  sundry  botanists  during  the  lapae  of  nearly  fifty 
years  in  different  foreign  countries ;  observations  which  can  only  be  rendered  of 
advantage  to  botany  by  referring  them  to  the  place  which  they  would  naturally 
occupy,  and  which  M.  Toumefort  would  not  have  failed  to  assign  them,  had  he 
Kved  till  this  day." 

The  modification,  or,  to  use  his  own  phrase,  the  new  perfection,  which  Antoine 
proposes  to  introduce  into  the  method  of  Toumefort,  does  not  in  effect  intrench 
upon  the  spirit,  the  essence  of  that  method.  It  proposes,  as  he  explains,  only 
to  add  certain  new  classes  or  sections  in  order  conveniently  to  admit  the  plants 
recently  discovered  in  foreign  countries ;  but  he  has  done  more  than  he  proposed ; 
for  a  question  of  pijre  method,  he  substitutes  another  wholly  different  and  new, 
which  as  yet  had  no  name,  and  which  we  now  call  a  question  of  botanical 
geography.  He  establishes  these  three  points :  first,  that  our  continent  has  a 
multitude  of  plants  which  are  peculiar  to  it  and  which  are  not  found  in  the  new, 
and  that  the  new,  in  turn,  has  a  multitude  of  others  which  are  not  found  in  the  old ; 
secondly,  that  the  greater  part  of  the  plants  which  occur  with  us  arrange  them- 
sdves  in  classes  into  which  but  few  foreign  ones  enter,  and  conversely ;  and 
tiiirdly,  that  in  the  two  continents  there  are  a  certain  number  of  plants  which 
pertain  to  both,  and  arrange  themselves  under  common  classes.  These  three 
propositions  are  strictly  correct ;  and  to  appreciate  their  merit,  it  is  enough  to 
remember  that  at  the  moment  when  Antoine  wrote,  the  able  dissertation  of  Buffon 
on  the  distinction  between  the  animals  of  the  two  continents  did  not  yet  exist.* 

Strictly  speaking,  Antoine  never  occupied  himself  with  method.  We  see  this 
in  the  care  with  which  he  deprecates  an  intention  of  interfering  with  that  of 
Toumefort ;  still  more  clearly  from  his  Discours  sur  let  progrU  de  la  botanique, 
and  more  than  all  from  the  Introduction  a  la  connaissance  des  plantes.  He  says, 
in  the  IHscours,  with  reference  to  Fagon,  who  had  called  Toumefort  to  the  Jardin 
Royal :  **  For  what  advances  is  not  botany  indebted  to  him  in  the  choice  of  the 
most  excellent  person  who  had  yet  appeared,  since  he  was  skilful  enough  to 
fix  the  principles  of  a  science  which  till  then  had  floated  in  uncertainty  ?  '* 
And  in  the  Introduction^  *^  the  most  perfect  of  methods  being  necessarily  that 
of  which  the  rules  are  the  most  simple  and  invariable,  there  is  none  more  distin- 
guished by  these  characters  than  that  which  teaches  us  to  know  plants  by  their 
flowers  and  their  fraits."  Now,  the  method  which  teaches  us  to  know  plants 
bj  their  Jlowers  and  Jruiis  is  that  of  Toumefort ;  and  the  whole  Introduction  of 
Antoine  de  Jussieu  is  little  more  than  a  summary  exposition  of  that  method. 
Nevertheless,  thanks  to  Vaillant,t  he  had  already  formed  more  just  ideas 
respecting  the  flowers,  particularly  the  stamens,  which  Toumefort  only  regarded 
as  excretory  vessels.  **  We  understand,"  says  Antoine,  "  by  flowers  that  combina- 
tion of  parts  called  stamens  and  pistils,  serving  for  their  multiplication." 

A  passage  in  his  Discours  paints,  in  an  artless  manner,  the  pleasure  which  the 
Jardin  Royal  yields  to  those  who  frequent  it  in  the  pursuit  of  science :  "  How 
great  the  satisfaction  of  beine  able,  within  so  limited  a  space,  to  see  at  onco 
whatever,  iu  both  the  Old  and  New  World,  is  most  curious  in  the  domain  of  vege- 
table nature  ;  to  be  able  in  an  instant  to  compare  the  imperfect  state  of  botany 
among  the  ancients  with  that  which  we  witness  to-day ;  to  have  facilities  for 
recognizing  on  the  spot  so  many  plants  which  it  has  been  necessary  to  seek 
beyond  seas  and  upon  mountain  ranges ;  without  trouble  to  reap  the  benefit  of  dis- 
coveries which  have  cost  so  much  suffering  and  toil  to  explorers,  and  to  have  it 
in  our  power  to  discriminate  at  a  glance,  and  in  the  same  parterre,  so  much  of 
what  constitutes  the  separate  riches  of  each  nation." 

*  Antoine  died  in  ]758,  and  the  yolame  of  Buffon  on  the  distinct  animals  of  the  two  con- 
tinents appeared  in  1771. 

t  It  is  proper  to  recall  that  six  years  before  the  celebrated  Discours  of  Vaillant,  a  memoir 
hsd  l>eeD  published  by  Claude  Joseph  Geoffrey,  of  the  French  Academy,  on  the  Structure  and 
,tueof  the  principal  parts  of  flowers,  in  which  the  sexnal  organs  of  plants  are  demonstrated. 


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252  THE   JUSSIEUS  AND  THE  NATURAL  METHOD. 

It  was  Antoine  de  Jossieu  wbo,  ia  1720,  coneigned  to  the  Ghevalkr  Dcs- 
dieux,  midshipman,  that  famous  coffee  plant  which,  transported  from  our  con* 
servatories  to  Martinique,  has  produced  all  which  have  been  since  reared  there. 
The  plant  deserved  an  historian:  *'  Europe/'  says  Antoine,  *'is  indebted  for  the 
culture  of  this  shrub  to  the  care  of  the  Dutch,  who  brought  it  from  Moka  to 
Batavia,  and  from  Batavia  to  the  garden  of  Amsterdam,  whence  an  offset  was 
conveyed  to  Marly,  presented  to  the  King,  and  then  sent  to  Paris  to  the  gardea 
of  his  Majesty,  where  we  have  seen  it  yield  in  succession  flowers  and  fruit"* 

I  proceed,  lastly,  to  notice  a  memoir  by  Antoine  of  a  wholly  different  kind  from 
those  which  precede,  and  in  which,  by  a  fortunate  and  brief  excursion  beyond 
the  domain  of  strict  science,  he  retraces  for  us  historically  the  origin  of  the 
collection  of  vellums  belonging  to  the  Jardin  des  Piantes.  The  memoir  is  enti- 
tled :  "  A  history  of  the  facts  which  have  occasioned  and  perfected  the  assemblage 
of  paintings  of  plants  and  animals  on  sheets  of  vellum^  preserved  in  the  Bibli- 

otheque  du  Roi^ 

•  ••••••• 

This  inestimable  collection,  begun  in  1650  by  Gaston  of  Orleans,  and  continued 
by  Louis  XIV,  Louis  XV,  and  Louis  XVI,  was  at  the  latter  date  composed  of 
sixty-four  volumes  or  portfolios.  At  this  day  it  comprises  nearly  a  hundred* 
and  it  should  be  added  that  its  scope  has  been  greatly  extended.  No  longer  con- 
fine 1  to  plants  and  a  few  birds,  it  embraces  all  the  classes  of  the  animal  kingdom ; 
to  zoology  it  has  added  comparative  anatomy  and  physiology  ;  and  to  the  two 
living  kingdoms,  the  inorganic :  geology,  mineralogy,  and  crystallography. 

It  has  been  seen  how  active  was  the  life  of  Antoine  de  Jussieu,  and  how 
varied  were  the  subjects  with  which  he  was  occupied.  Unprovided  with  fortune* 
he  had  been  ob'iged  to  devote  nearly  all  his  time  to  the  practice  of  medicine* 
iu  which  he  attained  great  eminence.  Had  he  been  enablea  to  place  his  active 
intelligence  and  urdent  curiosity  wholly  at  the  service  of  science,  much  might 
have  been  expected  from  him.  But  while  the  labors  which  I  have  recited  suffice 
for  the  illustration  of  his  name,  his  best  title  to  acknowledgment  wlll4>e  always  that 
of  having  introduced  into  botany  his  brother  Bernard,  who  for  forty  years  was  the 
companion  of  his  life.  "  They  journeyed  and  studied  together",  says  their 
nephew,  M.  Adrien  de  Jussieu,  and  the  younger  profited  by  the  situation  of  hia 
brother  to  give  himself  wholly  to  natural  science.  Both  being  unmarried,  they 
lived  together  in  fraternal  union,  which  on  the  part  of  Bernard  might  have  been 
characterized  as  truly  filial.  The  disposition  of  which  they  thus  set  the  exam- 
ple, remarkable  in  itself,  seemed  innate  in  this  family ;  paternal  protection  on  the 
part  of  the  elder ;  tenderness,  respect,  and  confidence  on  the  part  of  the  younger; 
community  of  principles,  of  sentiments,  often  of  studies,  almost  always  of  goods ; 
a  union  of  interests  and  affection  rarely  paralleled,  at  least  in  modem  times. 
In  a  like  spirit  Joseph,  the  youngest,!  came  at  a  later  period  to  join  his  two 
brothers,  for  whom  he  preserved  the  same  deference,  the  same  devotion." 

•  •••••••• 

*  Histoiredu  cafi^  (Memoires  de  VAead.  des  ScieneeSt  1713,  page  292,  edition  1716.)  The 
following,  from  this  memoir,  is  a  new  proof  of  what  I  have  remarked  elsewhere,  toacbing 
the  law  imposed  upon  our  Academy,  from  its  origin,  of  asserting  nothing  except  on  the  direct 
obeertaiiom  of  nature:  **  Ab  the  authoritj  of  authors  who  have  not  seen  the  objects  is  not 
decisive  in  point  of  natural  history,  and  our  Academy  can  only  establish  its  progress  on  a 
scrupulous  examination  of  nature  itself,  on  verified  facts  and  exact  experiments,  we  may 
regard  as  imperfect  the  descriptions  of  the  coffee  plant  which  have  appeared  heretofore,  since 
we  have  been  enabled  to  make  one  from  the  tree  itself  now  in  the  royal  garden." 

t  This  brother  was  also  a  botanist  of  distinction,  and  accompanied,  iu  that  capacity,  the 
scientific  comminsion  sent  by  the  Academy  to  Peru  to  measure  a  degree  of  the  meridian  at 
the  equator.  *^  His  curiosity,'*  says  M.  Flourens,  **  held  him  capuve  for  many  years  in 
those  regions  so  rich  and  unexplored,  where  he  often  joined  the  labors  of  the  engineer  with 
those  of  the  botanist.  To  him  Europe  owes  several  new  plants,  the  heliotrope,  eierge  dm 
Perou,  &c.,  with  many  curious  and  then  unknown  species.  Condorcet  remarks  that,  by  a 
singular  chance,  he  was  an  academician  lor  thirty-six  years,  without  having  ever  appeared  at 
the  Academy." 


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THE  JUSSIEUS  AND  THE  NATUBAL  METHOD.  253 

BERNARD  DB  JUSSIEU. 

§  1. — His  youth. 

This  first  founder  of  tbe  natural  method,  whose  name  is  so  well  known,  whose 
personal  history  so  little,  was  bom  at  Lyon,  17th  August  1699.  His  youth 
seems  to  have  passed  without  indications  denoting  any  special  taste  or  aptitude, 
much  less  superiority.  Having  pursued  his  early  duties  at  the  Jesuits'  college 
in  Lyon,  and  completed  that  of  rhetoric,  his  brother  Antoine  invited  him  to  Paris, 
in  1714,  that  he  might  there  finish  his  course  of  philosophy. 

To  be  lefl  to  meditate  in  tranquillity  was  then  the  whole  ambition  of  the 
young  philosopher.  But  Antoine  having,  in  1716,  projected  a  visit  to  the  south- 
em  provinces  of  France,  and  thence  to  Spain  and  Portugal,  took  Bernard  with 
him  as  a  comp»tnion.  It  was  during  this*  excursion,  and  especially  during  his 
exploration  of  the  Lyonnais  and  Saint  Ghaumont,  that  Antoine  made  his  valua- 
ble observations  on  natural  history.  "  His  young  brother,"  as  their  nephew 
Laurent  tells  us,  "  was  then  acquainted  with  but  few  plants,  and  had  no  decided 
taste  for  botany ;  the  plants  which  he  met  with  were  examined,  however,  with  so 
much  attention  that  he  never  forgot  them ;  and,  at  a  greatly  advanced  age,  still 
perfectly  recollected  the  places  where  he  had  gathered  them." 

In  1722  Antoine  procured  him  the  appointment  of  sub-demonstrator  to  the 
chair  of  botany  at  the  Jardin  Royal,  and  unequal  as  the  position  might  appear 
to  his  merit  and  subsequent  reputation,  he  could  never  be  prevailed  upon  to 
relinquish  it ;  nor,  with  the  exception  of  two  short  trips  to  England,  did  he  again 
quit  the  environs  of  Paris.  * 

In  the  mean  time  he  had  become  a  licentiate  in  medicine,  in  1724,  and  in  1726, 
at  the  instance  of  Antoine,  was  enrolled  as  doctor  in  the  medical  faculty  of  Paris. 

**The  functions  of  Bernard  at  the  Jardin  Royal  *^  as  Laurent  informs  us, 
'* consisted  in  directing  the  cultivation  of  plants,  and  in  conductiug  in  the  country 
the  herborizations  of  pupils  who  attended  the  courses.  He  also  superintended  the 
gardenertf,  and  woula  relinquish  to  none  the  gathering  of  seeds,  &c.  Nor  can 
we  omit  to  notice  his  unalterable  patience  in  £c  study  of  plants  which  he  sedu- 
lously watched  under  all  the  forms  they  assume  at  the  different  stages  of  their 
growth."  Touraefort  had  published,  in  1698,  a  •*  History  of  the  Plants  in  the 
Environs  of  Paris,"  and  this  work  being  out  of  print,  Bemard  gave,  in  1725,  a 
new  edition,  enriched  with  notes.  The  first  of  August,  of  the  same  year,  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  admitted  him  to  membership. 

I  have  already  said  that  the  two  brothers  lived  together,  and  were  unmarried. 
In  this  intimate  union  Bemard  was  indefatigable  in  the  use  of  means  for  sec- 
onding Antoine.  He  foresaw  and  prepared  everything  for  his  lectures.  When 
the  care  of  the  sick  necessitated  the  absence  of  Antoine,  on  Bernard  devolved 
the  reception  of  their  commoi)  friends,  and  however  retiring  his  nature,  he  dis- 
charged this  duty  in  such  a  manner  that  the  fraternal  mansion  became  the  centre 
of  a  cheerful,  as  well  as  learned,  society,  where  everything  new  in  botany  and 
natural  history  was  unaffectedly  discussed. 

§  2. — Correspondence  of  Bemard  de  Juisieu  and  Linnaus. 
From  the  mutual  letters  of  Bernard  de  Jussieu  and  LinnsBUst  we  are  enabled 
to  form  an  idea  of  the  singular  contrast  which  existed  between  the  two,  united, 

*  Laurent  remembered  having  heard  him  relate  that  on  one  of  those  occasions  ho  brought 
back  with  him  from  London,  in  his  hat,  a  pot  containinfif  two  plants  of  the  cedar  of  Lebanon, 
which  had  not,  as  yet,  been  seen  in  France.  One  of  these  two  cedars  forms,  at  this 
day,  a  distingnished  ornament  of  our  Jardin  de$  Piantes, 

t  EpUtoltB  Caroli  a  Linni  md  Bemardum  de  JmBsieuinediUE,  et  mutua  Bemardi  ad  Linnctum  : 
ewanu  Adriano  de  Jusiieu.  (Exadis  Acad,  Art.  et,  Scitnt,  Americ,,  t.  v.,  ser.  nov.  Canta- 
brigise.  Nor.  Ang.,  J854.)  Most  of  the  Lettres  of  Bemard  had  been  published  by  Smith,  but 
translated  into  English.    M.  Adrien  de  Jussieu  has  f^ven  them  in  latin,  the  lanp^ge  in 

which  tbey  were  written,  and  interspersed  them  with  those  of  Ldnneus,  C^OOoIp 

Jigi  ize      y  g 


254       THE  JUSSIEUS  AND  THE  NATURAL  METHOD. 

aa  they  were,  by  a  passion  for  study,  and  the  same  study  ;  the  one  all  enthu- 
siasm and  unreserve,  of  an  activity  incapable  of  restraint ;  the  other  always  self- 
collected  and  calm,  of  an  inertia  almost  insuperable.  •*  These  two  celebrated 
men,"  says  Vicq  d'Azyr,  *'  of  whom  each  was  the  only  rival  whom  the  other 
could  fear,  were  asssociated  in  many  herborizations.  The  impatience  of  M.  Lin- 
nseus,  who  never  asserted  anything  without  warmth,  opposed  to  the  simplicity 
and  composure  of  M.  Bernard  de  Jussieu,  who  looked  on  every  phase  of  nature 
with  a  regard  of  equal  satisfaction,  could  not  fail  to  present  a  very  surprising 
contrast."  (Elogc  de  Linne.)  This  contrast  is  manifest  even  in  the  numerical 
proportion  of  the  letters.  Of  the  twenty-eight  of  which  the  corredpondence  con- 
sists, one  is  from  Antoine,  nine  from  Bernard,  and  all  the  rest  from  Linnaeus. 
From  his  irrepressible  inclination  to  learn  from  every  one,  as  well  as  to  communi- 
cate information  to  others,  Linnseus  had  the  pen  constantly  in  hand.  '*  Assu- 
redly," he  says  to  the  Abb^  Duvernoy,  "  if  I  had  ten  hands  they  would  scarcely 
suffice  to  answer  all  the  letters  I  receive ;  and  if  you  were  to  see  me  at  this  work 
you  would  think  that  1  did  nothing  but  write  and  wasted  therein  both  money 
and  time."  **  If  I  had  as  many  hands,"  he  writes  to  Jacquin,  *'  as  the  famous 
Chinese  idol,  I  would  still  not  have  enough  for  all  the  answers  I  have  to  give. 
It  is  certain  that  I  alone  write  more  letters  every  year  than  all  the  other  profes- 
sors of  the  university  together."  Accordingly,  while  we  have  several  volumes 
of  the  correspondence  of  Linnaeus,  as  regards  Bernard  there  can  be  no  question 
except  of  single  and  scanty  letters.  It  had  required  all  the  heat  of  Linnaeus 
to  melt  the  ice  of  Bernard,  but  this  communicated  heat  could  not  subsist.  Of 
the  last  twelve  letters  of  the  collection  there  is  but  one  from  Bernard.  Linnssus 
grew  weary,  at  last,  of  so  inert  a  correspondent,  and  directed  his  epistolary 
ardor  to  other  quarters. 

The  correspondence  commences  in  1736,  and  terminates  in  1763,  thus  em- 
bracing a  period  of  twenty-seven  years.  It  opens  with  a  letter  from  Antoine  de 
Jussieu  to  Linnseus,  but  evidently  only  an  answer,  for  Antoine  mentions  therein 
the  **  Flora  of  Lapland "  as  a  work  Linnaeus  had  promised  to  transmit,  and 
**  which  is  eagerly  expected  in  Paris  on  account  of  the  early  departure  of  our 
academicians  for  those  frozen  regions."  It  was,  in  effect,  at  this  time  that,  with 
a  view  to  a  more  precise  measurement  of  the  figure  of  the  earth,  Bouguer,  Godin, 
and  La  Condamine  were  proceeding  to  Peru,  and  Glairaut,  Camus,  Lemonnier. 
and  Maupertius  to  Lapland. 
•  ••«••«• 

The  second  letter  is  from  Linnseus  to  Bernard.  He  had  learned  that  An- 
toine had  devoted  himself  with  great  succes  to  the  practice  of  medicine,  and 
is  unwilling  to  trespass  upon  time  so  usefully  employed.  He  therefore  addresses 
himself  to  Bernard,  as  being  more  at  leisure,  and  consequently  more  disposed  to 
write.  (How  little  did  he  know  of  Bernard.)  Linnaeus  sends  him  his  **Cnfica 
Botanica,**  and  solicits  his  opinion  on  it :  "  I  send  you,"  he  says,  "  my  Critical 
a  work  written  in  a  crude  and  uncouth  style.  I  have  been  constrained  to  pab- 
lish  it  almost  without  devoting  to  it  a  single  moment,  my  whole  time  being  oc- 
cupied by  my  Hortus  Cliffortianus,  which  I  propose  to  publish  towards  the  end 
of  the  year."  Bernard  replies  :  **  I  have  received  your  two  letters,  and  your 
Critica  Botanica**  nor  is  there  a  word  more  respecting  a  book,  which,  by  re- 
forming the  entire  nomenclature  of  botany,  substituted  Linnseus  for  all  other 
terminologists,  and  naturally  aroused  the  jealous  susceptibilities  of  all  scientific 
cotemporaries.  The  fourth  letter  of  the  collection  is  again  from  Linnaeus,  and 
in  this  he  announces  himself  as  about  to  depart  for  Paris,  where  he  amved  soon 
after,  {xn  1738.) 

Linnaeus  was  then  aged  thirty-one.  having  been  bom  in  1707,  the  same  year 
with  Buffon,  and,  for  three  years,  had  been  travelling  in  quest,  if  I  may  say  so, 
of  scientific  adventures,  having  left  home  with  a  few  crowns  in  his  pocket,  a  pas- 
sion for  knowledge,  and  hope.  From  Sweden  he  had  gone  into  Holland,  first 
to  Amsterdami  then  to  Ley  den,  and  finall'  ^^p.    His  resources  bo- 

Diqmzet 


THE  JC88IEUS  AND  THE  NATURAL  METHOD.       255 

comiDg  exhausted,  Hartecainp  opened  for  him  new  ones  ;  he  there  found  in  Greorge 
Ciiffort,  celebrated  for  his  taste  for  natural  history,  a  generous  friend.  It  was  in 
the  cabinet,  the  girden,  the  library  of  Cliffort,  that  he  wrote  the  following  ad- 
mirable works :  The  System  Natures,  the  Fundamcnla  Botanica,  the  Btdliotheca 
BotanicUt  the  Genera  Plantarum,  the  Classes  Plantarum,  &c.,  and  that  other 
book,  by  no  means  to  be  forgotten,  the  Hortms  Cliffortianus,  a  touching  testimonial 
of  the  gratitude  of  a  man  of  genius  towards  one  of  worth.  In  1736  Linnasus  made 
a  short  excursion  into  England,  and  two  years  afterwards  passed  into  France. 
At  the  time  of  his  arrival,  Toumefort  and  Vaillant  were  no  more,  and  the 
two  Jussieus  held  the  sceptre  of  botany.  He  presented  himself  to  Antoine, 
with  a  letter  from  Van  Royen,  a  learned  professor  of  Leyden,  who  said  of  him : 
**The  bearer  is  Charles  Linnaeus,  whom  I  would  cheerfully  name  ihe  prince  of 
botany,  if  I  acknowledged  one." 

•  ••  •  •  •  •  • 

The  Jussieus  received  Linnaeus  as  Van  Royen  had  hoped  they  would ;  and 
during  the  month  he  remained  at  Paris  he  was  constantly  with  them,  especially 
with  Bernard,  who  placed  himself  unreservedly  at  his  disposal.  In  announcing 
his  projected  visit,  in  the  fourth  letter,  Linnaeus  had  given  the  most  lively  and 
inpcenuous  expression  to  his  hopes :  "  Happy  shall  I  be  if  you  grant  me  your  friend- 
ship ;  if  I  shall  be  allowed  to  see  your  plants  and  those  of  Tournefort ;  if,  through 
you,  I  can  make  some  progress  in  a  study  for  which  an  ardent  thirst  consumes  me. 
tiiiherto  I  have  received  the  kindness  of  all  the  botanists  I  have  met  with,  and  I 
trust  that  you  will  not  be  more  difficult."  These  hopes  were  not  disappointed.  To 
form  an  idea  of  the  cordial  union  then  cemented  between  these  two  individuals,  it  is 
only  necessary  to  pass  from  the  letter,  in  which  Linnaeus  announces  his  departing 
for  Paris,  to  that  which  communicates  his  return  to  Stockholm — from  the  letter  of 
hope  to  the  letter  of  acknowledgment :  ''I  live  in  the  recollection  of  your  kind- 
nesses, of  your  house,  your  table  so  liberally  offered  to  me,  your  days  which  were 
all  at  my  disposal,  your  garden,  your  herbariums,  to  which  I  had  unrestricted  access. 
I  returned  in  safety  to  my  own  country,  and  fixed  my  residence  at  Stockholm,  at 
first  unknown  to  almost  every  one ;  soon  afterwards  I  entered  upon  the  practice  of 
medicine,  and  with  success ;  I  have  been  recently  appointed  physician  in  ordinanr 
to  the  marine ;  lastly,  I  have  taken  a  wife,  a  friend  long  and  ardently  coveted,  ana, 
if  I  may  sav  so  between  ourselves,  sufficiently  rich,  so  that  I  am  leading  at  present 

a  contentea  and  tranquil  life." 

•  ••••••• 

Proceeding  with  the  correspondence,  I  pass  by  a  letter  of  Linnaeus  which 
mentions  nothing  new  but  the  foundation  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences  of 
Stockholm,  in  1739,  and  arrive  at  a  letter  of  Bernard;  this  time*  a  real  letter, 
for  the  former  was  but  a  note  :  "  I  discovered,"  he  says  to  Linnaeus,  "  during  last 
Bummer  the  flowers  and  entire  fructification  of  the  Pilularia,  and  have  published 
a  memoir  upon  it  in  the  acts  of  our  Academy.  This  year  I  shall  add  a  history 
of  the  Lctnma  of  Theophrastus,  a  plant  allied  to  the  Piltdaria,  but  differing  from 
it  sufficiently  to  form  a  distinct  species."  • 

In  the  memoir  on  the  Pilularia,*  I  remark  a  passage  which  could  scarcely 

*  Beraard  caD,  in  strictness,  be  scarcely  regarded  as  a  writer.  At  most,  be  has  left  in  the  vol- 
nmes  of  our  Academy  but  three  ver^  short  memoirs  on  botany,  one  on  the  Lemmas  another  on 
tbe  I'ilttlaria,  a  third  on  the  f^^nfatn,  bcsidesazoolog^calmemoir,  not  of  greater  length,  on  the 
polypes.    The  following  brief  analysis  of  the  three  botanical  memoirs  is  presented  by  Laarent : 

'*The  first  memoir  (1739)  gives  a  description  of  the  PUnlaria,  a  plant  before  but  little 
known.  Ho  shows  therein  the  sexual  organs,  which  had  not  then  been  discovered,  and  proves, 
by  their  analogy  with  those  of  the  ferns,  that  it  is  of  the  same  family.  The  stamens  especi- 
ally arc  described  with  care,  as  well  as  the  form  of  their  pollen,  and  the  phenomena  which 
they  present  in  the  water,  seen  with  the  microscope.  He  compares  them  with  those  he  had  * 
observed  in  the  poUcu  of  other  plants  submitted  to  the  same  examination.  Placed  on  water, 
be  says,  they  presently  eject,  by  a  small  rent  tohick  takes  place  tit  a  point  of  their  capsule,  a  jet 
of  liquid  or  oily  matter,  which  remains  in  the  water  without  mixing  with  it,  and  in  small  globules 
of  extreme  tenuity.     These  grains  of  pollen,  swelling  in  the  fluvi  like  small  vesicles,  hate  an 


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256       THE  JU8SIEUS  AND  THE  NATURAL  METHOD. 

bave  been  written  at  tbat  time  by  any  otber  tban  the  destined  founder  of  the 
natural  method :  '*  My  object/'  he  saye,  "  is  not  to  demonstrate  in  Uiis  place  the 
preference  of  one  method  over  another ;  I  only  propose  in  the  present  memoir 
to  compose  the  history  of  a  singular  plant  of  the  environs  of  Paris,  and.  if  I  have 
joined  with  this  history,  by  way  of  digression,  some  observations  which  might 
seem  foreign  to  it,  it  is  because  I  have  thought  them  necessary  for  the  perfect- 
ing of  the  method.  "  ••  The  character  of  a  plant,"  he  continues,'  "  is  what  distin- 
guishes it  from  all  those  which  bear  some  relation  to  it ;  and  this  character,  by 
the  established  laws  of  botany,  should  be  formed  from  an  examination  of  the 

garts  which  compose  the  flower.  We  call  that  an  incomplete  character^  or  with 
[.  Linnaeus  an  artificial  character^  in  which  are  described  only  some  parts  of 
the  plant,  while  silence  is  observed  respecting  other  par^«  which,  accoraing  to 
the  method  one  follows,  are  assumed  to  be  unessential ;  whereas  we  understand 
by  the  natural  character^  that  in  which  all  the  parts  of  the  flower  are  designated, 
and  their  number ^  their ^^icr^,  and  their  proportion  are  considered." 

This  beinjg  premised,  Bernard  proceeds  to  inquire  to  what  place  in  the  botani* 
cal  fleld  the  plant  which  he  is  studying  should  be  assigned,  following  first  the 
method  of  Tournefort,  and  then  that  of  Linnseus,  and  he  very  correctly  decides 
that  the  generic  cJiaracten  proposed  by  Linnaeus  are  better  than  those  of  Tourne- 
fort. "This  character,"  he  says,  (that,  namely,  derived  from  the  method  of 
Tournefort,)  '*  is  incomplete,  for  it  does  not  express  all  that  is  necessary  to  be 
remarked  in  the  flower  of  the  Pdularia,  and  it  is  not  possible,  from  &uch  a 
character,  to  give  to  this  plant  a  place  which  will  suit  it  in  the  classes  of  several 
botanical  methods.  The  mode  in  which  M.  Linnseus  establishes  the  natural 
character  of  plants,  in  his  book  entitled  Genera  P/antarum,  does  afford  this 
advantage ;  it  is  more  exact,  and  appears  to  me  to  deserve  some  preference*'^ 
From  those  last  words  we  feel  that  Bernard  already  has  a  glimpse  of  something 
preferable  to  the  process  of  Linnaeus  ;t  and,  in  efiect,  when  he  shall  have  suf- 
ficiently matured  his  ideas,  he  will  not  stop,  as  he  does  here,  with  considering 
together  and  on  the  same  footing  all  the  circumstances — number,  situation, 
^ure,  proportion;  he  will  see  that  they  have  not  all  the  same  signification,  the 
same  constancy,  the  same  weight,  and  he  will  found  the  natural  method  on  the 
decisive  principle  of  the  relative  importance  of  the  characters. 

Quitting  the  memoir,  I  return  to  the  letters  and  find  there,  at  nearly  every 
step,  proofs  of  the  profound  attention  with  which  Bernard  applied  his  mind, 
from  this  time,  to   the  search  for  the  natural  met/tod,    Linnseus  makes  an 

jUviost  svontaneous  movement,  or  movement  of  attraction,  and  after  the  rent  or  expulsion  of  the 
liquid,  they  remain  flaccid  and  at  rest.^^ 

*'  In  1740,  M.  de  Ju:$8iea  presented  a  memoir  on  the  Lemma,  a  plant  known  to  the  ancients, 
but  in  which  flowers  had  never  been  observed.  He  showed  that  tho  small  bodies  bituated  at 
the  base,  and  similar,  in  some  respects,  to  those  of  tho  Pilularia^  contain  stamens  and  pistils. 
He  describes  both  with  the  same  exactness,  observes  the  same  phenomena  in  the  pollen  of 
the  stamens,  and  draws  the  same  consequences,  assigning  the  Lemma  to  the  family  of 
ferns,  in  proximity  to  the  Pilularia" 

^'  The  memoir  presented  in  1742  on  a  species  of  plantain  which  has  but  one  flower  at  the 
extremity  of  each  stajk,  is  also  very  •  interesting.  The  author  shows,  in  this  plant,  two 
characters  before  unknown :  the  one,  drawn  from  the  absence  of  the  pistil  in  this  apparent 
flower,  which  is  male;  the  other,  from  tho  existence  of  several  femalo  flowers,  hidden  in  tho 
axiilsB  of  the  leaves,  at  the  base  of  each  stalk  of  male  flowers." 

*'  In  order  to  omit  nothing  of  tho  little  written  by  Bernard,  we  cite,  in  the  last  place,  his 
memoir  of  1747,  on  the  effects  of  the  Eau  de  Luce  (a  mixture  of  volatile  alkali  and  oil  of  yellow 
amber)  against  the  bite  of  vipers*  *'  Having  made  repeated  proofs  of  it,*'  says  Laurent,  and 
being  well  convinced  of  the  efficacy  ot  this  substance,  he  always  carried  a  flask  of  it  with 
Liui  in  his  herborizations." — {Nofes  manuseritfs  sur  Bernard.) 

*  Mcmoires  de  V  Academic  des  Sciences,  17:^. 

t  Wc  feel  it  also  from  these  other  words:  *'  There  can  be  no  embarrassment  in  giving  to 
tho  Pilularia  in  tho  arrangement  of  plants,  a  place  which  will  suit  it,  from  its  manner  of 
vegetating.  A«,  in  the  natural  method,  the  monocotyledons  should  form  the  first  general 
division  of  plants,  we  will  place  it  there,  and,  if  there  is  any  class  into  which  it  can  euior,  it 
appears  to  me  to  be  that  of  the  ferns."    {Mem.  de  VAcad,  aes  Sc,  1739.) 


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THE  JUS8IEU6  AND  THE  NATURAL  METHOD.  257 

inqniiy  respectiDg  his  projected  publication  of  the  Plantes  of  Pluinier.*  In  replj 
Bernard  sajs :  **  The  Plantes  have  not  yet  appeared,  and  will  not  appear  berore 
I  have  encceeded  in  arranging  them  in  an  order  conformable  to  the  natural 
method,  or  at  least  approximating  to  that  method."  In  the  following  letter  he 
felicitates  Linnsns  on  his  nomination  to  the  chair  of  botany  at  Upsal.  *<  I  have 
received  this  news,"  he  says,  "with  great  joy,  for,  devoted  as  you  are  to  the  study 
of  plants,  your  new  position  will  give  you  new  means  of  ascertaining  that  natural 
method  which  is  the  hope  and  desire  of  all  botanists."  What  we  have  been 
reading  above  was  written  by  Bernard  from  1739  to  1742,  and  it  was  not  until 
nearly  twenty  years  later,  in  1759,  that  he  ventured  to  make,  in  the  garden  of 
Trianon,  the  first  experimental  trial  of  his  ideas. 

The  memoir  on  the  polypes  exhibits  Bernard  under  another  aspect ;  he  reveals 
to  us,  in  this  remarkable  study,  that  singular  sagacity  which  seemed  instinctively 
to  guide  him  to  the  truth  in  everything.!  Nothing  had  more  interested  the 
naturalists  of  the  XVIII  century,  and  nothing  was  better  calculated  to  do  so, 
than  the  experiments  of  Trembley  on  the  polype,  that  animal  which  is  repro- 
duced from  a  slip  like  a  plant  which  may  be  turned  inside  out  like  the  finger  of 
a  glove,  and  every  portion  of  which  when  cut  off  becomes  a  separate  and  entire 
animal.  Tbe  polypet  of  Trembley's  experiments  were  those  of  fresh  water ;  the 
polypes  of  Beniard  are  those  of  the  sea,  animals  not  less  surprising  than  the 
former,  having  equally  the  property  of  reproduction  from  a  slip,  like  plants ; 
composite,  multiple  ammals,  of  which  several  live  united  together  by  a  common 
trunk,  having  a  common  sensibility,  a  common  movement  and  even  a  common 
nutrition,  for  what  is  eaten  by  one  nourishes  and  suffices  for  all. 

These  animals  had  long  been  taken  for  plants ;  they  were  called  marinu plants  ; 
it  was  even  thought  that  the  flower  had  been  discovered,  and  the  author  of  the 
discovery t  Marsigli,  had  become  famous.  Peyssonnel  was  the  first  who,  in  the 
pretended  flower  of  the  cor  ah  had  the  sagacity  to  recognize,  in  1727,  a  real  animal, 
the  coralline  animal,  as  he  called  it,  the  polype  of  the  coral,  as  we  say  at  present; 
a  fact  which  then  appeared  so  strange  Aat  Reaumur,  charged  with  the  duty  of 
announcing  it  to  the  Academy,  did  not  venture  to  name  the  author.  '*  The  esteem," 
said  he  at  a  later  period,  "  which  I  felt  for  M.  Peyssonnel  made  me  avoid  naming 
him  as  the  author  of  an  opinion  which  could  not  fail  to  appear  incredible." 

Bernard  wrote  to  Linnseus :  '*  Ihave  made  some  excursions,  and,  last  autumn, 
traversed  the  coasts  of  Normandy,  where  I  discovered  thines  of  no  little  novelty, 
and  you  will  wonder,  some  day,  to  see  how  much  the  animal  kingdom  is  enriched." 
In  his  memoir  he  says :  "  The  diversity  of  opinions  on  the  nattire  of  the  marine 
plants,  so  far  from  satisfying  a  botanist,  has  seemed  to  me  only  the  more  capable 
of  stimulating  his  curiosity,  and  I  acknowledge  that  mine  has  been  excited  by 
the  desire  of  making  some  researches  on  this  subject."  He  repairs  therefore  to 
the  sea-coast,  repeats  the  observations  of  Peyssonnel,  finds  them  at  all  points 
exact,  and,  at  his  return  to  Paris,  hastens  to  announce  this  to  the  Academy. 
Thereupon  the  question  was  considered  to  be  decided,  and  a  whole  class  of  beings 

*  Since  Bernard's  time,  the  mnsenm  hfui  received  several  manuscripts  of  Plnmier,  and  in  a 
rather  singular  manner.  "  Plnmier  had  left  a  large  namber  of  manuscripts,  some  of  great 
Talne ,  but  bis  monastic  brethren,  among  whom  there  was  neither  botanist  nor  naturalist, 
held  them  in  vei^  little  estimation.  At  the  epoch  of  the  revolution,  when  the  conyents  were 
visited  and  the  libraries  of  the  monks  carried  off,  some  of  these  manuscripts  were  found  which 
bad  served  for  fire-screens.  M.  Laurent  de  Jutsieu  had  them  carried  to  the  Jardin  dm  Rai, 
and  deposited  in  the  library.     (Cnvier:  Learns  §mr  VUistoire  des  Sciences  Naturelles.) 

t  In  proof  of  this  *' singular  sagacity,"  we  are  told  that  **  Bernard  de  Jassieu's  scholars 
used  to  bring  him  flowers  which  they  had  mutilated  or  compounded  with  others,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  testing  his  knowledge,  and  he  always  recognized  them  immediately.  Some  of  tnem 
having  made  the  same  experiment  on  Linnaeus,  he  said,  *  Qod  or  your  teacher  (Jussieu)  can 
alone  answer  your  questions.*  '*  Cuvier,  in  a  biographical  memoir  on  Richard,  calls  Bernard 
'*  the  most  modest  and  perhaps  the  most  profound  botanist  of  the  eighteenth  century,  who, 
although  he  has  scarcely  published  anything,  is,  nevertheless,  the  inspiring  genius  of  modem 
botanists.*' — (Enejfc,  AmeTicana,y~TLR, 

17  867 

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258      THE  JUS8IEUS  AND  THE  NATURAL  METHOD. 

passed  from  one  kingdom  of  nature  into  another.  Reanmnr,  in  tnm,  regretting 
the  wrong  which  he  might  poBsiblj  have  done  to  Peystonnel  hy  his  silence,  gave 
utterance  to  these  generous  expressions :  "  The  attention  which  M.  Peyssonnel 
had  brought  to  his  observations  ought  to  have  convinced  me  sooner  that  these 
flowers,  with  which  M.  Marsigli  had  endowed  the  different  productions  judt 
spoken  of,  were  in  reality  minute  animals."* 

The  tenor  of  all  the  letters  written  by  Bernard  to  Linnaeus,  or  by  the  latter 
to  the  former,  is  the  communication  and  discussion  of  novelties  like  these. 
<* These  things,"  says  Bernard  ingenuously  to  Linnieus,  "constitute  your  delight 
and  mine :  Hoc  ra  sunt  tua,  sunt  me€B  delicieB.*'  At  one  time  it  is  Linnsus  who 
consults  Bernard  on  some  difficulty  with  which  he  is  occupied.  What  is  the 
Peloria,  that  species  of  metamorphosis  which  transforms  certain  flowers,  the 
flowers  of  the  Linaria,  for  example,  from  irregular  flowers,  as  they  usually  are, 
into  re^ar  ones  ?  Must  this  be  considered  a  monstrosity  ?  ''  That,"  replies 
Bernard,  "is  what  the  seeds  sown  cannot  fail  to  teach  us."  Nor  was  he  mis- 
taken ;  the  Peloria  is  reproduced  by  the  slip,  and  is  not  reproduced  by  the 
seeds.  Every  one  now  knows  with  now  new  a  light  the  admirable  theory  of 
M.  De  GandoUe  on  the  primal  symmetry  of  beings,t  has  elucidated  this 
phenomenon,  which,  on  examination,  has  been  found  much  more  general  than 
was  at  first  supposed*:  |  the  Peloria  is  the  primitive  and  regular  type  of  the 
irregular  flowers.  At  another  time,  it  is  Bernard  who  announces  to  LinnsBus 
some  new  miracle  of  science :  Sed  quid  moror  ?  Ecce  nova  panduntur  orhi 
litter ario  miracula.  It  chances,  however,  in  this  instance  to  be  a  false  miniele; 
the  matter  in  question  being  the  animalcules  which  Buffon  thought  he  had  dis- 
covered in  the  liquids  of  females,  and  which  do  not  exist  there.§ 

•  ••••••• 

For  another  trait  of  Linnseus,  we  may  cit«  the  friendly  warmth  with  which 
he  everywhere  speaks  of  Bernard ;  going  so  far  at  one  time  as  to  say  "  that  he 
loves  him  more  than  any  one  else,  with  the  single  exception  of  his  wife." 

♦  m  «4c  «  ♦  «  « 

The  true  key,  indeed,  to  everything  in  Linnaeus,  is  to  be  found  in  the  inexhaust- 
ible fund  of  his  geniality  and  goodness  of  heart.  Thus,  how  tonchingly  does  he 
speak  in  his  letters  of  his  pupils;  calling  Ealm,  Kalmus noster ;  Hasselquist, 
his  dearest  disciple.  We  cannot  wonder  at  the  affection  which  they  in  turn  all 
vowed  to  him.  They  might  be  said  to  have  constituted  a  body  of  apostles 
intent  on  carrying  his  doctrines  everywhere,  and  bringing  back  to  him  new 
subjects  of  study;  with  this  view,  ^alm  betook  himself  to  North  America, 
Forskal  to  Arabia,  Hasselquist  to  Egypt,  Toren  to  the  Indies,  Osbeck  to  China, 
Thunberg  to  Japan,  Sparrman  to  the  South  seas,  &c.  Through  his  disciples 
the  world,  in  some  sort,  pertained  to  him.  On  the  other  hand,  if  kindliness  is  the 
characteristic  of  LinnsBus,  modesty  is  the  quality  which  attracts  us  in  Bemard.|| 
Of  this  Linneeus  is  especially  sensible,  and  Bernard  is  the  only  botanist  against 
whom  the  former  has  not  launched  some  shaft  of  petulant  impatience.  Well, 
indeed,  might  he  be  considerate  of  that  signal  disinterestedness  and  silence  which 
left  him  the  secure  possession  of  a  supremacy  which  Bernard  alone  could  have 
disputed  with  him. 

*  Respecting  the  whole  history  of  the  coral  animal  see  the  analysis  of  the  manuscripts  of 
Peyssonnel,  which  I  inserted  in  the  Journal  des  Savants  for  1638. 

t  See  the  Memoir  of  De  Caudolle,  Smithsonian  Rep<>rt  for  1859. 

t  Linnseus  had  at  first  observed  it  only  in  the  Linaria  arvensis ;  it  has  been  observed  since 
in  several  other  plants  of  different  species. 

$  See,  in  the  notes  of  the  edition  which  I  have  given  of  Boffon's  works,  the  causes  of  this 
error. 

ll  Nothinf^,  his  nephew  Laurent  tells  us,  was  more  familiar  to  him  than  the  answer :  je  ne 
saispas  (I  do  not  know.)  Jean  Jaoqnes,  who  had  become  an  enthusiast  in  botany,  sent  to 
ask  of  him  what  method  he  should  follow.  **  None,"  replied  Bernard ;  **  let  him  study  plants 
in  the  order  in  which  nature  offers  them  to  him.  It  is  impossible  that  a  man  of  such  genius 
should  occupy  himself  with  botany  and  not  teach  us  something.'* 


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THE  JUSSIEUS  AND  THE  NATURAL  METHOD.      259 

The  last  letter  of  Linnseus  bears  the  date  of  March  1,  1763.  He  had  just 
been  named  one  of  the  eight  foreign  asBodates  of  our  Academj,  and  says :  "Of 
all  the  academic  titles  I  have  received,  none  has  flattered  me  so  much  as  thid, 
with  which  I  alone,  of  all  my  countrymen,  have  as  yet  been  invested."  On 
Bernard's  part  the  correspondence  had  stopped  ronch  sooner;  his  last  letter 
bears  the  date  of  1751 ;  a  subject  of  no  little  regret,  ibr  it  was  towards  this 
period  that  he  made,  at  Trianon,  the  first  trial  of  his  natural  orders.  He  would, 
without  doubt,  have  said  something  to  Linnaeus  on  the  subject,  and  however 
brief  his  communication,  it  would  now  be  of  much  interest 

§3. — 0»  Bernard  de  Ju$9ieu*s  mode  of  observing  in  botany. 

It  is  my  good  fortune,  due  to  the  kindness  of  Dr.  Tessereau,*  to  be  now  able 
to  add  to  the  memorials  already  considered  sixteen  letters  of  Bernard ;  a  number 
which,  after  what  has  been  said,  would  seem  almost  incredible.  Bat  the  explana- 
tion is  not  difficult :  between  Bernard  and  a  certain  M.  Artur,  a  member  of  the 
higher  council  of  Cayenne^  to  whom  the  letters  are  addressed,  there  runs, 
throughout  the  correspondence,  an  incessant  exchange  of  reciprocal  solicitations. 
Artur  constantly  urges  Bernard  to  procure  an  increase  of  his  appointment,  which 
seems  to  have  been  scanty,  and  Bernard,  as  ceaselessly,  presses  Artur  to  send  him 
plants  and  other  objects  of  natural  history.  In  an  early  part  of  the  correspond- 
ence Bernard,  under  date  of  December,  1736,  writes  as  follows :  "  Tou  know 
that  the  seeds  of  all  the  plants  of  the  colon  v  interest  us ;  I  hope  that }  on  will  be  good 
enough  to  collect  them  for  us,  as  time  and  opportunity  permit.  Pray  do  not  neg- 
lect to  send  us  roots  of  the  simarouba,  as  well  as  branches  charged  with  leaves 
and  dried  between  paper,  and  the  ripe  fruit  of  that  shrub ;  skilful  as  you  are  in 
drawing,  you  might  sketch  for  us  the  flower  it  bears ;  and  you  are  highly  com- 
petent to  give  its  description,  with  that  also  of  the  pareira  brava,  the  ipecacuanha, 
and  other  plants  recommended  by  their  virtues  in  medicine  or  use  in  the  arts." 

Apparently  Bernard's  estimate  of  Artur's  competency  must  have  undergone 
Bome  modification,  for  in  the  fifth  letter  he  takes  the  trouble  to  compose  for  his 
guidance  a  very  brief  and  yet  complete  treatise  of  elementary  botany,  taking  . 
care,  at  the  same  time,  to  spare,  as  iar  as  possible,  the  sensitiveness  of  his  cor- 
respondent. 

"  Exactness,  in  the  description  of  all  the  parts  which  constitute  flowers,  be- 
comes," he  says, "  more  and  more  necessary  for  the  perfection  of  the  method 
which  arranges  plants  in  classes,  and  distinguishes  essentially  each  species;  we 
should  not  adhere  solely  to  the  form  of  the  petals,  and  the  part  which,  in  the 
flower,  changes  into  fruit ;  it  is  necessarv  to  particularize  the  figure  of  the  calyx. 
its  composition,  the  different  figure  of  the  petals,  the  part  Siey  occupv,  their 
number,  their  division,  the  number  of  the  stamens  ;  whether  they  stand  alone 
and  distinct,  or  whether,  united  in  several  bodies  or  a  single  one,  they  spring 
from  the  sides  of  a  calyx  or  a  petal.  The  pistils  are  sometimes  single  and  some- 
times many  in  the  same  flower ;  and  there  are  three  parts  to  be  considered  in 
them,  the  lower,  which  is  the  ovary,  the  middle,  which  is  the  style,  and  the  upper 
and  last,  which  is  the  stigma." 

EveiTthing  in  this  little  treatise  is  worthy  of  remark,  for,  in  indicating  to  M. 
Artur  the  m^e  of  observing,  Bernard,  at  the  same  time,  indicates  the  scrupulous, 
attentive, and  complete  manner  (and  for  the  first  time  complete  in  botany)  prac- 
ticed by  himself.     I  think  it  proper,  therefore,  to  reproduce  the  whole  letter : 

"  These  parts  are  not  always  found  in  the  order  in  which  I  mark  them ;  in  that 
case,  great  attention  is  to  be  paid  in  observing  the  fact ;  these  parts,  too,  are  often 
multiple — that  is  to  say,  there  are  several  ovaries,  several  styles,  and  several 
stif^mas ;  again,  their  figure,  situation,  porportion,  vary,  and  all  this  requires  de- 
tails ;  finally,  the  ovary  becomes  the  fruit,  either  naked  or  enveloped,  simple  and 

*  An  eminent  physioj^n  and  author  of  a  valuable  treaties  on  hygiene. 

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260       THE  JU8SIEU8  AND  THE  NATURAL  METHOD. 

coDtaining  bat  one  seed,  or  composito  and  divided  into  different  locnlaments,  and 
the  eeeds  have  their  appropriate  form. 

*'  There  are,  besides  these  particulars,  bodies  which  are  met  with  in  the  flowers, 
either  on  the  petals,  or  simply  adherent  to  these  petals,  to  the  calices,  to  the  base  of 
the  embryons  of  the  ovaries,  where  they  appear  as  tubercles,  cornets,  ornamental 
leaves,  or  narrow  strips.  As  they  serve  to  secrete,  in  the  interior  of  the 
flowers,  a  juice  or  honeyed  liquid,  modem  botanists  have  given  them  the  name  of 
nectarium;  it  is  important  to  remark,  in  any  flowers,  whether  this  body  exists, 
what  part  it  occupies,  and  what  is  its  conformation  You  well  know  that  in 
plants  some  are  hearmaphrodites  ;  others  bear  only  flowers  with  stamens,  and  are 
males ;  others,  which  are  females,  have  only  pistils ;  there  are  some  which,  on 
the  same  stalk,  are  furnished,  at  different  places,  with  distinct  male  and  female 
flowers ;  we  see  what  it  is  proper  to  observe,  and  also  what  is  wanting  in  the  char- 
acters which  have  been  established  in  the  methods  we  possess  respecting  plants. 
If  you  have  time  to  labor  more  at  botany,  you  will  do  well  to  verify  all  that 
may  suggest  itself  to  you  in  reference  to  the  principles  I  have  above  indicated  ; 
you  wiU  not  only  find  in  the  occupation  a  source  of  pleasure,  but  will  be  enabled 
oy  your  researcnes  to  correct,  reform,  and  authenticate  more  particularly  what- 
ever information  is  attainable  respecting  the  plants  of  the  colony  of  Cayenne., 
In  adapting  your  phraseology  to  the  plants  which  you  shall  arrange  according 
to  species,  do  not  make  use  of  comparisons,  but  express,  in  few  words,  the  specific 
mark  which  you  perceive  in  a  species,  which  serves  to  distinguish  it  from  those 
you  already  know ;  if  you  know  but  one  of  the  species,  it  is  useless  to  bestow 
upon  it  other  phrases  than  the  name  it  bears  or  which  you  may  assign  it,  for  we 
should  not  distinguish  a  species  which  is  unique ;  this  would  be  to  distinguish 
the  known  from  the  unknown,  and  the  consequence  is  obvious.  I  write  in  haste, 
and  may  have  failed  to  explain  myself  clearly ;  have  the  goodness  to  supply 
what  is  wanting,  bv  omitting  no  circumstance  of  what  you  see  in  the  plants  yon 
wish  to  describe ;  be  on  your  guard  respecting  the  varieties  which  cultivation  or 
a  difference  of  soil  may  present ;  these  should  be  left  to  the  amateurs  of  flowers 
and  fruits.  Adieu,  my  dear  colleague."* 
•  •  •  •  ••  •  • 

§  4. — The  catalogue  of  Trianon. 

The  papers  which  contain  this  valuable  memorial,  the  first  foundation  of  the 
natural  method,  are  inscribed  with  this  title :  Order  established  by  M.  Bernard  de 
Jussieufor  the  plants  in  the  garden  of  Trianon^  in  1759;  with  a  notification  by 
Laurent,  importing  that  "  from  this  catalogue,  written  by  his  own  hand,  was 
copied  that  printed  in  the  Genera  Plantamm.**^ 

In  this  cattUogue  of  Trianon,  everything  is  reduced  to  a  list  of  names ;  but 
^hese  names  are  arranged  in  a  determinate  order,  and  that  happily-conceived 
order  has  been  found  to  contain  the  key  of  the  natural  method.  Linnaeus  also 
had,  before  Bernard,  given  in  his  Classes  pJantarum  (1738)  a  series  of  names, 
fragments,  as  he  expresses  it,  of  the  natural  method — Fragmenta  naturalis 
methodi.  How  comes  it,  then,  that  the  names  of  Linnaeus  have  produced  nothing, 
and  that  those  of  Bernard  have  produced  the  method  ?  Simply  because  Lin- 
aaeus  failed  to  discover  the  true  order,  while  Bernard  discovered  and  disclosed  it. 

**  To  this  letter  attention  is  due,  as  important  ia  the  history  of  Bemard^s  progress  towards 
cbe  natural  method.  It  was  necessary  to  commence  by  establishing  the  complete  enumeratimi 
of  the  characters,  before  proceeding  to  their  appreciation,  their  relative  Taloation,  the  great 
principle  of  the  subordination  of  characters.  This  letter  is  of  J7:^,  the  catalogue  of  Trtanon 
of  1759.    Bernard  does  not  hurry  himself,  but  he  is  always  advancing. 

f  To  this  M.  Adrien  de  Jnssieu  has  subjoined  the  following:  **The  catalogue  printed  in 
the  Genera  plantarum  differs  from  it  in  some  points:  in  the  suppression  of  citations  and 
s^^nooyms,  tne  intercalation  of  certain  species  written  In  general  by  the  hand  of  A.  L.  de 
Jussieu,  the  omission  of  name  in  some  families,  and  even  the  division  of  some  of  them.  The 
arraugment  of  all  the  hypogynous  mouopetalefie  is  here  different,  another  manuscript,  of  the 
date  of  17(55,  having  been  followed  in  the  printed  copy,  in  relation  to  this  group  mione.'* 


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THE  JUS8IEUS  AND  THE  NATURAL  METHOD       261 

Not  a  fow  botanists  have  attempted,  as  well  since  the  death  of  LinnflBus  as 
daring  bis  life,  to  discover  tbe  key  of  bis  namei,  tbe  bidden  principle  of  bis  order, 
but  none  bas  succeeded.  Giseke,  one  of  bis  pupils,  bad  maintained  at  Gottingen, 
in  1767,  atbesis  on  tbe  New  systenu  of  botany,  (Syiternata  plaiUarum  recentiora.) 
and,  in  reference  to  the  natural  orders  of  Linnsus,  bad  said :  **  Linnsens  bas 
written  a  series  of  names,  but  notbing  more ;  no  cbaraeter,  no  description ;  a 
genuine  enigma,  almost  impossible  to  divine ;  one  knows  not  wby  sucb  a  plant 
is  placed  bere,  anotber  tbere,  nor  wbat  reason  bas  prevailed  witb  tbe  author  for 
uniting  or  separating  them."  After  some  hesitation  be  sent  bis  thesis  to  Lin- 
nseus,  who  answered  him  witb  bis  usual  good-nature :  "  You  ask  of  me  tbe  char- 
acters of  my  orders,  and  I  confess  that  I  cannot  give  them." 
•  ••••••• 

Bernard  would  not  Jiave  spoken  thus  lightly  of  bis  orders^  and  would  not  have 
changed  tbe  arrangement  be  bad  given  them  for  another,  and  this  because  he 
possessed  tbe  key,  tbe  reason,  tbe  ascertained  principle  of  that  admirable  arrange- 
ment— ^a  principle  which,  after  having  carried  tbe  natural  method  into  botany, 
bas  carried  it  into  zoology,  and  will  carry  it  everywhere ;  a  principle  which  is 
to-day  so  universally  recognized  under  tbe  name  of  the  principle  of  tbe  subordi- 
nation of  characters.  **  In  examining  characters,"  says  Laurent  de  Jussieu  in 
speaking  of  Bernard,  "  that  botanist  bad  remarked  that  some  were  more  general 
than  others,  and  ought  to  furnish  the  first  divisions.  After  having  appreciated 
them  successively,  he  bad  recognized  that  the  germination  of  the  seed  and  tbe 
respective  arrangement  of  tbe  sexual  organs  were  tbe  two  principal  and  most 
invariable.  He  adopted  them,  and  made  them  tbe  basis  of  tbe  arrangement  which 
be  established  at  Trianon  in  1759." 

There  is,  in  effect,  a  visible  succession,  a  visible  subordination  of  tbe  organs, 
and  consequently  of  tbe  characters.  In  plants,  the  first  rank  pertains  to  tbe 
embryo,  tbe  end  and  piurpose  of  vegetation,  as  destined  to  preserve  tbe  life  of 
tbe  species ;  tbe  second,  to  the  organs  which  concur  in  tbe  formation  of  that 
embryo-^tbat  is  to  say,  to  the  stamens  and  pistils — ^but  taken  together  and  con- 
sidered in  their  reciprocal  relations ;  then  come  the  organs  wbicb  protect  these 
or  tbe  other  parts  of  the  flower,  of  tbe  fruit,  of  tbe  seed ;  then  tbe  secondary 
modifications  of  tbe  essential  organs  themselves,  considered  separately;  and  then 
tbe  organs  of  vegetation,  wbicb  contribute  only  to  the  individual  life.  Before  Ber- 
nard the  characters  were  enumerated ;  since  his  time,  they  are  appreciated;  we 
know,  since  then,  that  they  have  unequal  values,  that  a  character  of  the  first  rank 
ie  equivalent  to  several  of  tbe  second,  one  of  these  to  several  of  tbe  third,  &c. 
Neitber  Toumefbrt,nor  Adanson,  nor  Linnseus  had  discerned  this  controlling  prin- 
ciple ;  Bernard  perceived  it,  availed  himself  of  it,  and  embodied  it  silently  in  his 
catalogue  ;  Laurent  de  Jussieu  drew  it  thence,  developed  it,  and  placed  it  in  full 
light ;  M.  Guvier  transferred  it,  by  giving  it  wider  scope,  from  botany  to  zoology ; 
and  thus  by  successive  steps  we  have  been  endowed  witb  tbe  natural  method, 

§  5. — Old  age  of  Bernard, 
''  Convinced  that  principles  exist  ready  formed  in  nature,"  (it  is  Laurent  who 
speaks,)  "  and  that  the  botanist  oaght  to  confine  himself  to  seeking  them  there, 
without  attempting  to  establish  them  apart  from  nature,"  Bernard  bad  excused 
himself  from  the  labor  of  composing  a  book.  According  to  him,  tbe  perfect  book 
was  open  to  all ;  it  was  only  necessary  to  learn  to  read  it.  When  he  found 
himself  intrusted  with  the  creation  of  a  botanic  garden,  he  could  not  fail  to  ex- 
perience the  liveliest  pleasure,  for  it  was  the  living  book,  of  wbicb  he  had  in- 
dulged a  dream,  that  be  was  now  commissioned  to  produce  by  arranging  plants 
in  tbe  natural  order,  of  which  he  had  discovered  the  clue.  Simplv  to  supply  an 
aid  to  bis  memory,  be  had  then  composed  his  catalogue,  and  such  is  the  charm 
of  tmtb  that  this  catalogue,  wbicb  is  only  a  long  series  of  barbarous  names,  be- 
came tbe  poetry  of  a  life  instinctively  devoted  to  one  great  task. 


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262  THE  JUSSIEUS  AND  THE  NATURAL  METHOD. 

Tears  meantime  had  accumukted,  and  Bernard,  always  absorbed  in  his 
problem,  perceived  the  lapse  of  time  as  little  as  he  did  the  renown  which  had 
encircled  his  name.  Nothing  had  altered  the  serenity  of  the  life  of  the  two 
brothers ;  the  love  of  order  had,  in  this  hoase,  passed  from  theory  into  the 
most  Bcmpnlons  practice.  To  this  modest  retreat  in  the  rue  des  Bemardim 
regularly  rcsortea  Malesherbes,  Dohamel,  Lemonnier,  Poivre,  and  other  dis- 
tingnished  men,  whom  similarity  of  labors  and  opinions  and  long  attachment 
united  in  the  bonds  of  the  closest  intimacy ;  here  abo  every  learned  stranger, 
particularly  every  botanist,  was  emulous  of  being  introduced.  The  prolonged 
life  of  the  good  Tessier  has  left  to  us  only  the  impression  of  the  aged  roan ; 
here  he  appeared  as  the  young  debutant.  Andre  Thouin  was  indebted  to  the 
two  brothers  for  the  origin  of  his  botanical  fortunes,  and  not  a  few  besides, 
devoted  upon  similar  grounds  of  gratitude  and  affection,  enlarged  the  circle  by 
which  onr  celihataires  were  encompassed. 

Occupied  in  scrupulously  fdlfilling  towards  his  elder  brother  the  duties  of  a 
piety  which  might  well  be  called  filial,  it  is  easily  imagined  with  how  poignant 
a  grief  Bernard  was  affected  when  a  short  malady  bereft  him  of  Antoine.  He 
fell  into  a  gloomy  reverie,  from  which  nothing  seemed  capable  of  arousing  him. 
Seated  alone  at  the  once  common  fireside,  his  long  meditation  only  then  began 
to  be  interrupted  by  bitter  reflections.  He  no  longer  quitted  the  house  except 
to  go  to  the  church,  the  Jardin  Royal  or  the  Academy. 

•  ••••••• 

The  protracted  life  of  Bernard  condemned  him  to  blindness;  but  those  allevia- 
tions which  he  had  ministered  to  Antoine  were  in  turn  supplied  to  himself  by 
Laurent,  the  son  of  their  eldest  brother,  who  was,  during  many  of  his  later  years, 
the  inmate  of  his  house.  Seated  daily  near  this  nephew,  and  superintending  his 
studies,  the  old  man,  under  the  appearance  of  a  tranquil  reverie,  became  once 
more  absorbed  in  his  former  pursuits ;  it  was  as  a  second  phase  of  the  same  life, 
as  a  thought  which  revives  and  is  perpetuated.  Passing  away  thus,  the  exist* 
ence  of  Bernard  may  be  said  to  have  been  at  last  rather  transformed  than  ex- 
tinguished ;  his  mortal  remains  left  the  fraternal  mansion  November  6,  1777. 

•  ••••••• 

LAURENT  DB  JUSSIBU  AND  THB  COMPLBTB  VIBW  OP  THB  MBTHOD. 

M.  de  Candolle,  in  his  Thttnie  £lementaire  de  la  Botanique,  undoubtedly  the 
most  original  and  maturely  considered  of  his  works,  thus  expresses  himself 
respecting  the  two  Jussieus :  "  Without  seeking,  in  any  manner,  to  assign  a 
distinct  part  to  each  of  these  skilfnl  botanists*  and  to  separate  names  which, 
united  as  they  were  by  consanguinity  and  the  most  confidential  intimacy,  will 
be  always  still  more  closely  united  by  fame,  we  shall  merely  remark  that  what 
characterizes  the  method  of  the  Jussieus  is  that  it  is  founded  on  the  subordi- 
nation of  characters."  Now,  this  problem  of  the  distinct  part  borne  by  the  two, 
and  the  proper  merit  of  each,  a  problem  which  M.  de  GandoUe  has  chosen  to 
evade,  is  precisely  that  which  I  propose  to  consider ;  but,  before  attempting  its 
solution,  it  is  necessary  to  refer  to  some  manuscript  notes  of  Laurent  de  Jussieu 
respecting  his  uncle.^     It  is  of  interest  to  see  how  Bernard  was  regarded  by 

*  These  valuable  notes  on  the  l\fe  of  Bernard  dt  Jussieu  are  accompanied  with  a  notice 
that  **  they  were  intended  for  instmctioDs  to  M.  de  CoDdorcef  It  was,  in  efiect,  on  these 
notes  that  was  foonded  the  historical  eloge  of  Bernard  de  Jussieu,  read  bj  Condorcet  at  the 
public  session  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  of  the  29th  of  April,  1778,  and,  what  added  to  the 
I  clot  of  the  ceremonial,  read  before  Voltaire.  At  that  moment,  which  so  shortlj  preceded 
liis  death,  Voltaire  was  the  object  of  general  admiration.  **  Paris  contained  at  Uie  same 
time  the  celebrated  Franklin;  the  latter  was  naturally  desirous  of  seeing  a  man  whose  fame 
had  so  long  occupied  the  attention  of  both  the  Old  and  the  New  World.  Voltaire,  although  he 
had  lost  the  habit  of  speaking  English,  attempted  to  sustain  the  conversation  in  that  language, 

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THE  JU8SIEUS  AND  THE  NATURAL  METHOD.  263 

his  nephew,  who  was  at  the  same  time  bis  sacceeeor  and  continnator ;  without 
whom  we  ehonld  with  difficulty  have  penetrated  the  secret  of  his  thoughts  or 
possessed  the  authentic  explanation  of  his  catalogue. 

'*  He  regarded  botany,"  Laurent  tells  us,  "not  as  a  science  of  memory  or  of  no- 
menclature, but  as  a  science  of  combinadons,  founded  on  a  thorough  knowledge 
of  all  the  characters  of  each  plant.  He  compiled,  every  day,  nmtcurials  for  form- 
ing that  natural  order  which  is  the  touchstone  of  botanists.  Always  thinkine 
himself  not  sufficiently  advanced,  he  neglected  to  publish  his  first  essays,  and 
songht  the  improvement  of  his  work.  This  distrust  of  himself  continually  ar- 
rested him,  and  even  brought  him  to  the  point  of  doubting  of  all."  •  •  •  • 
This  last  and  curious  phrase  is  one  which  any  other  than  Bernard  would  scarcely 
have  suggested,  and  which  reveals  a  species  of  superiority  to  which  few  attain 
or  even  aspire.  ''  He  wrote  little,"  continues  Laurent,  '*but  observed  much ;  and 
the  fruits  of  his  labor  would  perhaps  have  been  lost  to  science  but  for  a  favorable 
dreomstance,  which  obliged  him  to  give  a  practical  exposition  of  his  general 
system  in  the  arrangement  of  plants."  The  favorable  circumstance  was  the  fol- 
lowing :  Louis  XV  having  seen  at  Saint  Germain  the  plantations  in  which  the 
Marshal  de  Noailles  had  indulged  his  taste,  by  collecting  the  trees  and  shrubs 
of  foreign  countries,  was  strudk  with  the  foncy  of  forming  similar  ones  at 
Trianon,  and  of  founding  there  a  school  of  botany.  With  this  object,  and 
guided  by  Lemonnier,  then  first  physician  of  the  royal  infants  of  France,  he  cast 
his  eyes  on  Bernard,  who  *'  being  constrained,"  as  Laurent  expresses  it,  "  to 
adopt  some  arrangement,  judged  it  expedient  to  substitute  his  new  plan  for  the 
ancient  methods."  Thus  we  see  on  how  mere  a  contingency  depended  our 
possession  of  this  new  plan;  without  the  visit  of  Louis  XV  to  Saint  Germain, 
Bernard  would  not  have  been  constrained  to  cidopt  an  arrangement^  and  quite 
probably  would  never  have  written  his  catalogue, 

Bespecting  those  ancient  methods  for  which  he  substituted  his  new  plan,  Lau- 
rent has  conveyed  to  us  the  views  of  his  uncle :  "  Those  methods  were,  according 
to  him,  only  descriptive  tables  in  which  the  plants  were  arranged  agreeably  to  a 
conventional  order  adopted  for  the  convenience  of  those  who  study  them.  The 
science,  limited  to  these  methods,  is  a  &ctitious  science,  very  remote  from  that 
of  the  natural  order,  which  is  the  true  one,  and  which  consists  in  a  knowledge  of 
the  real  relations  of  plants  and  their  organization."  •  •  •  .•  ••When  a  man," 
adds  Laurent,  •'  has  combined  the  characters  of  plants  to  such  an  extent  as  to  be 
able,  in  an  unknown  species,  to  determine  the  existence  of  many  from  the  pros* 
ence  of  a  single  one,  to  refer  on  the  spot  this  species  to  the  order  which  suits  it; 
when  he  has  destroyed  the  prejudice,  so  disparaging  to  botany,  that  it  is  to  be 
regarded  as  a  science  of  memory  and  nomendature,  and  has  made  of  it  a  sdence 
of  combinations  which  affords  aliment  to  thought  and  imagination,  that  man  macyk 
be  called  the  creator,  or  at  least  the  restorer  of  the  science.  Others  will,  perhaps, 
extend  its  bounds,  but  he  will  have  been  the  first  to  point  the  way,  to  trace  tiie 
plan,  to  establish  the  principles.  M.  de  Jussieu  has  not,  it  is  true,  consigned 
them  to  any  book,  but  in  the  garden  of  Trianon  we  recognize  the  conception 
of  the  author.  The  same  conception  reigns  in  the  recent  arrangement  of  the 
Jmrdin  Royal  of  Paris,  formed  upon  the  model  of  that  of  Trianon,  and  only  differ- 
ing from  it  in  some  points  for  greater  fadlity  of  study."  Finally,  Laurent 
arrives  at  the  higher  view  which  characterizes  the  Jussiens  in  botany,  at  the 
key  which  has  given  them  the  natural  order,  the  principle,  namely,  of  the  auhor- 
dination  of  character%.  "In  the  examination  of  characters,  Bernard  had  remarked 
that  some  were  more  general  than  others,  and  should  furnish  the  first  divisions. 

but  presently  resuming  bis  own :  I  couM  not  resist  the  desire  fbe  stid)  of  speaking  for  a 
moment  ^e  language  of  M.  Franklin.  Tbej  met  again  at  a  pnblic  sitting  of  the  Academy 
of  Sciences ;  they  here  embraced  amidst  the  acclamations  of  the  spectators,  who  exclaimed 
that  It  was  Solon  embracing  Sophocles.*'    (Condorcet :  Fie  dt  VoUmin.) 


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264       THE  JUSSIEUS  AND  THE  NATURAL  METHOD. 

After  dulj  considering  their  relative  valne,  be  recognized  the  gemunation  of  the 
seed  and  the  respective  arrangement  of  the  sexoal  organs  as  the  two  priadptl 
and  mo6t  invariable ;  be  adopted  them,  and  made  them  the  basis  of  the  arraoge- 
ment  which  be  established  at  Trianon  in  1759." 

Thus  the  solution  of  the  problem  I  had  proposed  is  seen  to  have  little  diffi- 
culty ;  for  Lanrent  himself  tells  us,  as  well  in  these  notes  as  in  tlie  preface  to 
his  Genera  Plantarum,  that  it  is  to  Bernard  we  owe  the  discovery  of  the  pria- 
ciple  of  subordination  of  characters.  '*This  inequality  of  characters  bad  not 
escaped  the  excellent  author  of  the  Orders  of  Trianon,  neither  the  subordinate 
part  of  the  more  variable,  nor  the  importance  of  the  more  constant,  nor  the  dig- 
nity of  the  embryo  and  the  sexual  organs,  nor  the  affinity  of  the  genera  a^ 
orders  which  are  associated  with  one  another  by  these  primary  indications.  The 
families  which  be  has  established  are,  in  general,  strictly  natural,  and  conforma- 
ble to  these  principles."  At  a  still  later  period,  he  styles  the  Catalogue  oj 
Trianon,  that  mature  result  of  the  lofig  meditations  of  Bernard,  "  the  most  soUd 
monument  of  his  renown."  Nor  does  M.  Adrien  de  Jussieu,  though  disposed 
by  a  natural  bias  to  incline  the  balance  rather  to  the  side  of  his  father  than  his 
uncle,  bear  a  different  testimony :  *'  I  have  beneath  my  eyes  the  manuscript  cata- 
logues of  Bernard :  there  are  two  of  them ;  that  which  was  printed  at  the  head 
of  the  Genera,  and  another  still  longer,  in  which  are  enumerated,  in  connection 
with  the  name  of  each  kind,  the  species  according  to  the  linnsBan  nomenclature, 
with  a  brief  svnonomy  of  former  authors.  But  the  whole  is  limited  to  a  series 
of  names,  without  a  word  of  development  or  explanation.  Such  as  they  are, 
however,  they  evince  that  Bernard  de  Jussieu  had  established  the  principle  of 
the  subordination  of  characters,  and  had  determined  those  to  which  must  be 
assigned  the  first  rank ;  an  immense  step  in  advance,  and  sufficient  in  itself  to 
immortalize  him  who  conceived  it."  *  *  *  *  "But  does  this  embrace,"  asks 
M.  Adrien  with  reason,  **all  that  we  find  in  the  Genera  Plantarum  V  In  reply, 
let  us  briefly  examine  that  work.  At  the  time  of  its  appearance,  botany  possessed 
20,000  plants,  of  which  more  than  half  had  been  unknown  to  Bernard — those 
of  Gommerson,  of  Dombey,  of  Forster,  of  Forskal.  The  author  distributes  these 
20,000  plants  into  a  hundred  orders;  these  hundred  ordera  into  1,754  genera;* 
to  each  of  these  orders  and  genera  are  assigned  its  charactera,  and  to  all  these 
characters  their  due  valuation  and  weight. 

The  author  divides  the  characters  into  three  classes :  The  first  class,  essential, 
constant,  uniform  in  all  the  orders,  and  drawn  from  the  most  important  organs, 
the  number  of  lobes  or  cotyledons  of  the  embryo,  the  insertion  of  the  stamens 
or  their  arrangement  in  relation  to  the  pistil,  the  situation  of  the  staminiferons 
corolla;  the  second  class,  general,  nearly  uniform  in  all  the  orders,  or  only  vary- 
ing by  exception,  and  drawn  from  organs  less  important — the  presence  or  defect, 
whether  of  the  calyx  or  of  the  non-staminiferous  corolla,  the  structure  of  the 
corolla  considered  as  monypetalons  or  polypetalous,  the  relative  situation  of  the 
calyx  and  the  pistil,  finally  the  presence  or  absence  of  the  perisperm ;  the  third 
class,  sometimes  uniform  and  sometimes  variable,  now  fumisbed  by  one  organ 
and  now  by  another,  the  calyx  monophyllous  or  polyphyllous,  the  ovary  simple 
or  multiple,  the  number,  proportion,  connection  of  the  stamens,  the  number  of 
cells  of  the  fruit  and  its  manner  of  opening,  the  position  of  the  leaves  and  flowers, 
&c.,  &c.  By  virtue  of  this  classification  of  the  signs,  Laurent  has  always  before 
him  the  principle  which  controls  the  arrangement  of  plants.  It  only  remains 
to  respect  everywhere  this  first  classification,  which  gives  the  other.  Let  no 
character  of  a  eenus  intrude  into  the  definition  of  an  order,  nor  of  an  order  into 
the  definition  of  a  genus.  The  least  inversion  produces  dissonance  in  the  natural 
order.  By  this  system  the  method  is  seen,  more  clearly  than  ever  before,  to  be 
th^  science  of  characters.    There  are  found  to  be  laws  by  which  these  charactera 

*  Add  150  genera  which  are  sitpernumerary,  or  of  doubtful  place  (planta  imcerUs  sedis.) 

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THE  JU8SIEUS  AND  THE  NATURAL  METHOD.      265 

imply  or  exclude  one  another;  the  presenee  of  a  single  one»  as  we  have  already 
heard  Laurent  say,  suffices  to  determine  the  existence  of  many,  and  it  is  even  in 
this  that  the  most  distinctive  feature  of  the  method  reveals  itself. 

Adanson*  and  others,  who  censured  Laurent  for  this  exclusive  preference 
given  to  one  part  among  all  the  rest,  were  completely  at  fault.  They  failed 
to  appreciate  that  wonderful  correspondence  through  which  a  character,  aptly 
chosen,  far  from  excluding  others,  as  they  apprehended,  comprises,  implies,  involves 
them,  as  its  consequence,  and  in  proportions  always  definite,  in  comhinations  always 
fixed.  They  failed  to  perceive  those  suhordinations,  those  obligatory  connec- 
tions, or,  as  Cuvier  at  a  later  period  called  them,  those  necessary  correlations  of 
parts,  which  enable  us  from  each  to  infer  the  whole,  and  reciprocally  from  the 
whole  to  infer  each — a  singular  prerogative  inherent  in  the  natural  method,  and 
which  that  method,  among  all  others,  alone  possesses.  But  by  what  process 
had  Laurent  elevated  himself  to  a  knowledge  at  once  so  thorough  and  original, 
to  what  might  almost  seem  an  instinctive  appreciation  of  characters  ?  Doubtless 
the  catalogue  of  Trianon  had  been  his  first  guide,  the  counsels  and  conversation  of 
Bernard  his  earliest  and  most  valued  resource.  But  in  the  following  extract  from 
a  short  manuscript  account  of  himself,  which  lies  before  me,  we  obtain  an  insight 
mto  the  means  he  had  devised  for  rendering  this  knowledge  peculiarly  his  own. 
^  *  m  ^  ^  ^  ♦  ♦ 

*'  In  1 773,"  he  says,  **  a  place  of  botanist  being  vacant  at  the  Academy  of  Sci- 
ences, I  was  tempted  to  compose  a  memoir  in  order  to  be  admitted  to  it,  and  with 
a  view  to  underi^tand  thoroughly  what  are  called  families,  I  determined  to  take 
one  of  them  as  the  subject  of  my  essay.  Linnaeus  had  published  his  Frag- 
menta  Naturalia  or  Ordines  Naturales ;  Bernard  de  Jussieu  had  arranged  his 
Families  in  the  garden  of  Trianon,  and  Adanson  had  published  his  Families 
des  Plantes  in  1763.  I  selected  for  a  subject  the  familv  of  the  Ranuuculaces, 
adopted  by  these  three  authors,  and  after  having  studied  their  catalogues,  I 
reviewed  this  family  in  all  its  characters,  and  soon  recognized  that  these  had  not 
all  the  same  value;  that  some  were  constant  in  all  the  plants  of  the  family,  that 
others  varied  only  by  exception,  and  that  others  again  were  more  or  less  variable; 
whence  1  concluded  that,  in  comparing  them,  it  was  not  sufficient  to  have  regard 
to  the  number  of  like  characters,  but  that  it  was  necessary  to  take  into  account 
their  unequal  value :  thus  it  was  that  the  seed  furnished  me  the  first  values,  the 
sexual  organs,  taken  together,  the  second,  and  the  other  characters,  successively 
diminishing  in  proportion,  gave  me  finally  more  definite  ideas  on  these  relations. 
>iy  memoir,  composed  by  myself  alone,  but  approved  by  my  uncle,  was  accepted 
by  the  Academy  and  opened  its  doors  to  me  in  March,  1773.'' 

This  work  on  the  characters  of  the  RanunculacetB  being  finished  and  published, 
I^urenc  immmediately  commenced  a  similar  one  on  the  Composita,  the  GraminetB, 
the  Leguminoste,  the  UmbellifercB,  &c.,  families  alike  natural  by  the  consent  of 
all  botanists ;  and,  this  completed,  he  felt  that  he  was  master  of  the  science. 

*  **  The  principles  of  M.  Jussieu,"  says  Adanson,  'Svill  encounter  perhaps  some  difficulty  on 
the  part  of  botanists  who  believe  that  a  method,  in  order  to  be  natural,  should  found  its  di- 
viiiions  on  an  examination  of  all  the  parts  taken  together,  without  giving  to  any  one  an  ex- 
cluHive  preference  over  others."  (Report  of  Adanson  to  the  Academy  on  the  first  memoir  of 
Laurent  de  Jussieu.) 

Adanson  was,  after  Bernard  de  Jussieu,  the  man  of  his  time  who  had  given  most  attention 
to  method.  In  his  elaborate  work,  families  dts  Plantes^  he  remarks :  **  In  the  artificial  methods, 
of  which  the  object  was  simply  to  render  more  facile  a  knowledge  of  plants,  by  disentangling 
it  from  the  multiplicity  of  characters,  consideration  was  given  to  but  one  or  a  few  of  the  more 
general  or  prominent  parts  of  the  fructification,  but,  in  a  natural  method,  the  characters, 
whether  of  the  class,  the  genus  or  the  species,  ought  to  be  taken  from  all  parts,  more  or  less 
obvious,  of  the  plant."  I^urent  de  Jussieu  having  one  day  read  a  memoir  to  the  Academy, 
Adanson  abruptly  remarked  that  he  recog^zed  therein  several  ideas  which  he  had  himself 
already  made  public.  **I  can  well  l)elieve  it,"  was  the  calm  reply  of  Laurent;  **  wo  studied 
under  the  same  muster."    Adanson  had,  in  effect,  studied  under  Bernard;  moreover,  the 

Slantation  of  the  garden  of  Trianon  dates  from  1759,  while  the  Families  des  I'lanUs  appeared 
11763. 


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^66      THE  JU8SIBUS  AND  THE  NATURAL  METHOD. 

''  From  tbat  time,"  be  says, "  I  conceived  tbe  plan  of  a  new  classification ;  *  * 
I  projected,  upon  these  principles,  a  new  method,  whose  ^tire  plan  is  set  forth 
in  my  memoir  of  1774;  I  combined  together  the  labors  of  the  three  authora 
before  cited."  ♦  *  •  »  *  At  length,  in  1788,  after  fifteen 
years  of  this  persistent  labor  in  the  stndy  of  characters,  the  printing  of  tbe 
Oenera  commenced.  The  author  was  so  full  of  his  book  that  he  b^an  to  print 
without  having  written  it,  or,  as  he  himself  says,  "  it  was  sent  to  press  in  pro- 
portion as  it  was  compoeed."  It  appeared  in  1789,  under  the  title :  Genera 
plantarum  secundum  ardines  naturalii  dupositOf  Juxta  methodum  in  harto  rtgio 
paritienn  ezaratam. 

Now  that  both  Bernard  and  the  Genera  are  known  to  us,  may  we  not  say  with 
confidence  that  Bernard  would  never  have  taken  upon  himself  the  execution  of 
so  laborious  an  exposition  ?  He  loved  truth,  but  sought  it  only  for  the  satisfaction 
it  procured  him.  On  a  nature  of  so  much  simplicity  neither  vanity  nor  ambition 
had  any  hold.  In  1758,  after  the  death  of  his  brother  Antoine,  whose  sab- 
demonstrator  he  had  been,  it  was  proposed  to  him  to  be  advanced  to  the  first 
place;  he  preferred  to  retain  the  second:  **The  old,"  he  answered,  *' are  content 
with  what  they  have ;  they  do  not  like  change."  In  1770,  Lemonnier,  the 
successor  of  Antoine,  being  appointed  first  physician  to  the  king,  and  hence 
obliged  to  reside  at  Versailles,  it  became  necessarv  to  find  a  substitute ;  Buffon 
r^erred  the  nomination  to  Bernard,  who  presented  Laurent.  Very  different  in 
this  respect  irom  his  unde,  the  latter  accepted  the  charge,  though  then  only 
twenty-two  years  of  age  and  nearly  ignorant  of  botany. 
«♦♦♦♦  ♦  ♦  * 

*'  It  was  now  time,"  he  tells  us,  *<that  I  should  apply  seriously  to  the  study 
of  the  science ;  the  method  of  Toumefort,  then  taugnt  in  the  garden,  was,  it 
is  true,  veiy  easy,  and  the  students  were  novices;  there  was  little  difficulty  in 
retailing  to  them  in  the  morning  what  I  had  acquired  the  evening  before.  My 
uncle,  who  had  always  arranged  the  plants,  whether  for  his  brother  Antoine 
or  his  successor  Lemonnier,  rendered  me  the  same  service,  and,  in  the  earlier 
lessons,  supplied  me  with  the  characters  of  the  principal  species."  When 
Bernard,  in  1770,  fulfilled  this  part  of  sub-demonstrator  to  his  nephew  of  twenty* 
two,  he  was  himself  seventy-one  years  of  age ;  no  circumstance  perhaps  could 
more  strongly  mark  the  difference  of  their  respective  characters. 

LIPB  OP   LAURENT  DB  JUSSIEU  AND  INFLUBNCB  OP  HIS  LAB0R8. 

It  has  been  seen  that  Antoine  Laurent  de  Jussieu,  bom  at  Lyon  April  12» 
1748,  and  adopted  by  his  uncle  Bernard  in  1765,  at  once  became,  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  latter,  a  master  in  science.  The  explanation  of  this  is,  that  having 
been  guided  by  the  impressions  he  received  into  a  path  at  once  true  and  untrodden, 
aUthe  steps  which  he  took  were  naturally  confident  and  progressive. 

In  the  memoir  which  procured  him,  at  the  age  of  twenty-five,  admission  to 
the  Academy,  he  had  laid  down  the  principle  "that,  without  neglecting  the 
nomenclature,  it  was  above  all  necessary  to  devote  attention  to  the  investiga- 
tion of  characters,  the  most  important  part  of  botany."  This  was  one  of  tne 
truths  which  had  occupied  the  life  of  Bernard,  and  now  proclaimed  by  Laurent, 
it  challenged  general  recognition  at  the  moment  when  it  had  become  most  neces- 
sary to  the  progress  of  the  science. 

In  1774,  ne  presented,  in  a  second  memoir,  written  on  occasion  of  the  reor- 
ganization  of  the  botanical  school  of  the  Jardin  Royal,  the  plan  of  a  new  classi- 
fication. Thb  new  frame-work  of  the  science,  a  skilful  combination  of  the  labors 
of  Bernard  at  Trianon,  of  the  method  of  Toumefort  and  of  the  nomenclature 
of  Linnaeus,  was  developed  with  a  precision  and  confidence  which  strack  all  con- 
siderate minds,  and  established  Laurent  as  an  innovator  at  the  Academy  and 

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THE  JU88IEUS  AND  THE  NATURAL  METHOD.  267 

amoDg  botAQists.  In  ibis  memoir  be  ligbts  tbe  torcb  deBtined  to  gnide  all  tbe 
great  labors  npon  metbod  executed  during  bis  era.  I  cite  tbe  following  passage  : 
*'  Tbere  exist  in  vegetablesi  as  in  animals,  primary  classes  wbicb  comprise  otber 
secondary  clases  ;  botb  are  founded  on  general  and  invariable  cbaracters,  wbicb 
can  only  be  derived  from  tbe  organs  most  essential  to  life,  and  tbe  reproduction 
of  tbe  species ;  all  beings  wbicb  di£fer  in  tbe  structure,  situation  and  function  of 
tbese  principal  organs  ougbt  to  be  separated ;  bence  tbe  first  divisions  of  tbe 
animal  kingdom  result  firorn  tbe  inspection  of  tbe  beart,  tbe  number  of  its  ven- 
tricles and  auricles,  llie  organs,  wbicb  bold  after  tbis  tbe  first  rank  in  tbe  ani- 
mal economy,  will  give  tbe  second  divisions,  and  so  on.  Tbis  principle,  from 
wbicb  no  departure  can  be  made  witbout  lapse  into  error,  is  tbe  foundation  of 
all  researcbes  in  organized  bodies ;  notbing  conclusive  can  be  obtained  from  tbe 
examination  of  tbe  external  parts,  of  tbose  parts  wbicb  supply,  at  most,  cbafac- 
ters  of  tbe  tbird  or  fourtb  order ;  metbods  founded  on  tbese  cbaracters  always 
deviate  from  nature,  botb  in  tbe  animal  and  vegetable  kingdoms. 

"  Tbese  trutbs/'  be  continues,  ''did  not  escape  my  uncle,  and  tbe  arrangement 
of  families,  in  tbe  garden  of  tbe  Petit  Trianon^  proves  tbat  be  was  tborougbly 
penetrated  witb  tbem ;  bis  order  is  more  natural  than  tbe  metbods  published  up 
to  tbis  time»  because  it  is  simple  in  its  general  divisions,  and  preserves  tbe  in- 
t^rity  of  tamilies.  We  find  tbere  tbe  three  primary  classes,  characterized  by  the 
embiyo ;  tbe  acotyledom  are  arranged  according  to  the  more  or  less  marked  ap- 
pearance of  tbe  parts  of  fructification ;  in  the  numocotyledom  the  author  is 
guided  by  tbe  insertion  of  tbe  stamens,  and  successively  passes  in  review  tbe 
stamens  borne  on  tbe  pistil,  tbose  which  adhere  to  the  calyx,  and  those  wbicb 
are  attached  to  the  support.  The  dicotyUdofu  are  divided,  likewise,  by  observing 
tbat,  when  tbe  corolla  Dears  the  stamens  it  is  their  insertion  which  becomes  tbe  de- 
cisive character  in  referring  tbe  plants  to  one  of  tbe  three  insertions  of  tbe  stamens.'' 

For  bis  classification  Laurent  takes  from  Linnasus,  as  we  have  already  seen, 
the  genera,  the  ipeciet,  the  nomenclature  ;  from  Bernard,  the  orders,  or  natural 
families;  from  Toumefort,  a  means  of  multiplying  the  classes  of  Bernard,  with- 
out breaking  up  bis  orders  or  his  families.  The  genera  of  Linneeus  were  the 
most  precise  which  bad  vet  been  known ;  his  species  the  most  definite ;  his  no* 
menclature  was  admirable.  This  nomenclature,  which  reduced  tbe  long  phrases 
of  Toumefort  and  Gaspard  Batihin  to  two  words  for  each  plant,  the  name  of 
the  species  and  the  name  of  the  genus,  constituted  in  itself  a  great  reform  in  the 
science.  Yet  when  the  question  arose  of  introducing  it  at  the  Jardin  des  PI  antes,  a 
difiiculty  occurred ;  Bufibn,  who  was  then  intendant,  rejected  tbe  Linnsean  names 
simply  because  they  were  those  of  Linnaeus.  A  little  r^ection,  however,  recalled 
him  to  a  sense  of  right,  and  the  Garden  received  at  the  same  time  the  nomen- 
clature of  Linnaeus  and  the  natural  order  of  Bernard.  A  year  later,  instruction 
was  given  only  according  to  the  new  metbod.  Tbe  presence  of  Bernard,  coming 
every  morning  to  arrange  the  plants  for  the  lectures,  lent  a  sanction  to  tbe  de- 
velopment given  by  tbe  young  chief  of  tbe  doctrine  to  the  thoughts  which  had 
been  suggested  to  him  by  the  old  one. 

A  science  whose  progress  strikes  the  imagination  is  sure  to  attract  a  throng  of 
proselytes.  Never  had  botany  counted  so  many.  Tbe  expeditious  into  the 
country,  to  which  Bernard  had  imparted  so  much  interest,  and  which  Linnaeus, 
by  adopting  them,  bad  rendered  still  more  famous,  bad  now  no  other  guide  than 
Laurent.  Each  spring-time  saw  tbe  train  wbicb  accompanied  him  increase  in 
number ;  neither  age  nor  celebrity  stood  aloof,  for  the  same  attraction  captivated 
all  minds  however  different  their  predilections.  Tbere  might  be  seen  tbe  youth- 
ful son  of  a  procurator,  escaped  from  the  jargon  of  the  paternal  office,  who 
merely  skimmed  tbe  surface  of  botany  preparatory  to  a  bolder  flight  in  another 
science,  through  wbicb  be  would  one  day  endow  bis  country  with  the  glory 
attached  to  the  name  of  Lavoisier;  or  it  might  be  Ravnal,  coming  to  seek  the 
scientific  details  embraced  in  his  history  of  the  two  Indies.    We  nave  already 


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268  THE  .JUSSIEUS  AND  THIS  NATURAL  METHOD. 

seen  Jean  Jacqaes  BousBean  ask  from  Bernard  directions  for  the  studies  which 
consoled  his  latter  years.  For  five  seasons,  the  author  of  Emilius  assiduoaslj 
followed  the  herborizations  conducted  bj  Laurent,  and  often  succeeded  in  turning 
their  course  towards  Montmorency.  De  Jussieu,  fascinated  by  the  blandish- 
ments of  the  distinguished  man,  complied  the  more  readily  with  his  wishes  on 
such  occasions,  because  a  compact  existed  between  them  which  interdicted  all 
allusion  to  the  works  of  the  philosopher,  and  under  this  condition  the  latter 
showed  no  want  of  the  qualities  of  a  gay  and  complaisant  companion. 
•  ••••••• 

Let  us  return  to  the  two  memoirs,  which  may  be  considered  as  the  basis  of  all 
that  was  e£Fected  by  Laurent  in  the  sequel.*  They  had  been  written  while 
Bernard  and  Linnaeus  were  alive;  a  few  years  had  elapsed  and  the  two  patri- 
archs of  botany  were  no  more.  ThenceU)rward  the  first  place  was  open,  and 
all  felt  that  it  was  Laurent  who  must  occupy  it ;  it  was  impossible  t!iat  he  him- 
self should  not  feel  it.  Accordingly,  we  find  in  a  letter  of  his,  written  about 
this  time,  these  noticeable  words :  **  There  are  circumstances  of  which  it  is  our  duty 
to  take  advantage,  and  one  offers  itself  to  roe  which  I  should  be  wrong  to  neg- 
lect. We  have  lost,  within  three  months,  the  three  first  botanists  of  Europe, 
M.  Haller  in  Switzerland,  M.  Linnseus  in  Sweden,  the  third  at  Paris.  It  would 
be  a  proud  thing  to  succeed  them,  and  to  retrieve  for  France  the  pre-eminence 
which  foreigners  have  disputed."  These  words  evince  the  consciousness  which 
he  felt  in  his  own  strength ;  what  still  more  evinces  it  is  the  labor  which  he 
then  projected  of  comprehending  the  entire  vegetable  realm  within  the  princi- 
ples which  he  had  just  established  in  his  two  memoirs ;  a  vast  enterprise,  result- 
ing in  his  great  work  on'the  Jamiliet  qfplanttt  the  celebrated  Oenera  Plantarum 
which  we  have  already  had  under  consideration. 

In  this  admirable  production  a  circumstance  especially  worthy  of  remark  is 
the  use  which  the  author  has  known  how  to  make  of  the  materials  within  his 
reach  at  the  time  of  its  composition.  Their  number  has  since  been  increased 
fourfold,  and  yet  there  is  no  great  principle  of  the  natural  order  which  is  not 
laid  down  in  his  book,  and  scarcely  any  of  the  combinations  established  by  his 
successors  of  which  the  germ  is  not  to  be  found.  Fontendle  admires  in  Toume- 
fort  a  classification  in  which  twelve  hundred  new  species,  which,  he  adds,  no  one 
expected,  have  found  admission  without  disturbance  of  the  plan.  What  would 
he  have  said  of  the  method  of  M.  de  Jussieu,  in  which  nearly  fifty  thousand 
species,  unknown  at  the  moment  he  wrote,  have  found  their  place,  and  almost 
everywhere  a  place  indicated  in  advance,  a  place  which  expected  them  I 

I  have  said  that  the  author  had  establishea  a  hundred  primitive  families ;  none 
of  these  has  been  suppressed ;  more  than  half  have  undergone  no  modification. 
Three  have  been  transferred,  and  transferred  entire,  into  neighbouring  groups, 
which  is  but  a  different  mode  of  association.  Of  the  others,  the  greater  part, 
through  the  natural  effect  of  so  many  new  species  collected  in  the  lapse  of  nearly 
half  a  century,  have  been  necessarily  disintegrated  and  subdivided ;  but  scarcely 
one  has  been  so,  except  by  sections  or  divisions  indicated  by  Laurent  himself. 
Finally,  there  are  five,  and  only  five,  of  them  which  have  l)een  recognized  as 
natural  only  by  fragments.  Hesitation  then  exists  only  respecting  some  frag- 
ments of  families,  some  scattered  species,  and  even  here  there  is  rarely  ever  wanting]: 
a  note,  an  indication,  a  doubt,  pointing  in  the  direction  of  the  truth — truth  which 
only  the  most  wonderful  sagacity  could  then  have  descried,  so  few  were  the  ele- 
ments at  hand  from  which  to  deduce  it,  and  so  great  the  need  of  since  collecting 
new  ones,  in  order  to  establish  it  in  a  complete  manner. 

Systems  grow  more  sacred  with  age,  and  the  promoter  of  the  natural  method 
lived  long  enough  to  see  it  almost  universally  adopted.  Desfontaines  not  only 
taught  it,  but  rendered  it  essential  service  by  an  important  discovery  in  vege- 

*  For  the  note,  which,  in  the  original,  is  appended  to  this  passage,  the  reader  is  refeired  to 
the  end  of  the  article,  whither  it  has  been  consigned  on  account  of^its  length. 


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THE  JU8SIEU8  AND   THE   NATURAL  METHOD.  269 

table  anatomy.  Kicbard,  wbo  first  applied  exact  and  detailed  analvBis,  was 
often  associated  with  Jassiea  in  his  labors.  I  find  a  memoir  inscribed  by  him 
to  the  latter  in  the  words,  To  the  greatest  botanist  of  Europe ;  and  no  one 
wbo  ever  knew  Richard  will  suspect  him  of  flattery,  Tho  penetrating  and 
critical  spirit  of  Du  Petit-Thouars  found  nothing  to  censare ;  De  Candolle,  Mir- 
bel,  Robert  Brown  have  developed  the  method  in  dieir  writings ;  Hamboldt 
baa  applied  it  to  botanical  geography  ;  the  pupils  reared  by  them,  and  the  gene- 
rations which  have  succeeded,  have  all  rallied  under  its  laws.  Intelligent  acqui- 
escence has  in  this  been  only  equalled  by  the  docility  with  which  vegetable 
nature  has  enlarged  by  thousands  of  species  the  outline  originally  traced,  without 
permitting  an  infringement  of  the  ordinances  of  the  lawgiver. 

In  1793,  the  Jar  din  des  Plantes  received  a  new  organization,  and  took  the 
title  of  Museum  of  Natural  History.  Daubenton  was  the  first  director,  and  was 
succeeded  by  De  Jussieu.  In  those  difficult  times,  he  devoted  himself  entirely 
to  the  administration  of  this  admirable  establishment.  The  libraries  of  the  religious 
bodies  having  been  suppressed,  he  obtained  leave  to  select  from  them  all  that 
bad  a  bearing  on  nat^ural  history,  and  thus  laid  the  foundation  of  the  present  rich 
collection  of  the  Museum.  Nearly  always  secluded  in  his  cabinet,  he  had  re- 
mained a  stranger  to  the  political  agitations  which  then  convulsed  France ;  it 
bad  even  been  a  subject  of  public  reproach  that  he  never  appeared  in  the  pop- 
ular assemblies.  He  judged  it  expedient  therefore  to  repair  to  his  section,  which 
was  that  of  the  Sam  Culottes.  It  was  the  day  for  choosing  a  president,  and, 
to  his  amazement,  he  found  himself  promptly  promoted  to  the  honors  of  the 
cbair.  From  this  time  municipal  dignities  were  showered  on  him;  dignities 
which  it  was  dangerous  to  refuse,  however  earnestly  he  might  covet  the  retire- 
ment of  his  garden.  Tet,  in  the  exercise  of  functions  thus  unexpected,  his  spirit 
of  order  and  method  suggested  to  him  a  report  on  the  hospitals  of  Paris,  which 
id  still  regarded  as  a  model. 

As  a  relaxation  from  severer  studies,  M.  de  Jussieu  applied  himself  to  the 
compilation  of  Memoirs  of  the  Museum,  an  exact  and  complete  history  of  men 
and  things.  We  there  see  the  origin  of  the  Jardin  Royal,  which  was  at  first  but 
a  garden  for  medicinal  plants ;  this  was  indeed  its  legal  title,  its  cabinet  being 
but  a  depot  of  drugs.  In  tracing  the  successive  steps  by  which  it  has  become 
tbe  most  magnificent  of  collections,  its  historian  recalls  the  difficulties  of  every 
fiort  which  were  to  be  surmounted  for  the  establishment  of  instruction  in  natural 
bistoiy,  independent  of  that  in  medicine,  and  the  petty  war  which  it  was  ne- 
cessary to  sustain  against  the  Faculty,  who  could  not  tolerate  the  introduction  of 
chemistry,  the  object  of  one  of  the  new  chairs,  into  the  course  of  instruction, 
as  being,  (so  said  the  Faculty,)  Jbr  good  causes  and  considerations,  prohibited 
and  denounced  by  decree  of  Parliament, 

In  1804,  the  chair  of  materia  medica  in  this  same  Faculty,  having  become 
vacant  by  the  death  of  Peyrilhe,  M.  de  Jussieu  offered  himself,'^  and  all  com- 
petition disappeared.  As  professor,  he  took  for  the  basis  of  his  lessons  the  fruitful 
principle  of  the  correspondence  of  the  properties  of  plants  with  their  botanical 
affinities.!  ''  Ueasoning,  founded  on  experience,"  he  had  said  in  his  memoir  of 
1774,  demonstrated  that  plants  conformable  in  their  characters  possess  the  same 

*  He  had,  in  1766,  taken  a  very  active  part  in  the  formation  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Medi- 
cine, and  ably  seconded  tbe  efforts  of  bis  friend  Vicq  d'Azvr,  to  fonnd  and  sustain  a  body, 
then  so  strenoosly  combated  by  the  old  Facnlty,  and  which,  at  a  later  period,  became  tne 
naelAOs  of  the  new  Facnlty. 

t  The  development  of  this  principle  forms  the  basis  of  the  discourse  which  he  read  at  the 
public  meeting  of  the  School jpf  Medicine  in  1806.  It  is  curious  to  see  this  important  princi- 
ple already  distinctly  enunciated  by  Morison  :  Planta  qua  generis  soeietate  junguntur  vie- 
rumque  et  similes  possident  faeultateSt  ( Plantarum  Historia,  sec)  But  it  should  be  remarked 
that  this  principle  has  only  become  really  serviceable  to  the  materia  medica,  when  it  has  been 
practicable  to  apply  it  to  groups  more  comprehensive  than  the  genera,  to  orders,  namely, 
or  families. 


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270  THE  JU8SIEUS  AND  THE  NATURAt^  METHOD. 

properties,  so  that,  the  natural  order  being  once  given,  it  will  be  practicable  to 
determine  their  virtue  by  exterior  eigne. 

During  the  latter  half  of  his  life  it  was  his  most  cherished  purpose  to  give  a 
second  edition  of  his  principal  work.  Unfortunately  he  was  able  to  leave  but 
fragments  of  these  labors,  all,  however,  of  a  singular  completeness.  They  form 
a  succession  of  memoirs,  inserted,  almost  uninterruptedly,  from  1804  to  1820,  in 
the  AnndUi  du  Mueeum.  Here  more  than  half  the  primitive  families  of  the 
author  pass  in  review,  each  is  examined  in  detail,  and  m  each  the  species  which 
compose  it.  The  great  work  of  Grsertner  on  fruits  was  not  available  to  him  in 
1789.  He  now  tues  it  as  a  term  of  comparison,  as  a  touchstone,  so  to  say,  of 
the  new  groupings  which  he  proposes.  In  studying  the  seed  Gasrtner  had 
brought  anatomy  to  bear  upon  the  same  organ,  from  which  M.  de  Jussieu  lias 
drawn  the  principal  bases  of  his  method.  Applied  to  the  science  of  relations, 
the  observations  of  Qsrtner  acquire  an  unexpected  importance,  and  they  are 
taken  advantage  of  by  De  Jussieu  to  throw  new  light  on  the  computation  of  char- 
acters, on  the  rormation  of  families,  on  the  art,  but  little  known  before,  of  adapt- 
ing to  one  another  those  two  resources,  on  which  depended  thenceforth  the  advance- 
ment of  the  science— anatomy  and  the  method.  Numerous  articles,  scattered 
through  the  Dictionnaire  dee  Sciencee  NaiureUee^  are  also  important  productions, 
and,  collected  in  a  single  work,  would  form  one  of  the  most  useful  of  books  upon 
botany.  The  article  Meihode  natureUe  is  a  second  edition  of  the  introduction  to 
the  Oenera  Plantarum ;  that  upon /2rmtZie»,  though  much  shorter — since  much 
would  have  been  only  repetition — ^is  a  model  in  its  kind.  The  articles  relative 
to  each  particular  family  all  present,  and  in  proportions  required  by  the  subject- 
matter,  the  same  brevity,  the  same  precision,  the  same  definite  views  of  the  facts 
composing  them.  Lastly,  those  of  which  the  object  is  the  determination  of  the 
names  of  plants,  as  reported  by  travellers,  exhibit  hb  sagacity  under  a  new 
aspect.  These  names,  barely  accompanied  by  a  few  vague  and  incomplete  indi- 
cations, were  so  many  enigmas  which  piqued  his  curiosity,  and  in  the  search  for 
whose  solution  he  found  a  sort  of  leamea  diversion. 

The  philosophic  tranquillity  of  his  spirit  had  taught  him  the  secret  of  sparing 
himself  unnecessary  trouble.  When  attacked,  as  he  was  in  almost  all  languages, 
he  never  replied.  *'  If  I  am  mistaken,"  he  would  say,  '*  it  is  natural  that  I  should 
be  attackea ;  and  if  I  am  not,  all  attacks  will  be  futile."  He  never  ceased  to 
refer  the  greater  part  of  his  success  to  his  uncle.  A  stranger  was  once  congrat- 
ulating his  son  on  the  good  fortune  of  bearing  so  honored  a  name ;  *'  Yes,"  re- 
plied M.  de  Jussieu,  who  was  present,  **  it  has  been  a  very  useful  one  to  me." 

•  ••••••• 

A  very  decided  myopy  was  common  to  all  the  members  of  this  family  who 
devoted  themselves  to  botany.  Laurent,  whose  sight  had  always  been  weak, 
lost  the  use  of  one  eye  while  he  was  yet  in  the  prime  of  life,  and  towards  the 
dose  of  his  career  the  other  became  so  enfeebled  as  td  allow  neither  of  writing 
nor  observing. 

•  ••••••• 

In  advanced  sate  he  passed  a  part  of  the  year  in  the  country,  stiU  finding  his 
chief  pleasure  in  the  search  for  plants,  which,  while  some  degree  of  vision  remained, 
he  recognized  bv  bringing  them  close  to  his  eye,  and,  when  he  could  see  no  lon- 

fer,  by  the  application  of  touch.  To  succeed  under  such  circumstances  pleased 
im  as  a  sort  of  triumph.  At  the  creation  of  the  Institute  he  became  natursuly  one 
of  its  members.  He  was  nominated  to  the  Council  of  the  university  in  1808,  was 
for  six tv- three  years  a  member  of  our  Academy,  and  for  sixty-six  years  a  profes- 
sor at  the  Jardiu  des  Plantes.  His  constitution  was  robust,  his  stature  tdl ;  his 
gait  and  whole  bearing  denoted  the  self-possession  of  a  profoundly  thoughtful  man. 
rhA  simplicity  of  his  tastes,  the  habit  of  labor,  the  tender  cares  of  a  devoted  family, 
secured  to  him  a  long  and  vigorous  old  age.  He  expired  September  17,  1836,  m 
the  midst  of  the  most  cherished  objects  of  his  affection,  at  the  age  of  88  years. 

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THE  JVSSIEUS  AND  THE  NATURAL  METHOD.  271 

ADRIBN  DB  JUSSIBU. 

In  thia  sole  and  last  direct  inheritor  of  the  name  of  Juesieu  were  early  manifested 
a  singalarlj  jost  and  acute  discernment,  a  certain  archness  of  humor,  and  a  senti- 
ment of  profound  respect  for  his  progenitors.  To  these  was  added  a  thorough  and 
very  comprehensive  mstruction.  M.  Adrien  had  recognized  and  resolutely  accepted 
die  great  weight  imposed  on  him  bj  the  celebrity  of  his  ancestry.  His  works, 
stamped  with  merit  of  a  high  order,  attest  even  by  their  small  number,  due  to 
his  scrupulous  regard  for  excellence,  a  respect  for  his  predecessors  and  himself. 
Some  or  his  memoirs  *  are  finished  models  of  that  complete  and  profound  study 
of  familiee  which  embraces  not  only  all  that  belongs  to  the  formation  of  groups, 
but  all  that  relates  to  yegetable  anatomy,  physiology,  and  geography.  His 
Traite  jSUmentaire  de  Botanique  supplies  the  most  substantia,  precise,  and  at 
the  same  time  most  elegant  survey  of  the  actual  state  of  the  science,  while  his 
article  Taxanomiet  in  the  Dictionnaire  univenel  d*Histoire  Naturelle,  is  the 
most  well-considered  and  profound  disquisition  which  has  been  given,  in  our  day, 
on  the  important  subject  of  Methods, 

His  father,  who  had  relinquished  to  him  his  chair  at  the  museum  in  1826,  had 
the  satisfaction  of  seemg  him,  in  1831,  take  a  place  beside  him  at  the  Academy. 
The  herborizations,  which  his  grea^uncle  Bernard  and  his  father  had  rendered 
fiunons,  were  continued  by  him.  In  1845  he  was  designated  to  fill  the  chair  of 
yegetable  organography  at  the  Faculty  of  Sciences.  His  pupils  will  not  readily 
forget  with  how  much  skill  all  available  knowledge  was  condensed  in  his  les- 
BODS.  He  had  been  long  collecting  the  materials  for  a  history  of  botany,  and  it 
cannot  be  too  much  regretted  that  his  protracted  sufferings  did  not  permit  him 
to  finish  it.  Never  has  an  historian  been  more  happily  adapted  to  his  task. 
For  such  a  work  he  possessed  at  once  clear-sightedness,  discrimination,  aodpro- 
fuodity  of  knowledge.  His  colleagues  and  friends  have  still  in  lively  re- 
membrance the  vivacity  and  originality  of  his  conversation,  the  humorous  and 
eraphic  turn  of  his  mode  of  narration.  M.  Adrien  had  rel^iously  cultivated  the 
domestic  virtues,  which  were  traditionary  in  his  family,  and  which  contribute  so 
mach  to  the  hapniness  of  life.  His  veneration  for  his  father  was  almost  idola- 
troas,  while  his  devotion  to  the  two  daughters,  who  survived  him,  was  not  less 
marked  by  features  of  the  most  tender  and  judicious  regard.  He  died  June  29, 
1853,  aged  55  years,  having  been  born  December  23,  1797. 

Note  to  page  23. 

An  that  M.  de  Jussieu  has  produced  may  be  regarded  under  two  chief  points 
of  view :  character  and  classification.  It  was  with  his  memoir  of  1773  tnat  he 
opened  the  study  of  the  former,  and  in  that  of  1774  that  he  laid  down  the  prin- 
ciples of  the  latter. 

§  1.  Ofcharacters, — Characters  are  the  signs  which  indicate  the  relations  of 
beings.  In  every  organized  body,  whether  animal  or  vegetable,  each  part  has 
necessary  relations  with  all  the  others.  We  may  therefore  judge  of  all  by  each. 
And  those  parts  which  are  thus  taken  for  signs  of  others,  those  parts  by  which 
we  judge  of  others,  are  what  we  name  characters.  Naturalists  had  begun  by 
seeking  these  characters,  these  signs,  almost  indifferently  in  all  the  parts.  It 
was  subsequently  recognized  that  these  different  parts  are  very  far  from  having 
an  equal  value  either  in  uniting  or  separating  beings.  Thence  has  sprung  the 
valuation  of  characters,  and  this  valuation  has  furnished  the  solution  of  the  pro- 
blem of  method. 

* Espeeiall^  those  on  the  Eupkorbiacea,  (1824,)  the  RutaeetB,  (1825,)  the  Mdiacea,  (1830,) 
the  Mnlftgktaua,  (1843,)  &c,  and  lastly,  his  fine  treatise  on  Monocatffledinous  embryos, 
(18%).)  1  hero  but  indicate  his  labors ;  the  time  for  their  complete  appreciation  has  not  jet 
arrived. 


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272  THE   JUSSIEUS  AND  THE  NATURAL  METHOD. 

Everything  depends,  then,  on  the  principle  of  the  relative  importance  of  cliarac- 
ters.  But  how  is  this  relative  importance  to  bo  learned  ?  By  two  means  equally 
sure,  and  which  M.  de  Jussieu  has  himself  explained :  one,  founded  on  reaaoning, 
infers  directly  ihe  importance  of  the  character  from  the  importance  of  the  appti- 
ratus  which  furnishes  it.  Everything  in  the  vegetable  tends  to  the  formatiou 
of  the  flower;  everything  in  the  flower  tends  to  the  formation  of  the  embryo, 
of  the  new  being;  the  formation  of  this  new  being,  the  embryo,  is  therefore 
the  aim  and  end  of  all  the  other  vegetable  functions.  *'  It  is  in  the  embryo, 
then,"  says  M.  de  Jussieu,  "that  naturalists  must  seek  their  principal  charc- 
ters."  (Diet,  des  Sc,  naturelles,  article  Methode  natureilej  In  his  memoir 
of  1774.  he  had  said:  "A  different  conformation  in  the  vegetable  embryo 
occasions,  in  the  development  and  organization  of  the  plant,  remarkable  differ- 
ences, which  constitute  so  many  characters ;  these  differences  being  dependent  on 
those  of  the  embryo,  the  characters  which  they  give  depend  equdly  on  a  single 
one  which  determines  their  existence;  whence  it  follows  that  the  character 
derived  from  the  embryo  must  have  a  value  equal  to  that  of  all  the  others 
united. 

60  much  for  the  first  means,  that  founded  on  reasoning — ^the  rational  means. 
When  this  fails,  M.  de  Jussieu  supplies  it  by  another  purely  experimental,  and 
which  never  fails.  In  defect  of  the  function  which  is  not  known  or  is  badly 
known,  he  determines  the  importance  of  the  organ  by  its  constancy »  Nor  is  this 
all ;  it  is  with  each  circumstance  of  an  organ,  as  with  the  organ  itself:  the  cir- 
cumstance the  most  constant,  that  is  to  say,  the  most  general,  is  always  the  most 
important,  Linnseus  has  made  of  the  stamens  the  base  of  his  system ;  the  num- 
ber, attachment,  union,  proportion,  situation  of  these  parts,  are  all  considered, 
all  employed ;  and  he  does  not  see  that,  among  all  these  characters,  one  only 
has  importance,  because  it  alone  has  constancy^  namely,  the  attachment  of  the 
stamens,  or  their  insertion.  Toumefort  has  founded  his  system  on  the  corolla. 
He  considers  the  absence,  presence,  situation,  division,  form  of  the  corolla, 
and  employs  all  these  characters  which  are  variable,  while  he  neglects  precisely 
the  character  derived  from  the  attachment  of  that  organ,  which  alone  is  constant. 
The  natural  order  has  escaped  both  these  sagacious  men,  and  has  escaped  both 
from  the  same  cause,  because  of  their  not  having  recognized  the  relative  import- 
ance  of  characters.  Still  Airther,  if  we  take  the  botanists  from  Gesner  onward, 
all  those  who  have  been  fortunate  in  their  attempts,  who  have  discerned  some 
fragments  of  the  natural  order,  all,  without  knowing  it,  were  guided  by  the  prin- 
ciple of  the  importance  of  characters.  Yet  more,  there  are  natural  families 
already  formed,  such  as  those  of  the  graminea,  ihe  composita,  the  umbellijera ;  if 
we  study  these  families,  every  character  which  varies  in  the  family  is  subordi- 
nate, is  secondary;  the  primitive  and  essential  character,  the  important  character, 
embraces  the  entire  family.  There  is,  therefore,  a  gradation,  an  order  in  charac- 
ters ;  and,  as  I  have  elsewhere  said,  the  true  problem  is  to  begin  by  classifying 
these  characters,  according  to  which  the  objects,  in  turn,  are  classified. 

But  it  will  be  said,  perhaps,  and  with  reason,  are  the  important  characters 
always  accessible,  always  easy  to  be  determined,  to  be  seen ;  and  then  how  shall 
we  be  governed  in  reference  to  the  inferior,  the  accessories  1  To  know  this,  we 
need  only  refer  to  M.  de  Jussieu :  "All  the  characters,"  he  says  in  his  memoir 
of  1773,  '*  have  not  the  same  value,  the  same  efficacy  in  uniting  or  separating 
plants.  Some  are  primary,  essential  in  themselves  and  invariable,  like  the  num- 
ber of  lobes  df  the  embiyo,  its  situation  in  the  seed,  the  position  of  the  calyx 
and  the  pistil,  the  attachment  of  the  corolla  and  the  stamens ;  these  serve  for 
the  principal  divisicms.  The  others  are  secondary ;  they  sometimes  vary,  and 
only  become  essential  tvhen  their  existence  is  intimately  connected  with  that  of 
the  j>r€cedi7ig ;  it  is  their  assemblage  which  distinguishes  families.  It  is  true 
that  the  fundamental  characters  of  any  order  whatever  should  always  be  taken 
in  the  fructification,  but  at  the  same  time  it  is  necessary  to  regard  those  which 


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THE   JUSSIEUS  AND   THE  NATURAL  METHOD.  273 

tbe  other  parts  famish,  as  accessory  characters,  ichich  amiouncc  the  existence  oj 
the  preceding,  whose  minateness  or  situation  sometimes  hiuder  them  from  being 
remarked.  It  is  thus  that,  among  animals,  the  external  disposition  of  tbe  jiarts 
indicates  the  namber  of  ventricles  of  the  heart  and  other  distinctions  of  the  class 
or  genus."  Lastly,  in  his  memoir  of  1774,  he  says :  "Characters  simply  general 
arc  usually  connected  with  some  of  the  essential  characters,  a  circumstance  which 
affords  accessory  signs  announcing  the  existence  of  the  true  characters;'*  and. 
with  reference  to  the  organs  of  animals,  he  adds :  "  He  who  should  content  Itim- 
eelf  witli  exterior  or  secondary  signs  without  establishing  their  affinity  with  the 
interior  parts,  would  have  but  an  imperfect  idea  of  the  true  relations  which 
exist  between  animals."  There  is  profound  analysis  in  these  observations,  and 
equally  true  whether  it  be  applied  to  zoology  or  botany. 

§2  Of  clanijication, — Let  us  first  consider  the  classification  of  Bernard,  as 
stated  by  M.  Laurent  de  Jussieu  :  "  The  orders  traced  by  Bernard  in  the  gar- 
den of  Trianon  amount  in  number  to  sixty-two,  more  than  half  of  which  are  en- 
tirely conformable  to  actual  families.  Several  others,  likewise  conformable,  di£Per 
only  by  the  addition  of  strange  species  which  ought  to  have  been  detached. 
Others,  still,  are  a  union  of  several  families,  which  should  sometimes  remain 
united,  sometimes  be  more  or  less  separated.  The  author,  having  given  only  a 
simple  manuscript  catalogue,  without  other  addition,  has  not  characterized  his 
orders  nor  assigned  the  reason  of  their  arrangement.  But  if  we  carefully  study 
that  arrangement,  we  first  recognize  that,  without  indicating  the  classes,  he  has 
adopted  the  three  great  divisions  characterized  by  the  embryo.  The  first  orders 
pertain  to  the  acotyledons,  excepting,  however,  the  naiades,  which  have  been 
separated  more  recently ;  and  the  arista! ochi€e,  which  should  be  completely  sepa- 
rated. In  the  monocotyledons,  which  follow,  there  are  seen  to  appear  successively 
the  orders  with  cpigynic  stamens,  those  with  perigynic  stamens,  and  those  with 
hypogynic  stamensi  which  proves  that  he  appreciated  the  characters  derived 
from  the  insertions.  In  the  dicotyledons  he  pursues  the  same  course,  the  same 
distinction,  though  concluding  with  the  perigynic  plants,  and  referring  to  each 
the  monopetalous,  pulypetalous,  and  apetalous  plants,  which  have  the  same 
insertion,  sometimes  intermingled,  sometimes  following  one  another  separately. 
He  terminates  his  series  by  the  amentacca  united  to  the  urticecd,  the  euphorhi- 
ace<B  and  the  conifer ce.  It  will  be  seen  that,  without  having  proclaimed  the 
natural  laws,  he  has  almost  always  silently  obeyed  them."  (Article  Methode 
naturelle  of  the  Diet,  des  Sciences  NaturelUs  ) 

Bernard,  then,  had  established  sixty-two  orders  or  ntilMxA  families;  and  hav- 
ing done  this,  he  had  united  these  sixty-two  orders  into  seven  classes.  "  The 
animal  kingdom"  says  Laurent  in  his  memoir  of  1774,  "has  but  seven  classes ;  in 
following  the  divisions  of  Trianon  we  count  no  more  in  the  vegetable  kingdom.*' 
This  number  of  seven  results  in  eficct  from  the  employment  of  the  insertion  of 
tbe  stamens  alone  for  the  subdivision  of  the  monocotyledons  and  the  dicotyledons. 
We  have,  then,  three  classes  for  the  monocotyledons,  three  for  the  dicotyledons, 
making  six;  the  acotyledons,  left  undivided,  because  their  flowers,  so  little 
apparent  and  little  known,  form  the  seventh.  Laurent  felt  the  necessity  of  mul- 
tiplying these  classes,  and  availing  himself  of  the  corolla,  (a  resource  which 
Bernard  denied  himself,)  raised  their  number  first  to  fourteen,  and  then  to  fifteen. 
"The  author  of  the  order  of  Trianon,"  he  says,  "regarding  this  work  as  proper 
for  botanists  alone,  as  an  advance  towards  perfection,  and  a  simple  indication  of 
the  ronte  which  should  lead  to  it,  desired  that,  to  satisfy  the  present  object, 
which  is  that  of  public  instruction,  we  should  labor  rather  for  learners  than  for 
adepts ;  that,  without  deviating  from  tbe  true  pnnciples,  we  should  .seek  to 
establish  a  method  which  should  have  the  classes  in  greater  number,  more  pre- 
cise, and  consequentl}'  more  easily  to  be  apprehended.  He  thought,  further,  that 
it  was  incumbent  on  him  to  comply,  as  far  as  possible,  with  the  received  preju- 
dice which  regards  as  the  preferable  method  that  which  is  founded  on  the  parts 

18  s67  r^  T 

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274       THE  JUS8IEUS  AND  THE  NATURAL  METHOD. 

more  apparent  and  easy  to  be  observed.  It  bas  been  tbongbt  tbat  tbis  double 
object  might  be  fulfilled  by  joining  to  the  essential  cbaracters,  wbicb  are  sometimes 
little  apparent,  certain  accessory  cbaracters,  wbicb  are  constant  and  always  visi- 
ble, and  wbicb  indicate  tbe  existence  of  the  former  by  associating  tbe  corolla 
witb  tbe  stamens,  in  order  to  designate  tbe  classes."     (Memoir  of  1774.) 

Laurent  has  since  said,  (1824:)  *'It  would  be  necessary  to  adbere  to  tbis 
number"  (tbe  number  seven  of  Bernard,)  **if,  in  order  to  avoid  all  exception  or 
variation,  the  classes  could  only  bo  founded  on  invariable  characters.  But  if  it 
be  observed  tbat  tbe  number  of  families  now  adopted  amounts  to  nearly  one 
hundred  and  fifty,  and  is  consequently  quite  considerable  for  each  class,  tbe 
necessity  will  be  felt  of  forming  new  subdivisions,  without  deviating,  however, 
from  admitted  principles,  and  by  always  adhering  to  characters  of  the  greatest 
value.  That  which  fii-st  presents  itself,  after  the  invariable,  is  tbe  character 
derived  from  the  mediate  or  immediate  insertions,  or,  otherwise,  from  tbe  corolla 
considered  as  existent  or  null,  as  monopetalous  or  polypetalous.  Although  it  be 
subject  to  some  variations,  it  is  still  that  which  presents  the  fewest,  and  by 
employing  it  for  tbe  subdivisions,  the  number  of  classes  can  be  multiplied,  which 
diminishes  embarrassment  in  the  arrangement  of  families,  and  may  much  facili- 
tate study.  It  is  true  that  this  character  is  of  no  utility  in  dividing  either  tbe 
acotyledons,  the  flowers  of  which  are  too  little  apparent,  or  tbe  three  classes  of 
monocotyledons,  in  which  the  corolla  does  not  exist,  since  tbe  part  wbicb  was 
long  taken  for  such  is  a  true  calyx.  It  is  in  tbe  dicotyledons  alone,  then,  thai 
we  can  employ  the  character  of  the  insertions,  whether  mediate,  simply  immediate, 
or  essentially  immediate ;  or,  in  other  terms  more  easily  remembered,  the  character 
of  monopetalous,  polypetalous,  apetalous  plants.  We  thus  establish,  though 
admitting  of  some  exceptions,  in  each  of  the  three  classes  of  dicotyledons,  three 
subdivisions,  without  deviating  from  the  principles  adopted,  and  the  number  of 
dicotyledinous  classes  would  then  be  raised  to  nine.  Further,  the  subdivision 
or  class  of  monopetals  with  epigy  nic  corolla,  or  corolla  borne  on  tbe  pistil,  may  be 
separated  into  two,  according  to  the  character  of  their  stamens,  distinct  in  one 
of  its  divisions,  united  in  a  sheath  by  tbe  anthers  in  the  other,  wbicb  comprises 
solely  the  great  series  of  composite  plants.  This  separation,  which,  in  the 
dicotyledons,  adds  a  tenth  class,  does  not  separate  families  and  conflicts  with.no 
affinity." 

He  afterwards  adds :  "It  has  already  been  stated  tbat,  in  order  to  arrange  the 
families  more  easily,  it  was  necessary  to  multiply  the  great  divisions,  always 
adhering,  however,  to  the  most  solid  cbaracters,  and  we  have  seen  how  it  has 
been  practicable  to  augment  this  number  of  classes  in  the  dicotyledons  through 
considerations  derived  from  the  corolla.  It  has  appeared  to  us,  nevertheless,  that, 
with  a  view  to  facility  of  sHidy,  an  object  which  should  not  be  neglected,  it 
was  necessary,  in  order  to  have  in  tbe  great  divisions  principal  cbaracters  easy 
of  apprehension,  and  to  approximate  a  little  in  tbis  point  to  tbe  method  of  Tourne- 
fort,  founded  on  the  corolla,  to  give  the  preference  to  mediate  and  immediate 
insertions  over  bypogynic,  perigynic  and  epigynic  insertions,  and  not  to  follow 
rigorously  the  first  principles  established.  We  shall  have  the  same  classes,  bat 
presented,  in  the  dicotyledons,  according  to  another  series.  Thus,  by  leaving 
the  four  classes  of  the  first  two  grand  divisions  to  subsist  in  their  integrity,  and 
without  any  change,  we  shall,  in  the  first  place,  distinguish  tbe  dicotyledons  into 
apetalous,  monopetalous  and  polypetalous  plants.  In  the  apetalous,  or  those  with 
essentially  immediate  insertion,  we  shall  distinguish  three  classes  with  epigynic 
perigynic,  and  bypogynic  stamens.  If  we  next  pass  to  plants  with  a  monopetalous 
corolla  or  mediate  insertion,  and  if  we  remember  that  tbe  insertion  of  this  corolla 
then  becomes  the  essential  and  primary  character,  we  shall  subdivide  tbe  mono- 
petals  into  the  bypogynic,  perigynic  and  epigynic  corollas,  and  the  epigynae  will 
be  further  divided  into  synantheras,  having  united  anthers,  and  chorisanthenB, 
having  distinct  anthers.    The  polypetalous  plants,  or  those  having  the  insertion 


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THK   JESSIEnS  AND   THE  NATURAL  METHOD^ 


275 


dmplj  immediate,  will  be  divided,  like  the  apetalous,  according  to  tlie  insertions 
epigynic,  hypogynic,  and  perigynic  of  the  stamens,  without  any  further  subdivi- 
sion- The  class  of  dicUnes  will  close  this  series  of  eleven  classes,  which,  joined 
to  the  four  preceding,  will  carry  the  whole  number  to  fifteen,  in  which  we  can 
arrange  all  the  families  known,  without  decomposing  them."  (Article  Methodc 
natureUe  of  the  Diet,  det  Sciences  Naturellea, 

The  following  is  the  table  of  these  fifteen  classes  given  by  Laurent  himself  in 
the  article  just  cited : 


AOOTTLEDONES. 


DICOTYLBDONES  - 


AeotyUdones 1 

(  stamens  hypogynotu Monohypogyna.,.    2 

MOXOCOTYLEDONES  <  «tiimen8  p«rigynoai Monnperigyna  ...    3 

.  itumeng  epig^^oas Monoepiqyna  ....    4 

r  itamenM  epigynouB Epistameneoi H 

Btamens  perigynons Perigtaminea 6 

■tamons  hypogynoui, HypoBtaminect ....    7 

corolla  hypogy  nous HypocotoUea 8 

corolla  perigynoufl Perieorollea 9 

5  anthen  united EpicarolUa  {  ^q 
^.^j .                                       Synanthera  5  ••** 

(  anthers  distinct EvicoroUea  . .  }       ^t 

stamens  eplgynous Epipetalea 12 

stamens  hypogynons. HypopetaUa 13 

(  stamens  perigynous PeripetaUa 14 

DICUKIS Dieltnet 15 

la  the  table  placed  at  the  head  of  the  Genera  Plantarum,  instead  of  the  names 
which  here  indicate  each  class,  the  author  had  merely  emploved  the  number,  a 
mode  of  designation  which,  aa  is  seen  above,  he  judiciously  changed. 


APETALJE.. 


MONOPETALA. 


POLTPETAUE.. 


INDEX  METHODI 

Ordines  naturalei  eompUctentis, 

AOOTTLEDONES Class 

I :  stamina  bypogyna 

pcrlgyna 

eoigyua 

!  stamina  epigyna 
"  perlgyna 
"       hypogyna 

{corolla  bypogynn 
cpigyna  {antheris  dlstinctis 

i  stamina  epigyna 
bypogyna. 

.  DiCLIIf  E8  ULREOU  LARES . 


MONOCOTYLEDONES  . 


OICOTTLEDONES. 


perigyna.. 


I 

n 
III 

IV 

V 

VI 

VII 

VIII 

IX 

X 

XI 

XII 

xin 

XIV 
XV 


M.  de  Jussicn  has  been  censured,  and  with  reason,  for  the  arrangement  of  his 
classes,  founded  on  the  forms  of  the  corolla.  It  will  be  seen  that  he  censured 
it  himself:  "  These  classes,"  he  says,  "  have  the  defect  of  not  subsisting  without 
exception."  Again,  he  says  that,  "  if  the  method  be  considered  rigorously,  and 
not  with  a  view  to  convenience,  it  would  be  necessary  to  adhere,  as  Bernard  has 
done,  to  the  sole  invariable  characters,  the  loifet  of  the  embryo  and  the  insertum 
of  the  ttameiu.*'  And  yet,  in  proportion  as  the  number  of  species  has  increased, 
it  has  been  found  that  even  this  last  character,  taken  fVom  the  insertion  of  the 
stamens,  cannot  be  regarded  as  exempt  from  variation.  On  the  other  hand, 
everything  has  concurred  in  confirming  the  grand  division  given  by  the  iohes  of 
the  embryo.  Hence,  the  three  groups  founded  on  these  lobes  (the  acotyledons, 
monocotyledons,  and  dicotyledons)  are  far  beyond  simple  classes,  properly  so 
called ;  they  correspond  to  the  embranchements  of  the  animal  kingdom  estab- 
lished by  Guvier,  and  ought,  perhaps,  to  be  designated  by  the  same  name. 
Under  these  three  grand  divisions  should  be  placed  the  classes  proper,  each 
formed  by  the  union  of  several  families,  in  conformity  with  the  judicious  reflec- 
tion of  Mr.  Robert  Brown :  ''  A  methodical  and  at  the  same  time  natural  ar- 
rangementof  families  is  perhaps  impracticable  in  the  actual  state  of  our  knowledge ; 


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276       THE  JESSIEUS  AND  THE  NATURAL  METHOD. 

but  it  would  probably  hasten  the  execution  of  that  wock  were  we  to  turn  all 
onr  attention  to  the  combination  of  families  in  classes  equally  natural."  (Gen- 
eral rcmarkst  geographical  and  systematical,  on  the  botany  of  Terra  /ustralis, 
p.  7,  1814.)  All  the  ranks,  all  the  subordinations  of  gt.X)ups,  wou2d  then  be 
marked ;  the  entire  outline  of  botany  would  be  conformable  to  that  of  zoology, 
and  great  advantages  would  result  as  regards  the  high  and  philosophical  views 
common  to  the  two  sciences.  On  this  problem  of  &mflies  to  be  united  into 
classes,  and  classes  to  be  separated  from  embranchements,  M.  de  Gandolle  ex- 
presses himself  as  follows :  "  There  are  but  three  great  classes  known  at  present," 
(the  three  which  I  propose  to  name  embranchements.)  *  •  "  It  is  beyond 
doubt  that  each  of  these  classes  may  one  day  be  subdivided,  so  as  to  group 
among  themselves  the  families  which  are  alike ;  but  this  subdivision  of  classes, 
this  institution  of  groups  superior  to  families  and  inferior  to  classes,  has  not  yet 
been  accomplished  in  a  natural  manner.  *  *  In  this  lies  the  most  important 
problem  which  now  presents  itself  for  solution  in  the  study  of  natural  relations." 
( TAcorie  tHementaire  de  la  Botanigwt,  1813,  p  195.) 


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NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  ORGANIZED  BODIES. 


Fbou  the  Course  of  Lectures  of  M.  Maret  at  the  College  of  France. 


Translated  by  C.  A.  Alexander /or  the  Smithsonian  Institution, 


I. — Historical  evolution  op  the  sciences. 

The  course  of  instraction  in  the  College  of  France  is  not  limited  to  a  simple 
exposition  of  the  state  of  science  at  each  epoch,  but,  as  a  school  of  discovery, 
extends  its  views  to  the  actual  tendencies  of  the  human  mind.  It  aims  to  sig- 
nalize the  new  horizons  which  are  opening  for  science,  and  which  hold  out  to  us 
the  promise  of  further  acquisitions.  In  order,  however,  to  judge  of  the  direction  • 
to  be  pursued,  it  is  necessary,  iBrom  time  to  time,  to  cast  our  glance  backward, 
to  consider  the  space  which  has  been  traversed,  to  recall  the  windings,  the  haz- 
ards, the  difficulties  of  the  route.  Such  a  recurrence  to  the  past  is  one  of  the 
most  useful  preparations  for  a  new  departure,  and  will  enable  us  to  attain  our 
end  much  more  promptly  and  certainly  than  it  was  possible  for  our  predecessors 
to  do.  It  is  by  availing  ourselves  of  theu*  experience  that  the  march  of  improve- 
ment has  been  constantly  accelerated,  until,  in  our  day,  more  discoveries  are  pro- 
duced in  ten  years  than  formerly  in  an  age. 

The  history  of  the  natural  sciences  has,  not  long  since,  been  retraced  in  this 
chair  by  the  professor  whom  I  have  the  honor  of  replacing.  M.  Flourens  here 
passed  in  review  the  life  and  labors  of  the  learned  naturalists  of  the  XVIth, 
XVI Ith,  XVIIIth,  and  XlXth  centuries,  having  devoted  to  this  subject  several 
years  of  his  instruction.  I  shall  not  undertake  to  unfold  anew  tnis  historic 
tablet,  however  instructive  may  be  its  lessons.  Permit  me  merely  to  retrace, 
with  a  rapid  glance,  the  principal  phases  of  the  evolution  of  science.  We  shall 
thus  see  more  clearly  the  tendency  of  scientific  inquiry  and  the  direction  in 
which  we  should  look  for  its  further  advancement. 

The  natural  history  of  organized  beings  comprises  zoology  and  botany.  If 
we  open  the  most  ancient  treatises  on  these  subjects,  we  perceive  that  the  engross- 
ing occupation  was  to  make  an  enumeration  of  the  objects  of  nature.  Science 
might  be  said  to  have  been  then  engaged  in  taking  possession  of  its  domain ; 
in  making  the  inventory  of  its  treasures.  Each  object  received  a  name  which 
might  distinguish  it,  by  recalling,  as  far  as  possible,  its  exterior  characters.  The 
''embarrassment  of  riches''  soon  gave  rise  to  the  necessity  of  a  methodical 
arrangement.  The  first  step  was  to  separate  animals  from  plants,  and  thus 
were  formed  the  two  great  kingdoms  of  the  natural  world.  Afterwards,  in  each 
kingdom,  were  created  new  divisions;  fii*st,  branches,  each  of  which  was  dis- 
tributed into  classes,  and  these  again,  by  successive  divisions,  into  orders,  families, 
tribes,  genera,  and  species.  To  be  useful,  these  classifications  should  combine  in  the 
same  group  the  beings  analogous  to  one  another,  so  that,  by  knowing  to  what  fam- 
ily an  animal  or  a  plant  belongs,  a  preliminary  idea  may  be  formed  of  its  principal 
characters.  It  is  for  the  attainment  of  this  end  that  classifications  have  been  so 
often  modified,  tending  constantly  to  become  more  wo^uro^that  is  to  say,  to 

*  Retue  des  Court  8cient\fiqn£s  de  la  France  et  de  V4tranger,  March,  1867. 

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278 


NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  ORGANIZED  BODIES. 


establish  the  affinity  or  the  separation  of  beings  on  the  most  important  char- 
acters. 

Anatomy,  in  the  mean  time,  came  in  aid  and  revealed  the  interior  stmctore 
of  animals  and  plants.  It  showed  that  certain  organs  seem,  fix)m  their  constant 
occurrence  in  the  series  of  beings,  to  have  on  that  account  a  predominant 
importance,  while  others  which  are  frequently  modified,  and  sometimes  wholly 
wanting,  appear  to  be  but  accessories,  and  of  a  secondary  utility.  Hence  it  b 
that  the  presence  of  a  vertebral  canal  containing  the  spinal  marrow  has  furnished' 
the  distinctive  character  of  a  whole  branch  of  the  animal  kingdom,  that,  namely, 
of  the  vertebrata.  In  this  second  phase  of  the  evolution  of  the  natural  sciences, 
man  no  longer  confined  himself  to  the  rdle  of  a  spectator  of  nature.  He  scru- 
tinized and  compared ;  ho  essayed  to  form  an  idea  of  the  general  plan  of  the 
organization  of  beinffs.  The  dry  nomenclature  had  thus  given  place  to  a 
methodical  classification. 

When  Cuvier  appeared,  comparative  anatomy  was  doubtless  already  founded. 
Antiquity  itself  had  learned  it  from  Aristotle  j  modem  times  had  witnessed  its 
advancement  by  CI.  Perrault  and  Vicq  d'Azyr ;  but  much  remained  to  bo  done 
in  order  to  complete  the  classifying  of  animals  according  to  their  anatomical 
constitution.  The  branch  of  the  invertebrata  comprised  a  multitude  of  incon- 
gruous orders,  among  which  new  divisions  werc  of  course  necessary.  The 
invertebrates  were  divided  by  Cuvier  into  three  new  branches,  the  MoRusks, 
the  Articulata,  and  the  Zoophytes.  This  natural  classification,  based  on  com- 
parative anatomy,  borrowed  the  distinctive  characters  from  the  arrangement  of 
the  most  important  organs  in  the  animal :  from  that  of  the  nervous  system. 

It  was  now  that,  combining  in  a  comprehensive  synthesis  particular  facts  in 
order  to  derive  from  them  general  ideas,  Cuvier  was  enabled  to  throw  light  on 
some  of  the  laws  which  govern  the  organized  world.  Such,  for  example,  is 
the  law  of  subordination  of  organs,  which  teaches  us  that  such  or  such  an  organ, 
when  it  is  present  in  an  animal,  implies  the  presence  of  otber  organs  which  are 
associated  with  it  after  a  necessary  manner.  Natural  history  had  thus  become 
a  veritable  science,  agreeably  to  the  definition  of  Bacon :  "  Sciences  are  only 
facts  generalized."  Now,  generalization  had  conducted  Cuvier  to  the  expression 
of  laws.  These,  in  turn,  led  him  to  a  remarkable  consequence — ^to  the  creation 
of  paleontology.  It  was  in  conformity  with  his  law  of  the  coiTclation  of  forms 
that  he  reconstructed  the  entire  skeleton  of  a  fossil  animal  when  possessed  of 
but  a  few  of  its  remains,  and  restored  for  science  generations  of  beings  which 
had  long  disappeared  from  the  surface  of  the  fflobe. 

By  the  side  of  Cuvier  another  gi*and  historicxu  figure  presents  itself  in  Geoffroy 
Saint  Hilaire,  his  cotemporaiy  and  friend,  more  recently  his  scientific  adversary. 
Prepossessed  by  his  labora  in  the  natural  classification  of  beings,  Cu\'ier  had 
bent  his  whole  force  to  the  discovery  of  the  difierences  which  separated  them. 
The  genius  of  Geoffroy  disposed  him  rather  to  comparison ;  resemblances 
attracted  him  more  strongly  than  differences,  and  enabled  him  to  detect,  in  the 
zoological  series,  the  unity  of  plan  amidst  the  diversity  of  details.  History 
will  preserve  the  remembmnce  of  the  memorable  conflicts  of  these  illustrious 
adversaries,  conflicts  which  powerfully  developed  two  great  conceptions  in  which, 
at  last,  there  is  nothing  iireconcilable.  From  this  epoch  dates  the  rise  of 
amifomical  pJdhsojyhf/* 

While  zoology  was  establishing  itself  on  foundations  really  scientific,  botany 
had  been  pureuing  a  parallel  career.  As  early  as  the  XVIIth  century,  Pierre  Mag- 
nol  attempted  to  substitute  for  the  ancient  nomenclatures  a  natural  classification. 
He  sought,  in  1689,  to  distinguish  plants  according  to  their  principal  organs — 
the  roots,  the-  stems,  the  flowers,  tlio  seeds.  But  vegetable  anatomy  was  too 
little  advanced  to  peimit  a  classification  based  on  the  constitution  of  the  most 
important  organs  of  plants.  Botany  had  still  to  pass  through  the  artificial 
cW  ifications  of  Tonmcfort  and  Linnaeus  before  arriving  at  me  more  perfect 

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NATURAL  HISTORY   OF   ORGANIZED   BODIES.  279 

form  wLicb  it  received  from  the  Jussieus.  It  was  Autoino  Laurent  do  Jussleu, 
iu  effect;  who  first  cleaily  apprehended  and  distinctly  defined  the  principle  of 
subordination  of  characters.  He  based  his  classification  of  plants  on  the  anat- 
omy of  the  most  important  apparatus  in  the  vegetable  kingdom — ^tho  apparatus 
of  reproduction.  Hence  the  number  of  the  lobes  of  the  vegetable  embryo^ 
that  is  to  say,  of  the  coft/ledofis,  the  insertion  of  the  stamens  in  the  flower,  became 
the  chai-acters  on  which  is  still  based  the  classification  of  plants. 

Since  Cuvier  and  the  Jussieus,  zoological  and  botanical  classifications  have 
ijontinucd  to  improve ;  but  naturalists  have,  on  the  whole,  respected  the  plan 
which  has  been  handed  down  to  them.  Rectifications  have  been  made,  and  cer- 
tain beings  have  been  transferred  from  one  family  to  another,  with  which  they  are 
more  closely  allied  by  essential  characters ;  at  other  times  it  has  been  found 
necessary  to  enlarge  the  zoological  and  botanical  outline  for  the  admission  of 
newly  discovered  individuals,  but  these  partial  modifications  constitute  but  a 
development  of  the  fundamental  idea  which  has  remained  unchanged:  the 
necessity,  namely,  of  keeping  constantly  in  view  the  classification  of  beings 
according  to  the  most  important  chai^acters  of  their  organization. 

Anatomy,  which  had  produced  these  reforms,  has  itself  advanced  to  now  con- 
quests. Up  to  our  present  century  it  had  remained  purely  descriptive — that  is 
to  say,  it  was  limited  to  indicating  the  fonu  of  the  organs  considered  each  in  its 
own  mass.  Thus  it  determined  the  fonn  of  the  bones,  of  the  muscles,  of  the 
vessels,  of  the  nerves,  &c.,  whether  in  man  or  a  lower  species,  or  else  it  com- 
pared the  an-angement  of  these  organs  in  a  succession  of  individuals  of  the  zoo- 
logical series.  It  was  Bichat  who  impressed  on  anatomy  a  new  character.  He 
created  general  anatomy,  in  the  sense  that  he  studied  the  tissues  which  enter 
into  the  composition  of  the  organism.  The  extended  employment  of  the  micro- 
scope gave  a  vigorous  impulsion  to  these  studies.  This  instrument  conferred  the 
jxjwer  of  discerning  distinct  andVell-defined  elements  in  those  tissues  which 
had  till  then  appeared  homogeneous.  The  globules  of  the  blood,  the  animal- 
cules of  the  sperm,  the  cellules  of  the  epithelium,  the  tubes  of  the  nerves,  the 
acini  of  the  glands,  have  been  all  revealed  to  us  by  the  microscope.  The 
knowledge  pertaining  to  these  subjects  constitutes  histology j  henceforth  insepara- 
ble from  general  anatomy.  Transferred  to  the  domain  of  comparative  anatomy, 
histology  acquires  a  new  interest ;  it  shows  us  that  certain  elements  of  the  tis- 
sues undergo,  like  the  organs  themselves,  very  decided  modifications  when  we 
follow  them  up  in  animals  or  plants  of  different  families. 

The  microscope  further  conducts  us  to  a  discovery  of  great  importance,  that 
of  the  development  of  the  germs  in  animals  and  plants.  Animal  cmbtyogeny 
constitutes  a  new  branch  of  science,  with  which  are  connected  illustrious  names^ 
almost  all  being  those  of  cotemporaries :  Von  Baer,  Gi*aaf,  Purkinje,  Coste. 
Nor  is  vegetable  embiyogeny  less  curious ;  the  intimate  phenomena  of  reproduc- 
tion in  the  two  kingdoms  resemble  one  another  in  a  striking  manner.  The 
surprised  obsei'ver  hesitates  in  pronouncing  whether  he  has  not  under  his  eyes 
an  animal  organism,  when  he  sees  the  antherozoid  of  certain  vegetables  agitated 
as  with  spontaneous  motion,  seeking  with  persistence  the  orifice  through  which 
it  is  destined  to  pass,  or  disengaging  itself  with  apparent  effort  from  the  impedi- 
ments which  obstruct  it.  The  two  kingdoms  thus  appear  to  be  confounded  in 
the  elements  of  their  origin,  while  they  deviate  so  widely  one  from  the  other 
when  we  contemplate  them  only  as  complete  beings. 

This  collective  view  of  organized  nature,  important  as  it  is,  still  exhibits  it  to 
us  only  under  one  of  its  aspects.  It  makes  us  acquainted  with  existencies  as 
regards  their  form  and  structure,  abstraction  being  matle  of  what  is  most  essen- 
tial in  them;  namely,  life.  We  seem  to  have  been  traversing  an  immense 
gallerj'  of  mechanisms  of  greatly  varied  combinations,  some  in  appearance  ver^' 
simple,  others  of  an 'extreme  complication ;  these  of  enormous  mass,  those  of  an 
infimte  delicacy.    But  everything  here  was  mysterious  in  its  immobility;  the 


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280  NATURAL  HISTORY   OF   ORGANIZED   BODIES 

imagination  is  lost  in  conjectures  on  tlie  function  proper  to  each.  It  is  now 
necessary  to  see  these  things  in  action,  each  executing  the  work  for  which  it  is 
adapted.  The  catalogue  has  been  drawn  up  unth  sufficient  exactness  for  present 
needs.  To-day  the  current  no  longer  tends  to  classification,  it  is  directed  to  the 
study  of  the  functions  of  life ;  that  is  to  say,  the  play  of  the  organs  which  anatomy 
has  disclosed  to  us.  This  study  of  the  phenomena  »vhich  take  place  in  living 
beings  is  ordinarily  called  phyaiologifj  or,  more  correctly,  biology. 

All  organized  beings  livej  animals  or  plants  all  accomplish  a  series  of  acts 
from  their  origin  to  tlieir  dissolution ;  but  life  is  interpreted  in  them  by  mani- 
festations as  vaiied  as  their  organization  itself. 

It  may  bo  said  that  biology  is  the  offspring  of  anatomy,  for  it  was  from  the 
form  of  the  organs  that  man  was  first  inspired  with  the  comprehension  of  tho 
function  of  each  of  them.  This  influence  of  anatomy  gave  to  biology  in  tho 
first  instance  a  deductive  character  from  which,  oven  in  our  day,  it  finds  diffi- 
culty in  disengaging  itself.  It  is  true  that  when  we  see  the  arrangement  of  tho 
articulating  surfaces  which  unite  the  different  parts  of  the  skeleton,  wo  i*eadily 
comprehend  tho  function  of  those  organs ;  we  see  how  each  bono  moves  upon  its 
contiguous  bone,  and  this  in  itself  explains  the  varied  positions  which  certain 
portions  of  tho  body  may  assume.  But  the  action  of  tho  muscles  was  much  more 
difficult  to  be  comprehended.  Aristotle  himself  knew  it  not.  The  representa- 
tive of  ancient  science,  the  founder  of  comparative  anatomy,  must  have  con- 
stantly obser\'ed  the  extreme  variety  of  muscular  development  in  different  species 
of  animals,  and  yet  this  anatomical  principle  ccmveyed  to  him  no  idea  of  tho 
function  of  tho  muscle.  It  was  reserved  for  Erasistratus,  grandson  of  Aristotle, 
to  discover  fii*st  the  elcmentar}'  fact,  that  a  muscle  contracts  in  order  to  produce 
motion.  The  r6lo  of  tho  other  organs  was  still  more  obscure ;  but  in  regard  to 
these,  not  satisfied  with  ignorance,  inquirers  accumulated  in  the  name  of  science 
the  most  foolish  suppositions.  The  viscera,  in  particular,  were  endoweil  with 
singular  functions ;  each  of  them  lodged  one  of  the  properties  of  the  soul.  In  the 
head  resided  reason,  in  the  heart  courage  luul  choler,  in  the  liver  concupiscence, 
and  so  with  different  organs.  Such  ideas,  of  course,  could  never  have  l>eeu 
inspired  by  anatomy,  and  they  had,  in  effect,  another  source.  Philosophers  havo 
by  no  means  been  insensible  to  the  attractions  of  the  mysterious  and  incomprc*^ 
hensiblej  psychology  is  more  ancient  than  tho  sciences,  and  Aristotle  had 
received  from  Plato  a  whole  system  ready  made.  It  was  thought  indispensably 
necessary  to  Icjdge  three  souls  in  the  human  body,  and  each  of  these  had  several 
properties  which  could  not  be  left  without  a  habitat.  Thus  it  is  that  mystical 
tradition  has  imposed  even  on  those  who  have  conscientiously  sought  to  place 
themselves  in  direct  relations  with  nature. 

I  would  have  willingly  passed  in  silence  these  singular  tendencies  of  tho 
human  mind  to  depart  from  the  domain  of  real  facts  and  to  )*ield  to  tho  caprices 
of  imagination ;  but  the  question  relates  not  to  a  passing  eiTor  to  which  time  has 
already  rendered  justice.  The  ideas  of  Plato  have  a  hundix'd  times  changeil 
their  fonii,  but  they  have  been  transmitted  from  age  to  age ;  they  prevail  at 
this  day  under  the  form  of  vitalism  ;  that  is  to  say,  tlio  doctrine  which  pretends 
to  have  explained  every  phenomenon  of  life  when  it  has  pronounced  such  or  such 
a  plienomenon  to  be  the  effect  of  a  paxtlculuT  propcrft/  of  the  living  being.  This 
doctrine  I  shall  not  stop  to  combat  j  quite  enough  has  been  vainly  said  in 
attempting  to  confute  those  who  do  not  choose  to  be  convinced.  It  is  safe  to 
assume,  however,  that  the  vitalistic  school  is  at  present  condemned  for  ifs  steril- 
ity ;  that  it  loses  ground  every  day,  while  the  number  of  those  is  daily  increas- 
ing who  demand  from  the  rigorous  observation  of  facts  and  from  experiment  the 
solution  of  the  problems  of  biology. 

It  would  be  more  interesting  to  follow  through  its  successive  stages  tho  devel- 
opment of  the  school  of  experimenters.  To  find  its  origin,  we  must  go  back  to 
remote  periods.     Surprising  it  is,  that  the  two  opposite  tendencies  which  Lave 


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NATURAL  HISTOEY  OP   ORGANIZED  BODIES.  281 

BO  long  contended  for  mastery  come  to  ns  from  the  same  source.  Aristotle,  who 
encumbered  science  with  entities  uselessly  imagined,  has  bequeathed  to  us  many 
exact  ideas  on  the  nature,  whether  voluntary  or  involuntary,  of  movement,  on 
the  development  of  the  foetus,  &o.  Erasistratus,  who  represented  vital  spirits  as 
circulating  in  the  arteries,  recognized  the  true  nature  of  the  action  of  the  muscles. 
Galen,  so  much  prepossessed  with  humorism,  with  the  four  elements,  ^^-ith  the 
forces  which  preside  over  the  functions,  was  not  the  less  a  great  experimentalist. 
He  alone  made  more  discoveries  than  all  his  predecessors ;  he  showed  that  it  is 
with  blood  that  the  arteries  and  the  heart  are  filled ;  he  pointed  out  the  influence 
of  the  nerves  on  the  movement  of  the  muscles ;  ho  recognized  the  paralysis  pro- 
duced by  a  lesion  of  the  spinal  marrow.  Ho  realized,  in  fine,  one  of  the  most 
striking  experiments  of  physiology,  by  showing  that  the  section  of  the  recurrent 
nerves  paralyzes  the  larj-nx  and  extinguishes  the  voice. 

Soon  afterwards  all  progress  is  arrested  before  the  invasion  of  the  barbarians, 
and  science  remains  toipid  for  14  centuries.  On  its  revival,  the  two  parties  reap- 
pear more  opposed  than  ever ;  with  an  antagonism  more  precisely  defined,  and 
each  boasting  its  proper  representatives.  While  Stahl  revives  the  immaterial 
principles  of  Plato,  HofFman  vindicates  the  supremacy  of  physical  laws  in  tho 
phenomena  of  life.  Establishing  themselves  on  the  grand  discovery  of  Harvey, 
the  organicians  proceed  to  demonstrate  the  potency  of  the  experimental  method. 
Finally,  Haller  appears,  and,  reassembling  the  materials  of  physiologj^,  makes  of 
it  a  well-defined  science,  and  impels  it  onward  in  tho  path  of  experiment. 

Since  this  epoch  discoveries  have  rapidly  succeeded  one  another ;  with  each 
of  them  the  name  of  some  experimentalist  is  associated  :  J.  Hunter,  I3ichat,  Ma- 
gendie,  Oh.  Bell,  J.  Miiller,  savants  whose  work  has  been  so  ably  continued  by 
our  cotemporaries.  Animal  physiology  has  reached  a  very  advanced  stage,  and 
one  of  great  interest.  Having  emerged  from  that  unsatisfactory  phase  in  which 
the  sciences,  while  in  a  state  of  formation,  arc  engaged  in  accumulating  isolated 
facts,  and  too  often  in  seeking  to  connect  those  facts  by  premature  hypothesis,  wo 
are  able  not  only  to  realize  tho  principal  conditions  under  which  certain  function:* 
are  performed,  but  to  obtain  a  view  of  their  relations  and  reciprocal  influences. 
In  the  collective  functions  of  the  organism,  we  discover,  in  efiect,  a  subordination 
such  as  Ouvier  has  pointed  out  in  tho  organs  themselves.  Tho  nervous  system, 
the  most  constant  apparatus  in  animals,  presides  over  sensibility  and  movement, 
the  two  prominent  functions  in  the  animal  economy.  But  it  governs  also  the 
functions  of  organic  life — respiration  and  circulation,  which  in  turn  react  upon 
the  nervous  system,  so  that  the  knowledge  of  one  function  would  not  be  complete 
if  we  did  not  know  at  the  same  time  its  influence  upon  the  others. 

Vegetable  physiology  is  unfortunately  much  less  advanced  ;  it  can  scarcely  bo 
said  to  consist  of  more  than  certain  rather  va^ue  ideas.  Not  only  is  it  true  that 
we  do  not  at  present  understand  the  general  harmony  of  the  functions  of  plants; 
we  have  but  a  very  incomplete  knowledge  of  each  of  those  functions  in  itself. 
The  phyioloffists  have  attempted  to  model  themselves  upon  the  procedure  of  tho 
zoologists,  but  without  deriving  much  benefit  from  tho  imitation. 

The  functions  of  the  vegetable  have  been  classed  nearly  in  conformity  with 
the  functions  of  the  animal,  but  this  assimilation  may  itself  have  operated  as  a 
shackle  on  the  progress  of  the  science.  All  that  has  been  said  of  the  circulation 
in  plants  was  plainly  suggested  by  ideas  borrowed  from  the  circulation  in  ani- 
mals. The  double  current  of  liquid  supposed  to  ascend  by  the  tubes  of  the  lig- 
num and  to  descend  again  by  those  of  the  latex,  would  seem,  according  to  modem 
authors,  but  a  false  analogy  established  between  the  physiology  of  animals  and 
that  of  plants.  Vegetable  respiration  is  however  better  known.  Tlie  experi- 
ments of  Bonnet,  Priestley,  Senebier,  and  Th.  de  Saussure  have  established  tho 
important  fact,  that  the  green  parts  of  vegetables  exhale  oxygen  under  the  influ- 
ence of  solar  radiation,  while,  in  darkness,  these  same  parts  oisengage  carbonio 
acid. 


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.282  NATURAL  HISTORY  OP   ORGANIZED   BODIES. 

As  to  other  plienomena  of  vegetable  physiology,  they  remain  to  a  great  extent 
unexplained.  Inquiiy  is,  in  a  considerable  measure,  still  confined  to  the  verifi- 
cation of  facts,  of  which  the  interpretation  has  not  yet  been  fmnished.  Such  for 
instance  is  the  property  possessed  by  the  root  and  the  stalk  of  vegetables,  the 
one  of  directing  itself  in  accordance  with  the  terrestrial  attraction,  the  other  of 
rearing  itself  in  the  inverse  direction  of  that  attraction.  Ingenious  experiments 
were  instituted  by  J.  Hunter  and  Knight  with  a  view  to  anive  at  the  solution 
of  this  problem,  but  the  results  obtained  by  these  experimentalists  have  proved 
insuliicient  to  explain  the  facts.  The  action  also  which  the  light  exerts  upon 
plajits  in  curving  their  branches,  the  tendency  which  certain  plants  manifest  to 
twine  themselves  always  in  the  same  direction,  to  the  right  in  the  case  of  some, 
to  the  left  in  the  case  of  others,  are  facts  ascertained  but  not  explained.  In  a 
word,  vegetable  physiology  is  a  science  which  is  in  process  of  fonnation,  but  is 
far  from  having  attained  the  degree  of  development  presented  at  this  day  by- 
animal  physiology. 

In  this  rapid  review,  I  have  attempted  to  indicate  the  principal  phases  of  the 
evolution  of  the  natrntil  sciences ;  their  succession  must  doubtless  take  place  in 
an  order  which  may  be  pronounced  necessary,  each  phase  preparing  the  way  for 
another,  and  rendering  possible  and  productive  researches  which  would  pre\4- 
ously  have  been  premature.  At  the  same  time,  the  facts  would  certainly  be 
strained  did  we  pretend  to  exhibit  a  succession  of  well-defined  epochs,  each  exclu- 
sively devoted  to  the  elaboration  of  one  of  the  links  of  this  long  chain.  It  is 
not  the  less  true  however,  that  the  human  mind,  in  the  evolution  of  the  natural 
sciences,  has  pursued  in  general  the  course  above  indicated,  a  course  which  we 
can  tmc^  in  the  advancement  of  all  the  sciences  which  depend  upon  observation 
and  experiment. 

Augusto  Conite,  a  philosopher  whose  doctrines  have  given  rise,  of  late  years, 
to  so  much  discussion,  has  established  a  fact  on  which  almost  all  parties  are  in 
accord.  It  is  this :  that  the  sciences  which  may  b6  considered  as  having  rexiched 
an  advanced  stage  of  maturity  have  passed  through  three  successive  phases ; 
one  theological y  another  metaphysical ^  the  \&&i  positive.  By  this  it  is  meant  that 
man,  in  presence  of  the  phenomena  of  nature,  has  been  led  in  the  first  instance 
to  suppose  the  inlluence  of  some  divinity  as  the  permanent  cause  of  what  ho  wit- 
nessed ;  that  still  later  certain  hidden  forces  or  properties  were  imagined  as  gov- 
erning matter  in  all  its  manifestations  of  activity  ;  that  subsequently,  having 
become  wise  enough  to  resist  the  allurements  of  imagination,  the  authority  of  the 
ancients  and  the  influence  of  routine,  inquirere  have  taken  the  part  of  accepting 
nothing  as  true  but  what  appeared  susceptible  of  being  demonstrated ;  of  renoun- 
cing the  seaich  for  first  causes,  and  of  directing  their  attention  exclusively  to  the 
verification  of  facts  and  the  deduction  of  laws  under  the  control  of  experience. 

I  advance  no  pretensions  to  modify  this  formula  so  ingeniously  propounded  by 
Auguste  Comte,  still  less  would  I  venture  to  substitute  another.  But  placing 
myself  at  the  more  restricted  point  of  view  of  the  sciences  which  have  for  their 
object  the  facts  of  natui-e,  I  think  it  competent  still  further  to  subdivide  and 
specify  the  phases  of  their  evolution,  and  to  say  that  in  all  these  sciences  we  may 
distinguish  a  certain  number  of  periods,  each  corresponding  to  a  certain  stage 
in  their  development.  We  should  thus  have,  first  the  period  of  nomenclature, 
next  that  of  the  natural  classification  of  beings ;  still  later  the  analytic  study  of 
natural  characters  would  be  developed,  to  be  followed  by  the  study  of  phenomena, 
leading  finally  to  the  establishment  of  general  laws. 

To  show  that  the  human  mind  has  always  proceeded  by  these  steps,  I  shall 
not  multiply  examples,  but  will  take  the  most  general  of  all.  I  borrow  it  from 
the  science  which,  in  virtue  of  its  comprehensiveness,  takes  precedence  of  all  others, 
the  science  of  the  universe  or  cosmos,  of  the  great  whole. 

We  see  the  immensity  of  space  peopled  with  objects  each  of  which  is  an  orb 
or  heavenly  body,  and  the  first  impulse  of  mankind  was  the  desire  to  enumerate 


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NATURAL  HISTOBT   OF  OBQANIZED  BODIES.  283 

tbem.  Artificial  gronps  or  constellations  were  first  established,  constituting  a 
trae  nomenclatare  of  the  stars.  Afterwards  the  effort  was  to  classify  them,  and 
the  stars  which  appear  fixed  were  distinguished  from  those  which  exhibit  move- 
ment ;  among  these  last  again,  the  planets,  the  comets,  and  the  asteroids  were  to 
be  distinguished  before  the  immutable  laws  of  the  planetary  movements  could  be 
discovered.  In  this  classification  the  terrestrial  globe  became  an  individual  per- 
taining to  the  genus  planet  and  a  member  of  that  class  called  the  solar  system. 
It  will  bo  seen  further,  that  the  earth,  considered  individually,  was  submittal  to 
the  same  analysis  as  the  individuals  which  pertain  to  the  organized  world.  Thus 
the  earth  has  its  descriptive  anatomy  ;  it  is  the  physical  geography  which  teaches 
us  the  general  arrangement  of  the  planet,  its  double  polar  oblateness,  the  con- 
iigoration  of  the  land  and  seas,  the  altitude  of  the  ground  and  depth  of  the  waters 
in  different  places,  the  course  of  the  rivers  which  traverse  the  terrestrial  surface 
like  the  veins  in  our  organs.  The  earth  has  also  its  anatomy  of  structure.  This 
is  represented  by  geology,  properly  so  called,  which,  according  to  the  composi- 
tion or  arrangement  of  the  formations,  refers  them  to  different  types,  as  is  done 
with  regard  to  the  living  tissues.  The  geologist,  like  the  anatomist,  does  not 
confine  himself  to  the  exterior  appearance,  but  subjects  each  part  to  chemical 
analysis,  explores  the  densities  and  cohesions,  observes  with  the  microscope  the 
detaila  of  structure,  &c.  Emhryogcny  itself  finds  its  analogue  in  the  science 
which  is  occupied  with  the  evolution  of  our  globe  and  the  genesis  of  the  differ- 
ent terrestrial  strata.  On  one  part  and  the  other,  we  have  the  same  method,  the 
same  induction  fi'om  what  is  passing  under  our  eyes  to  what  must  have  passed 
at  an  epoch  inaccessible  to  our  observation. 

Thus  we  observe,  in  regard  to  the  material  study  of  our  planet,  a  striking 
similitude  between  the  metho<ls  employed  and  those  to  which  naturalists  have 
recourse  for  the  study  of  organized  beings.  Without  forcing  the  compaiison,  it 
may  be  carried  even  further.  The  earth  has  functions  j  there  are  phenomena 
which  take  place  in  it  that  bear  an  analogy  to  actual  life.  As  the  moon  has  been 
called  the  cadaver  qf  a  planet j  it  may  bo  said  that  the  earth  is  a  living  planet 
Under  this  point  of  view,  we  shall  see  that  it  has  also  its  pltysiology. 

It  is  meteorology  which  reveals  to  us  the  functions  of  our  planet.  In  the  inge- 
nious treatise  lately  published  on  this  subject  by  M.  Marid— Davy,  there  may  bo 
found  a  particularly  vivid  picture  of  that  perpetual  circulation  of  the  waters  which, 
quitting  the  sea  under  the  form  of  vapor,  rise  into  the  atmosphere  only  to  bo  con- 
densed in  clouds,  and,  falling  again  upon  the  earth,  are  borne  by  the  brooks  and 
rivers  to  the  sea  from  which  they  were  separated.  The  atmosphere  is  the  seat 
of  an  analogous  aerial  circulation  ;  the  equatorial  zone  is  the  common  goal  of 
the  lower  trade-winds,  as  it  is  the  point  of  departure  of  the  winds  of  an  opposite 
direction,  the  upper  trade-winds,  which  flow  thence  to  the  polar  regions,  whence 
they  will  i^ain  return  towards  the  equator.  The  distribution  of  terrestrial  heat 
presents  a  perfect  resemblance  to  that  of  animal  heat ;  the  same  tendency  on 
either  part  to  the  refrigeration  of  the  points  remote  from  the  central  region ;  the 
same  transference  of  caloric  by  the  circulation  of  heated  liquids.  Could  we  enter 
here  upon  the  study  of  the  distribution  of  the  animal  temporatm*e,  it  would  be 
seen  that  the  analogies  are  still  more  striking  than  the  present  occasion  permits 
us  to  demonstrate. 

If  I  have  dwelt  at  some  length  on  this  retrospective  survey  of  the  progress  of 
the  sciences,  it  is  because  I  have  thought  that  much  instraction  might  be  found 
therein  for  those  who  are  seeking  to  advance  them ;  and  should  I  have  succeeded 
in  showing  that  the  methods  foUowed  are  always  nearly  the  same,  the  history 
of  the  progress  achieved  may  enlighten  us  as  to  the  value  of  each  of  those  methods. 
Thus,  as  I  said  in  commencing,  the  experience  acquired  by  our  predecessors  will 
serve  to  conduct  us  in  the  new  route  which  we  shall  have  to  traverse.  That 
route  is  plainly  traced ;  it  is  easy  to  see  that  the  tendency  is  no  longer  to  classi- 
fications»  whicn  willy  of  themselves,  become  perfect  under  the  influence  of  olte- 


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284  NATURAL  HISTORt   OF   ORGANIZED   BODIES. 

rior  discoveries  respecting  the  functions  of  animals  and  plants.  Nor  yet  is  the 
actual  tendency,  as  it  seems,  to  descriptive  studies.  At  the  point  which  anatomy 
has  reached,  what  is  mther  to  be  apprehended  is  confusion,  through  the  multi- 
plicity of  minute  details.  Our  science  is  already  encumbered  with  descriptions 
which  the  life  of  one  man  would  not  suffice  to  master. 

To  this  it  may  be  answered  that  it  is  precisely  to  remedy  this  obstruction  that 
recourse  is  had  to  a  division  of  labor ;  that,  by  virtue  of  this  expedient,  we  may 
look  with  confidence  to  the  indefinite  increase  of  human  science,  each  ramifica- 
tion of  which  will  be  developed  by  the  assiduity  of  inquirers  devoted  exclusively 
to  some  speciality.  But  can  it  be  necessary  to  show  how  much  such  a  state  of 
things  is  to  be  deprecated  ?  The  more  thoroughly  any  point  of  science  is  inves- 
tigated the  more  numerous  and  intimate  are  found  to  bo  its  connections  with  all 
others.  Need  we  recall  the  services  which  zoology  and  botany  have  rendered 
to  geology,  the  utility  of  chemistry  and  physics  to  those  who  cultivate  anatomy 
or  physiology  f  So  much  for  the  solidarity ,  the  inter-dependence  of  the  sciences, 
in  view  of  the  means  of  study  and  the  furtherance  of  one  through  the  other; 
a  like  solidarity  is  found  in  regard  to  the  laws  which  govern  them. 

Every  law,  when  once  known,  throws  light  on  a  vast  field,  for  it  controls  a 
great  number  of  phenomena.  The  law  of  proportionality  to  the  squares  applies 
not  only  to  the  gravitation  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  but  to  light,  electricity,  mag- 
netic attraction,  accelerated  movement,  &c.  Chemical  laws  enable  us  to  foresee 
a  great  number  of  phenomena  which  no  one  has  yet  attempted  to  realize. 

If  all  the  sciences  allowed  of  our  evolving,  from  this  time  forward,  precise 
laws,  it  would  bo  easy  for  us  to  combine  in  a  grand  assemblage  all  dispersed 
facts ;  a  single  mind  might  embrace  in  their  generality  all  human  cognitions ; 
what  the  sages  of  antiquity  could  not  realize  by  reason  of  the  narrow  extent  of 
their  knowledge,  would  bo  accomplished  to-day  on  a  field  much  more  vast, 
thanks  to  the  excellence  and  simplicity  of  method.  This  ideal,  which  however 
we  shall  never  attain,  should  at  least  be  the  star  which  serves  us  for  a  guide ; 
it  is  to  the  research  of  the  laws  of  life  that  it  behooves  us  henceforth  to  direct 
our  earnest  attention. 

II. — Office  of  analysis  in  the  sciences. — power  which  it  derives 

FROM  THE  EMPLOYMENT  OF  GREATLY  IMPROVED  INSTRUMENTS. 

I  have  endeavored  to  show  that  the  human  mind  proceeds  in  all  the  sciences 
after  nearly  the  same  manner,  so  that,  as  regards  each  of  them,  progress  is  rep- 
resented by  an  evolution  strikingly  similar.  I  hope  to  prove  also  that  the 
sciences,  in  the  process  of  their  development,  tend  to  an  approximation  towards 
one  another,  resulting  in  their  i-eciprocal  advancement,  since  each  of  them  sheds 
light  upon  the  other.  Zoology  and  botany,  it  is  obvious,  have  furnished  to 
geology  an  inestimable  element  of  progress,  by  disclosing  one  of  the  most  indis- 
pensable characters  for  recognizing  the  relative  age  of  different  formations.  This 
character  is  derived  from  the  determination  of  fossil  species,  some  of  which 
characterize,  so  to  speak,  certain  geological  epochs. 

Physics  and  chemistiy  have  so  many  points  of  contact  that  it  is  almost 
superauous  to  mention  them;  the  time  may  be  foreseen  when  these  two 
sciences  can  bo  no  longer  sepai*ated,  chemistry  constituting,  in  effect,  only 
molecular  physics.  But  physics  and  chemistry  exert  on  the  other  hand  an  ever- 
increasing  infiuence  on  the  natural  sciences.  Neither  animal  nor  vegetable 
physiology  can  dispense  with  their  aid;  it  may  even  be  said  that  all  that  wel 
know  accurately  in  these  two  sciences  is  what  is  explained  by  means  of  the 
laws  of  physics  and  chemistry.  Examples  would  present  themselves  in  crowds 
were  it  requisite  to  furnish  them.  Thus  the  mechanical  phenomena  of  respira- 
tion were  unintelligible  before  atmospheric  pressure  had  been  discovered.  Anato- 
mists and  physiologists  were  surprised  to  see  the  air  rush  into  the  pleura  when 


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NATURAL  HISTOBY  OF   ORGANIZED   BODIES.  285 

the  diaphragm  or  Tvalls  of  the  breast  of  an  auimal,  alive  or  dead,  wore  pierced  j 
there  is  now  nothing  obscm-e  in  the  nature  of  this  effect.  The  same  caus^ 
explains  also  many  phenomena  relating  to  the  exchange  incessantly  producxjd 
between  the  gases  of  the  blood  and  the  atmospheric  air,  the  action  of  respiration 
on  the  conrse  of  the  blood,  &c.  Mechanics  elucidates  the  muscular  phenomena, 
and  in  general  all  the  movements  produced  by  animals.  The  circulation  of  the 
blood  borrows  from  hydrodynamics  the  explanation  of  everything  relating  to  the 
movement  of  the  sanguineous  fluid.  Without  chemistry,  what  ideas  could  we 
possess  respecting  the  digestive  functions,  the  offices  of  respkation,  the  function 
of  the  glands?  Optics  and  acoustics  are  treated, in  the  works  on  physiology,  in 
the  same  manner  as  in  those  on  physics.  Finally,  the  laws  of  electricity  acquire 
every  day  more  :mportanoe  in  the  interpretation  of  the  nervous  phenomena. 

All  this  proves  the  reciprocal  depehdence  ^^solidaritt^)  of  the  sciences;  it  shows 
that  it  is  necessary  to  separate  them  as  little  as  possible,  that  the  tendency  should 
bo  to  their  simplification,  to  the  reduction  into  general  laws  in  order  to  render 
them  easily  accessible  to  every  one. 

A  very  important  point,  for  it  is  decisive  of  success  or  failure  in  scientific 
researches,  is  the  choice  of  a  good  method.  On  this  subject,  it  is  necessary  to 
he  guarded  against  a  very  common  error.  We  become  habituated  generally  by 
the  usual  processes  of  demonstration  to  pass  from  the  simple  to  the  composite, 
to  start  from  a  well  established  principle  in  order  to  arrive,  from  one  deduction 
to  another,  at  the  demonstration  of  more  complex  propositions.  It  is  in  this  way 
that  the  theorems  of  geometry  are  successfully  demonstrated ;  but  is  it  by  this 
method  that  a  science  is  established?  Far  otherwise;  nor  do  those  who  make 
discoveries  in  the  natural  sciences  proceed  in  this  manner.  They  observe  a 
great  number  of  facts,  compare  them,  place  them  side  by  side,  seek  the  condi- 
tions which  modify  each  phenomenon,  and  succeed  only  in  the  last  place  in 
finding  a  principle  or  a  law  which  may  guide  the  understanding  in  the  midst  of 
an  embarrassing  complexity. 

Medicine,  a  science  which  touches  us  so  nearly,  since  it  deals  with  the  troubles 
which  occur  in  the  functions  of  life,  was  long  misled  by  that  false  method 
which  generates  systems.  Starting  from  a  principle  supposed  to  be  true,  it  pro- 
ceede«l  with  the  most  irreproachable  logic  to  heap  deductions  upon  deductions, 
till  the  moment  when  error  became  so  obvious  that  the  whole  fabric  collapsed 
at  once,  and  the  work  was  to  be  commenced  anew.  It  was  a  pure  metaphor 
that  wrought  the  evil :  "  It  was  proposed  to  construct  the  science,  and  a  comer- 
stone  was  to  be  sought  to  support  the  edifice."  But  by  what  right,  among  so 
many  materials,  was  one  stone  to  be  taken  for  this  purpose  sooner  than  another  f 
By  what  token  was  it  to  be  recognized  as  the  real  base  of  the  structure  ?  Cer- 
tainly, by  none.  If  there  must  be  a  metaphor,  I  would  prefer  to  compare  the 
study  of  the  natural  sciences  to  the  labor  of  the  archcologists  in  deciphering 
inscriptions  traced  in  an  unknown  language.  They  tr}-,  turn  by  turn,  several 
senses  for  each  sign ;  they  seek  assistance  at  the  same  time  frx)m  the  conditions 
under  which  each  inscription  has  been  found,  and  from  the  analogy  it  presents 
with  inscriptions  already  known,  and  they  anive  only  in  the  last  place  at  a 
knowledge  of  the  principles  by  which  they  teach  others  to  decipher  the  strange 
language. 

In  every  science  progress  is  only  to  be  obtained  by  the  emplojTnent  of  certain  pro- 
cesses which  act  like  powerfril  levers  in  the  service  of  the  human  mind :  analysis, 
which  serves  for  research,  and  synthesis,  which  is  employed  to  verify  the  results 
of  analysis,  or  to  set  in  a  more  simple  light  a  truth  already  discovered.  But 
everything  is  susceptible  of  improvement,  even  the  means  which  ai-e  at  our  dis- 
posal for  the  realization  of  further  progress.  1  propose,  therefore,  summarily 
to  state  the  present  resources  of  analysis  and  synthesis,  instruments  which  are 
80  constantly  to  be  handled  by  the  teachers  as  well  as  cultivators  of  science. 

Analysis  consists  in  reducing  to  its  most  simple  elements  a  phenomenon  too 


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286  NATURAL  niSTORY  OP  ORGANIZED   BODIES. 

complex  to  bo  otherwise  comprehended.  If  the  multiplicity  of  simultaneons 
incidents  perplexes  our  underatanding,  we  endeavor  to  abstract  one  of  these 
incidents,  observe  it  as  exactly  as  possible,  then,  passing  to  another,  study  it  in 
tho  same  manner.  In  thus  overcoming  successively  the  difficulties  which  pre- 
sent themselves,  and  which  in  combination  exceed  our  efforts  at  comprehension, 
consists  the  function  of  analysis,  and  it  is  this  which  constitutes  the  source  of  its 
power. 

But,  in  this  conflict  of  details,  difficulties  of  another  order  siill  present  them- 
selves. These  arise  from  tho  insufficiency  of  our  senses,  baffled  alike  by  objects 
too  small  or  too  large,  too  near  or  too  remote,  as  well  as  by  movements  too  slow 
or  too  rapid.  Man  has  found  tho  means  of  creating  for  himself  more  powerful 
senses  in  order  to  detect  the  trath  which  evades  him.  Ho  has  rendered  his 
vision  more  penetrating  by  help  of  the  telescope  which  sounds  the  immensity  of 
space,  and  of  the  microscope  which  explorcs  the  infinitely  little.  Balance  and 
compass  in  hand,  ho  estimates  with  precision  tho  weight  and  volume  of  bodies, 
which  his  touch  indicated  to  him  in  only  a  rough  manner.  The  more  advanced 
tho  state  of  any  science,  the  more  it  has  need  of  instruments,  for  it  has  passed 
beyond  tho  horizon  embraced  by  the  unassisted  view  of  our  predecessors.  It 
has  transcended  the  limits  of  the  circle  in  which  tho  human  intellect  was  so 
long  exercised,  while  exhausting  itself  in  contemplating  the  surface  of  tho  same 
objects  and  consuming  in  sterile  dialectics  the  power  w^ich  to-day  it  employs  in 
rigorous  observation. 

Instruments  are  tho  indispensable  intermediaries  between  mind  and  matter ; 
the  physicist,  the  chemist,  the  astronomer  can  effect  but  little  without  their  suc- 
cor ;  tho  anatomist,  the  physiologist,  the  physician  have  recourse  to  them  as 
indispensable  to  tho  progress  of  medical  science.  Tho  invention  of  cadaveric 
injections  and  that  of  the  microscope  have  inaugurated  a  new  era  for  anatomy, 
which  owes  to  tho  use  of  these  expedients  the  comparative  perfection  which 
it  has  attained  in  our  day.  The  same  is  the  case  with  physiology;  it  is 
to  tho  manometer,  the  thennometer,  to  electric  machines  of  various  construction, 
apparatus  for  registering,  &c.,  that  the  physiologist  is  indebted  for  the  power 
of  substituting  experimentation,  in  its  proper  sense,  for  observation,  always 
slower  and  often  powerless  to  discover  the  laws  which  govern  life. 

To  show  the  progress  already  realized  in  the  method  of  analysis,  and  to  mark 
the  multiplicity  of  resources  of  which  it  may  avail  itself,  wo  take  a  few 
examples : 

In  chemistry,  when  tho  object  is  to  recognize  the  nature  of  certain  bodies 
which  enter  into  a  combination  or  mixture,  wo  proceed,  by  qualitative  analysis, 
to  disengage  each  of  these  bodies  and  to  isolate  them  successivel}'.  Then,  by 
quantitative  analysis,  wo  determine  in  what  quantity  each  substance  existed  in 
the  mixture.  In  making  this  discrimination,  tho  balance  is  at  our  service. 
This,  we  see,  is  an  apparatus  borrowed  from  physics  which  enables  the  chemist 
to  aiTivo  at  exact  determinations.  But  tho  helpful  intervention  of  physics  stops 
not  there.  In  virtue  of  that  solidarity  of  the  sciences,  of  which  I  have  before 
spoken,  the  chemist  resorts  to  tho  physicist  for  the  aid  of  still  other  instruments. 
If,  for  instance,  we  have  tho  solution  of  a  known  salt  whose  degree  of  concen- 
tration  wo  would  ascertain,  there  is  no  need  to  destroy  the  mixture  and 
extract  tho  salt,  in  order  afterwards  to  weigh  it ;  we  seek,  by  means  of  tho  are- 
ometer, the  density  of  the  mixture,  and,  knowing  the  density  proper  to  the  salt, 
it  is  easy  to  calculate  tho  quantity  contained  in  the  solution.  K  in  another 
solution  substances  exist  which  are  crystallizable  together  with  others  which  are 
not  so,  the  use  of  tho  didlyser  enables  us  to  effect  their  separation.  This  again 
is  an  apparatus  of  physics  placed  at  the  service  of  chemistry.  The  polarimeter 
is  also  of  great  utility.  It  enables  us  to  appreciate  in  an  instant  the  existence 
of  certain  substances  contained  in  a  solution,  and  to  determine  their  proportion 
with  rigorous  exactness.    Lastly,  tho  spectroscope  contributes  a  now  power  to 


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NATUBili  HI8T0EY   OP   ORGANIZED  BODIES.  287 

cbemistry  :  it  has  extended  the  domain  of  chemical  analysis  beyond  the  world 
wo  inhabit^  by  enabling  us,  from  the  optical  properties  of  the  light  of  the  stars, 
to  deteiinine  their  chemical  composition,  and  to  affirm,  for  example,  that  in  the 
sun  there  must  be  iron,  nitrogen,  cobalt,  &c. ;  in  the  star  AUlebaran,  sodium, 
magnesium,  calcium,  iron,  mercuiy,  hydrogen,  &c.  Thus  science,  by  means  of 
analysis,  has  realized  wonders  which  the  most  daring  imagination  would  have 
never  ventured  to  conceive. 

In  physics,  the  functions  of  analysis  are  not  less  extensive.  It  is  by  employ- 
ing different  kinds  of  apparatus,  each  of  which  reveals  certain  properties  of  elec- 
tiicity,  light,  heat,  &c.,  that  we  have  succeeded  in  forming  an  idea  of  the  man- 
ner in  which  these  agents  act  in  nature.  The  physicist  renounces  the  idea  of 
ascertaining  their  essence  as  we  renounce  a  knowledge  of  the  essence  of  life, 
and  is  content  to  describe  each  agent  according  to  its  manifestations.  Electri- 
city, which  reveals  itself  to  us  in  great  meteorological  effects,  in  tlie  production 
of  lightning  and  boreal  aiu'oi'as,  for  instance,  everywhere  else  evades  our  per- 
ception, and  yet  it  is  demonstrable  that  everywhere  in  nature  electricity  exists. 
The  electroscope  discloses  it  in  the  atmosphere  which  surrounds  us.  The  galvan- 
ometer  shows  us  that  electric  cmTcnts  are  formed,  so  to  say,  wherever  an  act  of 
a  physical  nature  is  accomplished  :  water  which  evaporates,  a  plant  which  vege- 
tates, an  animal  which  lives,  give  rise  to  electric  phenomena  M'hich  our  senses 
cannot  directly  perceive,  but  which  we  render  perceptible  by  means  of  instru- 
ments of  analysis.  Such  expressions  as  electric  currents^  dcctro-motke  forceSj 
ifUensity  and  tension  of  electricity,  are  artifices  of  language  which  enable  us  to 
conceive  more  readily  the  conditions  under  which  the  phenomena  called  elec- 
trical are  produced  and  modified.  But  in  proportion  as  known  facts  become 
multiplied  by  analytic  researches,  science  is  seen  to  disengage  itself  from  the 
ambiguities  of  language  and  to  sacrifice  the  expressions  which  are  no  longer 
useful  to  it.  It  is  thus  that  the  hypothesis  of  two  electric  fluids,  the  one  posiiivey 
the  other  negative,  is  tending  at  present  to  disappear. 

What  we  know  regarding  liglU  has  been  acquired  by  the  same  method  :  we 
Lave  learned  to  decompose  it  by  the  prism  into  its  different  elements ;  some  col- 
ored in  different  manners,  others  invisible,  but  endued  with  heat  or  chemical 
properties.  The  theory  of  light  furnishes  us  with  a  good  example  of  the  dis- 
appearance of  an  hypothesis  in  the  presence  of  contradictory  facts.  We  know 
that  the  hypothesis  of  radiation  has  vanished  l>efore  the  phenomenon  of  inter- 
ferences, and  has  given  place  to  the  theory  of  undulations,  which  alone  explains 
all  the  phenomena  actually  known. 

Thus  physical  agents  become  characterized  every  day  in  a  more  complete 
manner,  and  are  more  and  more  accurately  determined  by  the  characters  which 
their  analysis  discloses.  I  shall  not  attempt  to  follow  the  progress  realized  by 
the  analytic  method  in  the  knowledge  of  magnetism,  heat,  mechanical  force,  &c. 
I  confine  myself  to  the  statement  already  made  that  the  solidarity  of  the 
sciences  constantly  augments  in  proportion  to  the  progress  realized.  For  the 
different  branches  of  physics  the  fusion  is  evidently  takmg  place  in  our  own  day. 
It  is  interpreted  to  us  by  the  profound  conception  of  the  equivalence  of  forces 
and  of  the  transformation  of  mechanical  labor  into  heat  or  into  electricity. 

The  naturalist  who  is  not  content  with  observing  the  forms,  however  varied, 
of  organization  in  animals  and  plants,  must  proceed  like  the  physicist  and  chem- 
ist^ if  ho  desires  to  discover  the  conditions  of  life.  His  first  means  for  the 
analysis  of  phenomena  is  vivisection.  It  is  through  this  that  he  becomes  a  wit- 
ness of  the  accomplishment  of  functions;  all  that  is  visible  and  palpable  in  the 
play  of  the  or^ns  is  revealed  to  him  by  tins  anatoniia  animata,  as  it  was  called 
by  Haller.  On  this  head  I  could  say  nothing  which  will  not  be  found  more 
competently  stated  in  the  valuable  ti-eatise  of  M.  CI.  Bernard  (Introduction  a  la 
Medicine  expcrimentale,)    In  this  work  may  be  seen  everything  relative  to  phy- 


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283  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF   ORGANIZED  BODIES. 

Biological  experiment,  while  excellent  advice  is  given  regarding  the  disposition 
of  mind  which  it  is  necessary  to  bring  to  the  study  of  biology. 

But,  of  itself  alone,  vivisection  is  insufficient  for  this  pursuit;  it  can  do  no  more, 
so  to  say,  than  lay  bare  the  phenomenon  simultaneously  with  the  organ  which 
is  the  seat  of  it;  it  reveals  to  our  senses  only  what  they  are  capable  of  perceiv- 
ing. Now,  we  have  seen  that  in  physics  our  senses  teach  us  very  little,  and  that 
it  is  necessary,  at  every  step,  to  have  recourse  to  apparatus  for  analyzing  the 
more  delicate  phenomena.  The  same  is  the  cAse  in  biology.  The  electrical 
phenomena  which  take  place  in  animals  are,  in  certain  cases,  directly  percepti- 
ble. The  commotion  produced  by  the  torpedo  and  gymnotus  have  been  known 
from  antiquity,  but  the  most  sensitive  galvanometers  have  been  needed  to  detect 
those  electric  modifications,  so  weiik  and  yet  so  important,  which  accompany  the 
ner\^ou8  and  muscular  actions.  Du  Bois-Reymond  and  his  successors  have 
made  known  to  us  an  entire  new  phase  of  physiology,  and  one  of  the  most 
interesting  kind.  Optical  apparatus  is  indispensable  for  the  exploration  of  the 
interior  of  the  eye,  as  well  as  for  the  delicate  measurement  of  the  curvatures  of 
each  of  the  refractive  mediums  which  compose  it.  Thus,  while  dissection 
teaches  us  certain  details  of  the  organization,  it  would  nevertheless  deceive  ns 
by  destroying  the  nonnal  disposition  of  the  parts,  had  we  not  the  means  of 
studying  the  living  apparatus  in  situ. 

AjDatomy  shows  us  the  organs  with  a  definite  form  and  volume ;  physiolo^, 
on  the  contrary,  teaches  us  that  most  of  the  organs  present,  in  the  actions  of  life, 
changes  both  of  form  and  volume,  a  few  of  which  only  can  be  easily  perceived. 
We  must  resort  to  instrumental  aid  for  the  demonstration  of  changes  too  deli- 
cate for  naked  vision.  Now,  micrometry,  as  is  well  known,  has  attained  an 
extraordinary  precision  in  the  determination  of  the  diameters  of  objects  extremely 
minute ;  it  constitutes  one  of  the  principal  resom-ces  at  the  disposal  of  histology, 
and  enables  it,  in  effect,  to  assign  to  each  element  its  normal  diameter,  which  is 
one  of  its  important  characteristics. 

As  there  exists,  then,  a  micrometry  by  which  we  can  measure  the  slightest 
changes  in  the  volume  of  the  organs  in  living  animals,  I  deem  it  the  more 
important  to  indicate  the  apparatus  destined  for  this  purpose,  since  it  is  still  but 
little  employed,  though  possessing,  in  cei-tain  cases,  very  great  utility.  It  will  bo 
remembered  that  discussions  were  heretofore  maintained  respecting  the  dilatation 
of  the  arteries  under  the  afflux  of  the  blood  propelled  into  them  by  the  contrac- 
tion of  the  ventricle.  Some  wiiters  contended  that  the  arterial  system  makes 
room  for  the  sanguineous  wave  by  means  of  an  elongation  sustained  by  the  ves- 
sels, while  others  thought  that  the  arteries,  in  this  act,  dilate  and  lengthen  at 
the  same  time. 

To  resolve  this  question,  M.  Flourens  conceived  the  idea  of  encircling  the 
artery  of  a  living  animal  with  an  inteiTupted  ring  formed  of  an  elastic  spring,  wliich 
would  yield  to  the  dilatation  of  the  artery  and  manifest  it  by  the  separation  of  the 
two  ends  of  the  ring.  This  separation  takes  place,  in  effect,  whenever  a  new  dis- 
charge of  blood  is  i-eceived  from  the  heart.  But  the  method  is  not  wholly  free  from 
objection.  If  we  suppose  the  pressure  of  the  elastic  ring  to  produce  a  slight 
constriction  of  the  vessel,  the  latter  may  simply  recover  its  nonnal  dimension, 
and  in  this  way,  without  undergoing  dilatation,  would  separate  the  ends  of  the 
ring  wliich  compressed  it.  M.  Poiseuille  employed  a  more  rigorous  method, 
which  consists  in  placing  the  artery  which  we  propose  to  examine  in  a  small 
box  with  rigid  walls,  pierced  on  one  side  and  the  other  by  a  suitable  hole.  In 
this  box  the  artery  is  maintained  at  such  a  degree  of  tension  as  to  preclude  any 
liability  to  elongation  through  pressure  of  the  blood.  The  box  is  filled  with 
liquid,  and  is  furnished  at  some  point  in  its  walls  with  a  capillary  tube  in  which 
the  liquid  ascends  to  a  determinate  level.  If  the  blood-vessel  thus  enclosed 
undergoes  the  slightest  augmentation  of  diameter,  it  necessarily  displaces  the 
liquid  of  the  box,  and  the  level  in  the  capillary  tube  is  seen  to  rise  or  descend, 


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NATURAL   HISTORY   OF   ORGANIZED   BODIES  289 

according  as  tlie  diameter  of  the  vessel  is  increased  or  diminished.  This  method 
is  susceptible  of  a  great  number  of  applications ;  it  enables  us  to  show  that  all 
the  vascular  organs  undergo,  at  each  sanguineous  discharge  £rom  the  heart,  a 
distension  followed  by  contraction,  similar  to  that  presented,  in  a  higher  degree, 
by  the  erectile  tissues.  But  this  mode  of  examination  is  not  new ;  there  may  be 
seen  in  the  works  of  Swammerdam  the  description  of  an  apparatus  very  analo- 
gous to  the  one  in  question,  and  destined  to  determine  whether  a  muscle  in  con- 
tracting undergoes  a  change  of  volume.  / 

Of  all  the  phenomena  which  characterize  life,  movement  is  the  most  import- 
ant ;  it  may  be  said,  indeed,  that  in  general  it  is  movement  which  gives  their 
distinctive  character  to  all  the  functions ;  now,  it  is  under  this  aspect  that  the 
phenomena  of  animal  life  can  be  analyzed  at  present  with  the  most  admirable 
precision  in  the  three  correlative  elements  of  duration^  extent j  and  force.  We  are 
but  little  capable  of  appreciating  duration  with  exactness,  especially  that  which 
is  very  short,  and  we  generally  consider  as  instantaneous  such  phenomena  as 
occupy  a  space  of  time  shorter  than  the  half  or  quarter  of  a  second.  For  the 
same  reason  we  assume  the  synchronism  of  two  acts  which  follow  one  another  at 
a  short  interval.  But  chronometry  has  made  so  much  progress  of  late  that  we 
can  now  measure  the  shortest  durations,  thanks  to  the  apparatus  employed  by 
the  physicists.  The  velocity  of  projectiles,  of  light,  of  electricity,  is  readily 
reduced  to  measurement,  and  nothing  prevents  the  application  in  general  of  the 
same  methods  to  the  still  shorter  durations  of  physiological  acts.  The  extent  of 
a  movement  is  susceptible  of  very  exact  appreciation,  provided  the  movement  fur- 
nishes a  trace  which  may  be  afterwards  submitted  to  the  estimates  of  micrometry. 
The  idea  of  force  has  recently  undergone  an  important  modification ;  it  has  been 
reduced  to  that  of  labor  accomplished,  and  is  referable  henceforth  to  a  determinate 
standard,  the  kilogrammetre  and  its  divisions.  We  find  ourselves  therefore  in 
possession  of  accurate  terms  of  comparison,  and  should  eliminate  in  future  every 
vague  expression  relative  to  movement.  We  should  characterize  it  in  every  case 
according  to  its  duration  referred  to  the  second  of  time,  its  extent  in  terms  of  the 
metre  or  its  fraction,  its  force  as  expressed  in  kilogrammetres.  Perhaps  a  still  more 
complete  conception  is  that  which  further  characterizes  a  movement  by  its  form  ; 
that  is  to  say,  which  takes  account  of  the  different  phases  of  the  movement,  and 
no  longer  only  of  its  commencement  and  end,  its  maximum  and  minimum,  but 
which  determines  all  the  intermediate  states.  Such  is  the  result  obtained  by  the 
graphic  method,  to  which  I  shall  have  occasion  elsewhere  to  call  attention,  as 
furnishing  of  itself  the  solution  of  a  great  number  of  problems  of  the  highest 
impoitance. 

Movement,  before  being  executed,  is,  so  to  say,  potentially  contained  in  certain 
causes  which  produce  it :  tveight,  elasticity,  the  pressure  of  a  liquid,  the  tension 
of  a  gas.  We  now  know  how  to  appreciate  these  forces,  which  may  be  called 
virtual.  It  is  statics  which  measures  them,  and  introduces  into  their  measure- 
ment that  rigoroiJs  exactness  which  tends  at  present  to  become  general.  The 
application  of  the  manometer  to  the  valuation  of  the  pressure  of  the  blood,  of  the 
thoracic  aspiration,  of  the  force  with  which  the  glandular  reservoirs  contract,  is  a 
further  step  in  the  progress  of  our  epoch. 

If  I  have  here  given  but  a  rapid  and  incomplete  enumeration  of  all  these  exact 
processes  and  their  appropriate  apparatus,  it  is  because  the  occasion  will  here- 
after present  itself,  in  my  collegiate  course,  of  describing  them  more  completely, 
and  of  more  fully  exemplifying  their  value.  I  have  aimed  to  show  in  the  first 
place  the  resources  which  we  have  at  our  disposal,  and  to  prove  especially  that 
it  is  by  drawing  more  closely  its  relations  with  the  other  sciences,  that  biology 
has  become  progressive  and  will  continue  to  progress.  Now  that  we  are  pro- 
vided with  new  means  for  attempting  the  solution  of  the  problems  of  life,  we 
may  resume  the  researches  in  which  our  predecessors  have  been  foiled.  A 
subject  which  might  be  supposed  to  be  exhausted  becomes  once  more  a  fertile 

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290  NATURAL  HISTORY   OF   ORGANIZED   BODIES. 

field  for  study,  if  we  acquire  new  processes  with  which  to  explore  it.  It  is 
chiefly  when  we  recur  to  ancient  experiments  that  we  are  stmck  with  the  pro- 
gress which  has  been  realized.  We  might  almost  be  disposed  to  condemn  the 
narrowness  of  view  of  the  old  experimenters,  if  we  did  not  revert  in  thought  to 
the  epoch  when  they  lived,  and  to  the  exiguity  of  the  means  of  analysis  of  which 
they  could  avail  themselves. 

Still  another  reason  necessitates  the  employment  of  apparatus  in  physiology. 
Even  in  the  cases  in  which  vivisection  reveals  to  us  important  facts,  it  induces 
such  extreme  perturbations  in  the  functions*  of  life  as  greatly  to  modify  them 
and  to  convey  a  false  idea,  if  the  normal  expression  of  the  function  be  assumed 
to  be  exhibited  in  any  phenomenon  which  we  may  thus  witness.  To  take  an 
example,  the  case  may  be  cited  when  the  section  of  the  spinal  marrow  is  per- 
formed on  an  animal,  and  artificial  respiration  is  practiced  in  order  to  maintain 
organic  life  as  long  as  possible.  Under  these  conditions  the  phenomena  of  cir- 
culation undergo  so  profound  a  modification  that  we  should  be  on  our  guard 
against  the  false  ideas  which  may  be  drawn  from  the  experiment.  The  rapidity 
of  the  current  of  the  blood  becomes  excessive,  the  pulsations  of  the  heart  are 
accelerated,  the  central  temperature  is  lowered,  while  the  peripheral  temperature 
rises.  The  physiologist  should,  therefore,  endeavor  to  inflict  on  the  animal 
which  he  is  examining  as  httlo  mutilation  as  possible,  if  he  would  obtain  an 
exact  idea  of  the  normal  conditions  of  the  circulation  of  the  blood  and  the 
animal  temperature.  We  know,  moreover,  that  the  secretion  of  the  glands, 
under  normal  conditions,  differs  much  from  that  which  we  collect  by  artificial 
means.  Thus  the  pancreatic  juice  derived  fix)m  an  animal  in  which  an  opening 
has  been  effected  differs  chemicaUy  from  that  which  the  gland  discharges  nor- 
mally into  the  duodenum.  It  would  not  be  difficult  to  multiply  examples  show- 
ing how  necessary  it  is  to  leave  the  animal  in  its  normal  condition  if  we  would 
not  have  the  function  interfered  with  j  but  this  is  only  attainable  by  means  of  the 
different  and  delicate  apparatus  of  which  some  portions  are  above  enumerated. 

Another  cause  often  obliges  us  to  renounce  vivisection,  and  to  substitute  the 
use  of  apparatus :  it  is  the  necessity  of  directly  studying  the  human  physiology. 
Of  all  the  beings  whose  organization  and  functions  science  has  essayed  to  inves- 
tigate, man  has  been  the  most  frequent  object  of  study.  It  is  the  human  phy- 
siology which  serves,  so  to  speak,  as  a  type  for  that  of  the  whole  animal 
kingdom. 

Nevertheless,  if  it  is  true  that  our  own  organism  and  functions  seem  to 
present  the  most  complete  model  of  animal  organization,  it  is  not  less  true  that 
certain  organs,  as  well  as  certain  functions,  are,  in  us,  less  sharply  characterize<I 
than  in  the  lower  order  of  beings.  Hence  it  is  of  the  greatest  importance  to 
follow,  by  analysis,  each  of  the  phenomena  of  life  in  the  whole  series  of  living 
beings,  or  at  least  in  the  principal  types,  with  a  view  to  ascertaining  what  are 
the  different  processes  which  nature  employs  in  order  to  arrive  at  her  end,  the 
life  of  the  individual  and  of  the  species.  Hence  the  origin  and  object  of  cmn- 
parative  physiology. 

It  is  to  the  human  being,  however,  his  organs  and  his  functions,  that  the 
greater  number  of  investigations  is  at  the  present  day  directed.  And,  as  all 
resources  are  to  be  laid  under  contribution  in  the  prosecution  of  our  object,  we 
may  sometimes  borrow  aid  from  the  science  of  medicine,  which  finds  in  the  study 
of  maladies  certain  conditions  not  always  to  be  realized  by  experiment.  It 
is  not  to  be  forgotten,  however,  that  medicine  is  not  the  basis  of  biology, 
though,  in  an  utilitarian  point  of  view,  it  may  be  its  end.  In  such  inquiries  as 
we  are  now  pursuing,  it  is  but  one  means  the  more  of  analyzing  the  conditions 
which  modify  the  functions  of  life,  and  of  arriving  at  a  better  determination  of 
the  laws  which  regulate  those  functions.  In  order  to  give  an  idea  of  the 
influence  which  medicine  has  had  on  the  knowledge  of  the  organism,  I  need 
but  recall  that  it  was  in  a  case  where  a  perforation  of  the  thoracic  walls  had 

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NATURAL  HISTORY  OP  ORGANIZED   BODIES.  291 

occnrred  that  Harvey  observed  the  beatings  of  the  heart;  and  m  another, 
where  a  gastric  fistula  had  been  formed,  that  Beanmoiit  conducted  his  memor- 
able studies  on  digestion.  The  vices  of  congenital  conformation  furnish  us 
with  numerous  indications,  not  only  on  the  subject  of  enibtyogenjf,  but  also  in 
relation  to  certain  functions,  such  as  those  of  the  nervous  system,  respiration, 
and  circulation,  which  produce  the  movements  of  the  cephalorachidian  liquid,  &c. 
The  above  is  but  a  summary  statement  of  the  means  of  analysis  at  our  dis- 
posal at  the  present  time.  Our  resources,  it  will  be  seen,  are  great,  and  furnish 
a  guarantee  of  success  in  researches  yet  to  be  undertaken.  I  would  repeat,  in 
conclusion,  what  I  have  before  said,  that  progress  is  visibly  taking  place  through 
the  fusion  of  the  sciences,  and  for  us,  naturalists  and  biologists,  resolves  itself 
into  the  facilities  which  we  every  day  derive  from  physics  and  chemistry. 
The  time  will  come,  no  doubt,  when  we  shall  be  able  in  our  turn  to  furnish  to 
those  sciences  new  elements  of  progress.  But,  for  the  moment,  we  are  their 
debtors,  for  the  reason  that  the  physical  and  chemical  sciences,  more  simple  than 
ours,  and  long  disengaged  from  the  bad  methods  by  which  we  have  been  misled, 
are  to-day  more  advanced  than  biology,  in  the  sense  that  they  arrive  more  readily 
at  exact  ideas  of  the  phenomena  which  they  study.  It  is  only  after  having 
fruitlessly  employed  in  the  study  of  the  phenomena  of  life  the  methods  supplied 
by  physics  and  chemistry  that  we  shall  have  any  right  to  invoke  the  intervention 
of  extra-physical  causes  for  the  explanation  of  the  vital  phenomena ;  and  it  is 
not  difficult  to  see  how  far  we  are  from  having  exhausted  the  resources  which 
physical  and  chemical  analysis  now  places  at  our  disposal. 

III. — Experimental  synthesis  in  the  natural  sciences. 

In  speaking  of  the  processes  which  the  humair  mind  employs  in  scientifio 
researches,  I  have  mentioned  analysis  and  synthesis.  We  have  thus  far  treated 
of  analysis ;  we  have  considered  it  in  its  progressive  improvements,  and  know, 
in  a  general  manner,  the  immense  resources  which  it  has  at  its  command. 

It  remains  to  inquire  the  meaning  of  synthesis  and  the  services  which  it  is  capable 
of  rendering.  It  has  already  been  seen  that  it  is  not  a  method  of  research ;  that 
a  science  which  should  propose  to  found  itself  upon  synthesis,  by  setting  out 
upon  principles  established  d  prioHj  would  incur  the  peril  of  going  widely  astray. 
But  nothing  of  this  sort  is  to  be  apprehended  when  analysis  has  finished  its 
work  and  has  put  us  in  possession  of  a  large  number  -of  facts,  well  established. 
It  is  then  that  the  office  of  synthesis  commences.  Synthesis  is  the  opposite  of 
analysis ;  it  reconstructs  what  has  been  decomposed.  This  is  the  most  general 
definition  of  the  method.  But  to  give  a  more  complete  idea  of  it,  it  is  well  to 
follow  it  in  its  dififerent  applications.  We  will  first  examine  experimental  syn- 
thesis, in  so  far  as  it  serves  to  control  the  results  of  analysis  by  reproducing  a 
phenomenon  through  a  reassemblage  of  the  conditions  of  its  existence.  After- 
wards we  shall  pass  to  synthesis  properly  so  called,  being  such  as  it  is  defined 
by  scholastics^  and  which  collects  particular  facts  into  general  laws. 

Experimental  synthesis  recompounds  that  which  has  been  decomposed  into  its 
different  elements.  The  chemist,  for  instance,  when  he  has  decomposed  water 
by  means  of  analysis  and  has  separated  it  into  oxygen  and  hydrogen,  can 
recombine  those  two  gases.  He  has  efiected  the  synthesis  of  water.  In 
this  second  experiment,  then,  is  found  the  most  satisfactory  demonstration  of  the 
exactness  of  the  first.     Synthesis  has  served  for  the  proof  of  analysis. 

In  organic  chemistry  the  introduction  of  synthesis  is  altogether  recent,  but  it 
has  effected  in  this  branch  of  science  a  real  revolution.  In  the  last  century, 
chemists  believed  that  organic  matter  was  formed  in  animals  and  plants  by  virtue 
of  forces  different  from  those  which  govern  unorganized  matter.  Buffon  even 
recognized  an  animated  organic  matter,  destined  to  furnish  unceasingly  the 
material  of  beings  endowed  with  organization.  As  late  as  1849,  Berzelius  still 
admitted  of  special  chemical  laws  in  organized  nature. 

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292  NATURAL  HISTORY   OP   ORGANIZED   BODIES. 

It  belonged  to  Bertbelot  to  overthrow  those  erroneous  opinions,  and  to  show 
that  the  same  laws  prevail  in  organic  chemistry  and  mineral  chemistry ;  to  prove 
that  by  employing  the  inorganic  elements  disclosed  by  analysis,  it  is  practicable 
to  reproduce  by  synthesis  a  great  number  of  the  substances  found  in  vegetables. 
It  was  thus  that,  by  means  of  carbon  and  hydrogen,  our  learned  chemist  formed 
acetylene,  C^H*;  this  body,  treated  with  nascent  hydrogen,  gave  him  olefiant 
gas,  C*H*. 

By  the  employment  of  water  and  carbonic  acid,  Berthelot  formed  the  oxide 
of  carbon,  0*0*.  This  again,  by  the  fixation  of  the  elements  of  the  water, 
yielded  fonnic  acid,  C*H*0^,  whence  was  obtained  the  gas  of  the  marshes,  C*H\ 
From  the  gas  of  the  marshes,  in  turn,  are  derived,  by  successive  condensation 
of  the  elements,  acetylene,  propylene,  benzine,  and  naphtaline.  The  ternary 
bodies  spring  from  the  preceding  by  the  addition  of  oxygen.  Thus  are  produced 
the  alcohols:  the  methylic  alcohol,  C'H*0*,  by  the  oxydation  of  the  gas  of  the 
marshes ;  common  alcohol,  C^H^O*,  by  the  hydratation  of  the  defiant  gas.  By 
removing  the  hydrogen  from  the  alcohols,  we  obtain  the  aldehydes;  by  oxydizing 
the  alcohob,  we  form  the  organic  acids.  By  the  fixation  of  the  nitrogen  in  these 
new  products,  whether  by  means  of  ammonia  or  by  the  action  of  nitrous  acid, 
we  obtain  the  quateraary  compounds.  So  that  it  may  be  foreseen  that  a  resort 
to  synthesis  will  enable  us  to  i-eproduce  artificially  those  important  substances 
which  are  called  the  alcaloids  of  vegetables. 

The  physicist  also  makes  extensive  use  of  synthesis.  Thus,  when  he  wishes  to 
produce  with  great  intensity  a  phenomenon  of  which  analysis  has  revealed  to  him 
the  conditions  of  existence,  he  constructs  an  apparatus  in  which  he  assembles 
those  conditions,  and  evokes  the  phenomenon  with  a  degree  of  evidence  which 
leaves  no  longer  any  doubt.  Knowing,  for  instance,  the  electric  phenomena 
which  occur  between  two  difierent  metals,  both  submitted  to  a  chemical  action, 
physicists  have  constnicted  batteries  which  produce  currents  of  dynamic  elec- 
tricity of  a  surprising  intensity.  In  general,  what  is  called  an  instrument  of 
demonstration  is  constructed  in  virtue  of  a  synthetic  idea. 

In  biology,  synthesis  is  generally  too  little  employed,  and  yet  it  would  appear, 
in  certain  cases,  eminently  useful,  whether  for  controlling  the  results  obtained 
by  analysis  or  for  furnishing  a  clear  and  striking  demonstration  of  the  phenom- 
ena. This  means  of  contw)!  and  demonstration  should  certainly  not  be  neglected. 
It  is  often  proper  that  experiments  should  be  made  with  the  view  of  reproducing 
a  phenomenon,  and  demonstrating  that  it  takes  place  in  certain  determined  con- 
ditions. In  this  case,  the  experimentation  is  synthetic.  One  of  the  principal 
applications  of  this  method  consists  in  reproducing,  outside  of  the  living  being, 
certain  phenomena  which  take  place  in  the  interior  of  the  organism.  Thus,  in 
order  to  demonstrate  the  action  which  the  air  exerts  on  the  blood  through  the 
walls  of  the  pulmonary  cellules,  we  make  it  appear  that  venous  blood  can  be 
arterialized  by  the  action  of  the  air  taking  efiect  through  an  organic  membrane. 
To  prove  the  action  of  the  acids  of  the  stomach  as  well  as  that  of  heat  in  diges- 
tion, it  is  usual  to  show  that,  in  a  matras,  the  addition  of  an  acid  to  a  mixture 
of  gastric  juice  and  food  excites  an  artificial  digestion  which  would  take  place 
but  very  incompletely  without  the  presence  of  tne  acid.  The  action  of  heat  in 
digestion  may  at  the  same  time  be  shown,  for  the  temperature  must  be  somewhat 
elevated  for  that  phenomenon  to  be  produced  with  rapidity. 

The  physical  phenomena  which  occiu:  in  living  beings  are  particularly  sus- 
ceptible of  synthetic  demonstration.  The  apparatus  of  demonstration  or  scJiemas 
are  admirably  adapted  to  give  an  idea  of  the  mechanism  of  these  functions; 
nor  can  anything  more  instructive  be  readily  imagined  than  the  employment  of 
such  expedients,  which  enable  us  to  assist,  as  it  were,  in  the  production  of  all 
the  details  of  the  phenomena. 

There  are  many,  doubtless,  who  will  recall  the  difficulties  experienced,  at  the 
outset  of  physiological  studies,  in  comprehending  perfectly  the  mechanism  of 


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NATURAL  HISTORY   OP   ORGANIZED   BODIES.  293 

respiration )  that  virtual  vacaum,  as  it  is  called^  which  exists  in  the  cavity  of 
the  pleura,  and  into  which  the  air  tends  to  precipitate  itself  as  soon  as  an  opening 
is  formed  at  any  point  of  the  thoracic  structiure.  Now,  this  phenomenon  can  be 
counterfeited  in  a  very  simple  manner.     (Fig,  1.) 


We  take  a  bottle  whose  bottom  has  been  removed  and  is  replaced  by  a 
stretched  membrane  of  caoutchouc  :  this  bottle  will  represent  the  thoracic  cavity, 
while  the  membrane  corresponds  to  the  diaphragm.  In  the  interior  of  this  appa- 
ratus we  place  an  elastic  bladder  of  caoutchouc,  which  represents  the  lungs.  The 
neck  of  the  bladder  is  luted  to  the  neck  of  the  bottle,  so  that  there  shali  be  but 
one  orifice,  that  which  enables  the  exterior  air  to  communicate  with  the  interior 
of  the  bladder  of  caoutchouc.  A  hole  has  been  fornied  in  one  side  of  the  wall  of 
the  bottle,  and  a  cord  is  attached  to  the  centre  of  the  membrane  which  represents 
the  diaphragm,  for  the  purpose  of  communicating  to  this  membrane  movements 
which  imitate  the  diaphragmatic  action  in  respiration.  We  now  proceed  to  place 
this  apparatus  in  the  same  conditions  with  the  thoracic  cavity.  We  blow  through 
the  throat  of  the  bottle  into  the  bladder,  so  as  to  distend  it  until  it  fills  the  cavity 
of  the  bottle  and  expels  the  air  contained  therein.  We  have  thus  established  a 
state  of  things  analogous  to  that  in  which  the  thorax  is  filled  by  the  expanded 
lungs.  If  we  cease  to  blow,  leaving  the  lateral  hole  free,  the  wind  at  once  enters 
with  a  whistling  sound  through  the  hole  in  question,  precisely  as  happens  in  the 
case  of  an  animal  whose  breast  has  been  suddenly  pierced.  But,  if  we  close  that 
hole  after  having  finished  the  insufflation,  the  bladder  will  continue  adhering  to 
the  walls  of  the  bottle,  although  the  throat  of  the  latter  be  open.  To  imitate  the 
movements  of  the  diaphragm,  we  exert  a  traction  on  the  membrane  ;  the  bladder 
follows  all  these  movements  just  as  the  lungs  would  do,  and  a  reciprocating  motion 
is  established  between  the  exterior  and  interior  air,  through  the  throat  of  the  bottle. 
If  .we  desire  to  measure  the  energy  with  which  the  bladder-lung  tends  to  collapse 
upon  itself,  a  manometer  is  fitted  to  the  hole  in  the  side-wall ;  the  mercury  will 
now  be  seen  to  be  drawn  towards  the  apparatus  with  a  force  represented  by  the 
inspiration  of  a  column  of  air  a  certain  number  of  centimetres  in  height. 

A  rather  curious  phenomenon  sometimes  occurs  in  surgery,  being  a  hernia  of 
the  lung  through  a  wound  of  the  breast.  This  heniia  might  seem  inexplicable, 
in  view  of  the  tendency  of  the  lung  in  such  case  to  collapse  upon  itself.  If  we 
close  the  throat  of  our  bottle,  an  act  which  coiTCsponds  to  the  occlusion  of  the 
glottis  in  an  animal  and  prevents  the  escape  of  the  air  from  the  breast,  the  blad- 
der will  no  longer  have,  as  before,  a  strong  tendency  to  retieat  upon  itself;  for, 
to  do  that,  it  must  become  empty.  At  this  juncture  let  the  diaphragm  be 
'  stretched,  which  will  be  equivalent  to  a  strong  efibrt  at  inhalation.  The  blad- 
der will  then  be  seen  to  form  a  hernia  through  the  opening  in  the  side  of  the 
bottle.     The  explanation  of  this  fact  is  quite  obvious  :  the  air,  compressed  in  the 


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294  NATURAL  HISTORY   OF   ORGANIZED   BODIES. 

elastic  pouch  with  a  certain  force,  tends  to  escape  oatwards  by  drivbg  back  the 
thin  membrane  which  confines  it ;  this  it  effects  at  the  sole  point  where  the  walk 
offer  little  resistance.  Suppose,  for  an  instant,  that,  in  place  of  the  thin  mem- 
brane which  now  forms  the  hernia,  there  were  a  spongy  but  more  consistent 
tissue,  like  that  of  the  lungs ;  the  hernia  would  become  strangulated  between 
the  edges  of  the  opening  and  be  unable  to  re-enter  spontaneously,  even  when 
the  effort  has  ceased.  Many  9ther  demonstrations  might  be  made  by  means  of 
this  simple  apparatus. 

Without  digressing  from  the  subject,  another  fact  may  be  noticed  which  long 
seemed  obscure,  but  which  is  susceptible  of  a  S3nithetic  demonstration  at  once 
simple  and  convincing.  Have  the  intercostal  muscles  any  action  on  the  move- 
ment of  the  ribs,  and,  if  so,  what  is  that  action  f  This  was  the  subject  of  much 
discussion  among  the  physiologists  of  the  last  century. 

The  solution  of  the  question  was  demanded  of  experiment,  and  it  was  found 
that,  in  living  animals,  the  external  intercostal  muscles  contract  at  every  inspi- 
ration of  air.  But  this  result  of  observation  presented  something  paradoxical 
and  inexplicable.  The  external  intercostals  are  extended  between  two  ribs : 
it  would  seem,  therefore,  that  they  ought,  in  contracting,  to  bring  the  ribs  nearer 
to  one  another.  Now,  at  the  moment  of  inhalation,  the  ribs  separate  and  the 
intercostal  spaces  are  enlarged. 

P.  Berard,  in  his  courses  of  physiology  at  the  Faculty  of  Medicine,  was 
accustomed  to  recall  the  discussions  in  question,  and  removed  any  hesitation  on 
the  part  of  his  auditory  by  tracing  on  a  tablet  a  schematic  figure  which  rendered 
the  phenomenon  easily  intelligible.  He  would  state,  at  the  same  time,  that  he 
had  received  from  Dr.  Hutchinson  a  small  apparatus  formed  of  pieces  of  wood 
in  imitation  of  the  arrangement  of  the  ribs  in  relation  to  the  vertebral  column, 
and  of  elastic  bandelets  which  represented  the  action  of  the  external  intercostal 
muscles.  The  whole,  when  the  parts  representing  ribs  were  lowered  so  as  to 
exert  a  traction  upon  the  elastic  bandelets,  was  caioulated  to  take  the  positioii 
attending  the  act  of  inhalation  in  the  animal  frame.  Annexed  is  an  apparatus 
which  1  have  constructed  upon  these  indi- 
cations and  which  aptly  reproduces  the  phe-  

nomenon  in  question,  (Fi^.  2.) 

The  vertebral  column  is  represented  by  a 
piece  of  vertical  wood  on  which  three  trans- 
verse pieces  are  articulated :  these  represent 
the  ribs.  The  direction  of  the  intercostal 
muscles  is  indicated  by  that  of  the  braces  of 
caoutchouc  fastened  by  pins  on  the  cross- 
bars of  wood.  When  the  ribs  are  horizon- 
tal, as  in  the  figure,  there  is  a  considerable 
interval  between  them,  but  the  insertions, 
A,  B,  of  the  brace  of  caoutchouc  are  not  so 
widely  separated  as  in  the  case  when  the  rib- 
pieces,  being  lowered,  approach  and  touch 
one  another.  In  that  case,  the  brace  of 
caoutchouc  corresponds  to  the  diagonal  of  a 
verj"^  oblique  parallelogram.  Now,  the 
position  of  the  elastic  brace  is  that  which 
the  external  intercostals  present  in  relation 
to  the  ribs.  The  contraction  of  these  mus- 
cles serves,  therefore,  to  raise  the  ribs,  as 
the  elasticity  of  the  caoutchouc  acts  in  the 
schema  which  we  have  been  describing. 

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NATURAL  HISTORY   OF  ORGANIZED   BODIES.  295 

Among  the  mechanical  phenomena  of  the  circulation  of  the  blood  there  are 
quite  a  number  which  may  be  imitated  in  a  perfect  manner.  A  schema,  well 
known  in  Germany,  ia  that  of  Weber :  it  shows  how  the  cufcular  movement  of 
the  blood  is  accomplished  in  that  vast  self-re-entering  system  represented  by  the 
heart  and  blood-vessels,  {fig.  3.) 

\ 


We  take  an  elastic  tube,  curved  upon  itself,  so  as  to  form  a  complete  circuit, 
which  may  be  filled  with  a  liquid  by  means  of  the  funnel,  e.  At  a  point  in 
this  tube  a  part,  marked  c,  is  bounded  by  two  valves,  both  of  which  open  in  the 
same  direction.  This  portion  of  the  circuit  corresponds  to  the  heart.  At  the 
point  directly  opposite  the  portion  c  is  placed,  at  c,  a  tube  of  glass,  in  which  a 
sponge  is  infixed  tightly,  forming,  of  course,  an  obstacle  to  the  passage  of  the 
liquid,  in  regard  to  which  it  exerts  a  resistance  like  that  opposed  by  the  capil- 
lary vessels  to  the  course  of  the  blood.  The  apparatus  being  now  filled  with 
liquid  is  ready  for  operating.  If  intermitting  pressures  be  exerted  on  the  pai*t 
c  which  represents  the  heart,  the  enclosed  liquid  is  propelled  and  made  to  pass 
into  the  portion  of  the  tube  where  the  play  of  the  valves  permits  its  being  intro- 
ducedy  namely,  into  a,  a'.  Under  the  influence  of  compressions  frequently 
repeated,  the  portion  into  which  the  liquid  flows  becomes  distended.  Now,  it  is 
in  this  condition  that  the  arterial  system  subsists  in  animals,  since  there  the  blood 
is  continually  pressed  forward  by  the  systoles  of  the  left  heart.  Hence  the 
liquid  acquires  in  this  part  of  the  tube  a  considerable  amount  of  pressure  which 
imitates,  with  sufficient  exactness,  the  pressure  of  the  blood  in  the  arteries.  The 
sponge,  Cj  allows  the  liquid  to  pass  gradually  from  the  arterial  part  of  the  tube 
into  the  venous  part,  that  is  to  say,  into  the  portion  1/  v  oi  the  apparatus.  This 
passage  of  the  liquid  takes  place  in  a  continuous  manner,  notwithstanding  the 
intermission  of  the  impulses  given  to  the  liquid.  Here,  then,  we  realize  an  imi- 
tation of  the  phenomenon  produced  in  the  circulatory  apparatus :  the  regularity, 
namely,  of  the  course  of  the  blood  in  the  small  vessels.  In  both  cases  this 
result  is  obtained  through  the  effect  of  the  elasticity  of  the  conduits  in  which 
the  liquid  has  circalated.  Further,  it  is  the  same  cause  which  produces  in  fire- 
engines  the  regularity  of  the  jet,  notwithstanding  the  successive  checks  in  the 
play  of  the  pump.  In  apparatus  of  the  latter  kind  resort  is  had  to  a  bell-shaped 
receiver,  imder  which  the  liquid  arrives  on  issuing  from  the  pump,  and  which 
counteracts  the  irregularities  of  the  motive  force. 

It  should  likewise  be  remarked,  that,  under  the  inflvence  of  successive  impul- 
sions given  to  the  liquid  by  pressing  on  the  part  c,  it  will  be  found  that  the 
arterial  and  the  venous  portion  of  the  circuit  present  opposite  conditions  of 
repletion :  the  arterial  pressure  constantly  tending  to  distention  at  the  expense 
of  the  venous  portion  which  is  at  the  same  time  partially  depleted.  It  is  thus 
also  in  the  economy  of  the  living  animal,  the  repletion  of  the  arterial  system 
taking  place  at  the  expense  of  the  contents  of  the  veins.  Finally,  it  will  be 
observed  that  each  impulsion  given  to  the  liquid,  by  the  compression  of  the  tube 
at  c,  communicates  to  the  whole  of  the  arterial  column  a  pulsation  analogous  to 
that  presented  by  the  arteries  of  a  living  animal,  and  that  this  impcOsion  is 
annulled  at  the  extremity  of  the  arterial  part,  so  as  to  fail  entirely  in  the  venous 
portion.     On  the  wholC;  then,  this  schema  of  Weber's  reproduces  in  a  very  sim- 


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296  NATURAL  HISTORY   OP  ORGANIZED   BODIES. 

pie  way  somo  of  the  principal  phenomena  of  the  circulation  of  the  blood : 
1st.  The  circuit  and  the  continuous  current  through  the  whole  system  of  tubes ; 
with  the  understanding,  however,  that  the  apparatus  is  intended  to  represent 
only  one  of  the  two  circuits  which  constitute  the  circulation  in  the  higher  ani- 
mals— namely,  the  greater  one.  2d.  The  formation  of  two  unequal  pressures, 
one  rather  high,  being  that  of  the  blood  in  the  arteries ;  the  other  lower,  being 
the  venous  pressure.  3d.  The  continuity  of  the  course  of  the  blood  in  the 
capillary  vessels  under  the  influence  of  the  elasticity  of  the  arteries.  4th.  The 
pulsation  which  is  produced  in  all  the  arteries  at  each  systold  of  the  heart.  It 
might  be  possible  to  imitate  in  a  more  perfect  manner  the  hydraulic  phenomena 
of  the  couree  of  the  blood,  but  the  schema  before  us  suflices  for  the  moment  as 
exhibiting  u  synthetic  reproduction  of  an  action  taking  place  in  living  beings- 

In  studying  the  circulation,  theoretical  considerations  had  led  me  to  conclude 
that  the  elasticity  of  the  arteries  produces  on  the  course  of  the  blood  still  other 
effects  tlian  those  demonstrable  by  the  apparatus  of  Weber,  and  that  this  elas- 
ticity itself  favors  the  circulation  by  diminishing  the  obstacle  which  the  heart 
encounters  at  each  contraction ;  in  other  words,  that  the  heart  has  less  difliculty 
in  emptying  itself  into  elastic  vessels  than  it  would  meet  with  if  the  arterial 
system  were  formed  of  rigid  conduits.  Now  this  effect  of  the  arterial  elasticity 
has  been  contested  by  the  whole  body  of  physiologists.  Some  of  them  have 
held,  with  Bichat,  that  the  circulation  would  be  effected  quite  as  well  in  inert 
tubes  as  in  elastic  ones,  the  only  difference  being  that  in  inert  vessels  no  pul- 
sation would  be  felt.  Others,  relying  on  experiment,  asserted  that  two  tubes, 
one  elastic,  the  other  inert,  give  passage  to  the  same  quantity  of  liquid  if  both 
have  the  same  calibre  j  and  this  is  perfectly  true  if  the  flow  of  the  liquid  takes 
place  under  a  constant  discharge,  but  ceases  to  be  true  if  the  afliux  of  the  liquid 
occurs  in  an  intermittent  manner,  as  is  the  case  with  the  circulation  of  the  blood. 
Still  other  physiologists,  stnick  with  the  regularity  of  the  course  of  the  blood 
in  the  small  vessels,  have  considered  the  elasticity  of  the  arteries  as  an  additional 
force,  which  propels  the  blood  in  the  ai*teries  during  the  repose  of  the  heart. 
But  these  also  were  in  error,  and  we  might  refute  their  opinion  by  saying,  with 
Berard,  that  the  elastic  force  of  the  arteries  is  in  reality  only  indurectly  contrib- 
utory, a  force  d^emprunfj  and  that  the  heart  is  the  sole  impulsive  agent  w^hich 
exerts  an  active  part  in  the  circulation.  Nevertheless,  I  maintain  my  proposi- 
tion :  the  elasticity  of  the  arteries  is  favorable  to  the  course  of  the  blood,  but 
it  does  not  act  as  an  impulsive  force.  It  diminisJies  the  resistance  which  tJte 
heart  experiences  wlien  it  propels  the  blood  in  the  vessels.  The  annexed  schematio 
apparatus  will  enable  me  to  demonstrate  this  proposition. 


A  Mariotte  vase  V  is  raised  on  a  support.    From  this  vase  proceeds  a  large 
tube  furnished  with  a  faucet  R.     This  tube  is  bifurcated  at  the  point  T,  and 


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NATURAL  HISTORY  OP   0R6ANIZ£O  BODIES.  297 

each  of  its  branches  is  continued  by  a  long  conduit.  One  hi/ 13  elastic,  being 
formed  of  thin  caoutchouc ;  the  other  a  a'  is  of  glass,  and  consequently  rigid. 
A  valve,  placed  at  the  origin  of  the  elastic  tube,  permits  the  liquid  to  penetrate 
freely  into  its  interior,  but  opposes  all  reflux  in  an  inverse  direction.  The  two 
tubes  have  the  same  capacity  of  discharge :  of  this  we  may  convince  ourselves 
by  opening  the  faucet  R  and  allowing  a  continuous  current  to  be  established. 
But  if  the  faucet  be  opened  and  closed  alternately,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  efiius 
by  the  inert  tube  is  intermittent,  while  that  by  the  elastic  tube  is  continuous ; 
it  will  be  also  found  that  the  discharge  has  become  very  unequal,  and  that  much 
less  of  the  liquid  escapes  by  the  inert  than  by  the  elastic  tube.  The  proposition 
might  be  considered,  then,  as  already  proved,  for  it  is  evident  that  if  the  elastic 
tube  has  discharged  more  liquid  than  the  other,  this  results  from  its  having 
received  more,  and  as  the  penetration  of  the  liquid  into  the  tubes  takes  place 
under  a  constant  charge,  and  can  only  be  effected  at  the  time  when  the  faucet  is 
open,  this  clearly  proves  that  at  those  instants  the  tube  of  glass  was  more  per- 
meable than  the  elastic  tube. 

But  we  may  form  a  more  exact  conception  of  what  occurs  nndcr  these  condi- 
tions by  inquiring  not  what  issues  from  the  tubes,  but  what  enters  them.  The 
Mariotte  vase  employed  as  a  source  of  supply  furnishes  the  means  of  knowing 
accurately  what  penetrates  into  each  of  the  tubes  at  a  given  moment,  for  not  the 
smallest  quantity  of  liquid  can  issue  from  the  vase  without  the  indication  of  what 
portion  of  it  is  withdi*awn  by  the  entrance  of  a  more  or  less  considerable  quantity 
of  air.  Now,  if  the  liquid  be  permitted  to  flow  by  the  elastic  tube  alone,  or  the 
glass  tube  alone,  it  will  be  seen  that  in  the  two  cases  the  Mariotte  vase  indicates 
very  different  discharges.  If  the  efflux  be  by  the  inert  tube  alone,  bubbles  of 
air  are  seen  to  enter  the  vase  one  by  one,  at  regular  intervals,  until  the  sup- 
pression of  the  flow  of  liquid,  when,  by  the  same  act,  the  entrance  of  the  bubbles 
is  arrested.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  inert  tube  being  closed,  the  efflux 
commences  with  the  elastic  tube  alone,  a  mass  of  air  is  seen  on  the  instant  to 
rush  into  the  vase,  announcing  the  escape  of  a  wave  of  the  liquid  at  the  first 
moment ;  the  bubbles  then  become  more  rare  and  enter  with  the  same  slowness 
which  was  observed  in  the  case  of  efflux  t>y  the  inert  tube.  Let  the  faucet  bo 
closed  at  this  instant,  and  it  will  plainly  appear  that  the  elastic  tube  has 
received  a  quantity  of  liquid  greater  than  that  received  by  the  inert  tube  and 
O/Orrespimding  to  the  access  of  the  large  volume  of  air  at  the  commencement 
of  the  experiment.  It  is  this  excess  of  liquid  which  occasions  a  flow  more  or 
less  durable  after  the  closing  of  the  faucet.  This  whole  quantity  of  water  accom- 
modated by  the  distension  of  the  tube  constitutes  the  advantage  of  the  elastic 
tube  as  regards  the  afflux.  If  this  tube  more  readily  admits  the  penetration 
of  the  water  into  its  interior,  it  is  because  the  liquid  is  not  required,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  inert  tube,  to  overcome  the  total  friction  and  flow  outwardh',  but 
finds  lodgment  within  the  tube  by  reason  of  the  extensibility  of  the  latter.  It 
is  obvious  that  as  often  as  these  intermittent  openings  of  the  faucet  are  repeated 
a  new  advantage  is  created  in  favor  of  the  elastic  tube.  Finally,  theory  teaches 
us  that  to  render  the  efflux  by  the  two  tubes  as  unequal  as  possible,  it  is 
requisite  that  the  faucet  should  be  opened,  each  time  for  a  very  brief  period,  and 
that  the  intervals  between  the  openings  should  be  of  some  duration. 

The  demonstration  of  this  effect  of  the  elasticity  of  the  arteries,  though  here- 
tofore unknown,  would  seem  to  be  of  much  importance ;  it  has  enabled  \ue  to 
draw  now  conclusions,  and  to  establish,  for  example,  that  if  the  arteries  lose  their 
elasticity,  as  is  normally  the  case  with  aged  persons,  the  heart  must  experience 
an  increase  of  resistance,  and,  according  to  the  known  laws  of  pathology,  become 
hjrpertrophied.  The  researches  which  I  have  made  with  a  view  to  the  verifica- 
tion of  this  prevision  have  furnished  a  complete  confirmation  of  the  theory,  but 
I  shall  not  insist  here  on  particulars  which  enter  properly  into  the  domain  of 
medicine,  and  which  would  divert  me  from  my  subject. 


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298  NATUKAL  HI8T0KY   OP   0EGANI2ED   BODIES. 

In  returning  to  the  83mthetic  reproduction  of  the  phenomena  wbicb  accom- 
pany life,  I  shall  present  but  one  other  example  of  synthesis.     The  uses  of  the 
natatory  bladder  of  fishes  have  been  very  much  controverted ;  most  naturaliste, 
however,  have  considered  this*  organ  as  capable  of  modifying  the  volume  of  the 
fish,  and  consequently  its  density,  so  as  to  render  it  sometimes  lighter  than  the 
water,  thus  causing  it  to  ascend  to  the  surface ;  and  sometimes  heavier,  thereby 
enabling  it  to  plunge  to  great  depths.     More  recently,  M.  Moreau  resumed  the 
study  of  this  subject,  and  pursued  it  much  further  than  had  previously  been  done. 
His  attention  was  first  arrested  by  the  circumstance  that  a  fish  drawn  at  sea  from  a 
great  depth  swells  and  sometimes  bursts  when  brought  to  the  surface  of  the  water, 
and  in  thb  condition  fioats  helplessly,  because  it  has  become  much  less  dense  than 
the  water.     The  elastic  force  of  the  air  of  the  bladder,  resisted  under  normal  con- 
ditions by  the  weight  of  a  column  of  water  extremely  high, 
brings  on  a  great  distension  of  the  animal  if  the  pressure  is 
diminished,  so  that,  having  become  lighter  than  the  water,  it 
fioats  on  the  surface.     Hence  it  follows  that  a  fish  which  lives 
normally  at  great  depths  in  the  sea  cannot  rise  above  a  c^tain 
altitude,  under  penalty  of  bein^  boiiie  to  the  surface  by  the 
expansion  of  the  gas  of  its  air-bladder.    And  this  theoretical 
deduction  involves  a  converse  one :  that  the  fish  cannot  descend 
to  a  depth  greater  than  that  for  which  its  natatory  bladder  is 
adapted.     If  it  ventures  to  a  greater  depth  the  gases  of  it3 
bladder  will  undergo  greater  compression,  the  density  of  the 
animal  will  be  augmented,  and  it  will  be  precipitated  indefi- 
nitely, even  to  the  bottom  of  the  sea;  whence  it  can  rise  no 
more,  unless  it  could  secrete  within  its  bladder  a  quantity  of 
gas  sufiicient  to  distend  it  notwithstanding  the  enormous 
pressure  to  which  it  is  subjected. 

Theory  teaches  us,  then,  that  a  fish  is  not  fitted  to  live 
except  at  a  certain  depth;  that  it  cannot  all  of  a  sudden 
transfer  itseif  from  a  certain  zone  to  which  the  state  of  its  air- 
bladder  assigns  it ;  that  if  it  emerges  from  that  zone  in  which 
it  possesses  nearly  the  same  density  with  the  water,  it  must 
be  impelled  indefinitely,  whether  to  the  surface  or  towards 
the  bottom  of  the  sea.  It  may,  moreover,  be  inferred  that 
the  animal  can  within  certain  limits  extend  this  zone  to  which 
it  is  assigned,  if  it  has  the  power  of  compressing  or  relaxing 
its  air-bladder ;  that  is  to  say,  of  modifying  spontaneously  its 
own  density,  whether  in  one  direction  or  the  other.  It  is  to 
be  understood,  finally,  that  the  fish  has  the  faculty  of  con- 
tending to  a  certain  extent,  by  the  movements  of  its  fins, 
against  the  effects  of  its  own  density,  and  thus  still  further 
enlarges  the  zone  in  which  it  can  subsist. 

The  whole  of  these  theoretical  deductions  can  scarcely 
seem  evident  at  the  first  glance,  hence  experimental  control 
would  appear  to  bo  indispensable.  We  know,  by  experience, 
that  a  fish  drawn  from  a  certain  depth  to  the  surface  of  the 
sea  fioats  in  spite  of  itself;  but  the  inverse  phenomenon,  a 
fish  precipitated  to  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  is  what  no  one 
has  witnessed.  Yet  a  very  simple  scheme  will  render  this 
phenomenon  perfectly  evident.  The  apparatus  for  this  pur- 
pose (Fig.  5)  is  analogous  to  the  ludianj  an  instrument  with 
which  we  are  familiar.  It  is  formed  of  a  bladder  of  caout- 
chouc filled  with  air,  and  sustaining  a  weight  graduated  in 
_.  such  manner  as  to  give  to  the  whole  system  a  density  equiv- 

•^'S^  ^  Blent  to  that  of  wat«r.    This  apparatus  is  placed  in  a  glass 


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NATURAL  HISTORY   OF   ORGANIZED  RODIES.  299 

gaoge  having  such  a  length  that  the  liquid  column  shall  represent  a  rather 
s^ong  pressure,  when  the  ludion  is  plunged  to  a  certain  depth.  The  volume  of 
air  contained  in  the  ball  is  so  regulated  that  the  ludion,  when  at  the  surface  of 
the  water,  is  a  little  less  dense  than  the  liquid,  and  emerges  from  it  to  some 
extent.  Let  it  be  now  sunk  to  a  slight  depth ;  it  is  still  not  so  dense  as  the 
water  and  tends  to  rise  above  its  suiiace.  Sink  it  a  little  deeper,  and  it  will 
remain  nearly  immovable  in  the  zone  in  which  it  is  placed,  indicating  that  its 
density  is  now  equal  to  that  of  the  water.  It  is  thus  that  it  is  represented  in 
the  figure.  Let  it  be  sunk  more  deeply  and  it  will  be  seen  to  have  a  tendency 
to  descend  of  itself:  it  has  become  denser  than  the  water. 

Here,  then,  we  have  a  new  example  of  the  synthetic  reproduction  of  the  phe- 
nomena which  occur  in  living  animals.  Many  analogous  examples  might  be 
cited,  but  it  is  only  my  purpose  here  to  signalize  the  utility  of  this  method,  and 
to  show  how  important  it  is  still  further  to  extend  its  application.  It  may  be 
added  that  any  one,  by  the  construction  of  a  schema  of  his  own,  will  find  that 
the  vague  ideas  which  he  may  have  at  first  conceived  on  an  obscure  subject, 
acquire  singular  precision  and  development.  New  conceptions  will  be  con- 
stantly presenting  themselves,  and  problems  be  suggested  which  the  mind  is 
impatient  to  verify  by  new  experiments.  In  a  word,  this  manual  labor  of  the 
construction  of  schematic  apparatus,  far  from  absorbing  the  mind,  sustains  and 
guides  it  by  furnishing  it  at  each  step  with  an  experimental  test. 

An  objection  will  not  fail  to  be  made  by  those  who  pretend  that  there  are, 
in  living  beings,  properties  which  such  persons  term  vital,  and  which  are  alto- 
gether peculiar.  They  will  tell  us  that  synthesis  may  well  reproduce  the  physi- 
cal phenomena  which  accompany  life,  but  that  it  is  incapable  of  imitating  the 
vital  phenomena.  I  will  answer,  for  my  own  part,  that  I  recognize  but  two 
sorts  of  manifestations  of  life :  those  which  are  intelligible  to  us,  being  all  of  a 
physical  or  chemical  order  j  and  those  which  are  not  intelligible.  As  regards 
the  last,  it  is  better  to  avow  om*  ignorance  than  to  disguise  it  under  a  semblance 
of  explanation. 

IV. — ^Laws  in  biology. 

I  have  next  to  speak  of  synthesis  considered  as  a  mental  operation,  the  oppo- 
site of  analysis;  as  collecting  dispersed  ideas  to  foim  of  them  a  whole;  as  ascend- 
ingfrom  particular  facts  to  the  general  law  which  governs  all  of  them. 

The  highest  point  which  the  natural  sciences  can  reach  is  the  discovery  of 
the  laws  which  govern  the  phenomena  of  life.  This,  as  I  have  said,  is  the 
ideal  we  should  pursue,  but  which  we  have  not  yet  attained.  At  present  it  is 
the  research  for  facts  which  occupies- us;  we  labor  in  behalf  of  successors,  per- 
haps far  remote;  we  accumulate  for  them  the  materials  of  a  vast  synthesis,  which 
will  enable  them  to  embrace  all  these  facts  under  a  general  point  of  view,  and 
to  educe  from  them  simple  laws.  Already, however,  light  seems  to  difiuse  itself 
upon  certain  points  of  the  sciences  in  question,  and  some  of  their  laws  have  begun 
to  emerge  from  the  mass  of  details. 

Ixjt  us  premise  this  capital  fhct,  that  the  laws  of  physics,  and  of  chemistry 
reappear  in  the  manifestations  of  animal  or  vegetable  life,  and  that  every  day 
the  hypothesis  which  led  to  the  admission  of  forces  of  .a  special  nature  in  organ- 
ized beings  is  becoming  less  and  less  necessary.  As  regards  the  laws  of  physics, 
we  have  seen  them  applied  in  the  operation  of  the  schematic  apparatus  by  means 
of  which  we  are  enabled  to  imitate  certain  phenomena  observed  in  living  beings. 
We  shall  doubtless  still  continue  to  discover  these  same  laws  in  proportion  as  we 
shall  study  in  their  more  intimate  details  the  functions  of  organized  beings.  As 
regards  the  laws  of  chemistry,  Bert^elot  has  shown  them  as  presiding  in  the 
formation  of  the  substances  called  organic.  The  hypothesis  of  a  vital  cuemistiy 
of  a  wholly  peculiar  nature  is  now  useless.  Besearches  based  on  synthesis  in 
chemistry  show  us  that  the  ordinary  laws  suffice  to  explain  the  formation  of 
organic  matter  in  the  interior  of  vegetables.  ^-^  , 

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300  NATUKAL   HISTORY   OF   OKGANIZED   BODIES. 

The  best  known  of  all  vegetable  functions,  the  respiration  of  plants,  presents 
this  first  experiinental  idea,  that  the  green  matter  of  plants,  under  the  influence 
of  solar  light,  decomposes  the  water  and  carbonic  acid,  thus  setting  at  liberty 
the  hydrogen  and  oxide  of  carbon.  Now,  these  latter  substances  are  the  ele- 
ments which  chemical  synthesis  employs  to  form  the  ternary  compounds,  which 
may  all  be  derived  from  the  action  of  nascent  hydrogen  on  the  oxide  of  carbon. 

If  the  chemist,  in  his  laboratory,  must  proceed  by  a  series  of  transformation b 
in  order  to  realize  substances  in  which  the  elements  are  more  condensed, 
nature  attains  the  same  end  in  a  more  direct  manner,  without,  on  that  account, 
violating  the  ordinary  laws  of  chemistry.  In  nature  all  the  elements  are  in  con- 
tact in  a  nascent  state,  so  that  the  simpler  compounds  which  result  therefrom 
remain  not  long  in  their  first  phase  of  evolution,  having  close  at  hand  every 
principle  necessary  for  the  formation  of  more  complex  bodies.  Organic  bodies 
arrive,  therefore,  with  immediate  eflFect  at  their  highest  degree  of  condensation, 
while,  in  the  chemical  reactions  of  the  laboratory,  we  are  obliged,  in  follo\i-ing 
up  the  conditions  of  the  formation  of  these  bodies,  to  create  artificial  and  succes- 
sive phases. 

In  the  study  of  the  functions  of  life,  the  physiologist  finds  himself  confronted 
with  phenomena  so  complex  that  he  cannot  at  once  comprehend  the  laws  which 
govern  them.  But  he  is  struck  with  certain  characters  which  seem  to  him  more 
constant  than  others.  From  these  he  deduces  the  existence  of  certain  ri7a/  laws^ 
an  ephemeral  hypothesis  which  disappeara  soon  or  late  before  a  more  profound 
investigation  of  the  phenomena,  and  is  absorbed  in  the  more  comprehensive 
generalizations  of  physical  or  chemical  laws. 

First  of  all,  the  production  of  heat  and  that  of  movement  seem  to  him  to  be 
attiibutes  of  the  animal  kingdom.  If  some  species  appear  to  form  an  exception 
to  this  sort  of  general  law  which  he  has  established,  the  physiologist  explores 
the  facts  more  attentively,  and  perceives  that  the  animals  which  he  had  at  first 
distinguished  from  others  by  calling  them  animals  with  cold  bloody  constitute  but 
an  apparent  exception,  and  that  they  also  produce  heat,  though  in  less  quantity 
than  others,  besides  that  they  have  not  the  property  of  preserving  this  heat,  but 
allow  it  to  escape  when  they  are  placed  in  a  cold  medium.  Eventually  it  is 
recognized  that  the  chemical  actions  which  take  place  in  the  organism  are  the 
cause  of  the  production  of  heat  in  animals,  and  that  the  quantity  of  heat  disen- 
gaged increases  or  decreases  according  to  the  intensity  and  nature  of  those 
actions.  Thenceforth  the  production  of  animal  heat  presents  itself  only  as  a 
particular  case  of  the  disengagement  of  heat  in  chemical  reactions. 

Movement  in  animals  was  at  first  considered  a  direct  result  of  life;  in  its  appa- 
rent spontaneity,  a  character  was  even  supposed  to  have  been  found  which  dis- 
tinguished it  from  the  movements  whoso  laws  arc  determined  by  mechanical 
principles.  But  it  was  at  length  recogpized  that  the  production  of  movement, 
like  that  of  heat,  requires  in  animals  a  chemical  action  j  that  its  production, 
therefore,  is  not  unlimited,  but  must  be  assimilated  to  the  labor  of  our  machines, 
which  transform  into  movement  the  heat  derived  from  the  combustion  of  carbon. 
Considered  under  this  point  of  view,  the  animal  organism  would  not  difier  from 
our  machinery,  except  in  its  more  advantageous  capacity  of  production,  but  can 
yield,  on  the  whole,  in  labor  only  what  the  chemical  actions  exerted  on  the 
absorbed  aliments  will  admit  of.  This  extension  of  physical  laws  to  the 
functions  of  organized  beings  commends  itself  so  strongly  to  reason,  that  no  hesi- 
tation is  at  present  felt  in  pushing  conclusions  to  their  last  consequences,  and  in 
seeking,  for  example,  in  the  annual  economy  the  verification  of  the  law  of  the 
equivalence  of  heat  and  of  mechanical  labor. 

Nothing  can  be  more  legitimate  than  this  tendency  to  reduce  all  the  phenom- 
ena of  nature  to  simple  and  general  laws ;  to  me  it  even  seems  that  this  mode  of 
procedm-e  has  every  chance  m  its  favor  of  being  the  right  one  j  still,  from  prob- 
able hypothesis  to  demonstration  is  a  long  stride.     On  this  account  it  is  that  we 

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NATURAL  HISTORY   OP   ORGANIZED  BODIES.  301 

mast  recur  indefatigably  to  the  study  of  particular  facts,  and  that,  without  renounc- 
ing the  purpose  of  reducing  them  eventually  to  simple  laws,  it  is  necessary  in 
the  first  place  to  refer  them  to  other  special  laws,  but  to  such  laws  as  are  sus- 
ceptible of  demonstration. 

Upon  these  grounds,  certain  phenomena  of  life  may  already  bo  referred  to 
demonstrable  laws.  M.  Brown- S6quard,  in  particular,  has  given  us,  in  his  Journal 
de  la  Phf/siohgie,  a  short  note  containing  a  very  noticeable  attempt  at  that  gen- 
eralization of  whidh  I  have  been  speaking.  This  physiologist  sets  forth,  as 
"  results  of  his  own  labors  as  well  as  those  of  the  savants  who  have  preceded 
bim,  twelve  laws  relative  to  the  conditions  under  which  nervous  and  muscular 
actions  are  either  produced,  increased  or  exhausted,  together  with  certain  other 
analogous  phenomena  which  are  observed  in  animals.* 

Among  these  laws  there  are  several  which  are  not,  perhaps,  beyond  the  reach 
of  criticism,  and  everything  would  lead  us  to  believe  that  the  further  progress  of 
science  will  reduce  them  to  greater  simplicity.  Such  as  they  are,  however,  they 
appear  to  me  well  worthy  of  remark  and  meditation.  For  some  of  my  auditoi*s, 
it  is  true,  this  generalization  may  be  premature  and  difficult  of  comprehension  j 
but  for  most  of  those  who  are  somewhat  initiated  in  biology,  I  would  hope  that 
they  might  lead  to  an  enlarged  conception  of  the  facts  with  which  they  are 
already  acquainted.  Some  of  these  laws,  being  those  which  are  specially  appli- 
cable to  muscular  contraction^  are  in  substance  as  follows : 

First  law. — Muscular  contraction  seems  inseparable  from  an  organic  cliange 
tchich  nutrition  alone  can  repair. 

It  is  now  known  that  the  muscle  in  repose  presents  the  alkaline  reaction,  and 
that,  under  the  influence  of  repeated  contractions,  it  passes  to  the  acid  reaction  j 
a  chemical  process  has  therefore  been  at  work,  which  has  modified  the  composi- 
tion of  the  muscle.  Again,  if  we  seek  in  a  muscle  the  proportion  of  matter  solu- 
ble in  water,  before  or  after  energetic  exertion,  we  shall  find,  with  Helmholtz, 
that  the  quantity  of  soluble  substances  has  augmented  under  the  influence  of 
that  exertion. 

Second  law. — The  rapidity  of  the  circulation  oftlie  Hood  and  tJie  richness  of 
tlmt  liquid  in  restorative  substances,  favor  the  recuperation  qfthe  muscle,  and  ren- 
der  it  capable  qf  new  labor. 

This  law,  like  the  preceding,  is  susceptible  of  experimental  verification.  We 
can  augment  or  diminish  the  time  necessary  for  the  recuperation  of  the  muscle 
by  abating  or  accelerating  the  course  of  the  blood  which  traverses  it.  The  need 
of  alimentation  which  follows  muscular  exercise  also  confirms  this  law  in  what 
relates  to  the  influence  of  the  qualities  of  the  blood  on  the  muscular  restoration. 
Even  in  the  absence  of  circulation,  the  restoration  still  takes  place  within  certain 
limits,  which  is  explained  by  the  presence  of  the  blood  with  which  the  tissues 
are  saturated,  even  when  it  ceases  to  circulate. 

Third  law,  (flowing  from  the  two  preceding). — A  muscle  is  subjected  to 
two  influences,  the  one  restorative,  nutrition;  tJie  ottier  exhaustive,  its  motive  func- 
tion; its  actual  faculty  of  producing  movement  varies  according  as  one  or  the 
other  of  these  influences  lias  acted. 

Hence,  after  a  prolonged  repose,  the  muscle  has  attained  its  maximum  of 
aptitude  to  act,  since  the  restoration  is  produced  without  waste.  Conversely, 
after  prolonged  action,  the  faculty  of  acting  is  at  its  minimum.  It  will  be  seen 
how  closely  this  law  approximates  to  laws  purely  physical,  and  how  much  the 
muscle  resembles  an  apparatus  which  on  the  one  hand  receives  electricity,  and 
on  the  other  dispenses  it ;  as  it  does  also  a  body  subjected  to  a  source  of  heat  and 
to  an  intermitting  cause  of  refngeration. 

Fourth  law. — Recuperation  after  action  is  more  rapid  during  tJie  first  few 
instants  tlwtn  it  is  c^erwards. 

*  In  the  number  of  these  would  further  appear  the  electric  phenomena  observed  in  certain 
^shes,  the  phosphorescence  of  certain  animals,  the  movement  of  vibratory  cilia,  &c 

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302  NATURAL  HISTORY   OP  ORGANIZED   BODIES. 

That  is  to  say  that  if,  after  the  action  of  a  mnscle,  the  repose  lasts  one  minnte, 
there  will  have  taken  place  a  certain  degree  of  restoration  of  the  faculty  of  act- 
ing, and  that  if  the  repose  continues  for  two  minutes,  the  restoration  will  not 
have  doubled  the  muscular  energy.  This  likewise  offers  a  new  analogy  with 
physical  phenomena.  In  effect,  a  chilled  body  submitted  to  a  source  of  heat, 
gains  much  heat  in  the  first  few  instants,  and  acquires  but  little  afterwards  in 
proportion  to  the  duration  of  the  process  of  heating. 

!t!^iFTH  LAW. — Tlie  habitual  activity  qf  a  muscle  and  its  ntt&ition  stand  in  sttch 
relation  to  one  another  that  repose  too  much  prolonged  produces  atrophy  of  the  organ, 
while  action  frequently  repeated  increases  the  volume  of  the  muscle  and  augments 
its  aptitude  to  produce  movement. 

The  examples  which  confirm  this  law  are  well  known  ;  every  one  has  had  an 
opportunity  of  observing  the  development  of  the  muscles  which,  in  some  indi- 
viduals, are  more  exercised  than  the  rest,  and,  reciprocally,  the  atrophy  of  the 
muscles  which,  for  whatever  reason,  have  been  consigned  to  a  long  repose. 
There  are  limits,  however,  beyond  which  this  law  ceases  to  be  true ;  but  these 
limits  have  not  yet  been  ascertained  in  a  precise  manner. 

The  laws  here  stated  regarding  the  muscular  function  are  suflSciently  general 
to  enable  us  to  recognize  them  in  other  functions  which  seem  to  have  no  analogy 
with  movement.  Having  incidentally  mentioned  the  discharge  of  the  torpedo, 
I  may  here  add  that  it  would  be  interesting  to  inquire,  within  what  limits  the 
laws  above  stated  are  verified  in  this  order  of  phenomena.  M.  Brown  Sdquard 
thinks,  as  I  have  before  said,  that  they  are  governed  by  the  same  laws  with  the 
muscular  action ;  but  experiment  has  not  yet  succeeded  in  proving  the  reality  of 
this  opinion,  though  it  may  be  said  to  have  every  probability  in  its  favor.  The 
only  point  on  which  perfect  identity  has  thus  far  been  established  consists  in 
the  fact  that  the  discharges  of  the  torpedo  become  weaker  and  weaker  when  a 
series  of  them  is  provoked.  There  is,  therefore,  a  real  exhaustion  of  the  function 
simply  by  its  own  action ;  a  fatigue  of  the  electric  organ,  as  there  is  a  fettigne 
of  the  muscle. 

The  presence  of  blood  in  the  organ  and  its  rapid  circulation  seem  to  be  essen- 
tial conditions  for  the  abundant  production  of  electricity  and  its  prompt  restora- 
tion. Such,  at  least,  is  the  conclusion  which  appears  to  result  from  the  anatomy 
of  the  electric  apparatus  of  these  animals,  so  richly  provided  with  bloodvessels; 
but  the  absence  of  exact  means  for  appreciating  the  intensity  of  the  discharges 
of  the  torpedo  has  heretofore  precluded  rigorous  experiment  on  this  subject* 
Wo  are  able,  however,  as  M.  Moreau  has  shown,  to  verify  the  fact  that  a  cessa- 
tion of  the  current  of  the  blood  does  not  immediately  prevent  the  electric  appa- 
ratus from  operating,  any  more  than  it  extinguishes  instantly  the  contractility 
of  a  muscle.  But  this  suppression  of  the  current  of  the  blood  would  seem  to 
render  the  exhaustion  of  the  electricity  more  rapid. 

It  will  be  seen  that  there  remain  many  desiderata  in  relation  to  the  produc- 
tion of  electric  phenomena  in  fishes.  The  presence,  however,  of  certain  charac- 
ters perfectly  alike  in  the  function  of  their  electric  apparatus  and  the  muscular 
function  should  induce  inquiry  whether  other  analogies  exist.  It  is  thus  that  a 
knowledge  of  the  laws  of  a  phenomenon  traces  for  us  the  path  to  be  followed  in 
the  study  of  others,  by  indicating  the  most  probable  result  of  the  researches  which 
may  be  undei*taken. 

M.  A.  Moreau  has  happily  been  led  by  the  analogy  which  exists  between  the 
production  of  electricity  in  the  torpedo  and  the  producrion  of  movement  in  the 

*The  galvanometers  which  have  been  employed  are  too  sensitive ;  the  electric  discharge 
df  the  animal  communicates  to  the  needle  so  violent  a  deviation  that  it  makes  the  circuit  of 
the  dial-plate  several  times,  and  does  not  allow  a  comparison  of  the  relative  intensity  of  the 
different  commotions.  It  might  be  practicable,  perhaps,  by  means  of  a  circuit  of  «f«ri9«liaii, 
to  give  io  the  instrument  only  a  part  of  the  current,  and  as,  in  that  case,  the  intensity  of  the 
derived  current  remains  proportional  to  that  of  the  principal  current,  the  variations  of  the 
intensity  of  the  discharge  might  probably  be  p* 


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NATURAL   HISTORY   OF   ORGANIZED  BODIES.  303 

mnscle,  to  a  study  of  the  action  of  the  nerves  which  proceed  to  the  electric 
apparatus.  In  inquiring  whether  these  nerves  are  similar  to  the  motor-nerves, 
he  haS;  in  effect,  found  the  resemblance  perfect :  1.  That  the  section  of  the  for- 
mer suppresses  the  spontaneous  discharges  of  the  animal,  just  as  the  section  of 
the  motor-nerves  suppresses  voluntary  movement  in  the  muscles  to  which  they 
are  distributed.  2.  That  the  excitation  of  the  peripheral  end  of  an  electric  nerve 
provokes  a  discharge  of  the  apparatus,  as  the  excitation  of  a  motor-nerve  pro- 
vokes a  shock  of  the  corresponding  muscle.  3.  That  the  excitation  of  the  cen- 
tral end  of  the 'electric  nerve  provokes  in  the  animal  no  phenomenon  of  sensi- 
bility, as  none  is  occasioned  when  the  central  end  of  a  nerve  of  movement  is 
excited.  4.  M.  Moreau  having  poisoned  a  torpedo  with  strychnine,  which  com- 
municates to  the  motor-nerves  a  series  of  repeated  excitations  and  throws  the 
muscles  into  tetanic  convulsion,  found  that  this  drug  provoked  in  the  electric 
apparatus  very  frequent  discharges,  similar  in  all  respects  to  the  convulsions  of 
a  tetanized  muscle. 

The  phenomena  of  sensibility  are,  within  certain  limits,  subjected  to  the  same 
laws  with  the  phenomena  of  movement.  We  verify  with  regard  to  both  the 
law  which  teaches  us  that  activity  exhausts  the  function,  and  that  repose  restores 
it.  A  lively  sensation  fatigues  the  sensibility,  exhausts  or  abolishes  it  for  a 
certain  time,  while  by  repose  its  previous  intensity  is  renewed. 

Let  us  take  as  an  example  the  most  complex,  but  at  the  same  time  most  inter- 
esting of  our  sensitive  manifestations,  the  sight.  When  we  look  at  a  very  bright 
luminous  object,  the.  point  of  our  retina  on  which  its  image  falls  is  vividly 
excited ;  it  becomes  fatigued,  and  if  we  turn  the  eyes  on  a  field  of  a  uniform  clear 
color,  we  see  on  it  a  darker  spot,  presenting  the  exact  form  of  the  bright  object 
by  which  our  vision  had  been  impressed.  This  spot  is  owing  to  the  fact  that  tho 
fatigued  point  of  our  retina  no  longer  perceives  the  luminous  sensations  with  tho 
customaiy  intensity.  Tho  more  brilliant  the  body  observed,  and  tho  longer  the 
time  we  have  observed  it,  so  much  darker  and  more  persistent  is  the  ensuing 
image.  Repose  of  the  sight  causes  this  subjective  image,  as  it  is  called,  gradu- 
ally to  disappear. 

The  fatigue  of  our  retina  may  be  restricted  to  certain  elements  of  sensation, 
if  we  have  received  the  impression  of  only  certain  elements  of  the  light.  Thus, 
our  vision  may  be  fatigued  for  the  blue,  the  red,  or  the  yellow  separately.  Sup- 
pose, for  example,  that  a  red  wafer  bo  placed  on  a  sheet  of  white  paper,  and 
that  we  look  upon  it  intently  for  some  instants.  Let  us  now  remove  tho  wafer 
without  ceasing  to  look  at  the  same  point ;  we  shall  immediately  sec  a  green  disk 
of  the  same  dimensions  with  the  water  appear  in  its  place.  Tho  reason  thereof 
is:  that  in  the  white  light  of  the  paper  our  eye  cannot  peix^ive  so  vividly  tho 
red  rays  in  the  point  of  the  retina  which  is  fatigued  with  that  color,  and  as  all 
the  other  rays  are  there  perceived,  these  form  by  their  fusion  tho  complementary 
color  of  i-ed,  namely,  green.  In  the  same  way,  a  green  wafer  would  leave  after 
its  disappearance  a  red  subjective  image  j  a  yellow  wafer  would  give  a  violet 
image,  &c. 

I  shall  not  dwell  longer  on  examples  of  the  very  gencml  law  that  every  func- 
tion which  is  exerted  is  momentarily  exhausted,  and  that  it  is  restored  by  rejyose. 
Let  us  proceed  to  a  brief  consideration  of  laws  of  another  order  in  tho  phenomena 
of  life.  We  will  take,  for  example,  the  influence  of  functions  upon  one  anotlier. 
On  this  subject  1  may  be  allowed  to  adduce  certain  general  views  which 
appear  to  me  to  result  from  the  observation  of  phenomena  and  fi*om  physiological 
experiment.  A  law  qf  Mrmony  among  tlie  fimctions  of  life  will,  1  think,  bo 
admitted  without  difficulty ;  that  is  to  say,  that  if  one  function  reacts  on  anotlier 
it  influences  the  latter  in  such  manner  as  to  derive  therefrom  advantage  for  itself. 
To  develope  this  idea,  I  will  present  a  few  examples :  It  has  been  aheady  said 
that  any  muscidar  action  has  need  of  being  maintained  by  the  circulation  of  the 
blood;  now  the  action  favors  this  circulation  and  renders  it  more  rapid. 


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304  NATURAL   HISTORY   OF   ORGANIZED   BODIES. 

To  leave  no  doubt  regarding  the  first  proposition,  I  proceed  to  support  it  by- 
experimental  facts.  It  is  in  effect  easy  to  demonstrate  the  necessity  of  the 
sanguineous  current  in  the  exercise  of  a  muscular  action.  Thus,  when  we  tie 
the  lower  aorta  in  an  animal,  we  find  that  the  muscles  of  the  hind  quarters  are 
quickly  paralyzed.  The  same  result  follows  if  we  inject  into  the  arteries  of  a 
limb  a  tine  powder,  which  has  the  effect  of  obliterating  the  small  vessels.  M. 
Flourens  has  shown  that,  under  these  circumstances,  the  muscles  soon  become 
incapable  of  acting.  There  is  a  malady  which  veterinary  surgeons  call  inter- 
mittent claudication,  and  which  has  been  attentively  studied  in  uie  horse  by  M. 
Bouley  and  Dr.  Charcot.  This  malady  is  produced  by  an  obliteration  of  the 
iliac  arteries.  In  this  state  of  things  a  new  circulation  is  established  by  the 
coUateml  vessels,  but  these  have  not  the  easy  permeabihty  of  the  large  trunks 
whose  place  they  tend  to  supply.  The  animal  thus  affected  can  move  for  some 
time  in  the  usual  way ;  but  presently  the  afflux  of  blood  to  its  muscles  being  no 
longer  sufficient,  a  sudden  paralysis  takes  place  and  the  horse  stops.  A  moment 
of  repose  re-establishes  the  muscular  function,  which  is  exhausted  anew  after  a 
few  steps.  The  case  wholly  arises  from  the  fact  that  the  current  of  blood  in  the 
muscles  is  no  longer  sufficiently  mpid  to  maintain  their  function  in  a  durable 
manner. 

Again,  let  us  take  a  frog  in  which  the  vessels  of  one  of  the  hinder  feet  have 
been  tied,  and  suppose  that  both  feet  have  been  excited  by  induced  currents, 
and  that  in  both  the  contractility  has  been  fatigued  by  prolonged  action.  If  we 
now  excite  the  two  feet  of  the  animal,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  sound  foot  lias 
recovered  its  contractility,  while  that  whose  vessels  were  tied  still  evinces  in  a 
high  degree  the  exhaustion  consequent  upon  its  fatigue. 

Granting  then  the  necessity  of  a  circulation  so  much  the  more  rapid  as  the 
muscular  act  is  one  of  more  energy  and  duration,  it  is  easy  to  prove  the  second 
proposition  which  I  just  now  advanced,  namely :  that  this  muscular  act  commu- 
nicates of  itself  a  greater  rapidity  to  the  circulation  of  the  blood.  Every  one 
is  aware  that  in  venesection,  if  the  member  is  motionless,  the  blood  escapes 
slowly  from  the  vein,  while  the  flow  becomes  much  more  copious  if  the  ])atient 
exerts  contractions  of  the  muscles  of  the  fore-ann.  The  question  hero  is  not 
that  of  a  simple  compression  of  the  veins  by  the  muscles,  which  would  mechani- 
cally express  the  blood  contained  in  those  vessels.  Such  a  cause  would  speedily 
have  exhausted  its  effect,  and  extnided  but  an  inconsiderable  quantity  of  blood. 
There  is  exerCed,  on  the  contrary,  a  continuous  action  which  accelerates  the 
course  of  the  blood  as  long  as  the  contractions  of  the  muscles  of  the  fore-arm  are 
continued.  A  still  more  convincing  demonstration  of  the  influence  of  the  muscu- 
lar act  on  the  current  of  the  blood  may  be  given,  by  showing  that  the  arterial 
system  is  depleted  in  an  animal  which  has  just  desisted  from  running  and  presents 
in  its  interior  a  more  feeble  pressm-e  than  in  a  state  of  repose.*  From  such 
facts  as  these  it  results  that  the  muscular  act  operates  on  the  circulation  in  such 
a  way  as  to  accelerate  the  course  of  the  blood  through  the  muscles,  and  thus 
promotes  that  action  by  which  the  acceleration  was  occasioned. 

We  might  cite  a  great  number  of  examples  of  this  law  of  harmony  of  the 
functions,  and  show,  for  instance,  that  the  venous  blood,  when  it  arrives  in 
abundance  at  the  lungs,  stimulates  that  organ  and  provokes  the  respiratory 
movements  destined  to  aiterialize  it,  while  the  respiration,  at  the  moment  when 
it  is  executed,  opens  a  passage  for  the  blood  on  which  it  is  to  act,  &c.  But 
these  reciprocal  influences  of  the  functions  would  exact  too  long  developments 
to  be  thoroughly  treated  on  this  occasion.  I  confine  myself  to  a  notice  of  the 
existence  of  this  law  of  liarmony  of  which  I  have  been  speaking,  the  recognition 
of  which  I  consider  of  the  greatest  utility,  as  enabling  us  often  to  foresee  pheno- 
mena which  experiment  will  verify. 

•  See,  for  further  developmcDt  of  this  subject,  Marey,  Phytiotogie  midicaU  de  ia  eircuU* 
tion  du  gang,  p.  823,  Paris,  ltt63. 


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ON  THE  ELECTRICAL  CURRENTS  OF  THE  EARTH. 


By  Charles  BfATTEUcci. 


TRAJISLATED  POR  TBI  SaflTHSOllIAN  INSnTimOlf. 


The  study  of  electric  currents  in  the  terrestrial  strata  dates,  I  think,  from  the 
discovery  of  the  galvanometer.  M.  Fox,  in  England,  was  the  first  who  saw  the 
needle  deviate  when  different  points  of  a  metallic  vein  were  touched  with  the 
extremities  of  the  wire  of  the  galvanometer.  M.  Becquerel  afterwards  made  very 
extensive  researches  on  electric  currents  obtained  between  masses  of  water  and  strata 
of  earth  existing  under  different  conditions.  Till  then  these  experiments  were 
T^arded  but  as  obscure  cases  of  electro-chemical  action,  of  difficult  interpretation. 
There  was  no  thought,  in  this  case,  of  any  such  thing  as  a  terrestrial  phenomenon — 
that  is  to  say,  of  spontaneous  electric  currents,  as  they  are  called  by  the  celebrated 
astronomer  of  Greenwich — until  very  strong  electrical  currents  had  been  observed 
in  telegraphic  wires  during  the  appearance  of  the  aurora  borealis.  This  phenome- 
non presented  itself  for  the  first  time,  November  17, 1847,  in  the  telegraphic  wires 
of  Tuscany,  while  a  bright  aurora  was  visible  on  the  horizon.  The  description 
of  this  phenomenon,  which  I  gave  to  the  French  Academy  in  a  letter  addressed 
to  M.  Arago,  was  followed  shortly  afterwards  by  similar  observations  made 
in  the  United  States.  In  late  years  numerous  observations  have  been  made  on 
this  subject  on  all  telegraphic  lines,  and  have  confirmed  the  first  results.  It 
was  natural  to  seek  the  existence  of  electric  currents  and  their  laws  in  telegn^hic 
wires,  independent  of  the  simultaneous  appearance  of  the  aurora  boreaUs,  and 
the  Academy  of  Sciences  is  cognizant  of  the  researches  on  this  subject  which 
have  been  made  public  by  such  eminent  savants  as  MM.  Baumgarten,  Barlow, 
Lloyd,  and  Walker.  When  their  memoirs  are  read  with  the  attention  they 
merit,  no  one  can  fail  to  be  struck  with  the  difficulty  which  presents  itself  in 
harmonizing  the  results  they  have  obtained  and  deducing  some  general  conse- 
quence which  might  set  us  in  the  way  of  explaining  these  phenomena.  AU  these 
researches  have  been  conducted  by  introducing  a  galvanometer  into  telegraphic 
lines,  and  measuring  the  currents  at  sncL  times  as  the  lines  were  not  in  service 
for  the  transmission  of  despatches.  Ordinary  communications,  established  as 
telegraphic  stations  between  the  metallic  wires  and  the  earth,  are  effected,  we 
know,  in  different  ways ;  sometimes  they  are  formed  by  plates  of  iron  or  copper 
planned  into  the  water  of  wells  more  or  less  deep,  and  connected  with  the 
metsllic  wires;  sometimes  these  wires  communicate  with  the  shafts  of  pumps  or 
with  the  rails  of  an  iron  road.  With  the  exception  of  the  distinguished  astronomer 
of  Munich,  who  seems,  especially  in  his  later  experiments,  to  have  duly  con- 
sidered the  necessity  of  guarding  against  currents  excited  by  the  extremities  of 
the  lines  in  communication  with  the  earth,  the  observers  have  given  us  no  inti- 
madon  how  these  communications  were  established. 

^  Yet  it  is  not  difficult  to  discover  on  any  telegraphic  line  taken  at  hazard  that 
the  cunents  obtained  in  these  lines  depend  on  the  heterogeneousness  of  the 
plates  which  communicate  with  the  eartu.     I  have  often  seen  these  currents 


20  s67 

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306     ON  THE  ELECTRICAL  CURRENTS  OF  THE  EARTH. 

undergo  a  change  of  sign  when  the  position  of  the  plates  was  changed  or 
their  heterogeneousness  was  modified  by  causing  the  current  of  a  battery  to  pass 
in  a  given  direction.  These  currents  disappear,  or  are  considerably  weakened, 
by  employing  plates  and  liquids  as  homogeneous  as  possible.  By  employing 
more  sensitive  galvanometers  and  quite  homogeneous  plates  of  copper,  it 
will  readily  be  recognized  that  the  slightest  difference  in  the  composition  of 
the  water  of  the  terminal  wells  suffices  to  excite  currents.  It  need  scarcely  be 
added  that  in  operating  upon  telegraphic  lines,  it  is  necessary  to  take  account 
of  the  secondary  polarities  which  the  currents  of  the  battery  develop,  some- 
times in  one  direction,  sometimes  in  the  other.  Telegitiphic  lines  have  also  other 
causes  of  error  due  to  the  variable  contact  of  the  wire  with  the  posts.  From  the 
moment  when  I  proposed  to  study  this  subject,  I  felt  convinced  that,  before 
aught  else,  it  was  necessary  to  possess  a  method  by  which  would  be  realized 
the  condition  of  having  long  conducting  wires,  perfectly  isolated,  extended  in 
definite  directions,  the  communications  of  which  with  the  earth  should  be  abso- 
lutely homogeneous,  and  which  should  form  mixed  circuits,  all  endowed  with  the 
same  conductibility.  It  was  in  the  following  manner  that  I  attained  these 
objects : 

The  ^vire  which  I  employed  was  of  copper,  two  millimetres  in  diameter,  and 
covered  with  gutta-percha;  this  ^ire  was  suspended  by  means  of  a  sort  of  cleft, 
wrought  in  the  top  of  a  rod  or  slender  post  of  wood,  such  as  is  in  use  here  for 
military  telegraphic  lines.  These  wooden  rods  were  planted  at  a  distance  of  25 
or  30  metres  from  one  another,  in  two  lines  exactly  traced,  one  in  the  magnetic 
meridian,  the  other  perpendicular  to  the  meridian.  Each  of  these  lines  was  six 
kilometres  in  length,  the  place  where  they  were  established  being  the  plain  of 
Saint  Maurice,  22  kilometres  from  Turin,  a  plain  set  apart  for  military  exercises. 
The  communications  between  the  extremities  of  the  wire  and  the  earth  were 
effected  in  the  following  manner.  At  the  extremity  of  each  line  I  caused  to 
be  dug  a  kind  of  pit  of  rectangular  form,  two  metres  in  depth  and  length,  and 
one  in  breadth;  at  the  bottom  of  this  pit  was  formed  a  cavity  much  smaller^  and 
which  might  be  tenned  a  sort  of  capsule,  having  a  Width  and  depth  of  30  centi- 
metres. A  bed  of  clay,  such  as  is  used  in  the  fabrication  of  pottery,  was  carefully 
spread  over  the  interior  surface  of  this  capsule,  so  as  to  prevent  the  water  from 
percolating  too  rapidly  through  its  wall.  The  same  water,  being  that  from  a  river, 
was  employed  for  the  four  cavities,  and  the  person  appointed  to  superintend  at 
each  extremity  had  a  supply  of  this  water  at  hand,  in  order  to  maintain  it  constantly 
at  the  same  level.  Lastly,  a  porous  cylinder,  such  as  is  used  for  the  batteries  of 
Daniell,  filled  with  a  saturated  and  neutral  solution  of  the  sulphate  of  zinc,  was 
plunged  in  the  water  at  the  centre  of  the  cavity,  and  the  wire  of  the  line  was 
united  to  a  plate  of  zinc  perfectly  amalgamated,  and  which  in  turn  descended 
into  the  solution  of  the  sulphate.  The  porous  cylinders  thus  prepared  and  the 
plates  employed  were  testea  in  advance,  and  this  testing  was  renewed  from  time 
to  time,  so  as  to  be  sure  that  the  plates  were  perfectly  homogeneous.  It  rarely 
happens  that  two  plates  once  rendered  properly  homogeneous  undergo  alteration 
for  several  days  when  they  remain  constantly  immersed  in  the  solution.  Should, 
however,  a  slight  heterogeneity  appear,  it  will  suffice  to  wash  and  amalgamate 
them  anew,  in  order  to  render  them  again  homogeneous.  The  two  lines  also 
must  be  ascertained  in  advance  to  have  the  same  conductibility.  In  a  uniform 
plain,  like  that  in  which  I  operated,  the  pits  being  excavated  in  nearly  the  same 
stratum,  the  differences  of  conductibility  could  not  be  great;  but  I  succeeiled 
in  rendering  them  equal  by  deepening  by  a  few  centimetres  the  cavities  made  at 
the  bottom  of  the  pits  of  that  line  which  was  found  to  be  most  resistant. 

In  this  manner  the  conditions  of  the  circuit  which  I  deem  essential  for  these 
experiments  were  realized.  It  is  proper  to  remark  that,  wishing  to  test  in  advance 
two  similar  excavations,  with  cavities  at  the  bottom  as  above  described,  and 
formed  at  a  distance  of  five  to  six  meters  from  one  another,  I  found  no  trace  of  a 


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ON  THE  ELECTBICAL  CURRENTS  OF  THE  EARTH.    307 

current  between  these  cavities,  as  I  had  obtained  none  in  employing  the  two 
poroos  cylinders  with  their  plates  of  zinc  plnnged  in  a  vat  filled  with  water.  I 
proposed  also  to  test  beforehand  whether  the  nature  of  the  formations  in  which 
the  pits  were  excavated  might  have  some  influence.  Wth  this  view  1  caused 
the  earth  proceeding  from  the  excavation  of  pits  near  the  place  where  I  was 
established  to  be  transported,  and  two  cavities  formed  in  a  neighboring  field  to 
be  filled  with  it;  having  then  introduced  into  this  earth,  in  the  manner  already 
described,  the  extremities  of  the  galvanometer,  I  obtained  no  sign  of  a  current. 

Very  near  the  place  where  the  two  lines,  north-south  and  east-west,  crossed 
one  another,  each  of  the  lines  was  intermpteil,  and  the  extremities  thus  obtained 
were  passed  into  two  capsules  filled  with  mercury  in  the  chamber  where  I  had 
stationed  myself  with  the  galvanometer.  I  employed  alternately  three  galvan- 
ometers—one of  1,500  coils,  another  of  100,  and  a  third  of  24,000  coils  ;  the 
numbers  which  I  shall  report  in  my  memoir  were  obtained  with  the  first  of  them. 

I  must  be  excused  for  these  long  details  on  the  process  which  I  employed ;  I 
have  thought  it  necessary  to  give  them,  as  well  by  reason  of  the  importance  of 
such  researches  as  of  the  difficulties  and  uncertainty  met  with  in  the  investiga- 
tions which  I  have  before  cited.  I  continued  the  experiments  on  the  two  lines 
for  nearly  a  month,  from  the  12th  or  15th  of  March  to*  the  15th  of  April  of  the 
present  year,  during  which  time  the  weather  was  generally  fair,  the  air  cold  and 
dry,  the  sun  very  wann.  I  cannot  report  in  this  abstract  all  the  numbers  obtained 
in  this  long  series  of  experiments;  for  ten  days  the  observations  were  made 
almost  hour  by  hour,  with  a  change  of  observers.  I  am  compelled,  therefore, 
to  give  here  only  a  recapitulation  of  the  results  at  which  I  have  airived. 

1.  In  two  circuits,  formed  in  the  manner  which  I  have  described,  it  is  rare  not 
to  find  electric  ciurreuts  more  or  less  constant,  whose  origin  cannot  be  attributed 
absolutely  to  the  heterogeneousness  of  the  terminal  metallic  plates,  nor  to  chemical 
action  between  the  water  in  which  the  plates  are  immersed  and  the  terrestrial 
strata. 

2.  These  currents  augment  in  intensity  by  deepening  the  cavities  into  which 
the  terminal  plates  are  plunged  lTX)m  0*".50  to  2  metres;  the  greater  conducti- 
hility  found  in  the  mixed  line  by  deepening  the  terminal  cavities  accounts  for  this 
result.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the  slight  and  transient  augmentation  of  the 
electric  currents  which  is  realized  by  the  efiect  of  rain  on  the  earth  immediately 
surrounding  the  cavities  in  which  the  electrodes  are  plunged. 

3.  It  has  not  been  found  that  the  extent  of  the  plates  of  zinc  and  the  diameter 
of  the  porous  vessels  have  a  distinctly  marked  influence  on  the  intensity  of  these 
currents,  when  operating  at  a  depth  of  two  metres. 

4.  In  the  meridian  or  south-north  line,  the  current  has  always  maintained  a 
constant  direction;  hundreds  of  observations  have  continually  shown  that^the 
current  entered  the  galvanometer  by  the  metallic  line  coming  from  the  south, 
and  issued  from  it  through  the  line  directed  to  the  north.  By  comparing  the 
very  nearly  conformable  deviations  obtained  in  this  great  number  of  observa- 
tions, it  would  appear  that  this  current  presents  in  the  24  hours  two  maximums 
and  two  minimums  of  intensity.  The  two  minimums  occur  during  the  day  and 
in  the  night,  at  nearly  the  same  hours,  that  is  from  11  to  1  aclock.  After 
1  o'clock  in  the  night,  the  current  augments  and  attains  a  maximum  at  from 
5  to  7  o'clock  in  the  morning.  In  the  day  this  maximum  oscillates  between  3 
and  7  o'clock  in  the  afternoon.  The  difference  of  intensity  between  the  maxi- 
mums and  the  minimums  of  intensity  is  greater  than  that  of  1  to  2. 

5.  In  the  equatorial  line  the  results  are  very  different,  and  subject  to  great 
variations.  Frequently  the  needle  rests  at  U**,  frequently  it  oscillates,  sometimes 
into  one  quadrant,  sometimes  into  the  other,  ranging  from  two  to  three  degiees, 
and  even  14°  and  15°  on  the  same  side,  and  often  oscillating  around  0°.  The 
direction  of  these  currents,  which  has  occurred  most  firequently  in  the  equatorial 
line,  was  from  west  to  east. 


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308     ON  THE  ELECTRICAL  CURRENTS  OP  THE  EARTH. 

G.  By  establishing  commtinieations  between  the  lines  sonth-east,  south-west, 
and  north-east,  north-west,  the  currents  realized  were  generally  those  which  circu- 
lated in  the  portion  of  the  line  pertaining  to  the  south-north  line. 

7.  Only  the  temperature  more  or  less  elevated,  which  varied  from  0**  at  night 
to  +  14°*or  20**  by  day,  was  ever  observed;  the  humidity  or  dryness  of  the  air, 
and  even  stormy  weather,  had  an  influence  on  the  direction  and  intensity  of  the 
current  of  the  meridian  line. 

8.  The  results  have  been  the  same,  whether  the  metallic  portion  of  the  line 
was  suspended  on  posts  or  laid  upon  the  surface  of  the  ground. 

What  is  the  origin  of  these  currents?  I  believe  it  impossible  to  answer  this 
question  with  any  confidence.  What  ought  to  be  considered  as  perfectly  proved 
by  experiment  is,  that  in  a  wire,  when  it  reaches  a  certain  length  and  its  extrem- 
ities are  in  good  communication  with  the  earth,  there  is  an  electric  current  which 
constantly  circulates,  and  principally  in  the  direction  of  the  ma^etic  meridian ; 
the  origin  of  this  current  is  neither  in  the  metallic  part  of  the  circuit,  nor  in  the 
terminal  metallic  plates,  nor  in  any  chemical  action  which  might  be  surmised 
between  the  terrestrial  strata  and  these  plates,  or  the  liquids  in  which  they  are 
immersed. 

Should  these  currents  be  considered  as  derived  currents!  I  have  heretofore 
demonstrated,  what  every  one  at  present  admits,  and  which  is  aooordant  with 
theory,  that  the  resistance  of  a  terrestrial  stratum  is  very  nearly  null  and  does 
not  vary  with  the  length  of  that  stratum.  These  considerations  are  not  favor- 
able to  the  idea  that  the  currents  we  have  described  are  derived  currents.  On 
the  plain  of  Saint  Maurice,  I  have  made  some  experiments  to  ascertain  to  what 
distance  from  the  electrodes  of  the  battery  derived  currents  were  sensible.  I 
used  for  extremities  of  the  derived  circuit  the  same  plates  of  zinc  plunged  in  the 
saturated  solution  of  the  sulphate  of  zinc  which  have  been  described  above.  The 
cbcuit  of  the  pile  was  six  kilometres  in  length ;  its  extremities  consisted  of  square 
plates  of  copper,  20  centimetres  to  the  side,  immersed  in  water  to  the  depth  of  two 
metres.  The  battery  was  composed  of  20  elements  of  Daniell ;  the  galvano- 
meter of  the  derived  circuit  was  that  of  1,500  coils,  before  mentioned.  When 
each  of  the  electrodes  of  the  derived  circuit  was  at  a  distance  of  10  metres  fix)m 
the  electrodes  of  the  battery,  in  a  straight  line  between  these  electrodes,  I  obtained 
a  steady  derived  current  of  33** ;  this  deviation  remained  constant  during  the 
whole  time  that  the  current  of  the  battery  did  not  vary,  that  is  for  several  hours. 
On  increasing,  to  50  metres,  the  distance  between  the  electrodes  of  the  battery 
and  those  of  the  derived  circuit,  there  were  4°  of  derived  current;  at  100  metres 
this  deviation  was  barely  half  a  degree;  and  at  a  distance  of  200  metres,  it  is 
doubtful  whether  there  was  any  movement  at  all  in  the  galvanometer  at  the 
closing  of  the  circuit  of  the  battery.  It  seems  to  me  difficult  to  derive  from  these 
experiments  any  satisfactory  reply  as  to  the  nature  of  the  electric  currents  observed 
in  long  mixed  lines. 

General  Sabine,  the  highest  authority  of  the  present  day  in  point  of  terrestrial 
magnetism,  appears  to  adroit  absolutely  the  ma^etic  influence  of  the  sun  upon 
the  earth.  But,  if  this  iniiaence  be  admitted,  what  explanation  can  be  given  of 
the  currents  we  obtained  and  the  differences  of  those  currents  according  as  the 
line  is  in  the  meridian  or  perpendicular  to  it,  or  the  periods  of  intensity  in  the 
former  of  these  lines  t  Assuredly  these  currents  cannot  be  currents  of  induction 
duo  to  the  rotation  of  the  earth.  *  It  is  stated  that  Father  Secchi,  the  indefati- 
gable astronomer  of  Borne,  is  occupied  at  this  time  in  investigating  the  oonneo- 
tion  which  exists  between  the  electric  currents  of  long  mixed  lines  and  the  vari- 
ations observed  in  the  instruments  which  measure  the  magnetic  force  of  the  earth. 
If  a  connection  of  this  kind  were  well  established,  we  should  certainly  have  taken 
a  step  towards  the  interpretation  of  the  electric  phenomena  of  the  earth. 

It  remains  to  report  a  result  which  has  some  importance,  and  which  I  have 
constantly  realized :  These  terrestrial  currents  have  a  irreater  intensity,  in  the 


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case  of  a  mixed  line^  when,  the  distance  between  the  extremities  remaining  the 
same,  the  terminal  cavities  which  constitute  the  communication  between  the  wires 
and  the  earth  are  at  diiferent  levels,  than  when  these  communications  are  dBtab- 
lished  in  a  horizontal  plane.  For  the  verification  of  this,  I  have  established  on 
the  heights  of  Turin  a  line  whose  wire,  in  a  straight  direction,  has  a  length  of 
scarcely  600  metres,  while  the  terminal  cavities  have  a  difference  of  level  of 
nearly  150  metres.  The  line  which  joins  the  two  cavities  is  in  an  intermediate 
direction,  or  southeast  and  northwest.  The  current  has  circulated  constantly, 
fur  five  or  six  months,  from  below  upwards  in  the  wire,  or  from  the  northwest  to 
the  southwest  extremity.  All  the  precautions  which  I  have  before  described 
were  observed  in  the  construction  of  the  cavities  in  which  the  plates  of  zinc  are 
sunk,  and  I  am  certain  that  the  current  obtained  depends  neither  on  any  hetcro- 
geneousness  in  the  wire,  nor  on  the  terminal  plates,  nor  on  a  chemical  action 
between  the  plates  and  the  terrestrial  strata  in  which  they  are  imbedded.  When 
care  is  taken,  as  I  have  practiced  for  several  days  in  succession,  to  maintain  at  a 
a>iistant  height  the  liquids  of  the  terminal  cavities,  that  is  to  say,  the  water  and 
the  solution  of  sulphate  in  the  poi*ou8  vessels,  the  deviation  remains  nearly  invari- 
able, whatever  may  be  the  state  of  the  sky  and  temperature  of  the  au-,  and  only 
after  quite  a  long  rain  has  the  deviation  temporarily  increased.  In  this  line  I 
have  not  remarked  the  periods  of  which  I  have  spoken.  Other  lines  of  nearly 
the  same  length,  established  in  similar  formations  at  the  foot  of  the  hill  on  a 
horizontal  plane,  yielded  no  sensible  deviation. 

If  the  influence  of  the  difiference  of  level  of  the  extremities  of  the  metallic  line 
should  be  verified  in  a  great  number  of  different  cases,  if  the  direction  of  the 
cmrent  in  the  wire  should  prove  constant,  that  is  to  say,  always  from  below 
upwards,  might  we  not  be  tempted  to  attribute  these  cuirents  to  the  negative 
electi-ic  state  of  the  earth,  the  tension  of  which  is  then  unequal  between  the  plain 
and  the  elevated  points,  as  we  find  in  an  electrified  globe  communicating  with  a 
metallic  point?  As  the  signs  of  the  positive  electricity  of  the  air  are  seen  in 
effect  to  aogment  in  proportion  as  we  ascend  in  the  atmosphere,  so  also  are  the 
signs  of  negative  electricity  found  to  be  stronger  in  ascending,  when  an  isolated 
copper  wire,  one  extremity  of  which  communicates  with  the  earth,  is  canned  with 
the  other  extremity  in  contact  with  the  ball  of  the  electroscope.  This  explana- 
tion might  be  submitted  to  proof  when  the  atmosphere  presents  for  a  certain 
time  signs  of  negative  electricity.  I  have  sometimes  obtained  very  transient 
signs  of  this  electricity  at  the  approach  of  storms  of  rain,  without  noticing  any 
variation  in  the  current  of  the  line. 

My  chief  object  has  been  to  investigate  the  relation  which  exists  between 
these  currents  and  atmospheric  electricity,  and  next,  to  verify  the  result  obtained 
and  described  in  the  first  part  of  this  memoir,  by  studying  these  currents  in 
lines,  the  extremities  of  which  are  sunk  in  the  earth  at  different  levels.  The 
first  experiments  were  made  upon  the  line  above  described,  between  the  hill  of 
Tnrin  and  the  adjacent  plain.  The  extremities,  as  has  been  already  said,  were  ter- 
minated by  plates  of  amalgamated  zinc  immersed  in  a  saturated  solution  of  sulphate 
of  zinc  contained  in  a  porous  vessel,  which  was  plunged  in  turn  in  the  water  of  a 
sort  of  capsule  excavated  from  one  to  two  metres  below  the  surfiEice  of  the  earth. 
This  mode  of  constructing  the  mixed*  line  is  the  only  one  which  yields  sure  and 
constant  results,  and  I  would  advise  all  physicists  who  occupy  themselves  with 
the  subject  not  to  deviate  from  it.  The  water  which  filled  the  two  cavities  was 
the  same,  and  care  was  taken  to  maintain  it  at  a  constant  level.  During  several 
days  of  July,  in  the  present  year,  I  have  continued  to  observe  from  hour  to  hour 
the  deviations  of  the  galvanometer  inserted  in  this  line,*  the  current  was  always 
&n  ascending  one  in  uie  wire,  though  I  changed  several  times  the  position  and 

*  By  this  tenn  we  understand  a  circuit  composed  of  an  extended  wire  and  the  strata  of  earth 
intervening  between  its  extremities.— J.  H. 


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310     ON  THE  ELECTRICAL  CURRENTS  OP  THE  EARTH. 

the  ground  in  which  the  terminal  cavities  were  dug,  and  the  deviation  was  not 
found  to  vary  in  a  lapse  of  many  days,  provided  there  was  neither  tempest  nor 
rain.  After  rain,  the  deviation  was  constantly  seen  to  increase.  I  have  satis- 
fied myself,  by  measuring  a  constant  current  transmitted  in  this  mixed  circuit, 
that  the  augmentation  which  followed  rain  was  only  the  effect  of  the  better  con- 
ductibility  of  the  earth  depending  on  a  state  of  greater  humidity  in  the  terrestrial 
stratum  immediately  in  contact  with  the  extremities  of  the  line.  And,  in  fact, 
it  could  be  obtained  by  pouring  around  the  cavity  in  which  the  electrodes  were 
plunged,  within  a  radius  of  two  to  three  metres,  a  few  buckets  of  water. 

I  have  tried  the  immersion  of  the  electrodes  in  the  water  of  a  well,  which  was 
effected  by  a  very  simple  contrivance.  For  this  purpose,  I  take  a  thick  square 
piece  of  cork  and  fix,  in  a  hole  made  in  this  cork,  porous  vessels  filled  with  sul- 
phate of  zinc.  The  cork  suspended  by  a  cord  fioats  on  the  water  of  the  well 
into  which  the  porous  vessels  descend.;  by  means  of  a  copper  wire  covered  with 
gutta-perc'ha  and  bound  to  the  cord,  the  electrode  of  zinc  was  introduced  into  the 
porous  vessel  and  communicated  with  the  line.  I  was  thus  able  to  establish  the 
mixed  line,  employing  the  well  water  as  extremities  of  the  terrestrial  stratum,  in 
which  the  electrodes  were  sunk.  With  this  arrangement,  also,  I  have  realized  an 
ascending  current  in  the  wire,  and  the  deviation  was  only  a  few  degrees  greater  than 
that  of  the  cmTent  obtained  by  using  the  artificial  cavities  or  pits  which  1  have  de- 
scribed above.  By  using  the  wells  we  have  this  advantage  :  that  the  conditions 
of  conductibility  of  the  terrestrial  strata  into  which  the  electrodes  are  introduced 
remain  invariable.  It  is  necessary  to  ascertain  in  advance  that  the  waters  of  the 
two  wells,  when  those  which  we  employ  are  in  two  cavities  formed  in  the  earth 
at  a  short  distance  from  one  another,  do  not  yield  an  electric  current.  I  have 
varied  as  far  as  possible  the  excavations  situated  at  different  levels,  but  in  all 
cases  have  found  the  current  in  the  metallic  line  to  be  an  ascending  one.  I  was 
even  enabled  to  divide  the  line  at  the  hill  of  Turin,  a  length  of  nearly  600  metres, 
about  midway  where  there  existed  a  well,  and  this  remarkable  and  constant 
result  was  realized:  that,  notwithstanding  the  greater  resistance  of  the  entire 
line,  the  current,  which  continued  to  be  ascendant  in  the  two  halves,  had  still  a 
less  intensity  in  the  two  lines  taken  separately  than  in  the  entire  line. 

I  have  had  an  opportunity  of  observing  in  these  lines  the  effects  of  two  or 
three  stoi-ms  during  the  month  of  July.  1  will  first  remark,  that  I  have  satisfied 
myself  that  in  leaving  one  of  the  extremities  of  the  line  in  communication  with 
the  electrode  and  the  earth,  and  the  other  in  the  air,  I  had  never  any  trace  of  a 
current,  even  when  using  a  galvanometer  of  24,000  coils.  I  have  often  made 
the  experiment  of  putting  an  isolated  metallic  vessel,  at  the  end  of  a  wooden 
staff  from  seven  to  eight  meti-es  high,  in  communication  with  the  extremity  of 
the  line  which  was  in  the  air;  placing  in  the  vessel  sometimes  lighted  coals, 
sometimes  touch-wood,  sometimes  shavings  saturated  with  burning  alcohol,  in 
order  to  obtain  a  large  fiame  and  a  current  of  heated  air.  In  all  these  experi- 
ments, whichever  might  be  the  extremity  of  the  line  immersed  in  the  water  or 
raised  in  the  air,  I  have  never  obtained  a  sign  of  the  current  in  the  most  delicate 
galvanometer,  provide!^  care  were  observed  to  isolate  the  line  effectually  and  no 
accx)unt  were  taken  of  the  indications  of  the  galvanometer  at  the  moment  when 
it  was  necessary  to  touch  the  line  with  the  hands. 

Neither,  dming  storms,  have  I  observed,  with  the  line,  which  was  only  600 
metres  in  length,  any  deviation  in  the  needle  at  the  moment  when  lightning 
flashed  between  clouds,  provided  the  two  extremities  of  the  line  are  not  in  com- 
munication with  the  ground.  When  this  communication  is  established  and  a 
deviation  of  the  needle  has  resulted  from  the  terrestrial  current,  a  sudden  move- 
ment is  seen  to  take  place  at  each  flash,  such  as  would  be  occasioned  by  the  dis- 
charge of  the  torpedo  fish.  I  observed  at  the  same  time  the  galvanometer  and 
an  electroscope  of  dry  batteries  (a  piles  sbclies)  communicating  with  an  iron  wire 
from  seven  to  eight  metres  long,  well  isolated  and  raised  in  the  an*,  and  having 


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ON  THE  ELECTRICAL  CURRENTS  OF  THE  EARTH.    311 

a  piece  of  lighted  touch- wood  at  the  upper  extremity.  Most  frequently  the  elec- 
troscope gave  signs  more  or  less  strong  of  positive  electricity,  which  augmented 
suddenly  at  the  moment  of  the  flash.  At  the  same  instant  the  needle  of  the  gal- 
vanometer made  a  deviation  of  at  least  15^  to  20°.  This  sudden  deviation  was 
always  in  the  same  direction,  indicating  an  ascending  current  in  the  wire,  and 
was  additional  to  the  terrestrial  current.  It  should  be  remarked  that  I  have 
bad  the  opportunity  of  making  this  observation  in  a  case  in  which,  on  account 
of  plates  of  copper  being  employed  as  electrodes,  the  current  of  the  line  was  con- 
trary to  the  terrestrial  current  which  is  constantly  obtained  with  electrodes  of 
zinc. 

Thus,  then,  the  ascending  current  in  the  wire  whose  extremities  are  sunk  in 
cavities  which  have  a  difference  of  level  of  about  150  metres,  and  which,  from 
the  manner  of  operating,  must  be  regarded  as  a  terrestrial  current  independent 
of  the  chemical  actions  of  the  electrodes  and  the  strata  of  the  earth — this  current, 
I  say,  augments  suddenly  at  the  moment  when  there  is  an  electric  discharge 
between  clouds.  There  remains  here  an  important  observation  to  be  made,  in 
which,  as  yet,  I  have  not  been  able  to  succeed  :  to  notice,  namely,  what  would 
happen  when  the  atmospheric  electricity  is  negative. 

I  have  deemed  it  of  some  im^wrtance  for  the  theory  of  these  phenomena  to 
substitute  for  the  iron  wire  suspended  on  bells  of  porcelain,  a  copper  wii'e  covered 
ynih  gutta-percha  laid  upon  the  earth  and  buried  as  much  as  possible  in  the  grass 
and  under  the  leaves.  None  of  the  phenomena  before  described  in  the  suspended 
line,  whether  with  a  clear  sky  or  during  storms,  have  been  modified  by  this 
change  of  the  metallic  line.  We  can  conceive  that  during  the  flash  of  lightning, 
at  the  moment  when  an  electrified  cloud,  which  had  acted  by  influence  on  the 
points  of  the  ground  placed  within  its  sphere  of  action,  discharges  itself  and  sud- 
aenly  ceases  to  act,  a  sudden  neutralization  may  take  place  m  the  conducting 
wire,  producing  the  electrical  effect  noticed  with  the  galvanometer. 

It  remains  for  me  to  report  the  results  I  have  obtained  by  operating  on  tele- 
graphic lines  of  great  length  and  whose  extremities  were  at  a  great  difference  of 
level.  I  employed  the  same  galvanometer  and  the  same  process  of  communica- 
tion for  the  extremities  of  the  line  with  the  earth,  that  is  to  say,  plates  of  amal- 
gamated zinc,  immersed  in  sulphate  of  zinc,  contained  in  porous  vessels  floating 
on  the  water  in  the  manner  I  have  described.  I  have  made  three  series  of  experi- 
ments, one  on  the  telegraphic  line  from  Ivree  to  Saint  Vincent,  in  the  valley  of 
Aosta,  36  kilometres  in  length,  and  in  which  the  difference  of  level  of  the  extrem- 
ities was  281  metres.  The  second  series  was  made  on  the  line  from  Saint  Viur 
cent  to  Aosta,  25  kilometres  long,  the  difference  of  level  of  the  extremities  being 
83  metres.  The  third  line,  27  kilometres  in  length,  passed  from  Aosta  to  Cour- 
majeur,  at  the  extremity  of  the  valley,  and  the  difference  of  level  of  the  two 
extremities  was  642  metres.  The  electrodes  of  zinc  were  sunk  in  cavities  dug  in 
the  ground  to  the  depth  of  about  half  a  metre.  These  cavities  I  caused  to  be 
filled  with  the  whitish  water  proceeding  from  the  glaciers,  which  flows  in  great 
abundance  in  the  valley ;  being  that  which,  under  the  circumstances,  might  be 
considered  as  having  in  every  respect  the  same  composition.  I  should  state  that 
the  line  from  Ivree  to  Saint  Vincent  is  nearly  parallel  to  the  meridian,  while  the 
other,  from  Saint  Vincent  to  Courmajeur,  intersects  the  former  almost  perpen- 
dicularly. 

The  following  were  the  results  obtained.  The  electric  currents  in  these  three 
lines,  notwithstanding  the  much  greater  resistance  in  comparison  with  the  line  of 
600  metres  on  which  I  had  previously  operated,  were  stronger ;  as  were  also  the 
regular  deviations,  so  as  to  rise  from  40°  to  60°,  and  even  80°,  instead  of  20° 
and  25° y  which  I  had  realized  on  the  hill  of  Tiuin.  The  experiments  were 
made  at  very  different  hours,  but  the  regular  deviation  indicated  in  every  case 
an  ascending  current  in  the  wire,  as  in  the  experiments  on  the  line  of  the  hill 
just  mentioned.     In  the  greater  number  of  cases,  the  dovnation  of  the  needle 


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312     ON  THE  ELECTRICAL  CURRENTS  OF  THE  EARIH. 

remained  at  the  same  angle  during  the  whole  experiment,  which  sometimes  con- 
tinued for  an  hour ;  but  I  have  observed  also,  without  any  change  having  occur- 
red in  the  state  of  ^he  sky,  a  movement  in  the  needle  almost  periodic.  Twice  I 
have  seen  the  needle  deviate  at  first  by  an  ascending  current,  and  after  some 
minutes  descend  to  zero,  then  pass  into  the  opposite  quadrant  and  return  after- 
wards to  the  previous  deviation,  becoming  eventually  fixed  under  the  action  of 
the  current  ascending  in  the  wire.  It  has  seemed  to  me  that  this  phenomenon 
was  presented  when  the  water  which  filled  the  cavities  of  the  electrodes  was  in 
movement  and  flowed  rapidly  away  around  the  porous  vessels.  Keflection  on 
the  conditions  under  which  we  are  compelled  to  operate  in  this  sort  of  experi- 
ments, will  suffice  to  evince  the  difficulty  of  solving  all  the  doubts  which  may 
present  themselves  in  the  prosecution  of  our  inquiries. 

Notwithstanding  the  difficulties  inherent  in  such  researches,  and  which  impose 
on  the  physicist  the  greatest  reserve  in  his  conclusions,  we  may  regard,  I  think, 
the  following  results  as  founded  on  a  large  number  of  facts  conformable  with  one 
another  and  obtained  under  difierent  circumstances : 

When  a  metallic  line  is  stretched  upon  the  earth,  but  isolated  from  it,  while 
the  extremities  of  the  wire  communicate  with  the  earth  at  two  points  having  a 
different  elevation,  an  electric  current  circulates  constantly  in  the  wire,  the  cause 
of  which  current  can  be  attributed  neither  to  the  chemical  action  of  the  electrode 
nor  to  that  of  the  terrestrial  strata  in  which  they  are  simk. 

This  current  is  constantly  directed  in  the  wire  from  the  lowest  towards  the 
highest  point,  and  its  intensity  is  gieater  in  the  longer  lines  and  as  the  difference 
of  level  of  the  eictremities  is  more  considerable. 

The  intensity  of  this  current  does  not  vary  sensibly  with  the  depth  of  the 
cavities  in  which  the  electrodes  are  sunk,  and  is  the  same  in  the  wire  suspended 
at  some  metres  from  the  ground  as  in  that  which  is  in  contact  with  it. 

Two  circumstances  present  themselves  as  constantly  associated  with  this  phe- 
nomenon, circumstances  which,  by  their  analogies,  may  assist  in  explaining  it ; 
I  mean  the  difference  of  temperature  of  the  two  extreme  points  and  the  difference 
of  electric  tension  of  these  points.  I  shall  only  remark  here  that  I  could  cite 
results  in  which  the  influence  of  difference  of  temperature  could  not  be  consid- 
ered as  cause  of  this  phenomenon,  which  to  me  appears  to  be  due  to  terrestrial 
electricity. 


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CONSIDERATIONS  ON  ELECTRICITY. 


Translated  for  the  Smithsfmian  InstUution  from  the  Leipsie  periodical  *^  Aus  der  Nutur," 

Sfc.,  1865. 


There  is  nothing  about  which  more  speculation  is  indulged  than  electricity. 
The  word  is  in  every  mouth ;  yet  is  there  nothing  perhaps  so  little  known. 

What,  then,  is  electricity  T  At  this  question  even  the  most  learned  remain 
silent ;  but  these  are  at  least  so  honest  as  not  to  dissemble  their  ignorance.  The 
unlearned  would  probably  answer :  electricity  is  lightning ;  and,  though  nothing 
is  thereby  gained,  by  this  explanation  the  ^neraiity  are  satisfied.  But  what  is 
hghtning  T  Natural  electricity.  Let  us,  then,  frankly  confess  our  ignorance  ; 
the  avowal  can  incur  no  reproach.  Till  now  the  part  of  physics  which  deals 
\^ith  electricity  has  been  principally  occupied  in  collecting  a  mass  of  isolated 
facts,  which  are  often  without  connection  with  one  another.  They  may  be  likened, 
therefore,  to  single  stones  awaiting  arrangement  in  a  building  on  some  deter- 
mined plan.  These  facts  in  like  manner  wait  to  be  combined  in  a  science,  and 
connected  with  one  another  by  means  of  a  general  theory.  Scarcely  has  the 
wav  thereto  been  pointed  out,  though  these  foots  have  been  grouped  together 
under  a  number  of  subordinate  laws,  as,  for  instance,  the  phenomena  of  electri- 
cal distribution  of  statical  induction,  and  the  operation  of  electrical  currents  upon 
the  magnet  and  their  effect  on  one  another.  These  are  indications  by  which  we 
must  be  guided  in  further  advances ;  laws  which  a  future  more  comprehensive 
theory  must  connect  and  explain.  Let  it,  in  the  mean  time,  be  known  that  all 
which  has  been  with  great  pains  wrested  from  nature  still  leaves  us  in  the  uncer- 
tainty arising  from  frequent  chasms  and  insecure  hypothesis. 

The  consistency  of  true  science  demands  that  experience  should  have  fu^t  dis- 
closed the  fundamental  facts;  that  next  the  inquirer,  with  eyes  aided  by  every 
resource  of  art  and  with  balance  in  hand,  should  seek  to  conciliate  with  one 
aoother,  through  their  relations,  the  different  and  often  deceptive  phenomena 
which  determine  those  relations.  Nor  is  this  all  j  on  the  contrary,  here  begins 
the  real  labor.  A  law  must  be  found  for  these  empirical  facts ;  this  may  be  some- 
times simple,  sometimes  complex,  but  must  always  be  a  mathematical  one  and 
capable  of  being  expressed  through  formulas.  This  general  law  being  once 
found,  it  remains  to  deduce  all  possible  consequences  from  it,  and  again  to  verify 
these  consequences  by  experiment. 

True  science  is  a  connection  of  fundamental  facts,  with  laws  which  are  derived 
from  those  facts,  and  deductions  which  have  been  subjected  to  verification.  So 
long  as  one  of  these  three  stages  is  wanting  the  scienc>e  is  not  complete.  Optics 
and  astronomy  have  arrived  at  that  point ;  but  how  is  it  with  electricity  T  We 
still  stand  in  the  presence  of  groups  of  facts  which  yet  wait  to  be  connected 
under  a  general  law. 

Let  it  not  be  said,  then,  that  electricity  is  the  single  science  which  compre- 
hends in  itself  all  the  rest.  Let  it  not  be  proclaimed  m  the  streets  that  our  cen- 
tury, which  has  called  forth  the  electric  telegraph,  may  sleep  in  peace,  and  has 
nothing  more  left  for  it  to  do.  Were  it  not,  on  the  contrary,  more  judicious  to 
say  that  we  have  as  yet  scarcely  accomplished  anything!  Better  were  it  cer- 
tainlv  for  electricity  if  we  kept  in  reserve  a  little  of  our  admimtion,  instead  of 
lavishing  it  on  the  consideration  of  what  has  already  been  achieved.     Perhaps 


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314 


CONSIDEEATIONS   ON  ELECTRICITY 


the  fiitare  1ms  more  in  store  for  us  than  we  have,  by  hazard,  so  to  say,  hitherto 
found.  The  riddle  is  propounded;  let  us  earnestly  seek  its  solution.  This, 
according  to  the  fine  expression  of  Pliny,  is  still  hidden  in  the  mysterious  majesty 
of  nature. 

That  the  most  mistaken  views  upon  the  subject  of  electricity  wre  widely  cur- 
rent is  scarcely  a  matter  of  doubt.  The  "nattial-bom"  inventors  are  expressly 
governed  by  the  idea  of  constructing  an  electric  battery  which  shall  cost  nothing. 
This  is  with  them  a  fixed  idea,  which  can  be  shaken  by  no  scieni.fic  discussion. 
Yet  what  that  is  new  and  noteworthy  has  resulted  from  their  attempts  T  Noth- 
ing worth  speaking  of.  All  improvements  of  electrical  batteries  which  have  really 
been  adopted  into  practice  are  but  variations  of  the  models  furnished  by  Grove, 
Bnnsen,  Becquerel,  and  Daniell.  In  every  electrical  battery  we  have  to  keep 
in  view  the  intensity  of  the  development  of  electricity  and  its  constancy.  Ac- 
cording to  circumstances,  one  of  these  must  be  sacrificed  to  the  other.  If  the 
inventor  aims  to  construct  a  battery  which  shall  occasion  the  least  possible 
expense,  he  must  of  necessity  occupy  himself  chiefly  with  the  constancy  j  since, 
for  a  single  element,  the  intensity  of  the  current  depends  exclusively  on  the 
electro-motive  force  of  the  electro-positive  substance  which  is  employed.  In 
this  respect  zinc,  among  all  ordinary  metals,  occupies  the  first  place.  With  the 
alloys  nothing  has  been  attempted  on  account  of  the  secondary  phenomena  which 
here  present  themselves.  It  cannot,  therefore,  but  be  useful  to  give  a  compara- 
tive statement  of  the  electro-motive  force  of  different  metals  in  relation  to  zinc, 
which  always  holds  the  first  place,  and  is  therefore  marked  as  100;  especially 
as  so-called  practical  men  seem  to  have  little  knowledge  on  the  subject.  This 
comparison  shows  the  energy  of  the  principal  solutions  to  which  we  can  have 
recourse  in  practice,  upon  the  metals  which  industry  has  placed  at  our  service. 


Potassiam  amalgam,  (qoicksilvor, 
100  parts;  potasaiom,  1  part.) 

Amalgam  of  zinc 

Lead 

Tin 

Iron 

Aluminum    

Nickel 

Bismuth 

Antimony 

Copper 

Silver 

Quicksilver 

Gold 

Platina 


Distilled 
water. 


55.4 


10.0 


Chlorine 
water. 


152.2 


74.9 
75.4 
76.3 


45.9 

48.8 
55.5 
50.8 


9.2 


Water  with  MO 
sulphuric  acid. 


103.2 
65.9 
61.5 
51.4 
45.1 
43.9 
37.2 
35.0 
35.0 
21.8 
3J.6 
0 
0 


Water  with  1-1] 
bydro-cbloric 
acid. 


102.1 
65.7 
66.4 
61.4 
82.4 
47.8 
46.6 
35.5 
45.4 
33.6 


Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  the  intensity  of  the  current  developed  depends  on 
the  chemical  action  exerted  by  the  liquid  on  the  metal :  chlorine,  for  instance, 
imparts  to  the  copper  and  silver  a  considerable  degree  of  electro-motive  force. 
If  we  would  employ  the  alkalies  as  the  operative  liquid,  the  order  of  the  electn>- 
motive  forces  would  be  diflferent ;  foremost  in  this  case  would  stand :  potassium, 
aluminum,  zinc ;  and  then  would  follow :  antimony,  bismuth,  and  copper.  It 
has  been  sometimes  proposed  to  make  use  of  the  sulphuric  combinations  as  sources 
of  electro-motive  force ;  sulphuret  of  potassium  would  then  be  certainly  the  m<>8t 
applicable,  but  practice  has  shown  that  with  this  no  advantageous  result  has  been 
obtained.     Inventors,  who  are  choosing  the  solution  for  a  superior  battety  of  a 


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CONSIDERATIONS   ON   ELECTRICITY.  315 

single  pair,  may  detennine  in  advance  the  electro-motive  force  of  tbeir  combina- 
tion through  the  difference  of  the  electro-motive  forces  of  the  metals  which  they 
immei-se  in  the  selected  liquid. 

Tlie  first  part  of  the  problem  is  therefore  fixed ;  inventors  must,  consequently,  not 
step  beyond  this  narrow  circle.  The  choice  of  the  metal  and  the  liquid  depend 
on  the  chemical  operation  upon  one  another,  for  thence  results  the  electro-motive 
force.  Upon  the  question  of  practical  economy  it  would  be  useless  here  to  insist, 
as  the  attention  of  the  industrial  inventor  will  of  itself  be  sufficiently  directed 
to  this  point. 

The  sources  of  a  competent  electro-motive  force  having  been  discovered,  and 
the  degree  of  intensity  determined,  next  arises  the  question  of  persistency.  The 
essential  fact  is  here  too  easily  forgotten,  that  the  total  intensity  of  a  compound 
pair  is  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  intensity  of  the  chemical  reaction  of  the  liquid 
on  the  electro-negative  element,  and  of  that  of  this  liquid  on  the  depolarizing 
substance,  while  the  total  intensity  of  a  single  pair  is  equal  to  the  difference 
between  the  intensity  of  the  chemical  activity  and  that  which  inversely  proceeds 
from  the  intensity  determined  through  the  polarizing  current.  So  soon  as  the 
inventor  leaves  out  of  consideration  essential  elements,  chance  alone  can  lead 
Lim  to  a  satisfactory  solution.  Whatever  liqaid  and  metal  be  employed,  there 
always  takes  place  a  change  of  the  latter,  and  a  development  of  hydrogen  gas 
which  collects  about  the  positive  electrode,  whether  this  be  metal  or  charcoal. 
The  inventor  must  therefoi*e  contrive  that  this  gas  shall  be  absorbed  as  com- 
pletely and  at  as  cheap  a  rate  as  possible.  Acids,  oxygen,  salts,  and  combina- 
tions of  chlorine  have  hitherto  been  alone  used. 

The  question  as  to  what  active  metal  should  be  employed  in  electrical  batteries, 
is  already  well  nigh  exhausted.  Only  iuventoi*s  entirely  ignorant  of  the  grounds 
of  its  preference  seek  to  replace  zinc  by  some  cheaper  metal  in  order  to  obtain 
an  equivalent  amount  of  electro-motive  force.  Some  have  had  recourse  to  the 
alloys,  but  they  have  not  paid  sufficient  attention  to  the  secondary  currents, 
which  nevertheless  play  so  considerable  a  part  in  the  action  of  an  electrical  bat- 
tery. On  this  account  even  iron  and  lead,  which  their  comparative  cheapness 
seems  so  strongly  to  recommend,  can  be  no  substitute  for  zinc ;  for  by  reason  of 
the  variable  contents  of  foreign  admixtures  it  would  be  impossible  to  count  upon 
nniforro  electrical  intensities.  If  it  be  true  that  the  electrical  function  of  quick- 
silver in  the  amalgam  of  zinc  is  not  known,  yet  its  influence  cannot  be  denied ; 
but  it  must  not  be  supposed  that  this  resource  is  applicable  to  iron,  tin,  or  lead, 
for  th^e  metals  are  still  less  adapted  to  amalgamation.  The  value  of  their 
electro-motive  force,  when  brought  into  contact  with  diluted  sulphuric  acid,  refers 
itself  to  tests  which  are  as  chemically  pure  as  possible. 

The  chemists  are  at  present  engaged  in  researches  for  the  discovery  of  new 
metals,  but  they  have  as  yet  found  only  metals  of  alkalies  or  alkaline  earths,  of 
which  it  would  seem  almost  impossible  that  large  masses  should  be  furnished. 
So  soon  as  these  metals  shall  have  passed  into  the  service  of  practical  industry, 
as  is  already  the  case  with  sodium,  aluminum,  and  magnesium,  there  is  reason 
to  hope  that  an  electro-positive  element  for  the  electric  battery  will  be  discov- 
ered, which  shall  be  as  potent  as  zinc.  The  so-called  spectroscopic  metals  will 
in  this  i-espect  probably  be  not  far  removed  from  potassium  and  sodium. 

The  choice  of  the  liquid  does  not  absolutely  depend  on  that  of  the  metal  which 
forms  the  electro-positive  element ;  we  must  here  keep  in  view  also  the  duration 
of  the  action  of  the  battery  and  the  chemical  nature  of  the  depolarizing  sub- 
stance. If  only  the  energy  be  regarded  and  the  duration  of  action  be  limited, 
the  intensity  of  chemical  activity  is  of  greatest  interest ;  for  amalgamated  zinc, 
dil  uted  sulphuric  acid,  is  then  preferably  as  the  active  liquid.  It  is  not  unimportant 
here  to  remark  that  the  electro-motive  force  is  not  increased  with  the  degree  of 
strength  of  the  acid.  Electro-motive  force  and  resistance  are  words  only  too 
often  used  without  being  sufficiently  comprehended.    Inventors  who  aim  at  con- 


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316  CONSIDERATIONS   ON   ELECTRICITY. 

stracting  a  battery  of  extraordinary  intensity  often  take  no  consideration  thereof, 
and  yet  eveiy  elementary  work  on  physics  tells  them  that  '•  the  intensity  of  an 
electrical  pair  is  directly  proportional  to  its  electro-motive  force,  and  inversely  to 
the  total  resistance." 

Muriatic  acid,  chlorine  dissolved  in  water,  or  a  chloride,  would  be  active  agents 
almost  as  energetic  as  sulphuric  acid,  but  less  practical,  with  the  exception  of 
common  salt.  Soda  dissolved  in  water  would  act  energetically  upon  zinc»  but 
the  equivalent  of  electricity  thereby  generated  would  be  very  expensive.  A 
pair  whose  active  element  should  be  aluminum  and  a  solution  of  soda  would 
possess  very  great  energy,  but  would  be  truly  an  article  of  luxury. 

The  controversy  is  greater  when  the  choice  of  the  depolarizing  material  and  the 
arrangement  of  the  pair  is  in  question.  A  methodical  study  should  not  allow 
itself  to  be  misled,  however  great  may  be  the  combination  j  the  observer  must 
pay  attention  to  the  two  essential  elements,  which  most  inventors  neglect.  Wo 
know  the  opposite  influence  of  both  the  substances  which  surround  the  electrodes ; 
we  know,  also,  that  the  total  electro-motive  force  is  the  sum  of  those  which  are 
developed  in  the  interior  of  the  pair  between  the  diflerent  elements  of  which  it 
consists ;  the  analysis  must  therefore  be  extended  to  these  partial  actions.  Ac- 
count must  then  be  taken  of  the  conductibility  which  is  proper  to  the  elements 
themselves,  and  of  the  influence  which  their  arrangement  exerts  on  the  resistance 
of  the  pair.  The  electro-motive  force  is  of  course  in  each  pair  independent  of 
the  disposition,  the  dimensions,  and  the  nature  of  the  diaphragms. 

The  three  other  points  to  be  considered  in  the  arrangement  of  an  electrical 
battery,  the  choice  of  the  positive  electrode,  the  dividing  walls,  and  the  general 
disposition  of  the  pair,  are  exclusively  dependent  on  the  resistance  which  they 
oppose  to  the  conductibility.  The  positive  electrode  must  be  as  perfect  a  con- 
ductor as  possible,  and  on  this  account  the  purest  possible  metal  must  be  employed ; 
to  supply  such,  however,  is  very  costly.  The  use  of  platina  has  been  renounced, 
as  it  is  mechanically  wasted.  For  batteries  of  very  energetic  action,  as  those  with 
nitric  acid,  chlorides,  &c.,  coke  or  retort  coal  would  seem  to  be  the  only  proper 
conductor.  But  this  substance,  as  furnished  in  trade,  is  found  upon  trial  to  have 
very  diflerent  qualities.  Some  specimens  resist  fracture  and  conduct  well,  while 
others  are  very  porous  and  frangible,  so  that  sometimes  the  elements  of  one  and 
the  same  battery  difier  greatly  in  the  intensity. 

This  inconvenience,  which  is  founded  on  the  inconstant  nature  of  the  positive 
conductor,  is  diminished  with  elements  of  weaker  intensity,  where  the  depolariz- 
ing substance  is  a  metallic  salt,  whether  in  solution  or  solid.  Here  we  may 
plainly  adopt  the  same  metal  which  forms  the  base  of  the  salt.  The  conducting 
surface  is  then,  through  the  action  of  the  pair  itself,  always  maintained  in  a  state 
of  absolute  purity.  The  constancy  of  the  intensity  of  a  pair  results  from  the 
maintenance  of  a  continual  identity  in  the  surfaces  of  both  conductors.  Much, 
moreover,  is  gained  in  this  way  as  regards  expense,  for  it  is  the  only  means  of 
completely  recovering  the  costly  substance  which  is  employed  in  the  depolariza> 
tion.  Another  inducement  for  adopting  for  the  positive  electrode  the  same  metal 
which  is  contained  in  the  salt  surrounding  it  results  from  a  consideration  already 
presented.  Since  the  total  electro-motive  force  of  the  pair  is  the  sum  of  those 
forces  which  are  developed  in  the  diflerent  parts,  it  must  be  an  object  of  interest 
to  limit  that  force  which  proceeds  from  the  contact  of  the  positive  electrode,  when 
opposed  to  the  principal  intensity  in  consequence  of  the  attack  of  the  electro- 
positive metal,  and  on  the  other  hand  to  develop  that  which  is  similarly  directed 
with  this  intensity.  The  latter  will  generally  be  the  case,  if  the  neutral  salt 
and  the  metal  are  sufficiently  pure. 

The  choice  of  the  depolarizing  substance  must  be  decided  by  the  following 
considerations :  by  its  aflinity  for  hydrogen,  in  order  that  it  may  be  readily  and 
completely  reduced ;  by  the  nature  and  physical  condition  of  the  precipitated 
metal,  when  it  is  a  metallic  salt,  and  by  the  chemical  condition  of  tne  producti 


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CON8IDEEATION8   ON   ELECTRICITY.  317 

which  originate  under  other  circumstances.  Thus,  for  example,  from  nitric  acid 
proceed  many  products  of  decomposition  which  are  set  free  in  the  acid  and  weaken 
its  capacity  for  the  absorption  of  hydrogen.  The  action  ceases  perhaps  .mly  in 
consequence  of  the  excessive  resistance  which  the  depohirizing  liquid  so  quickly 
assumes.  This  cessation  supervenes  more  speedily  with  the  combinations  of 
oxygen  heretofore  tried;  besides  that  they  are  very  costly  and  yield  residuums 
which  are  of  no  value.  Batteries  of  this  order  are  generally  very  intense  for  a 
certain  number  of  hours,  but  their  intensity  then  diminishes  very  rapidly,  for  the 
twofold  reason  already  mentioned.  The  metallic  salts,  which  exert  scarcely  anv 
influence  on  the  acting  liquid,  better  preserve  their  intensity.  Since  they  are  read- 
ily reduced,  it  is  only  their  conductibility  which  comes  into  consideration.  As  the 
immersed  electrode  is  of  the  same  nature,  it  will  for  some  time  be  improved  at 
the  expense  of  the  salt,  and  in  consequence  of  this  reaction  will  also  maintain 
the  physical  uniformity  in  its  vicinity. 

Any  advice  respecting  the  diaphrams  must  necessarily  be  very  precarious ; 
they  are  detrimental  through  the  resistance  which  they  occasion  and  on  account 
of  the  want  of  identity  in  their  constitution. 

The  inventor  of  an  electrical  battery  has  still  to  pay  attention  to  the  con- 
ductibility. It  must  be  here  remembered  that  the  chemical  decompositions  pro- 
ceed in  fixed  proportions,  and  since,  as  soon  as  the  current  circulates,  each  pair 
in  a  battery  acts  as  a  decomposing  apparatus,  and  each  performs  the  same  labor, 
it  suffices  to  determine  the  performance  of  but  one  pair  in  order  to  be  able  to 
compute  that  of  the  whole  battery.  The  weight  of  the  copper  precipitated  in  a 
voltameter  is  directly  proportional  to  the  electro-motive  force  of  the  pair,  and  is 
in  inverse  proportion  to  the  resistance.  As,  according  to  the  electro-chemical 
law,  for  one  equivalent  of  the  precipitated  copper,  one  equivalent  of  zinc  and  a 
corresponding  quantity  of  the  acid  are  consumed,  we  have  the  means  of  ascer- 
taining the  cost  at  which  the  pair  operates.  In  reality,  however,  this  is  greater 
than  the  theoretical  estimate. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


ELECTRICITY. 

From  General  G.  W.  Dodge,  U.  S.  A.,  Fort  Leavenworth,  March  16,  1866. 

My  corp8  (the  16th)  reached  Reswell  Sunday  noon,  July  10,  1865,  and  we 
immediately  crossed  the  river,  and  worked  until  Wednesday  night  putting  in  a 
double-track  trestle  bridge.  The  weather  was  excessively  hot,  the  hottest,  I 
think,  we  experienced  during  the  campaign.  On  the  south  side  of  the  river  my 
corps  was  formed  very  compact  in  a  Ute  du  ponty  covering  the  bridge,  for  I  had 
all  my  artillery  in  position,  and  most  of  the  infantry  had  their  arms  stacked,  as 
there  were  heavy  details  for  work  on  the  bridge.  It  was  finished  about  5  p.  m. 
Wednesday,  and  the  15th  corps,  which  arrived  there  that  day,  commenced  cross- 
ing about  6  p.  m.  A  gale  of  wind  arose,  blowing  terrifically  for  15  minutes, 
when  the  thunder-shower  came  on,  the  rain  pouring  down  in  torrents,  and  the 
thunder  and  lightning  close  together,  and  hardly  any  distinction  from  one  peal 
to  another.  It  was  so  strong  that  at  times  the  15tli  corps  had  to  halt.  This 
corps  was  crossing  the  bridge  during  the  stonn,  and  passed  directly  through  my 
lines,  and  went  to  the  left,  there  not  being  room  in  rear  of  my  entrenchments 
for  it  to  bivouac,  and  it  was  halted  right  on  the  road  and  on  the  bridge,  thus 
being  in  the  midst  of  my  corps  at  the  heaviest  part  of  the  shower.  The  light- 
ning first  struck  on  the  hill,  on  the  south  side  of  the  river,  in  a  battery  in  position  j 
then  in  a  regiment  of  infantry  a  short  distance  to  the  right ;  then  on  the  north 
side  of  the  bridge,  in  the  valley,  and  right  at  the  head  of  the  bridge,  where  my 
pioneer  corps  was  camped,  killing  one  man  and  several  mules.  During  this 
time  it  struck  one  or  two  other  points,  doing  no  damage,  however.  Horses  and 
men  in  the  15th  corps,  on  the  bridge,  were  knocked  down,  but  not  materially 
injured  ;  and  a  great  many  in  the  15th  and  16th  corps  felt  the  shock.  It  was 
the  most  destructive  in  the  battery.  In  my  corps  33  or  34  were  killed  or 
wonnde<l,  and  quite  a  number — I  believe  18,  but  I  may  be  mistaken — were 
killed  outright.  The  wounded  were  burned,  paralyzed,  and  shocked — some 
severely,  some  slightly,  but  all  had  to  be  put  in  hospital.  On  the  bodies 
of  the  killed  could  be  traced  the  tracks  of  the  lightning ;  so  I  was  told,  but  I  did 
not  examine  them.  They  were  not  much,  if  any,  mutilated  j  and  I  remember  it  was 
spoken  of  that  one  or  two  of  the  killed  had  not  even  a  trace  on  them.  Several 
stacks  of  muskets  were  struck,  bent  up,  butts  split,  Sec,  It  was  one  of  the 
most  terrific  storms  I  ever  experienced,  and  the  lightning  appeared  to  strike 
close  around  us  at  every  flash  for  nearly  half  an  hour.  It  struck  close  to  my 
tents,  so  close  that  all  in  them  felt  the  shock  sensibly.  They  were  pitched  on 
the  bluffs  north  of  the  river,  one-half  mile  from  the  line,  where  most  of  the 
damage  was  done.  No  persons  were  injured  except  in  my  corps.  It  was  Lieu- 
tenant Maury's  light  battery  F,  2d  United  States  artillery,  that  suffered  most 
I  forget  the  regiments  of  infantry,  but  it  included  two  or  three. 

I  think  the  storm  came  from  the  northwest,  but  I  will  not  be  certain  about 
this.  I  know  that,  although  it  was  only  six  o'clock  or  thereabouts,  it  was  so 
dark  that  we  could  not  see.  The  heavens  were  very  black,  and  all  light  of  day 
seemed  to  be  shut  out.  The  ground,  trees,  and  some  stone  buildings  we  had 
erected  were  struck.  The  storm  did  not  extend  very  far  to  the  north  of  us,  nor 
to  the  south.  Its  track  seemed  to  be  from  the  northwest  to  the  southeast.  I 
ordered  the  medical  officer  to  make  a  full  report,  stating  the  circumstances,  the 
nature  of  the  wounds  on  both  killed  and  wounded,  which  was  done,  and  properiy 


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ELECTRICITY.  31.9 

forwarded.    From  that  data,  if  it  can  bo  found,  more  definite  and  accurate 
information  can  be  obtained. 

Nnt«  from  General  0.  M.  Poe,  U.  S.  A.,  in  relation  to  the  alwve : 
"  At  the  time  of  the  remarkable  electrical  discharge,  of  which  Greneral  Dodge 
sent  yon  some  account,  he  was  in  command  of  that  portion  of  the  16th  army 
corps,  which  accompanied  General  Sherman  in  his  Atlanta  campaign.  Ilis  com- 
mand was  at  Reswell,  Greorgia,  where  they  built  the  bridge  referred  to,  and  a 
portion  of  the  force  had  crossed  to  the  southern  bank  of  the  Chattahoochie  river, 
and  it  was  among  this  latter  force  that  the  casualties  occurred. 

''Reswell  is  situated  on  the  Chattahoochie  river,  about  18  miles  northeast  from 
where  the  railroad  from  Chattanooga  to  Atlanta  crosses  the  Chattahoocliie  river. 
It  is  about  15  miles  due  east  from  Marietta,  and  is  in  a  very  broken,  almost 
mountainous  region — the  southern  slope  of  the  Apalachian  chain." 

From  Professor  John  C.  Cresson,  PmLADELPHU,  May  23,  1866. 

During  a  brief  thunder-shower  on  Sunday,  May  13th,  at  4 J  p.  m.,  an  electric 
discharge  occurred  at  Franklin  square,  in  this  city,  under  the  following  circum- 
stances: 

A  small  elm  tree,  about  40  feet  high,  standing  about  190  feet  south  of  a  flag- 
staff 150  feet  high,  was  injured,  and  the  bark  torn  from  its  southeast  side  for  a 
length  of  20  feet.  A  splinter  of  sapwood  two  inches  wide,  one  inch  thick,  and 
about  20  feet  long,  was  ripped  out  on  the  southeast  side  and  scattered  in  minute 
shreds. 

This  injury  does  not  reach  the  base  of  the  tree  nor  its  topmost  branches. 

J  This  tree  is  surrounded  by  several  others,  not  more  than  20  feet  distant  and 

several  feet  higher,  none  of  which  are  injured.     At  the  distance  of  12  feet  nearly 

east  of  the  injured  tree  is  an  iron  lamp-post,  with  a  gas-pipe  protruding  at  its 

top,  nine  feet  from  the  ground. 

The  thunder-cloud  approached  from  the  southwest,  and  the  manner  of  the 
occurrence  seems  to  be  thus :  When  the  charged  cloud  came  nearly  over  the 
lamp-post  and  gas-pipe,  the  latter  formed  a  prominent  conductor,  and  by  making 
an  open  way  for  inductive  action,  determined  the  time  and  line  of  Mischarge. 
The  line  was  along  the  southeast  side  of  the  injured  tree,  and  near  enough  to 
cause  the  injury  by  violent  disturbance  of  electrical  equilibrium  along  and  around 
its  path.  Thinking  the  facts  may  be  deemed  worthy  of  record,  I  venture  to 
send  this  statement,  and  cannot  forbear  to  accompany  it  with  my  notion  of  the 
mode  of  action. 

From  Hbnrt  Haas,  Depauville,  Jefferson  County,  New  York,  April  20,  1867. 

About  sunset  on  the  20th  of  April,  during  the  thunder-storm,  an  electric  dis- 
charge struck  the  dwelling  of  J.  Edmunds,  entering  through  the  open  front 
door,  knocking  the  wooden  blocks  from  under  the  legs  of  a  cooking-stove,  with- 
out upsetting  tbe  stove,  then  passing  across  the  room  into  an  adjoining  apart- 
ment and  out  at  the  window,  breaking  a  number  of  lights,  doing  no  other  injury 
to  the  building.  Three  persons  sat  around  the  stove  at  the  moment  the  electric 
fluid  entered  the  house;  they  were  more  or  less  stunned,  but  all  escaped  unhurt. 

From  H.  J.  Kron,  Albemarle,  North  Carolina,  April  24,  1867. 

At  Attaway  Hill,  Stanly  county.  North  Carolina,  there  was  a  heavy  thunder- 
storm from  the  southeast  during  the  night  of  the  24th  of  April,  commencing  at 
about  11  o'clock.  There  was  a  rapid  succession  of  thunder  and  lightning,  with 
beating  rain  and  hail  of  small  size,  but  no  damage  done.  At  the  distance  of 
about  a  mile  the  lightning  struck  the  lowest  of  two  pines  some  nine  feet  apart. 


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320  ELECTRICITY. 

The  long  spiral  track  from  the  summit  down  ended  within  a  foot  of  the  ground, 
which  latter  was  neither  perforated  nor  ploughed  up. 

[Probably  in  this  case  the  electricity  was  carried  off  by  a  temporary  flood  of 
water  over  the  ground  at  the  foot  of  the  tree. — J.  H.] 

From  Professor  B.  F.  Mudoe,  Manhattan,  Kansas,  June  15,  1867. 

At  7  a.  m.  the  lightning  struck  the  house  of  William  Higinbothom,  in  Man- 
hattan, Kansas,  (two  miles  from  the  college,)  and  severed  the  h'ghtning-rod  at 
every  connection  or  joint,  without  damage  to  the  bouse.  The  rod  was  |-inch 
iron.  The  connections  were  made  by  a  brass  nut  screwed  on  to  the  ends  of  each 
section.  The  brass  nuts  were  in  some  cases  melted.  The  point,  to  the  length 
of  half  an  inch,  which  was  of  copper  plated  with  silver,  was  also  melted.  When 
the  fluid  reached  the  eaves  of  the  house  it  parted,  and  one  portion  followed  the 
tin  gutter-spout  round  the  house,  turning  eight  square  comers  (right  angles.) 
At  each  angle  the  tin  was  burned  or  melted. 

[In  all  cases  of  an  electrical  discharge  a  repulsive  energy  is  evolved  in  the 
direction  of  the  axis  of  the  conductor,  tending  to  break  it  by  a  transverse  frac- 
ture.—J.  H.] 

From  the  New  Haven  (Connecticut)  Journal. 

On  the  20th  of  June,  1867,  the  lightning  struck  the  house  of  Mrs.  B.  M. 
Page,  on  the  comer  of  Pleasant  and  Humphrey  streets.  The  bolt,  as  it  neared 
the  house,  divided,  one  part  striking  the  roof  near  the  west  chimney,  and  passed 
through  the  roof,  tearing  up  the  tin  roofing  in  such  a  way  that  it  looks  as  if  it 
had  been  forced  off  from  the  inside.  The  fluid  passed  into  the  attic,  strikins^ 
the  chimney  near  the  roof,  and  gouging  out  a  large  hole  in  it,  and  then  passed 
out  of  the  attic  window,  making  two  holes  through  one  of  the  panes,  as  if  two 
small  cannon-balls  had  been  shot  through  it.  After  passing  through  the  «vindow 
thei'e  were  no  further  signs  of  its  course.  The  attic  room  was  thoroughly  shat- 
tered, and  the  ceiling  splintered  into  a  thousand  fragments.  The  other  branch 
of  the  bolt  struck  the  east  chimney,  knocking  off  a  good  portion  of  it  It  passed 
down  through  the  roof  to  the  attic  floor,  and  passed  out  of  the  room  at  the 
southeast  corner,  and  ran  down  the  water-pipe  to  the  ground,  shattering  the 
earthen  tile  drain  that  conducts  the  water  to  the  cistern.  From  here  it  passed 
through  the  comer  of  the  house,  following  a  nail,  coming  out  near  a  water-pail 
with  copper  hoops,  that  stood  near  the  sink.  It  completely  demolished  the  pail, 
and  seemed  to  have  spent  its  force  in  doing  so.  Under  the  attic  room,  on  this 
side  of  the  house,  was  a  closet,  the  lath  and  plaster  of  which  were  torn  off. 
Some  of  the  plastering  was  thrown  across  the  chamber  and  strack  the  head- 
board of  the  bed  with  such  force  as  to  sdok  fast.  Under  the  pillow  of  the  bed 
was  found  a  nail  that  was  so  hot  when  thrown  there  that  it  bumed  the  sheets. 
A  woman  who  had  just  closed  the  basement  window  and  crossed  the  room  when 
the  stroke  entered  at  the  sink,  was  thrown  prostrate,  and  was  much  stunned  and 
deafened  for  awhile ;  and  her  husband,  who  was  sitting  in  the  room  alone  with 
his  child,  was  also  considerably  shocked.  Persons  who  were  in  the  street  near 
the  house  at  the  time  were  also  stunned,  and  had  to  grasp  hold  of  the  fence  to 
keep  from  falling. 

From  Dr.  Samuel  D.  Martin,  near  Chilesburg,  Kentucky,  October  S7,  1867. 

I  to-day  saw  for  the  first  time  a  tree  that  had  been  strack  with  lightmng, 
probably  in  July.  It  was  a  white  ash,  about  two  feet  in  diameter,  and  stood  in 
a  woodland  pasture,  about  half  a  mile  east  from  my  house.  The  i^pearanoe  indi- 
cated a  remarkable  power  in  the  discharge.    The  tree  was  split  up  into  pieces 


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ELECTRICITY.  321 

abont  as  large  as  common  fence-rails,  which  formed  a  circle  ait>und  the  stump  180 
feet  in  diameter.  One  of  these  rails  is  30  feet  long,  another  27,  and  most  of 
the  others  about  12  feet  lon^.  There  were  a  great  number  of  splinters,  three 
or  four  feet  long,  cast  outside  the  circle. 

[The  remarkable  energy  exhibited  in  this  case,  as  in  others  of  a  similar  ahar- 
acter,  is  probably  due  to  the  sudden  converaon  of  the  sap  into  highly  elastic 
vapor. — J.  H.] 

From  O.  Wright,  Steruno,  Whiteside  County,  Illinois,  December  5, 1867. 

As  I  always  watch  the  approach  of  storms  with  great  interest,  I  was,  in  this 
instance,  well  repaid  for  my  trouble.  The  heavy  mass  of  clouds  in  the  south* 
west  gradually  raised,  so  that  the  lower  edge  was  distinctly  marked  upon  the 
falling  rain,  as  is  usual  in  sudden  storms.  But  I  observed  to  those  near  me  that 
I  never  before  saw  the  line  so  clearly  defined  and  so  regular ;  but  suddenly  a 
large  mass  began  to  protrude  from  the  rounded  outline  and  approach  the  earth 
in  the  form  of  a  cone,  with  the  apex  towards  the  earth.  As  we  live  on  the  line 
of  the  great  tornado,  some  of  my  familv  apprehended  the  cloud  was  taking  the 
fearful  shape,  but  as  it  rapidly  approached  the  earth  a  vivid  flash  darted  from 
the  lower  point,  which  was  still  rounded,  and  the  whole  mass  was  quickly  drawn 
up  into  line  again.  This  was  repeated  as  the  shower  approached,  until  the  cone 
descended  from  the  same  part  of  the  cloud  three  times,  and  then,  as  it  began  to 
rain  where  we  were,  the  outline  of  the  cloud  was  lost  to  view.  I  cannot  describe 
to  you  the  sensation  which  I  felt  as  the  great  mass  of  dark  clouds  fell  with 
increasing  velocity  toward  the  earth,  but  it  was  much  like  that  which  one 
experiences  in  rolling  a  large  stone  from  the  edge  of  a  precipice.  The  display 
was  so  grand  that  it  will  never  be  forgotten  by  those  who  saw  it. 

[An  account  of  a  precisely  similar  phenomenon  is  given  in  a  letter  to  Dr. 
Hare,  from  Z.  Alkn,  of  Providence,  published  in  the  Transactions  of  the  American 
Philosophical  Society.  The  facts  are  interesting  in  relation  to  the  connection 
of  electricity  with  tornadoes,  of  which  the  descending  cone  was  probably  an 
incipient  one. — J.  H.] 

From  Charles  C.  Boerner,  Yevat,  Indiana,  May  26, 1868. 

May  26,  11  p.  m.,  to  27th,  1  a.  m. — ^Thunder-storm  of  uncommon  violence 
from  the  southeast ;  wind  from  the  same  direction.  It  was  preceded  by  a  strong 
gale  of  15  minutes'  duration ;  lightning  zigzag.  The  storm  raged  for  30  min- 
utes, after  which  it  somewhat  abated,  and  apparently  passed  away,  when  sud- 
denly, at  12  o'clock,  a  heavy  discharge  of  electricity,  accompanied  by  a  terrific 
explosion,  seemed  to  startle  all  nature.  In  the  morning  I  ascertained  that  it 
struck  near  the  market-place ;  the  object  was  a  rack  placed  there  for  the  hitching 
of  horses.  The  rack  is  about  40  feet  long,  and  upon  posts  (locust)  three  feet 
from  the  ground ;  on  the  top  rail  are  25  iron  rings,  fastened  with  staples,  and  the 
rails  themselves  fastened  to  the  posts  with  heavy  iron  clamps.  This  top  i*ail 
was  entirely  thrown  off,  and  the  posts  shattered  into  splinters ;  some  of  them 
were  scattered  in  different  directions  more  than  75  feet.  The  most  remarkable 
fact  is  that  the  place  is  surrounded  by  high  buildings,  all  of  which  escaped 
destruction.  Northwest,  75  feet  from  tne  place  struck,  stands  a  brick  building, 
covered  with  metallic  roof,  75  feet  high ;  southward  the  open  market-place ; 
southeast  the  market-house,  40  feet  high ;  and  northeast,  at  a  distance  of  125 
feet,  a  row  of  two-story  brick  buildings.  None  of  these  are  supplied  with 
lightning  conductors. 

[Electricity,  in  its  discharge  from  the  clouds  to  the  earth,  frequently  appears 
Tery  capricious;  but  in  all  cases  the  discharge  is^  as  it  were,  predetermined  by  the 

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322  ELECTRICITY. 

lino  of  greatest  attraction  and  least  resistance,  conditions  which  cannot,  in  all 
cases,  bo  ascertained,  even  with  a  minute  examination  of  all  the  objects,  since 
active  attracting  materials  frequently  exist  beneath  the  surface  of  the  earth.-^ 
J.H.] 

From  W.  S.  Oilman. 

One  of  the  most  beautiful  electrical  phenomena  imaginable  was  witnessed  on 
the  evening  of  the  9th  January,  1868,  in  the  office  of  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific 
telegraph  line,  Rochester,  New  York.  Wire  No.  1  of  this  line  was  down  between 
this  city  and  Syracuse.  Suddenly  it  was  discovered  that  neither  wire  would 
work.  A  continuous  current  of  electricity  was  then  observed  to  be  passing  over 
the  wires  and  through  the  several  instruments,  and  this  while  the  batteries  were 
detached.  The  current  seemed  to  be  of  the  volume  of  a  medium-sized  pipe-stem, 
and  exhibited  the  several  colors  of  the  rainbow.  With  the  key  open  the  current 
flowed  in  waves  or  undulations,  and  from  the  surcharged  wire  it  leaped  over  the 
insulated  portions  of  the  key  and  passed  alonff  the  wires  beyond.  The  same 
phenomenon  was  observed  at  Buffalo  and  at  Cleveland.  The  gas  in  the  office 
was  lighted  without  difficulty  by  holding  the  end  of  a  wire  within  an  inch  or  two 
of  the  gas-bunier.  The  current  was  intense  enough  to  shock  one  holding  the 
wires  or  instruments;  indeed,  one  of  the  employes  of  the  office  had  his  fingers 
scorched  by  the  current.  With  closed  keys  the  current  was  continuous,  as  before 
stated. 

This  phenomenon  has  never  been  witnessed  except  when  cold  weather  prevails 
extensively.  The  broken  wire  spoken  of,  which  rested  on  the  ground,  was  the 
point  of  communication  with  the  earth. 

Here  we  may  notice  one  thing  not  generally  known.  A  portion  of  a  speech 
of  Hon.  William  H.  Seward  in  Rochester,  a  few  years  since,  was  telegraphed  to 
New  York  and  from  T^>oston  to  Portland  by  the  electrical  influences  of  the  aurora 
borealis,  all  the  batteries  on  the  line  being  detached.  This  feat,  it  is  said,  has 
never  been  repeated. 

The  following  additional  information  was  furnished  in  answer  to  inquires  by 
the  Institution : 

The  questions  you  put  with  reference  to  the  Rochester  electrical  phenomena 
are  thus  answered : 

1.  Whether  any  appearance  of  the  aurora  was  visible  at  the  time?  I  learn 
of  none  j  sky  clouded  at  Rochester,  Toronto,  and  Montreal,  and  storming. 

2.  Whether  the  discharges  were  continuous  or  fitful?  From  B.  F.  Blackall, 
manager  of  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Telegraph  Company,  Rochester,  I  learn  as 
follows :  At  4.30  p.  m.  trouble  commenced  while  he  was  "  transmitting  a  telegram 
.to  New  York  over  the  No.  1  wire,  which  was  afterwards  located  between  Fulton 
and  Syracuse,  one  wire  being  broken,  and  the  western  end  hanging  across  No.  2, 
■rested  on  the  ground.  At  the  same  instant  1  noticed  my  relay  surcharged  with  an 
unusual  amount  of  magnetism.  Upon  opening  my  key,  which  we  usually  give 
the  sixteenth  of  an  incTi  play,  discharges  of  electricity,  averaging  as  high  as  300 
pulsations  a  minute  from  one  platina  point  to  the  other,  and  the  nearer  I  placed 
these  points  the  more  rapid  they  occurred-  ♦  ♦  »  »  The  fluid  was  passing 
from  west  to  east  through  the  key.  In  addition  there  was  a  current  about  the 
size  of  a  pin  flowing  from  the  core  of  the  helices  to  the  soft  piece  of  iron  on  the 
armature,  which  sounded  very  much  like  electricity  produced  by  friction  on  a 
glass  cylinder  when  passing  to  a  Leyden  jar."  The  phenomenon  continued  until 
about  7  p.  m.  The  writer  informs  me  that  he  has  witnessed  a  half  dozen  similar 
but  weaker  displays  during  the  past  14  years,  and  always  between  4  p.  m.  and 
7  p.  m. 

From  C.  W.  Dean,  manager  of  the  same  line,  Cleveland,  Ohio,  I  learn  as 
follows:  An  extraneous  cuiTcnt  made  it  impossible  to  work  the  wire  on  January 
9th  last.     It  was  fii'st  noticed  at  9  a.  m.,  when  the  current  grew  so  strong  that 


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ELECTRICITY.  323 

'Hhe  No.  1  wire  was  opened  to  Painesville,  30  miles  east.  This  did  not  help  it 
in  the  least  I  judged  that  our  wires  were  crossed  with  those  of  Western  Union 
lines,  and  that  we  were  getting  the  full  strength  of  their  100  cups  of  battery. 
One  thin^  veiy  strange  was  that  the  current  pulsated,  and  the  armature  of  the 
magnet  disconnected  from  the  battery  and  the  wire  open  east  vibrated  like  a 
pendulum." 

From  J.  A.  Osborne,  Buffalo,  New  York,  connected  with  the  same  line,  I 
learn  that  the  wires  of  their  office  were  so  heavily  charged  that  he  thought  cer- 
tainly they  were  crossed  with  the  Western  Union  wires.  The  wires  could  not 
be  touched.  The  current  passed  over  in  waves,  and  it  was  necessary  to  throw 
the  instruments  out  of  circuit  in  order  to  prevent  damage  to  them.  Fantastic 
streaks  flashed  across  the  wires.  At  one  time  a  continuous  stream  of  Are  passed 
off,  which  lasted  from  four  to  Give  seconds.  Had  the  current  been  more  steady 
the  wires  could  have  been  worked  without  the  aid  of  the  batteries.  At  Lockport 
the  electricity  set  fire  to  a  board  to  which  the  wires  were  attached.  The  mag- 
nets became  so  surcharged  with  electricity  that  when  the  wires  were  disconnected 
the  armature  remained  drawn  up  to  the  coils  for  full  three-quarters  of  an  hour. 

3.  Whether  some  time  elapsed  between  each  discharge,  as  if  the  conductor  was 
gradually  charged  ?  This  question  is  answered  in  the  above  extracts  from  letters 
received  by  me  from  the  dinerent  operators. 

[On  the  night  in  question  an  aurora  is  noticed  in  the  Smithsonian  records  at 
Independence*  Iowa,  and  a  heavy  snow  in  Michigan.  A  wave  of  low  tempera- 
ture was  passing  from  the  west  to  the  east  from  the  7th  to  the  10th  of  January, 
reaching  its  minimum  in  the  State  of  New  York  on  the  night  of  the  9th  and 
morning  of  the  10th.  The  phenomenon  may  perhaps  have  been  due  to  the  fall- 
ing of  the  snow  on  a  western  portion  of  the  line.  The  ascending  vapor  from 
which  this  snow  was  produced  would  become  negatively  electrified  by  induction 
from  the  plus  electricity  of  the  space  above.  In  the  subsequent  freezing  of  this 
vapor  into  snow,  it  would  retain  its  electrical  condition,  and  falling  on  the  wire 
would  give  the  latter  a  charge  of  negative  electricity  which  would  be  propagated 
by  conduction  both  east  and  west.— J.  H.1 


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QUERIES  ABOUT  EXPRESSION  FOR  AMMOPOLOGICAL  INQUIRY. 


Bt  Charles  Darwin,  of  Down,  Bromley,  Kent,  England. 


1.  Is  astonishment  expressed  by  the  eyes  and  mouth  bemg  opened  wide,  and 
by  the  eyebrows  being  raised  ? 

2.  Does  shame  excite  a  blush  when  the  color  of  the  skin  allows  it  to  be  visible  f 

3.  When  a  man  is  indignant  or  defiant  does  he  frown,  hold  his  body  and  head 
erect,  square  his  shoulders,  and  clench  his  fists  f 

4.  When  considering  deeply  on  any  subject,  or  trying  to  understand  any  puz- 
zle, does  he  frown  or  wrinkle  the  skin  beneath  the  lower  eyelids? 

5.  When  in  low  spirits,  are  the  comers  of  the  mouth  depressed,  and  the  inner 
comer  or  angle  of  the  eyebrows  raised  by  that  muscle  which  the  French  call 
the  "grief  muscle?" 

6.  When  in  good  spirits  do  the  eyes  sparkle,  with  the  skin  around  and  under 
them  a  little  wrinkled,  and  with  the  comers  of  the  mouth  a  little  drawn  back  ? 

I     7.  When  a  man  sneers  or  snarls  at  another,  is  the  comer  of  the  upper  lip  over 
the  canine  teeth  raised  on  the  side  facing  the  man  whom  he  addresses  f 

8.  Can  a  dogged  or  obstinate  expression  be  recognized,  which  is  chiefly  shown 
by  the  mouth  being  firmly  closed,  a  lowering  brow,  and  a  slight  frown  1 

9.  Is  contempt  expressed  by  a  slight  protrusion  of  the  lips  and  turning  up  of 
the  nose,  with  a  slight  expiration  T 

10.  Is  disgust  shown  by  the  lower  lip  being  tumed  down,  the  upper  lip  slightly 
raised,  with  a  sudden  expiration  something  like  incipient  vomiting  t 

11.  Is  extreme  fear  expressed  in  the  same  general  manner  as  with  Europeans  T 

12.  Is  laughter  ever  carried  to  such  an  extreme  as  to  bring  tears  into  the  eyesT 

13.  When  a  man  wishes  to  show  that  he  cannot  prevent  something  being 
done,  or  cannot  himself  do  something,  does  he  shrag  his  shoulders,  tum  inwards 
his  elbows,  extend  outwards  his  hands,  and  open  the  palms  ? 

14.  Do  the  children,  when  sulky,  pout,  or  greatly  protrade  the  lips? 

15.  Can  guilty,  or  sly,  or  jealous  expressions  be  recognized?  though  I  know 
not  how  these  can  be  defined. 

16.  As  a  sign  to  keep  silent,  is  a  gentle  hiss  uttered  ? 

17.  Is  the  head  nodded  vertically  in  affirmation  and  shaken  laterally  in  nega- 
tion? 

Observations  on  natives  who  have  had  little  communication  with  Europeans 
would  be,  of  course,  the  most  valuable,  though  those  made  on  any  natives  would 
be  of  much  interest. 

General  remarks  on  expression  are  of  comparatively  little  value.  A  definite 
description  of  the  countenance  under  any  emotion  or  frame  of  mind  would  pos- 
sess much  more  value. 

An  answer  to  any  single  one  of  the  foregoing  questions  would  be  gratefully 
accepted. 

Memory  is  so  deceotive  on  subjects  like  these  that  I  hope  it  may  not  be  trusted  to. 


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ON  THE  VAMOUS  MODES  OF  FLIGHT  IN  REUTION  TO  AERONAUTICS. 


By  Dr.  James  Bell  Pettigrew. 


[FROM  THX  PROCKXOINOS  OF  THB  ROTIL  INSTITUTION  OF  OR£AT  BRZTIIN.] 


The  subject  of  flight,  oatnral  and  artificialy  is  one  which  has  occapied  the 
attention  of  mankind  horn  a  very  early  period. 

It  involves  a  more  or  less  intimate  acquaintance  with  anatomy,  physiology, 
mechanics,  and  the  higher  branches  of  mathematics. 

If  regarded  as  a  nataral  movement,  it  forms  one  of  the  three  kinds  of  loco- 
motion by  which  animals  progress — ^the  remaining  two  bein^  walking  and  swim* 
ming ;  if  regarded  as  an  artincial  one,  it  represents  the  unsolved  problem  of  that 
grand  trio  woich  has  for  its  inte^l  parts  the  locomotive,  steamboat,  and  flying 
machine.  Had  time  permitted,  it  was  my  intention  to  have  gone  into  the  subject 
of  locomotion  at  length.  I  find,  however,  I  must  curtail  my  remarks  under  this 
head,  which  I  do  with  reluctance,  from  a  feeling  that  the  chain  of  animal  move- 
mentis,  like  the  great  chain  of  existence,  winds  in  and  out  and  doubles  upon  itself 
so  completely  as  to  render  a  partial  examination  of  it  in  many  respects  unsatis- 
factory. 

The  movements  of  animals  are  adapted  either  to  the  earth,  the  water,  or  the 
lur.  There  are  others,  however,  of  a  mixed  character,  where  they  are  suited 
equally  to  the  land  and  water,  or  even  to  the  land,  water,  and  air. 

The  instruments  by  which  locomotion  is  attiuned  are  therefore  specially 
modified. 

This  is  necessary  because  of  the  different  densities  and  the  different  degrees 
of  resistance  furnished  by  the  land,  water,  and  air  respectively. 

As  the  earth  affords  a  greater  amount  of  support  than  the  water,  and  the  water 
than  the  air,  it  requires  a  greater  degree  of  muscular  exertion  to  swim  than  to 
walk,  and  a  still  greater  one  to  fly. 

For  this  reason  flight  is  the  most  laborious,  and  in  some  respects  the  most 
complicated  and  difficult,  of  all  the  animal  movements. 

The  peculiarities  of  the  different  media,  as  far  as  locomotion  is  concerned,  may 
be  briefly  stated. 

On  the  land  we  have  the  maximum  of  resistance  and  the  minimum  of  dis- 
placement. 

In  the  air,  the  minimum  of  resistance  and  the  maximum  of  displacement. 

The  water  is  intermediate  in  these  respects. 

As  a  consequence,  the  feet  of  land  animals  are  small — their  bodies  large. 
The  horse  and  deer  fm*nish  examples. 

In  those  land  animals  which  take  to  the  water  occasionally,  or  the  reverse, 
the  feet  aie  enlarged  and  usually  provided  with  a  membranous  expansion 
between  the  toes.  Of  such,  the  otter,  omithorhynchus,  seal,  frog,  turtle,  and 
crocodile  may  be  cited. 

In  addition  to  the  land  animals  which  run  and  swim,  there  are  some  which 
precipitate  themselves,  parachute  fashion,  from  immense  heights,  and  others 
which  even  fly.     In  these  the  membranous  expansions  are  greatly  increased — ; 


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326         ON  THE  VARIOUS  MODES  OP  FLIGHT 

the  ribs  affording  the  necessary  degree  of  support  in  the  dragon  or  flying  lizard, 
the  anterior  and  posterior  extremities  in  the  flying  lemur,  flying  cat,  and  bat. 

Although  no  lizard  is  at  present  known  to  fly,  there  can  be  little  doubt  that 
the  extinct  pten^dactyles,  which  are  intermediate  between  the  lizards  and  croco- 
diles, were  possessed  of  this  power. 

The  bat  is  interesting  as  being  the  only  mammal  at  present  enjoying  the  priv- 
ilege of  flight ;  it  is  likewise  instructive,  as  showing  that  flight  may  be  attained 
without  the  aid  of  hollow  bones  and  air-sacs,  by  purely  muscular  efforts  and  by 
the  mere  contraction  and  dilatation  of  a  continuous  membrane. 

If  we  now  direct  our  attention  to  the  water  we  find  that  the  amount  of  sur- 
face engaged  in  locomotion  greatly  exceeds  that  in  the  amphibia.  The  fish  fur- 
nishes the  best  example. 

In  it  the  lower  half  of  the  body  and  the  broadly-expanded  tail  are  applied  to 
the  water  very  much  as  an  oar  is  in  sculling.  The  sea-mammals,  as  the  whale, 
dugong,  manatee,  and  porpoise,  swim  in  precisely  the  same  manner  as  the  fish, 
with  this  difference,  that  the  tail  strikes  from  above  downwards,  or  vertically 
instead  of  horizontally,  or  from  side  to  side.  The  seal  is  exceptional  in  this 
respect. 

The  animals  which  furnish  the  connecting  L'nk  between  the  water  and  the  air 
are  the  flying  fishes  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  diving  birds  on  the  other ;  the 
former  sustaining  themselves  for  considerable  intervals  in  the  air  by  means  of 
their  enormous  pectoral  fins,  the  latter  using  their  wings  for  flying  above  and 
beneath  the  water,  as  occasion  demands. 

I  have  carefully  examined  the  relations,  structure,  and  action  of  the  fins  in 
the  flying-fish,  and  am  of  opinion  that  they  act  as  true  pinions ;  their  inadequate 
dimensions  only  preventing  them  from  sustaining  the  fish  for  an  indefinite  period 
in  the  air,  at  all  events  so  long  as  they  remain  moist.  They  operate  np>on  the 
air  from  beneath,  after  the  manner  of  a  kite  or  spiralifer,  and  in  so  doing,  lever 
the  animal  upwards  and  forwards. 

If  they  did  not  act  as  true  pinions  within  certain  limits  it  is  difficult  and  indeed 
impossible  to  understand  how  such  small  creatures  could  obtain  the  momentum 
necessary  to  project  them  a  distance  of  200  or  more  yards,  and  that  sometimes 
at  an  elevation  of  20  feet  above  the  water. 

In  birds  which  fly  indiscriminately  above  and  beneath  the  water,  the  wing  is 
generally  provided  with  stiffer  feathers  than  usual,  and  reduced  to  a  minimum  as 
regards  size.  In  subaqueous  flight  the  wings  may  act  by  themselves,  as  in  the 
guillemots,  or  in  conjunction  with  the  feet,  as  in  the  grebes ;  but  in  either  case 
it  is  the  back  or  convex  surface  of  the  wing  which  gives  the  effective  stroke,  the 
wing  in  such  birds  as  the  great  auk,  which  are  incapable  of  flight,  being  for  this 
purpose  twisted  completely  round,  in  order  that  its  concave  surface,  which  takes 
a  better  hold  of  the  water,  may  be  directed  backwards. 

The  wing,  therefore,  operates  very  diffei-ently  in  and  out  of  the  water. 

In  the  water  it  acts  as  an  auxiliary  of  the  foot,  and  both  strike  backwards 
and  downwards. 

In  the  air,  on  the  contrary,  it  strikes  downwards  and  forwards,  and  this  is  a 
point  deserving  of  attention,  as  showing  that  the  oblique  surfaces  presented  by 
animals  to  the  water  and  air  are  made  to  act  in  opposite  directions.  This  is 
owing  to  the  greater  density  of  the  water  as  compared  with  the  air ;  the  former 
supporting  or  nearly  supporting  the  animal  acting  upon  it ;  the  latter  permitting 
the  animal  to  fall  through  it  in  a  downward  direction. 

But  to  come  to  the  subject  more  particularly  in  hand,  viz : 

Flight  in  its  relation  to  Aeronautics, — The  atmosphere,  because  of  its  great 
tenuity,  mobility,  and  comparative  imponderability,  presents  little  resistance  to 
bodies  passing  through  it  at  low  velocity.  If,  however,  the  speed  be  greatly 
increased,  the  action  of  even  an  ordinary  cane  is  sufficient  to  elicit  a  recoil. 

This  comes  of  the  action  and  reaction  of  matter,  the  resistance  experienced 


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IN  RELATION  TO  AERONAUTICS.  327 

varying  according  to  the  density  of  the  atmosphere  and  the  shape,  extent,  and 
velocity  of  the  body  acting  upon  it.  While,  therefore,  almost  no  impediment 
is  offered  to  the  progress  of  an  animal  in  motion,  it  is  often  exceedingly  difficult 
to  compress  the  air  with  sufficient  rapidity  and  energy  to  convert  it  into  a  suitable 
fiilcram  for  securing  the  onward  impetus.  This  arises  from  the  fact  that  bodies 
moving  in  this  medium  experience  the  minimum  of  resistance  and  occasion  the 
maximum  of  displacement.  Another  and  very  obvious  difficulty  is  traceable  to 
the  great  disparity  in  the  weight  of  air  as  compared  with  any  known  solid,  (this 
in  the  case  of  water  being  nearly  as  1,000  to  1,)  and  the  consequent  want  of 
buoying  or  sustaining  power  which  that  disparity  necessitates.  To  meet  these 
peculiarities  the  insect  and  bird  are  furnished  with  extensive  surfaces  in  tho 
shape  of  pinions  or  wings,  which  they  can  apply  with  singular  velocity  and 
power  at  various  angles,  or  by  alternate  slow  and  sudden  movements,  to  obtain 
the  necessary  degree  of  resistance  and  non-resistance.  Their  bodies,  moreover, 
are  constructed  on  strictly  mechanical  principles — ^lightness,  strength,  and  dura- 
bility of  frame  j  and  power,  rapidity,  and  precision  of  action  being  indispensable. 
The  cylindrical  method  of  constraction  is  consequently  canied  to  an  extreme } 
the  bodies  and  legs  of  insects  displaying  numerous  unoccupied  spaces,  while  the 
muscles  and  solid  parts  are  tunnelled  in  every  direction  by  innumerable  air  tubes 
which  communicate  with  the  surrounding  medium  by  a  series  of  apertures  teniicd 
spiracles. 

A  somewhat  similar  disposition  of  parts  is  met  with  in  birds,  these  being  in 
many  cases  famished  not  only  with  hollow  bones,  but  also  (especially  tho 
aquatic  ones)  with  a  liberal  supply  of  air-sacs.  They  are  also  provided  with  a 
dense  covering  of  feathers  or  down,  which  adds  greatly  to  then*  bulk  without 
materially  increasing  their  weight.  The  air-sacs  are  well  seen  in  the  swan, 
goose,  and  dack ;  and  I  have  in  several  instances  carefully  examined  them  with 
a  view  to  determining  their  extent  and  function.  They  appear  to  me  to  be  con- 
nected \idth  the  function  of  respiration,  a  view  advocated  by  Hunter  in  1774, 
and  within  the  last  year  or  so  by  Drosier,  of  Cambridge.  That  they  have 
nothing  whatever  to  do  with  flight  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  some  excellent 
flyers — ^take  the  bats  e,  g. — are  destitute  of  them,  while  the  wingless  running 
birds,  such  as  the  ostrich,  and  apteryx,  which  are  incapable  of  flight,  are  pro- 
vided with  them.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the  hollow  bones,  some  really 
admirable  flyers,  as  the  swallows,  martins,  and  snipes,  having  their  bones  filled 
with  medullary  substance,  while  the  bones  of  the  running  wingless  birds  alluded 
to  are  filled  with  air.  Fnrtheimore,  and  Anally,  a  living  bird  weighing  10 
pounds  weighs  the  same  when  dead  minus  a  very  few  grains ;  *and  all  know 
what  effect  a  few  grains  of  heated  air  would  have  in  raising  a  weight  of  10 
pounds  from  the  ground. 

When  wo  have  said  that  cylinders  and  hollow  chambers  increase  the  area  of 
the  insect  and  bird,  and  that  an  insect  and  bird  so  constructed  is  stronger,  weight 
for  weight,  than  one  composed  of  solid  matter,  we  may  dismiss  the  subject ;  flight 
being,  as  I  shall  endeavor  to  show  by-and-by,  not  so  much  one  of  weight  as  of 
power  properly  directed,  i.  e.  power  directed  on  strictly  mechanical  principles. 
Those  who  subscribe  to  the  heated-air  theory  are  of  opinion  that  the  air  con- 
tained in  the  cavities  of  insects  and  birds  is  so  much  lighter  than  the  surround- 
ing atmosphere,  that  it  must  of  necessity  contribute  materially  to  flight ;  but 
the  quantity  of  air  imprisoned  is,  to  begin  with,  so  inflnitesimally  small  and  tho 
difference  in  weight  which  it  experiences  by  increase  of  temperature  so  inappre- 
ciable, that  it  ought  not  to  be  taken  into  account  by  any  one  endeavoring  to 
solve  the  difficult  and  important  problem  of  flight.  The  Montgolfier  or  tire- 
balloons  were  constructed  on  the  heated-air  principle ;  but  as  these  have  no 
analogue  in  nature,  and  are  apparently  incapable  of  improvement,  they  need  not 
detain  us  at  this  stage  of  the  inquiry.  The  area  of  the  insect  and  bird  when 
the  wings  are  fully  expanded  is,  with  tho  single  exception  of  tho  bats,  greater 


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328         ON  THE  VARIOUS  MODES  OF  FLIGHT 

than  that  of  axij  other  class  of  animals,  their  weight  being  proportionably  less. 
It  ought,  however,  never  to  be  forgotten  that  even  the  lightest  insect  or  bird  is 
immeasurably  heavier  than  the  air,  and  that  there  is  no  fixed  relation  between 
the  weight  of  body  and  the  expanse  of  wing  in  either  class.  We  have  thus 
light-bo<.lied  and  large-winged  insects  and  birds,  as  the  butterfly,  heron,  and 
albatross ;  and  othei-s,  whoso  bodies  are  comparatively  heavy,  while  their  wings 
ai*e  insigitificantly  small,  as  in  the  sphinx-moth  and  stag-beetle  among  insects, 
and  tbo  grebe*  quail,  and  paitridgo  among  birds.  Those  apparent  inconsisten- 
cies are  readily  explaincil  by  the  greater  muscular  development  of  the  heavy- 
bodied,  8hort-winge<l  insects  and  birds,  and  the  increased  power  and  rapidity 
with  which  the  wing  is  made  to  oscillate.  This  is  of  the  utmost  importance  in 
the  science  of  Aerostation,  as  showing  that  flight  may  be  attained  by  a  heavy, 
powerful  animal  with  comparatively  small  wings,  as  well  as  by  a  lighter  one 
with  enonnously  enlai'ged  wings.  While,  therefore,  there  is  apparently  no  cor- 
respondence between  the  area  of  the  wing  and  the  animal  to  be  raised,  there  is 
an  unvarying  relation  as  to  the  weight  and  number  of  oscillations,  so  that  the  prob- 
lem of  flight  seems  to  resolve  itself  into  one  of  weight,  power,  velocity,  and 
small  smfaces;  versus  buoyancy,  debility,  diminished  speed,  and  extensive  sur- 
faces ',  weight  in  either  case  being  a  sine  qua  non. 

In  order  to  utilize  the  air  as  a  means  of  transit,  the  body  in  motion,  whether 
it  moves  in  virtue  of  the  life  it  possesses,  or  because  of  a  force  superadded,  must 
be  heavier  than  it.  If  it  were  otherwise,  if  it  were  rescued  from  the  operation 
of  gitivity  on  the  one  hand,  and  l>ereft  of  independent  movement  on  the  other, 
it  must  float  about  uncontix)lled  and  uncontrollable,  as  happens  in  the  ordiniyy 
gas  balloon.  The  diflerence  between  an  insect  or  biixi  and  a  balloon  here 
insisted  upon  was,  I  have  learned  since  WTiting  the  above,  likewise  pointed  out 
by  his  giiice  the  Duke  of  Argyll,  in  his  very  aide  and  eloquent  article  in  Good 
Words,  entitled  *^  The  Reign  of  Law"* — an  article  whose  merits  cannot  bo  too 
widely  acknowledged  or  too  universally  known.  The  wings  of  insects  and 
birds  are,  as  a  rule,  more  or  less  triangular  in  shape,  the  base  of  the  triangle 
being  directed  towards  the  body,  the  sides  anteriorly  and  posteriorly.  They  are 
also  conical  on  sections  from  within  outwards  and  from  before  backwards,  this 
shape  converting  the  pinion  into  a  delicately-graduated  instrument,  balanced 
with  the  utmost  nicety  to  satisfy  the  requirements  of  the  muscular  system  on  the 
one  hand,  and  the  resistance  and  resiliency  of  the  aur  on  the  other.  While  all 
wings  are  graduated  as  explained,  innumerable  varieties  occur  as  to  their  general 
contour,  some  being  falcated  or  scythe-like,  others  oblong,  others  rounded  or 
circular,  some  lanceolate,  and  some  linear. 

Wing  qf  insect — The  wings  of  insects  may  consist  either  of  one  or  two  pairs; 
the  anterior  or  upper  pair,  when  two  are  present,  being  in  some  instances  greatly 
modified  and  presenting  a  corneous  condition.  When  so  modified  they  cover 
the  under  win^  when  the  insect  is  reposing,  and  have  from  this  circumstance 
been  named  efytra  from  the  Greek  tXorpov,  a  sheath.  The  elytra  or  wing-cases, 
as  they  are  sometimes  called,  are  dense,  rigid,  and  opaque  in  the  beetles ;  solid 
in  one  pait  and  membranous  in  another  in  the  cockroaches ;  more  or  less  mem- 
branous throughout  in  the  grasshoppers ;  and  completely  membranous  in  the 
dragon-flies.  The  superior  or  upper  wings  are  indirectly  connected  with  flight 
in  the  beetles,  cockroaches,  and  grasshoppers,  and  actively  engaged  in  this  tunc- 
tion  in  the  dragon-flies  and  bnttei-flies.  The  true  wings,  and  by  this  I  mean  the 
membranous  ones,  present  different  degrees  of  opacity ;  those  of  the  moths  and 
butterflies  being  non-transparent ;  those  of  the  dragon-flies,  bees,  and  common 
flies  presenting  a  delicate,  filmy,  gossamer-like  appearance.  They  have,  how- 
ever, this  feature  in  common,  and  it  is  fundamental :  both  pairs  are  composed  of 

•  Good  Words  for  Fobmary,  1865.  This  article  I  am  glad  to  find  has  been  reprinted  in  a 
separate  form  with  numerous  illustrations,  and  should  be  read  by  all  interested  in  the  subject 
ot  icrouautics.    (J.  B.  P.) 


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IN  RELATION  TO  AERONAUTICS.  329 

a  daplicatnre  of  integament,  or  investing  membrane,  and  are  strengthened  in 
various  directions  by  a  system  of  hollow,  homy  tubes,  known  to  entomologists 
as  the  neurae  or  nervures.  These  nervures  taper  towards  the  extremity  of  the 
wing,  and  axe  strongest  towards  its  root  and  anterior  margin,  where  they  supply 
theplace  of  the  arm  in  bats  and  birds. 

Toe  neurse  are  arranged  at  the  axis  of  the  wing  after  the  manner  of  a  fan  or 
spiral  stair ;  the  anterior  one  occupying  a  higher  position  than  that  further  back, 
and  so  of  the  others.  As  this  arrangement  extends  also  to  the  margins,  the 
wings  are  more  or  less  twisted  upon  themselves,  and  present  a  certain  degree  of 
convexity  upon  their  superior  or  upper  surface,  and  a  corresponding  concavity  on 
their  inferior  or  under  surface ;  ^eir  free  edges  supplying  these  fine  curves 
which  act  with  such  efficacy  upon  the  au:  in  obtaining  the  maximum  of  resist- 
ance and  the  minimum  of  displacement.  As  illustrative  examples  of  the  form 
of  wing  alluded  to,  that  of  the  beetle,  bee,  and  fly  may  be  cited ;  the  pinion  in 
those  insects  acting  as  helices,  or  twisted  levers  and  elevating  weights,  much 
greater  than  the  area  of  the  wing  would  seem  to  waiTant.  The  insects  adverted 
to  fly,  as  a  rule,  with  great  aocui-acy  and  speed,  and  frequently  in  a  straight  line. 

From  the  foregoing  account  it  is  evident  that  the  wings  of  insects  vary  as 
regards  their  number,  size,  and  shape.  They  also  differ  as  regards  their  sur- 
iaces,  margins,  venation,  degree  of  consistence  and  position,  so  that  it  miglit 
naturally  be  asked,  Do  the  several  orders  of  wings  act  according  to  a  common 
principle,  or  does  each  wing  act  according  to  a  principle  of  its  own  ?  Tiiere 
can,  1  think,  be  but  one  answer  to  this  question.  All  wings  obtiun  their  lever- 
age by  presenting  oblique  surfaces  to  the  air,  the  degi^ee  of  obliquity  gradually 
increasing  in  a  direction  from  behind,  forwards  and  downwards,  during  extension 
when  the  sudden  or  effective  stroke  is  being  given,  and  gradually  decreasing  in 
an  opposite  direction  during  flexion,  or  when  ttie  wing  is  being  more  slowly 
recovered  preparatory  to  making  a  second  stroke.  The  enective  stroke  in  insects — 
and  this  holds  true  also  of  birds — is  therefore  delivered  downwards  and  foncardSy 
and  not,  as  the  majority  of  writers  believe,  vertically,  or  even  slightly  back- 
wards. This  arises  from  the  curious  circumstance,  that  insects  and  birds  when 
flying  actually  fall  through  the  medium  which  elevates  them,  their  course  being 
indicated  by  the  resultant  of  two  forces,  viz :  that  of  gravity,  pulling  vertically 
downwards,  and  that  of  the  wing,  acting  at  a  given  angle  in  an  upward  direc- 
tion.  The  wing  of  the  bird  acts  after  the  manner  of  a  boy's  kite,  the  only  dif- 
ference being  that  the  kite  is  puUed  forward  upon  the  wind  by  the  string  and 
the  baud,  whereas  in  the  bird  the  wing  is  pushed  forward  on  the  wind  by  the 
weight  of  the  body  and  the  life  residing  in  the  pinion  itself.  The  angle  at 
which  the  wing  acts  most  efficaciously  as  an  elevator,  as  proved  by  an  examina- 
tion of  the  pinion  of  the  living  insect,  bat,  and  bird,  when  fully  extended  and 
ready  to  give  the  effective  stroke,  is  an  angle  of  45°  with  the  horizon.  As, 
however,  this  angle  could  not  be  uniformly  maintained  without  a  rotary  motion 
which  would  wrench  the  wings  from  their  fixings,  a  compromise  is  adopted,  the 
wing  being  made  to  rotate  on  its  axis  to  the  extent  of  a  quarter  of  a  tuiii  in  one 
direction  during  extension,  and  the  same  amount  in  an  opposite  direction  during 
flexion.  That  the  wing  rotates  upon  its  axis  as  explained  may  be  I'eadily  ascer- 
tained by  watching  the  movement  in  the  larger  domestic  fly.  If  the  insect  be 
contemplated  either  from  above  or  beneath,  the  blur  presented  by  the  rapidly 
oscillating  wing  will  be  found  to  be  concave,  the  depressed  portion  representing 
the  wing  when  its  plane  of  least  resistance  is  parallel  with  the  plane  of  pi-ogres- 
sion.  Of  this  I  have  had  the  most  convincing  proof,  particularly  in  semi-torpid 
insects  where  the  wing  was  plied  with  less  vigor  than  usual.  To  confer  on  the 
wing  the  multiplicity  of  movement  which  it  requires,  it  is  supplied  with  a  double 
hinge  or  compound  joint  which  enables  it  to  move  not  only  in  an  upward,  down- 
ward, forward,  and  backward  direction,  but  also  at  various  intermediate  degrees 
of  obliquity.     An  insect  furnished  with  wings  thus  hinged  may,  as  far  as  steadi- 


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330         ON  THE  VARIOUS  MODES  OP  PLIOHT 

ness  of  body  is  concerned,  be  not  inaptly  compared  to  a  compass  set  npon 
gimbals,  where  the  universality  of  motion  in  one  direction  insures  comparative 
fixedness  in  another. 

Many  instances  might  bo  quoted  of  the  marvellous  powers  of  flight  residing 
iu  insects  as  a  class.  The  male  of  the  silkworm  moth  ( Attacus  Paphia)  is  stated 
to  travel  moi-e  than  100  miles  a  day;*  and  an  auonynu)U8  writer  in  Nicholson's 
Journal  calculates  that  the  common  house  fly  (Musca  domesticus)  in  ordinary 
flight  makes  GOO  strokes  per  second,  and  advances  25  feet;  but  that  the  rate  of 
speed,  if  the  insect  be  alarmed,  may  be  increased  six  or  seven  fold,  so  that  under 
certain  circumstances  it  can  outstrip  the  fleetest  race-horse.  Leeuwenhoek  relates 
a  most  exciting  chase  which  he  once  beheld  in  a  menagerie  about  100  feet  lon^, 
between  a  swallow  and  a  di-agon  fly  (mordella.)  The  insect  flew  with  such 
incredible  speed  and  wheeled  with  such  addi-ess  that  the  swallow»  notwithstand- 
ing its  utmost  efibrts,  completely  failed  to  overtake  it.t 

Wing  qf  bird. — There  are  few  things  in  nature  more  admirably  constructed 
and  wliere  design  can  be  more  readily  traced  than  in  the  wing  of  the  bud.  Its 
great  strength  and  extreme  lightness,  the  manner  in  which  it  closes  up  or  folds 
during  flexion,  and  opens  out  or  expands  during  extension,  as  well  as  the  method 
according  to  which  the  feathers  are  strung  together,  and  slate  each  other  in 
divers  directions  to  produce  at  one  time  a  solid  resisting  surface,  and  at  another 
an  interrupted  and  comparatively  non-resisting  one,  present  a  degree  of  fitness 
to  which  the  mind  must  necessarily  revert  wiA  pleasure.  The  wing  of  the  bird, 
like  that  of  the  insect,  is  concavo-convex,  and  more  or  less  twisted  upon  itself 
when  extended,  so  that  the  upper  or  thick  margin  of  the  pinion  presents  a  dif- 
ferent degree  of  curvature  to  that  of  the  nether  or  thin  margin,  the  chq^es  of 
the  two  margins  iu  some  instances  even  intersecting  each  other.  This  twisting 
is  in  a  great  measm'e  owing  to  the  manner  in  which  the  bones  of  the  wing  are 
twisted  upon  themselves,  and  tlie  spiral  nature  of  their  articular  surfaces,  the 
long  axes  of  the  joints  always  intei-secting  each  other  at  right  angles.  As  a 
result  of  this  disposition  of  the  articulai-  surfaces  the  wing  may  be  shot  out  or 
extended,  and  retracted  or  flexed  in  nearly  the  same  plane,  the  bones  composing 
the  wing  rotating  on  their  axes  during  either  movement.  This  secondary  action, 
or  the  revolving  of  the  component  bones  upon  their  own  axes,  is  of  the  greatest 
importance  in  the  movements  of  the  wings,  as  it  communicates  to  the  hand  and 
forearm,  and  consequently  to  the  primary  and  secondaiy  feathers  which  they 
beai',  the  precise  angles  necessaiy  for  flight.  It  in  fact  insures  that  the  wing, 
and  the  curtain  or  fringe  of  the  wing  which  the  primary  and  secondary  feathers 
form,  shall  be  screwed  into  and  down  upon  the  wind  in  extension,  and  unscrewed 
or  withdrawn  fi^om  the  wind  during  flexion.  The  wing  of  the  bird  may,  there- 
fore, be  compared  to  a  huge  gimlet  or  auger,  the  axis  of  the  gimlet  representing 
the  bones  of  the  wing,  the  flanges  or  spiral  thread  of  the  ^mlet  the  priraaiy 
and  secondary  feathere.  As  the  degree  of  rotation  made  by  the  bones  of  the 
foreai-m  and  hand  during  extension  amounts  as  nearly  as  may  be  to  a  quarter  of 
a  turn  of  a  spiral,  it  follows  that  in  flexion  the  wing  presents  a  knife-like  edge 
to  the  wind ;  whereas  in  extension  the  cuitain  of  the  wing  is  rotated  in  a  down- 
ward direction  until  its  anterior  or  concave  surface  makes  an  angle  of  45**  with 
the  horizon.  Fiom  this  description  it  will  be  evident  that  by  the  mere  rotation 
of  the  bones  of  the  forearm  and  hand  the  maximum  and  minimum  of  resistance 
is  secured  much  in  the  same  way  that  this  object  is  attained  by  the  alternate 
dipping  and  feathering  of  an  oar. 

In  the  majority  of  quick-flying  birds — at  all  events  in  such  as  do  not  glide  or 
skim^-considerable  advantage  is  gained  by  the  primary  and  secondary  feathers 
being  thrown  out  of  position  during  flexion,  this  arrangement  preventing  rotard- 

•*  Linn.  Trans,  vii,  40. 

t  The  hobby  falcon  which  abounds  in  Bulgaria  is  equal  to  this  task,  the  dragon-Qy  form- 
ing a  principal  constitueiit  of  its  food. 


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IN  RELATION  TO  AERONAUTICS.  331 

ation,  by  diminisliing  the  amount  of  air  displaced.  This  slating  or  overlapping 
and  unsiating  action  of  the  feathers  during  extension  and  flexion  is,  however,  one 
of  the  peculiarities  or  refinements,  and  not  necessarily  an  essential  in  flight,  as 
this  function  can  be  efficiently  performed  by  the  insect  and  bat  where  no  feathere 
are  present,  and  where  consequently  no  opening  or  closing  of  them  can  possibly 
occur.  The  wing  of  the  bird  may  be  said  to  act  in  three  ditt'erent  ways :  1st, 
dming  extension,  when  it  gradually  makes  an  anffle  of  45®  with  the  horizon ; 
2d,  during  the  downward  stroke,  when  it  maintams  the  angle  of  45"  with  the 
horizon,  and  makes  a  variable  angle  with  the  body;  and  3d,  during  flexion, 
when  it  acts  at  a  gradually  decreasing  angle  in  virtue  of  its  being  earned  against 
the  wind  by  the  l^dy  of  the  bird  which  is  in  motion ;  it  being  a  matter  of  indiffer- 
ence whether  the  wing  acts  on  the  air  or  the  air  on  the  wing,  so  Jong  as  the  body 
bearing  the  latter  is  under  way ;  and  this  is  perhaps  the  chief  reason  why  the 
albatross,  which  is  a  very  heavy  bird,*  can  sail  about  for  such  incredible  periods 
without  apparently  moving  the  wings  at  all.  Captain  Hutton  thus  graphically 
describes  the  sailing  of  this  magnificent  bird:  "The  flight  of  the  albatross  is 
troly  majestic,  as  with  outstretched  motionless  wings  he  sails  over  the  surface  of 
the  sea,  now  rising  high  in  air;  now,  with  a  bold  sweep  and  wings  inclined  at  an 
angle  with  the  horizon,  descending  until  the  tip  of  the  lower  one  all  but  touches 
the  crest  of  the  waves  as  he  skims  over  them."  t 

'^Tranqnil  its  spirit  seemed,  aud  floated  slow. 
Even  in  its  very  motion  there  was  rest." 

As  an  antithesis  to  the  apparently  lifeless  wings  of  the  albatross,  the  ceasele9a 
activity  of  those  of  the  humming  bird  might  be  adduced.  "  In  those  delicate 
and  exquisitely  beautiful  burds,  the  wings,  according  to  Mr.  Grould,  move  so 
rapidly  when  the  bird  is  poised  before  an  object  that  it  is  impossible  for  the  eye 
to  follow  each  stroke,  and  a  hazy  circle  of  indistinctness  on  each  side  of  the  biro 
ia  all  that  is  perceptible." 

The  various  movements  involved  in  ascending,  descending,  wheeling,  gliding 
and  progressing  horizontally  are  all  the  result  of  muscular  power,  properly 
directed  and  acting  upon  appropriate  surfaces — ^that  apparent  buoyancy  in  birds, 
which  we  so  highly  esteem,  arising  not  fiom  superior  lightness  but  from  their 
possessing  that  degree  of  weight  \^ich  enables  them  to  subjugate  the  air;  weight 
and  independent  motion  being  the  two  things  indispensable  in  successful  aerial 
progression.  The  weight  in  insects  and  birds  is  in  great  measure  owing  to  their 
greatly-developed  muscular  system — ^this  bebg  in  t^Eit  delicate  state  of  tonacity^ 
which  enables  them  to  act  through  its  instrumentality  with  marvellous  dexterity 
aud  power,  and  to  expend  or  reserve  their  energies,  which  they  can  do  with  the 
utmost  exactitude  in  their  lengthened  and  laborious  flights.  The  elastic  struc- 
tures which  receive  or  draw  back  the  wing  in  the  insect  and  bird  during  flexion 
are  of  the  utmost  consequence  in  the  movements  of  the  wings;  these,  by  their 
mere  contraction,  enabling  the  muscles  of  the  wing  to  rest  neaily  half  the  time 
they  are  in  action.  In  this  we  have  a  probable  explanation  of  the  extraordinary 
power  of  endurance  displayed  by  insects  and  birds  on  the  wing. 

The  foregoing  remarks  on  the  wings  of  insects  and  birds  lead  me  to  speak  of 
the  inclined  plane  as  applied  to  the  air,  but  before  doing  so  it  will  be  advisable 
to  allude  briefly  to  the  balloon. 

Balloon,  —This,  as  my  audience  is  aware,  is  constructed  on  the  obvious  prin- 
ciple that  a  machine  lighter  than  the  aur  must  necessarily  rise  through  it.  The 
Montgolfier  brothers  invented  such  a  machine  in  1782.  Theur  balloon  consisted 
of  a  paper  globe  or  cylinder,  the  motor  power  being  superheated  air  supplied  by 

*  The  areraffe  weieht  of  the  albatross,  as  given  by  Gould,  is  17  pounds.  '  Ibis,"  2d  series, 
vol.  i,  1865.  p.  295. 

The  Pelicanus  onocrotalius  weighs  25  pounds.    Roget*s  Bird's  Journal,  vol.  i,  p.  490. 

t  On  some  of  the  birds  inhabitiDg  the  Southern  ocean,  bv  Captain  W.  F.  Hutton.  **  Ibis,** 
Sd  series,  vol.  i,  1865,  p.  282. 


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332  ON  THE  VARIOUS  MODES  OP  FLIGHT 

tlie  burninff  of  vino  twigs  under  it  The  Montgolfier  or  fire  balloons,  as  they 
were  called,  were  superwHied  by  the  hydrogen-ffas  balloon  of  MM.  Charles  and 
Itobeit,  this  being,  in  turn,  supplanted  by  the  ordinary  gas  balloon  of  Mr. 
Green.  Since  the  introduction  of  coal  gas  in  the  place  of  hydrogen  gas  no 
radical  improvement  has  been  effected ;  all  attempts  at  guiding  balloons  have 
signally  failed.  This  arises  from  the  vast  extent  of  surface  which  they  neces- 
sarily present,  rendering  them  a  fair  conquest  to  every  breeze  that  blows ;  and 
because  the  power  which  animates  them  is  a  mere  lifting  power  which,  in  the 
absence  of  wind,  must  act  in  a  vertical  line,  all  other  motion  being  extraneous 
and  foreign  to  it.  It  consequently  rises  through  the  air  in  opposition  to  the  law 
of  giavitr,  very  much  as  a  dead  bird  would  fall  in  a  downward  direction  in 
accorilance  with  it.  Having  no  hold  upon  the  air,  this  cannot  be  employed  aa 
a  fiilcnim  for  regulating  its  movements,  and  hence  the  cardinal  difficulty  in  bal* 
looning  as  an  art 

Any  one  attempting  to  control  the  movements  of  a  balloon  is  very  much  in 
the  position  of  a  boatman  who  endeavors  to  steer  his  craft,  which  is  drifting 
with  the  cunient,  by  pushing  against  the  stem. 

If  ever  the  balloon  is  to  be  utilized  as  a  means  of  transit,  this  will  probably 
be  achieved  by  converting  part  of  its  lifti^  power  into  a  horizontal  propelling 
power,  which  possibly  could  be  done  by  affixing  a  horizontal  screw,  like  a  smau 
windmill,  to  the  car  ,*  this  apparatus  receiving  its  motion  by  being  forced  agtunst 
the  air  from  beneath  during  its  ascent,  (the  air  pla3ring  upon  it  from  above,)  and 
communicating  its  movements  to  a  similar  and  smaller  screw  placed  vertically 
or  at  right  angles,  which  could  be  made  to  revolve  with  great  celerity  as  a 
driving  screw.  To  prevent  rotation  in  the  balloon  itself,  it  might  be  armed  with 
plates  of  some  light  material  placed  at  right  angles  to  the  plane  of  rotation. 
The  great  expense,  however,  involved  in  the  construction  and  filling  of  the  bal- 
loon will  always  operate  against  its  being  used  otherwise  than  as  a  luxury ; 
while  the  enormous  expanse  and  delicacy  of  the  material  employed,  as  well  as 
the  change  in  volume  of  the  contained  gas  arising  from  increase  or  decrease  of 
temperature,  cannot  fail  to  prove  troublesome,  not  to  say  dangerous. 

1?  inding  that  no  marked  improvement  has  been  made  in  the  balloon  since  its 
introduction  m  1782,  we  naturally  turn  our  attention  to  some  other  method  of 
traversing  the  air;  and  here  I  would  add  my  independent  testimony  in  favor 
of  the  helice  or  screw,  not  only  as  a  lifting  power,  but  also  as  a  propelling  power. 
When  I  commenced  my  inquires  into  the  structure  and  the  uses  of  wings,  I  was 
early  struck  with  the  curious  manner  in  which  they  are  twisted  upon  themselves, 
and  how  they  are  rotated  on  and  off  the  wind  during  flexion  and  extension,  after 
the  manner  of  screws;  and  without  knowing  (for  the  subject  of  artificial  flight 
is  not  much  in  my  way )  that  the  helice  had  been  proposed  as  a  means  for  raising 
inanimate  bodies,  I  had  actually  constructed  a  double  screw,  with  a  view  to  test- 
ing its  efficacy  in  this  respect.*  I  have  therefore  unwittingly  laid  anatomy  and 
physiology  under  contribution  in  support  of  what  I  find  is  not  a  new  doctrine.t 
1  was  impelled  in  this  du-ection  by  aetecting  the  principle  in  nature,  and  firom 
knowing  that  a  body  to  rise  and  progress  in  the  air  need  not  necessarily  be 
lighter  than  it;  in  fact,  that  the  balloon  is  constracted  on  a  principle- diametri- 
cally opposed  to  that  on  which  the  bat,  insect,  and  bird  are  constructed,  and  is 
from  this  circumstance  open  to  serious,  and  in  some  respects,  insuperable  objeo* 
tions. 

The  efficacy  of  the  screw  in  water  is  well  known,  and  the  action  of  the  child's 
toy,  usually  called  the  spiralifer,  will  illustrate  its  utility  as  applied  to  the  air. 
Tljis  toy,  for  toy  it  has  hitherto  been,  consists  of  two  inclined  planes,  produced 

*  ThU  screw  bad  tuur  facd  or  blades,  two  of  which  revolved  from  left  to  right;  the  remain- 
ing  two  from  right  to  left  This  I  found  to  be  necessary  to  prevent  rotation  in  the  driving 
apparatus,  which  consisted  of  a  steel  spring  and  clockwork. 

r  Paucton,  the  engineer,  predicted  the  future  importance  of  the  screw  in  aerial  navigation. 


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IN  RELATION  TO  AERONAUTICS.  333 

by  simply  twisting  the  enveloping  wires  in  opposite  directions.  It  therefore 
represeiits  the  most  primitive  form  of  screw.  This  apparatus,  simple  as  it  may- 
appear,  curiously  enough  furnishes  the  mechanical  appliance  by  which  a  botly 
may  be  elevated,  or  elevated  and  carried  in  a  horizontal  direction  at  one  and  the 
Bame  time-  By  applying  the  necessaiy  power  the  spii-alifer  can  be  made  to  act 
vertically  or  horizontally,  or  at  any  intermediate  angle,  so  that  we  have  in  it  an 
easily  regulated  and  perfect  driving  power.  The  position  taken  up  by  the  advo- 
cates of  the  screw  is  the  reverse  of  that  occupied  by  the  advocates  for  the  bal- 
loon ;  80  that  the  aeronaut  promises  at  no  distant  day  to  be  faiily  impaled  on  the 
horns  of  a  dilemma,  by  having  on  the  one  hand  a  motor  power  which  (because 
of  the  space  occupied  by  it)  no  human  ingenuity  can  direct ;  and  on  the  other  a 
thoroughly  manageable  and  docile  elevating  and  driving  apparatus,  minus  an 
adequate  motor  power.  The  problem  of  flight  will  probably  be  solved  by  one 
employing  a  certain  proportion  of  gas  to  assist  him  in  overcoming  the  inertia  of 
his  machine  while  he  uses  the  screw  as  a  propeller  and  partial  elevator.  Of  the 
two  systems  propounded,  if  they  be  judged  separately,  1  incline  to  that  which 
proposes  to  enc^loy  the  screw  both  in  elevating  and  propelling,  and  this  for  two 
reasons :  1st,  Because  the  screw  or  a  modification  of  it  is  the  instalment  by 
which,  as  I  have  shown,  the  insect,  bat,  and  bird  rises  and  progresses ;  and,  2(1, 
Because  a  certain  degree  of  weight  is  necessary  to  overcome  the  air  and  make  it 
useful  for  the  purposes  of  aerostation. 

That  the  principle  of  the  helice  as  applied  to  the  air  is  correct  is  proved  by 
the  very  remarkable  experiments  of  MM.  Pontin  d'Am^couit  and  De  la  Lan- 
delle,  both  of  whom  have  constructed  within  the  last  three  years  helicopterio 
models,  which  not  only  rise  by  themselves  into  the  air,  but  also  carry  graduated 
weights.*  The  difficulties  therefore  attending  aerial  locomotion  by  means  of  the 
screw  are  already  partially  surmounted. 

The  advantages  which  will  accrue  fix)m  the  employment  of  the  screw  in  aeros- 
tation may  be  briefly  stated. 

It  occupies  little  space,  is  strong  without  being  heavy,  and  is  prodigiously 
powerful. 

It  rigidly  economizes  the  motor  power  by  keeping  the  inclined  planes  of 
which  it  is  composed  closely  applied  to  the  air  throughout  its  entire  revolution. 

The  speed  of  the  screw  can  be  increased  at  pleasure — increased  velocity,  as  I 
have  shown  in  the  insect  and  bird,  conferring  enormously  increased  propelling 
and  lifting  power. 

By  a  judicious  combination  of  horizontal,  vertical,  and  oblique  screws,  almost 
any  degree  of  speed  may  be  attained,  and  any  course,  whether  upwards,  down- 
wards, or  for^^ards,  pmsued. 

A  machine  elevated  and  propelled  by  screws  will  be  necessarily  a  compact 
machine— -a  machine  which  will  navigate  the  air  as  a  master ;  its  weight  and 
the  small  surface  occupied  by  it  rendering  it  superior  even  to  moderately  high 
winds. 

The  nearer  such  machine  is  kept  to  the  earth,  and  the  greater  the  density  of 
the  atmosphere,  the  greater  will  be  its  facility  and  power — ^the  inconveniences 
arising  jfrom  temperature  and  excessively  rarefied  air  being  thus  avoided. 

The  aerial  screw  machine  should  be  constructed,  whenever  practicable,  of 
hollow  cylinders  fixed  into  a  floor,  composed  of  one  or  more  flattened  cyliiidroid 
chambers  filled  with  hydrogen  or  other  gas  to  diminish  weight.  The  flattened 
cylinders,  if  laid  horizontally  or  inclined  in  a  slightly  upward  direction,  would 
act  mechanically  as  snstainei-s  and  gliders,  as  do  the  wings  in  sailing  and  glid- 
ing birds.  It  is  just  possible  that  the  motor  power  required  for  the  helicopteric 
flying-machine  may  be  derived  from  compressed  atmosphere,  the  air  being  com- 

*  Extracts  from  a  paper,  by  Mons.  Nadir,  1863,  quoted  in  Astra  Castra:  By  Hattoc 
Tumor,  London,  1865,  pp.  34U. 


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334       ON  THE  VARIOUS  MODES  OP  FLIGHT,  ETC. 

pressed  by  tlie  aid  of  an  engine  on  icrrafirma^  and  stowed  away  in  the  cylinder 
comprising  the  floor  or  other  portions  of  the  machine  before  starting. 

When  and  where  such  a  machine  will  bo  successfully  launched  no  one  can  of 
course  predict.  The  subject  of  artificial  flight,  however,  has  been  so  frequently 
discussed  of  late  years,  and  has  excited  so  much  interest  in  America,  France,  and 
other  portions  of  the  Old  and  New  World,  that  it  must  obviously  receive  a  set- 
tlement in  one  direction  or  other  at  no  distant  date.  Even  Britain,  involved  as 
slio  is  in  business  and  politics,  and  caring  little  about  science  which  is  not 
directly  remunerative,  has  made  a  move  in  this  direction,  and  we  have  now  the 
Aeronautical  Society  of  Great  Britain,  presided  over  by  his  grace  the  Duke  of 
Argyll,  himself  a  Goliath  in  aeronautical  matters.  It  were  much  to  be  desired 
that  those  who  can  aflbrd  the  time  or  the  means  requisite  for  conducting  experi- 
ments on  a  scale  commensmate  with  the  importance  of  the  subject  would  lend 
their  cud  to  this  great  public  movement. 

Homo  Volans. — Whether  the  genus  homo  will  ever  be  able,  by  his  unaided 
exertions,  to  leave  the  scene  of  his  joys  and  sorrows  for  the  fields  ethorean,  time 
only  can  detennine.  Borelli,  a  great  anatomical  authority,*  made  claborato 
calculations  to  prove  the  absurdity  of  such  an  attempt.  His  calculations,  how- 
ever, will  not  deter  the  more  sanguine  and  speculative  portions  of  mankind  from 
renewing  their  exertions  in  this  direction  as  opportunity  permits;  and  I  may  state, 
for  their  guidance  in  the  matter,  that  if  man  ever  flies  it  will  not  be  by  employ- 
ing his  anns  simply,  but  by  concentrating  the  energies  of  his  entire  muscular 
system — ^by  transferring  in  fact  the  movements  of  his  arms  and  legs  to  a  central 
axis  or  shaft,  surmounted  by  one  or  more  horizontal  and  vertical  screws  of  appro- 
priate size  and  shape;  these  being  made  to  revolve  with  a  velocity  to  be  determ- 
ined by  experiment.  The  value  of  this  hypothesis  could  be  readily  tested,  and 
at  a  trifling  expense,  by  a  machine  constructed  after  the  manner  of  a  velocipede, 
which  need  not  be  of  a  very  complicated  character. 

In  order  to  construct  a  successful  flying  machine,  it  is  not  necessary  to  imitate 
the  filmy  wing  of  the  insect,  the  silken  pinion  of  the  bat,  or  the  complicated 
and  highly  diflerentialed  wing  of  the  bird,  where  every  feather  may  be  said  to 
have  a  peculiar  function  assigned  to  it ;  neither  is  it  necessary  to  reproduce  the 
intricacy  of  that  machinery  by  which  the  pinion  in  the  bat,  insect,  and  bird  is 
moved ;  all  that  is  required  is  to  distinguish  the  form  and  extent  of  the  surfaces 
and  the  manner  of  their  application,  and  this  has,  in  a  great  measure,  beeu 
already  done.  When  Vivian  and  Trevithick  constructed  the  locomotive,  and 
Symington  and  Bell  the  steamboat,  they  did  not  seek  to  reproduce  a  quadruped 
or  a  fish ;  they  simply  aimed  at  producing  motion  adapted  to  the  land  and  water 
in  accordance  with  natural  laws,  and  in  the  presence  of  living  models.  Their 
success  is  to  be  measured  by  an  involved  labyrinth  of  railroad  which  extends  to 
every  part  of  the  civilized  world,  and  by  navies  whoso  vessels  are  despatched 
without  the  slightest  trepidation  to  navigate  the  most  boisterous  seas  at  tne  most 
inclement  seasons.  The  aeronaut  has  the  same  task  before  him  in  a  difierent 
direction,  and  in  attempting  to  produce  a  flying  machine  he  is  not  necessarily 
attempting  an  impossible  thing.  The  countless  swarms  of  flying  things  testify 
as  to  the  practicability  of  the  scheme,  and  nature  at  once  supplies  him  with 
models  and  materials.  If  artificial  flight  were  not  attainable,  the  insects  and 
birds  would  afibrd  the  only  examples  of  animals  whose  movements  could  not  be 
reproduced.  The  outgoings  and  incomings  of  the  quadruped  and  fish  are,  how- 
ever, already  successfully  imitated,  and  the  fowls  of  the  air,  though  clamorous 
and  shy,  are  not  necessarily  beyond  our  reach.  Much  has  been  said  and  done 
in  clearing  the  forest  and  fertilizing  the  prairie :  can  nothing  be  done  in  reclaim- 
ing the  boundless  regions  of  the  air  T 

*  De  Motn  AnimsK 


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MAN  AS  THE  COTEMPORART  OF  THE  MAMMOTH 
AND  THE  REINDEER  IN  MIDDLE  EUROPE. 


Translated  by  C.  A.  ALEXANDER  for  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  from  *'Aus  der  Natur: 
die  neuesten  Entdeckuugen  auf  dem  Gebiete  der  Natuneissenschaften,"    Leipzig,  1867. 


While  the  eyes  of  inqnirers  were  tnmed  towards  the  east  and  followed  with 
interest  the  excavations  in  Assyria  and  Egypt,  in  the  hope  of  finding  there  some- 
thing conclasive  regarding  the  earliest  condition  of  our  race,  similar  researches 
in  the  drift  deposits  of  France,  Belgium,  and  England,  in  the  silicious  formations 
of  those  countries  and  in  the  oldest  pile-constructions  of  Switzerland,  Germany, 
Hungary,  and  Italy,  brought  to  light  incontestable  proof  that  man  had  already 
obtained  a  firm  foothold  in  different  parts  of  Europe,  at  a  time  which  ascends  far 
beyond  our  chronology,  and  even  lived  cotemporaneously  with  the  gigantic  and 
partly  extinct  animals  of  the  post-tertiary  period ;  with  the  mammoth,  the  gigantic 
deer,  the  woolly-kaired  rhinoceros,  the  bear,  the  tiger,  and  hyena  of  the  caves. 

It  will  be  understood  of  itself,  that  these  discoveries  were  at  first  received  with 
distrust,  because  they  totally  subverted  all  previous  conceptions  and  could  by  no 
means  be  reconciled  to  the  received  theories  respecting  the  age  of  the  human 
race.  Even  Ohristol  and  Toumal,  who,  in  1828,  made,  in  the  south  of  France, 
the  first  discovery  of  fossilized  human  remains,  mixed  with  fragments  of  pottery 
and  the  bones  of  extinct  species  of  animals,  ventured  not  to  vindicate  for  this 
significant  fact  its  just  value,  so  firmly  fixed  in  public  belief  was  the  doctrine  of 
Cuvier  that  man  had  first  made  his  appearance  on  the  earth  after  the  era  of  those 
primitive  species.  In  the  same  manner  fared  it  with  the  discovery  of  the  Belgian 
explorer,  Schmerling,  who,  in  1833,  found,  in  some  caverns  near  Li^ge,  human 
bones  intermixed  with  rude  implements  of  stone  and  the  remains  of  extinct  ani- 
mals, such  as  the  rhinoceros,  the  mammoth,  &c. ;  even  the  discoverer  himself 
suggesting  that  it  was  possible  that  these  relics  might  have  been  floated  thither 
after  the  denudation  of  their  original  places  of  deposit.  It  was,  of  com-se,  a 
striking  circumstance  that  already  a  number  of  rude  implements  of  stone  had 
been  found  without  the  coincident  occurrence  of  human  remains;  whence  no  par- 
ticular significancy  was  attached  to  these  when  discovered,  and  many,  without 
troubling  themselves  with  further  investigation,  were  content  to  assira  them  to 
a  later  date  or  to  confound  them  with  what  they  were  pleased  to  call  sports  qf 
nature. 

Nevertheless  attention  had  become  more  strongly  excited,  and  similar  dis- 
coveries, especially  since  1840,  stimulated  further  inquiries.  Communications  to 
this  effect  <ud  not,  indeed,  at  once  receive  a  proper  appreciation,  but  finally  the 
grounds  of  proof  became  so  preponderant  that  all  objections  of  the  skeptical 
were  put  to  silence.  Meanwhile  the  proofs  have  continued  to  accumulate,  so 
that  at  length  there  remain  no  grounds  of  denying  that  man  was  an  inhabit- 
ant of  the  earth  at  the  same  time  with  the  gigantic  animals  of  the  quaternary 
period.  The  discoveries  of  late  years  enable  us  even  to  follow  the  human  race 
through  different  phases  of  improvement  during  the  prehistoric  era. 

At  the  commencement  of  the  quatemaiy  period  the  aapect  of  Europe,  as  far 
even  as  the  latitude  of  Sicily,  closely  resembled  that  of  the  polar  regions  of  to- 
day. The  entire  continent  was  wrapped  in  a  shroud  of  snowj  enormous  glaciers 
covered  the  whole  of  Iceland;  Scotland;  and  Scandinavia.    All  the  valleys  in 


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336     MAN  AS  THE  COTEMPOBABT  OF  THE  MAMMOTH 

the  Carpathian  mountains,  the  Balkan,  the  Pyrenees,  and  the  Apennines,  were 
filled  to  the  summit  with  ice.  From  the  peaks  of  the  Alps,  which  lose  them- 
selves in  dense  clouds,  descended  enormous  glaciers  which,  towards  the  south, 
stretched  into  the  plains  of  Piedmont  and  Lombardy,  as  yet  covered  by  the  sea, 
while,  towards  the  north,  another  glacier,  720  square  miles  in  extent  and  36 
miles  in  length,  reached  to  the  Jura.  The  European  continent,  however,  was, 
at  that  remote  period,  of  much  less  extent  than  at  present.  The  more  depressed 
parts  formel  then  the  bed  of  the  sea,  and  what  •was  not  covered  with  water  lay 
hidden,  during  the  long  winter,  under  the  enveloping  snow. 

In  the  wastes  of  ice  towards  the  north  pole  men  contrive  to  live,  but  we 
find  no  trace  of  them  in  Europe  at  the  time  we  are  speaking  of.  But  centuries 
elapsed,  the  snow  gradually  decreased,  the  glaciers  retreated  by  degrees,  as  did 
also  the  sea,  and  a  strange  fauna  occupied  Europe :  an  elephant  covered  with 
crisped  hair  and  having  a  long  mane,  a  rhinoceros  similarly  protected,  a  hippo- 
potamus which  must  have  immigrated  from  the  south  through  the  mouths  of  the 
rivers,  gigantic  bears,  a  large  kind  of  tiger,  multitudes  of  hyenas  of  still  exbting 
species,  a  huge  ox,  &c.  These  animals  subsisted  together  under  a  still  rude, 
but  less  austere  climate.  At  this  time,  also,  man  existed  in  Europe,  in  the  midst 
of  this  not  precisely  idyllic  fellowship ! 

Now,  the  question  is  this:  In  western  Europe  was  man  indigenous  or  had  ho 
migrated  from  Asia,  together  with  the  mammoth  and  rhinoceros  T  It  would  seem 
probable  that,  before  entering  Europe,  he  had  inhabited  Asia.  JPuring  the  great 
glacier  period,  the  climate  in  southern  Asia  was  less  severe  than  in  Europe,  and 
Siei-efore  better  fitted  for  the  sustenance  of  man,  whose  dental  system  more  nearly 
approaches  that  of  the  granivorous  than  that  of  the  carnivorous  tribes.  It  is, 
indeed,  believed  that,  during  the  glacier  period,  Europe  was  divided  from  Asia, 
and  that  the  two  continents  first  became  united  after  the  retreat  of  the  sea.  At 
that  time  also,  the  first  migration  of  mankind  to  the  west  must  have  taken  place, 
induced  by  the  desire  of  occupying  the  lands  which  had  newly  emerged  from  tho 
waters. 

In  what  light  shall  we  picture  to  ourselves  the  condition  of  these  ment 
The  oldest  implements  of  theirs  which  we  possess,  the  traces  of  the  heailhs 
which  served  them  to  cook  their  food,  certainly  do  not  reach  back  to  the  earliest 
tinies  of  the  existence  of  man  upon  the  earth.  However  our  pride  may  revolt 
at  the  fact,  we  aie  forced  to  acknowledge  that  man,  as  he  stepped  at  first  upon  this 
part  of  tho  earth,  boi*e,  in  his  instincts,  his  passions  and  his  wants,  no  small 
resemblance  to  the  brutes.  Fire  was  still  unknown  to  him ;  his  teeth  show 
that  he  drew  his  nourishment  from  roots  and  other  growths  of  the  soil,  and  when 
he  began  to  use  flesh  for  food  he  must  have  devoured  it  raw.  His  unsettled  life 
was  exclusively  devoted  to  satisfying  his  material  wants ;  no  idea  had  ho  of  any 
exalted  endowments ;  his  speech  would  consist  naturally  of  only  a  small  number 
of  words,  in  which,  as  is  the  case  with  the  bushmen  and  other  barbarous  tribesL 
the  vowels  played  a  prominent  part.  A  skin,  stripped  frx)m  tho  beasts  he  had 
slain,  formed  the  clothing  of  the  primeval  European ;  his  limbs  were  exposed  to  tho 
inclemencies  of  the  weather,  and  when  he  would  seek  rest  or  protection  from  tho 
cold  or  from  wild  animals,  his  necessary  resort  was  to  the  forest  or  to  dark  cavi- 
ties in  the  earth.  Yet,  in  spite  of  the  humble  stage  at  which  man  stood  in  this 
eaily  period  of  his  mundane  existence,  he  was  still  the  paragon  of  creation. 
He  was  gifted  with  reason,  and  this  invested  him  with  supremacy  over  the  beasts 
of  tho  wilderness. 

In  time,  by  means  of  the  lightning  and  volcano,  man  would  become  acquainted 
with  fire,  and  soon  recognizing  its  beneficial  activities  would  leani  to  preserve  it 
as  his  greatest  treasure.  Since  he  knew  not  as  yet  how  to  produce  it,  ho  would 
carefully  maintain  it  by  day  and  night.  Hence,  in  the  earliest  times,  fire  would 
naturally  become  the  object  of  peculiar  veneration.  It  must  also  have  exerted 
a  powerful  influence  on  the  conditions  of  human  exbtence.     To  the  roots  and 


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AND  THE  REINDEEB  IN  MIDDLE  EUROPE.  337 

ratiher  imsaTOiy  products  of  the  earth,  flesh  would  more  generally  succeed  as  a 
diet,  the  means  having  been  supplied  of  rendering  it  tender  and  digestible. 
Against  the  rigors  of  winter,  fire  offered  its  ready  and  invaluable  succor.  The 
continual  reassemblage  around  the  same  hearth  contributed  in  no  small  degree 
to  the  formation  of  the  family. 

At  this  geological  epoch  the  level  of  the  water  sank  more  and  more,  so  that 
the  submerged  lands  of  Europe  rose  gradually  above  the  sea.  The  glaciers 
melted  in  part,  and  at  that  time  the  valleys  began  to  exist.  The  part  borne  by 
the  sea  and  by  the  water  resulting  from  the  melting  glaciers  in  this  first  debacle, 
admits  of  no  accurate  determination.  From  this  period  proceed  also  the  deposits 
of  rounded  pebbles  which  cover  in  great  pait  different  regions  of  Europe. 
Another  phenomenon  stands  in  close  connection  with  these  great  cuirents  of 
water :  the  caves  were  emptied  of  the  clay  which  had  filled  them. 

Amidst  this  grand  melting  of  glaciers,  and  the  floods  thereby  occasioned,  the 
volcanoes  in  Auvergne  were  emitting  flames  and  lava.  Their  activity  was  wit- 
nessed by  human  beings,  who  became,  in  some  oases,  victims  to  their  violence, 
as  is  testified  by  the  human  remains  found  in  the  volcanic  tufa  of  Mount  Denise 
de  Yelais.  At  the  same  epoch,  herds  of  the  gigantic  manmioth  and  rhinoceros 
roamed  over  middle  Europe  and  central  Asia.  With  them  were  to  be  seen  also 
the  ^eat  bear  of  the  caves,  the  colossal  tiger,  hyenas,  the  horse,  and  the  larger 
ruminants.  Man  had  at  once  to  defend  himself  ag^nst  the  savage  animals  and 
to  hunt  them  as  the  means  of  his  own  subsistence. 

The  animals  which  existed  cotemporaneously  with  the  fossil  man  were,  accord- 
ing to  geological  researches,  the  following :  the  mammoth  {Elcphas  primigenitis, 
Blumenb.,)  tne  Siberian  rhinoceros  (Bhinoceros  tichorintiSf  Cuv.,)  the  hyena  of 
the  caves  (Hpttna  spelcea,  Gold.,)  the  tiger  of  the  caves  {Felis  speUea,  Gold.,) 
the  gigantic  deer  {Megaceros  hybrnikus^)  the  bear  of  the  caves  (Ursm  speUeus,) 
the  reindeer  {Certfus  taranduSy  Lin.,)  the  ure-ox  and  the  aurochs  (Bos  primige- 
nifis  and  Bison  eurcpcsuSy)  together  with  many  of  the  smaller  camivora,  insec- 
tivora,  rodentia,  &c.  These  animals,  now  in  great  part  extinct  or  confined,  like 
the  reindeer  and  bison,  to  certain  narrow  distncts,  lived,  probably,  thousands  of 
years  before  the  era  of  the  more  recent  pile-structures,  whose  occupants  have 
left  behind  them,  in  their  utensils  and  implements,  the  traces  of  an  unfolding 
civilization,  and  had  succeeded  in  domesticating  some  of  the  above  ^ecies. 

When  we  consider  that  the  early  men,  with  their  miserably  inadequate  weap- 
ons, were  called  upon  now  to  hunt  such  fierce  and  gigantic  creatures  as  game,  and 
now  to  contend  with  the  more  rapacious  of  them  for  their  own  lives  and  acqui- 
ations,  the  remark  of  Lyell  will  not  seem  overstrained^  that  it  is  truly  wonder- 
ful how  the  primitive  man  could  maintain  his  existence  in  the  presence  of  these 
formidable  adversaries.  But  it  must  be  remembered,  in  explanation  of  the  fact, 
that  in  the  case  of  these  remote  ancestors  of  ours,  as  in  that  of  the  rude  tribes 
of  the  present  day,  the  instincts  which  guide  even  the  beasts  were  developed  to 
a  high  degree  of  energy  and  cunning,  so  tl^t  it  would  be  practicable  for  them 
to  provide  for  their  necessities  and  ward  off  apprehended  dangers.  In  this,  the 
reflective  understanding  gave  even  to  the  earliest  of.  our  race  a  superiority  not 
to  be  undervalued^  over  the  brutal  force  of  the  lower  animals. 

The  power  of  endurance  acquired  by  a  life  in  the  open  air,  partly  in  the 
recesses  of  the  thick  forests,  partly  in  caves,  the  bodily  agility  and  dexterity  in 
the  use  of  their  certainly  very  primitive  weapons,  supplied,  especially  in  a  com- 
bined onset,  something  of  the  efficiency  of  our  fire-arms ;  and  the  exhausted 
and  incessantly  harassed  beasts  would  finally  become  the  prey  of  the  indefiati- 
gable  huntsman.  For,  that  our  earliest  predecessors  were  huntsmen  and  fisher- 
men, the  scanty  subsistence  afforded  by.  the  flora  of  that  ago  permits  us  not  to 
doubt.  Many  animals  would  be  captured  by  means  of  pitfalls,  as  is  now  the 
case  in  Afirica  and  other  regions.  On  the  other  hand,  we  see  that  the  Esqui- 
maux of  to-day,  seconded  only  by  their  faithful  dogs,  and  armed  merely  with 
22  8  67  r"  T 

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336     MAN  AS  THE  COTEMPORART  OF  THE  MAMMOTH 

harpoons  pointed  witb  fish-bone;  more  rarely  with  iron,  Buccessfolly  attack  the 
formidable  polar  bear ;  and  the  Indian  of  the  Rocky  moantains  shrinks  not  from 
an  encounter  with  the  fearf al  grizzly  bear,  and  proudly  wears  its  captured  claws  ma 
a  trophy  around  his  neck.  Witib  no  less  impunity  does  the  Hottentot  engage 
in  combat  with  the  lion,  the  rhinoceros,  &c. ;  for  artifice  and  perseverance  every- 
where secure  to  man  a  superiority  over  the  beasts  of  the  desert  and  forest. 

Before  those  whom  we  call  savasfes  had  come  into  contact  with  the  European, 
they  bore  as  weapons,  with  the  exception  of  the  North  Americans,  who  were 
already  in  possession  of  copper  hatchets  and  knives,  only  the  simple  bow  said 
arrow,  the  lance  and  javelin.  The  oldest  inhabitants  of  Europe  had  similar 
weapons  pointed  with  flint,  stone  hatchets,  such  as  are  now  in  use  in  Australia, 
poinards  of  bone  and  buck-horn,  lances,  clubs,  &c. ;  and  hence  weapons  of 
such  a  kind  as  are  now  effectually  managed  by  the  wilder  tribes  of  men.  No 
doubt  the  aborigines  of  old  had  not  less  Srill  in  the  handling  of  their  weq>on8 
than  is  now  witnessed  among  the  sava^  of  Africa,  America,  and  Australia ; 
and  thus  is  to  be  explained  the  possibibty  of  resistance  against  the  strongest 
animals,  though,  of  course,  the  conflict  of  man  with  the  latter  must  often  have 
resulted  disastrously  to  himself. 

The  expertness  of  the  uncivilized  races  in  the  use  of  their  weapons  is,  if  the 
reports  of  travellers  may  be  believed,  something  truly  wonderful.  Thu^  for 
example,  the  Indian  of  North  America  transfixes  with  his  arrows,  at  surprising 
distances,  a  horse  or  even  buffalo ;  and  a  like  skill  was  displayed  by  those 
natives  of  Cape  York,  in  Australia,  who  were  brought  to  England  in  1853. 
They  were  able,  without  taking  deliberate  aim,  to  strike  with  their  javelins,  at 
a  distance  of  20  paces  and  with  invariable  success,  a  small  object  fastened  to  a 
stick.  Captain  Gay  relates  that  the  Australians  generally  are  secure  of  killiiig 
a  bird  at  the  same  distance,  and  Starbridge  informs  ns  that  the  natives  of  Vic- 
toria dive,  with  spear  in  hand,  into  the  river  Murray,  and  never  return  without 
having  timisfixed  a  fish.  Certain  tribes  of  Patagonians  live  almost  solely  on  fish 
which,  in  diving,  they  sometimes  take  with  the  hands,  or  capture  from  the  shore 
by  means  of  wooden  spears,  like  the  Indians  of  California.  The  dexterity  of  the 
South  Sea  islanders  in  the  water  is  such  that,  descending  among  the  coral  reefis, 
they  thrust  the  fore  finger  into  the  eyes  of  any  fish  they  have  marked  for  prey, 
and  thus  bring  it  to  land.  The  natives  of  Tierra  del  Pnego  display  singular 
:  skill  in  hurling  stones,  and  not  less  the  Hottentot  in  the  use  of  his  n£um- 
.  stick,  a  missile  with  which  he  dispatches  the  feebler  species  of  animals  at  a  dis- 
tance of  from  30  to  50  yards.  The  address  of  the  semi-barbarous  Guachos  of 
:  South  America  in  the  use  of  the  lasso  is  well  known ;  nor  is  the  Patagonian 
less  adroit  with  his  bolas,  by  means  of  which  he  throttles  the  puma  or  American 
lion  before  dispatching  him.  The  Esquimaux  also  avail  themselves,  for  the 
capture  of  birds,  of  a  thong  contrived  on  the  principle  of  the  bolas ;  it  is  a  thin 
strap  of  leather,  loaded  at  the  end  with  a  lK)ne-knob,  as  the  bolas  is  with  a 
stone- weight,  to  facilitate  its  being  wound  around  the  neck  of  the  bird  at  which 
it  is  cast. 

The  boomerang  of  the  Australians  is  an  instrument  for  hurling,  which  was 
long  ago  in  use  by  the  ancient  fowlers  of  Egypt.  Many  of  the  peculiarly 
formed  stone  implements  of  the  oldest  stone  period  may  well  be  supposed  to 
have  served  chiefly  as  missiles,  just  as  similar  ones,  made  of  iron,  are  employed 
lin  Africa;  for  instance,  the  lissam  or  crooked  club  of  the  negroes  of  central 
Africa,  and  the  analogous  hungamunga  of  the  Tibboos,  in  the  southeastern  part 
of  the  Sahara.  It  cannot  be  doubted  that  the  effectiveness  of-  a  skilfully  thrown 
club  or  stone  is  little  less  than  that  of  one  of  iron.  It  is  therefore  by  no  means 
necessary  to  assume  that  the  aborigines  of  the  earliest  times  must  have  wielded 
very  heavy  weapons,  for  it  would  appear,  from  what  has  been  said,  that  those 
already  found  would  have  qualified  their  possessors  to  cope  even  with  the  colos- 
sal beasts  of  that  remote  era.    Besides  that  the  more  ponderous  animals  would 


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AND  THE  REINDEEB  IN   MIDDLE  EDBOPE.  339 

be  mostly  captured  by  pitfialls,  it  bas  been  seen  that  the  American  Indian  pur- 
sues the  buffalo  of  his  hunting-grounds  with  proportionably  feeble  weapons,  and 
that  a  single  Esquimaux  will  enter  into  conflict  with  the  polar  bear  when  armed 
only  with  his  lance.  Among  the  Tschutksches,  who  inhabit  the  northeastern 
angle  of  Siberia  as  far  as  the  Arctic  ocean  and  Behiing's  straits,  even  boys  of 
frcNOd  12  to  14  years  attack  the  bears  with  spears  Ave  feet  long,  and  succeed  in 
IdUing  them. 

Opportunity  is  constantly  afforded  us  of  witnessing  what  can  be  performed 
by  the  ruder  races  of  mankind  with  their  simple  implements.  Stone  knives  of 
obsidian,  for  instance,  are  not  uncommon  in  Mexico,  and  in  certain  cases  they 
are  even  preferred  to  those  of  iron.  We  are  told  by  Greton  that  the  Damaras 
dismember  without  difficulty  the  lafgest  animals,  elephants  and  giraffes,  by 
means  of  the  poorest  instruments — ^thin  pieces  of  iron  fixed  in  a  short  handle — 
while  he  himself  could  scarcely  even  pierce  their  hides  with  European  knives  of 
the  best  quality.  The  Caffires  show  remarkable  skill  in  striking  an  object  with 
their  peculiar  missile  at  a  distance  of  20  or  30  paces.  In  doing  this,  they  seize 
the  assagay  between  the  thumb  and  upper  finger  joint,  the  point  in  firont ,  raise 
the  hand  to  the  level  of  the  shoulder,  not  higher ;  draw  the  arm  back  and  con- 
trive, by  striking  the  shaft  against  the  wrist,  to  give  it  a  vibratory  motion  from 
point  to  butt,  hurl  it  with  great  force,  and  the  weapon,  still  vibrating  during  its 
passage  through  the  air,  seldom  fails  of  attaining  its  aim.  To  the  same  effect 
may  be  cited  their  knob-kerris,  sticks  of  an  inch  in  diameter  and  four  feet  long, 
teraiinating  in  a  large  round  knob.  These  are  usually  cut  from  the  off-shoots 
of  the  wild  olive  tree,  and  are  employed  by  the  Caffires  in  hunting  wild  beasts 
or  destroying  serpents.  For  this  purpose  they  lay  hold  of  the  shaft  of  the 
weapon,  measure  with  the  eye  the  distance  of  the  object,  and  throw  the  stick  in 
such  a  manner  that,  circling  in  the  air,  the  thinner  end  shall  strike  the  ground 
a  few  feet  from  the  point  aimed  at,  and  the  knob  fall,  in  the  rebound,  directly 
on  the  victim.  Equipped  with  such  slight  arms  as  these  the  Gaffie  seems  insen- 
sible to  danger,  and  war  has  shown  that,  in  bush-fighting,  the  best  English  troops 
are  scarcely  a  match  for  him. 

We  aiBj  of  course,  not  in  a  position  to  pronounce  with  certainty  in  what  inan- 
ner  the  primitive  man  hunted  those  animals  of  which  we  have  been  speaking. 
Had  he  been  in  possession  of  more  formidable  weapons  than  have  been  as  yet 
reoognized,  it  is  hardly  possible  but  that  some  of  them  would  have  been  found. 
Bat  that  the  animals  in  question  existed  as  cotemporaries  of  man,  and  served 
him  for  sustenance,  has  been  placed  beyond  a  doubt,  and,  in  his  encounters  with 
them,  the  primitive  weapons  of  stone  which  have  been  already  discovered  will 
appear  to  have  been  no  such  mean  auxiliaries,  when  we  consider  the  effects  pro- 
daoed  by  the  analogous  and  simple  instruments  wielded  by  the  uncivilized  tiibes 
of  the  present  day. 

This  contest  with  the  untamed  aiumals  gave  the  first  impulse  to  an  industrial 
activity  amon^  men.  Before  all  else  the  preparation  of  weapons  was  to  be 
thought  of.  Metals  were  then  unknown,  and  men  seized  upon  stone,  especially 
that  known  as  ffint,  whose  aptitude  for  piercing  or  cutting  was  easily  recognized. 
From  this  hatchets  and  the  points  of  lances  were  formed  and  fitted  to  wooden 
handles.  The  insufficiency  of  these  weapons  led  to  progressive  adaptations. 
The  beasts  might  fly,  and  must  be  overtaken  by  missiles  j  hence  the  javelin. 
The  fugitive  beasts  are  not  in  this  way  easily  reached  j  a  step  in  advance,  there- 
fcwe,  was  the  bow,  which  sends  the  arrow  to  a  greater  distance.  The  idea  of 
this  was  found  in  nature :  man  had  before  his  eyes  the  curvature  of  branches  of 
trees  by  parasitic  vines,  and  witnessed  the  elastic  force  thereby  developed.  The 
cord  of  the  first  bows  was  supplied  by  strips  cut  with  sharp  stones  from  the 
hides  of  animals,  and  the  arrow  was  equipped  at  one  end  with  a  point  carefully 
wrought  from  flint.  Stimulated  by  his  necessities  man  would  soon  learn  to 
resort  to  ambush  and  other  stratagems,  and,  gradually  emboldened  by  success. 


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340  MAN   AS   THE  COTEMPORARY  OF  THE  MAMMOTH 

he  would  no  longer  fear  to  attack,  oven  with  his  rode  and  imperfect  weapons, 
the  mightiest  denizens  of  the  wild — ^the  mammoth,  the  rhinoceros,  and  the  bear ; 
nor  was  it  seldom  that  these  fearful  enemies  fell  before  his  prowess  or  his  craft. 
The  sedimentary  deposits  of  this  era  contain  numerous  evidences  of  the 
industry  of  these  first  men,  together  with  their  own  bones.  The  celebrated  di&- 
coveries  in  the  neighborhood  of  Abbeville,  which  we  chiefly  owe  to  the  assiduous 
researches  of  Boucher  de  Perthes,  have  furnished  so  many  contributions  to  onr 
knowledge  that  we  can  now  fiffm-e  to  ourselves  an  image  of  those  far  remote  and 
obscure  centuries  during  which  mankind  lived  in  caves  of  the  earth,  and  merely- 
added  to  the  stock  of  their  implements  by  the  employment  of  the  bones  of  wild 
animals  in  addition  to  the  use  of  flint. 

The  few  very  ancient  skulls  hitherto  found  authorize  us  to  speak  only  with 
ffreat  reserve  of  the  type  of  the  races  of  men  existing  at  that  remote  period. 
The  skull  discovered  in  a  cavern  of  the  Neanderthal,  near  Dllsseldorf,  exhibits 
an  unusual  thickness.  The  projection  of  the  supra-orbital  ridges  is  enormously 
great,  the  forehead  narrow  and  very  low.  The  development  of  the  brain  was 
slight,  and  similar  to  that  of  certain  Australians.  Carl  Vogt  is  of  opinion  that 
this  skull  and  that  found  by  Schmerling  in  the  cavern  of  Engis,  near  Li^ge,  are 
remains  of  a  race  no  longer  existing  in  Europe.  But  scattered  discoveries  like 
these  scarcely  entitle  us  to  such  positive  conclusions;  it  were  well  to  await  further 
revelations  before  resigning  ourselves  to  any  settled  determination  on  this  point. 
The  size  of  the  men  of  that  distant  date  was  not  greater  but  rather  less  than  at 
present,  notwithstanding  the  belief  so  generally  prevalent  that  in  prehistoric  times 
our  earth  was  inhabited  by  a  race  of  giants.  For  the  origin  of  this  belief  we 
must  look  to  the  large  elliptical  mounds  which  occur  in  certain  districts,  the 
so-called  graves  of  the  giants,  in  which  are  found  in  great  numbers  implements 
and  weapons  of  stone,  indicating  that  these  graves  belong  to  a  far-distant  age  and 
were  receptacles  for  the  dead  bodies  of  a  primitive  people.  These  graves  are 
sometimes  more  than  a  hundred  feet  long,  so  that,  in  comparison,  our  modem 
sepulchres  are  mere  molehills.  But  it  is  an  error,  from  the  magnitude  of  the  graves 
to  infer  that  of  the  bodies  deposited  therein.  As  the  dead,  at  the  epoch  in  ques- 
tion, were  buried,  at  least  in  part,  without  previous  incineration,  tolerably  well 
preserved  skeletons  have  been  obtained  from  the  tombs,  and  these  skeletons 
evdnce  that,  so  far  from  being  the  remains  of  giants,  they  are  those  of  a  race 
inferior  in  stature  to  the  ordinary  proportions  of  the  Caucasian.  The  affe  to  which 
these  gigantic  tombs  are  to  be  assigned  cannot  be  exactly  determined.  Nor  should 
we  be  justified  in  assuming  that  those  who  were  deposited  in  them  belonged  to 
the  earliest  race  of  men  who  inhabited  Europe  after  the  disappearance  of  the  icy 
investiture  which,  in  the  judgment  of  the  most  recent  and  judicious  inquirers, 
WTapped  that  continent  almost  from  side  to  side  at  the  beginning  of  the  present 
geological  era ;  for  the  implements  of  stone  so  commonly  found  in  the  tombs 
bear  witness  to  a  considerable  degree  of  skill,  while  the  tombs  themselves  show 
that  the  builders  had  made  no  contemptible  progress  in  that  branch  of  mechanics 
which  is  occupied  with  the  management  of  heavy  masses. 

The  strong  projection  of  the  superciliary  ridge  may  possibly  be  a  consequence 
of  the  manner  of  life  led  by  these  cave-dwellers.  They  must  need  be  always  on 
the  luok-out  against  the  beasts  of  which  they  were  in  fear,  or  searching  anxiously 
for  such  as  it  was  their  business  to  capture  for  food.  By  this  incessant  effort  of 
visual  attention,  the  muscles  of  the  part  in  question  would  become  dispropor- 
tionately developed,  and  the  physiognomy  be  impressed  with  a  peculiarly  wild 
and  fiexf.j  aspect. 

Wer  J  the  men  of  that  distant  time  cannibals  ?  The  question  scarcely  admits 
of  being  positively  answered.  In  Scotland,  different  skulls  have  been  found,  of 
which  some  bear  a  resemblance  to  those  of  the  ancient  Britons,  others  to  those 
of  the  Australians.  Together  with  these  have  been  discovered  bones  of  chil- 
dren which,  according  to  Owen,  bear  upon  them  the  traces  of  human  teeth.    Inter- 


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AND   THE   REINDEER  IN   MIDDLE   EUROPE.  341 

mingled  with  these  remains,  arrow-heads  of  flint  occur  and  pottery  of  a  veiy  nide 
description.  Spring,  who  carefully  examined  the  bones  of  children  which  were 
found  in  Belgium,  in  the  grotto  of  Chauveau,  also  arrived  at  the  conclusion  that 
they  were  the  remains  of  a  repast  made  by  cannibals.  The  proof  offered  by 
these  facts,  however,  is  not  of  a  convincing  kind ;  on  the  contrary,  it  has  been 
met  by  strong  objections.  If  men  in  the  quaternary  period  devoured  their  fel- 
low-creatures, it  is  difficult  to  suppose  that  the  marrow  of  the  bones  would  not  be 
a  delicacy  as  eagerly  sought  as  was  that  of  the  beasts  slain  in  the  chase.  But 
no  human  bones  are  found  which  have  been  opened  in  such  a  way  as  to  extract 
this  much-coveted  substance,  while  everywhere  occur  in  abundance  the  bones  of 
mammalian  animals  which  have  been  evidently  fractured  for  that  purpose. 

A  question  has  been  suggested  by  Horn  whether  the  marrow  of  the  longer 
bones  of  animals  served  the  primeval  men  simply  and  solely  as  nourishment  f 
It  may  have  been  used  also  for  anointing  the  body,  as  well  for  protection  against 
noxious  insects  as  against  cold.  Nor  is  it  unlikely  that  one  of  its  economical 
uses  may  have  been  for  rendering  more  pliant  the  skins  which  served  for  cloth- 
ing. As  an  article  of  food  the  marrow  must  have  been  devoured  raw,  for  most 
of  the  bones  show  that  they  have  undergone  no  action  from  fire.  Indeed,  dur- 
ing the  earliest  stage  of  man's  existence  in  Europe,  fire  would  seem  to  have  been 
mi^nown  for  any  such  purpose,  as  were  also  vessels  artificially  made  of  earth ; 
and  if  the  marrow  was  to  be  melted  for  the  processes  just  lAentioned,  it  could  only 
bo  effected  by  the  heat  of  the  sun  and  in  cavities  of  the  rocks. 

It  has  been  remarked  that  in  the  bones  of  the  human  jaw  which  have  come 
down  to  us  from  the  stUl  more  recent  age  of  stone,  the  incisor  teeth  are  greatly 
worn.  Hence  it  has  been  hastily  inferred  that  flesh  was  then  eaten  imcooked ; 
but  this  view  is  in  conflict  with  the  discovery  of  charcoal  under  circumstances 
which  imply  the  former  existence  of  a  hearth ;  nor  is  it  to  be  supposed  that,  after 
having  learned  the  economical  uses  of  fire,  men  would  continue  to  devour  their 
food  raw.  The  abrasion  of  the  incisors  might  perhaps  proceed  from  a  peculiar 
mode  of  mastication.  At  this  day  the  Esquimaux  are  said  to  use  the  front  rather 
than  the  molar  teeth  in  manducating  food. 

The  caverns  in  which  at  that  remote  era  the  bear,  the  tiger,  and  the  hyena 
found  a  lair,  are  easily  distinguishable  from  those  selected  by  man  as  a  habita- 
tion. In  the  former,  the  bones  which  occur  are  unbroken;  they  bear  merely  the 
traces  of  having  been  gnawed  by  carnivorous  beasts.  In  the  haunts  of  the  human 
being,  on  the  contrary,  the  bones  are  always  broken  in  the  direction  of  their  length, 
for  the  purpose  of  extracting  the  marrow.  Ou  r  primitive  ancestors  devoured  indis- 
criminately the  horse,  the  ox,  the  bear,  the  tiger,  and  even  the  rhinoceros,  pro- 
vided the  chase  was  successful.  If  the  mammoth  fell  into  their  hands,  the  thick 
integument  of  the  animal  must  indeed  have  been  a  prize  for  their  rude  dormito- 
ries. 

This  first  ago  of  man  must  doubtless  have  comprised  thousands  of  years.  We 
know  how  slow  has  been  the  development  of  the  human  race,  and  from  the  con- 
fflderation  that  each  generation  stands  on  the  shoulders  of  the  preceding  and  civil- 
izcUion  is  but  the  product  of  the  past,  wo  can  readily  apprehend  that  the  process 
of  improvement  must  have  been  tardy  and  difficult  in  proportion  to  the  distance 
of  time  which  separates  us  from  the  period  under  contemplation.  Accelemted 
progress  comes  only  with  the  experience  and  facilities  of  multiplied  years.  Long 
must  have  been  the  ages  when  man's  life  was  but  a  struggle  for  existence  and 
for  the  bare  satisfaction  of  the  meaner  necessities  of  his  nature.  Discoveries 
have  been  too  few  and  indecisive  to  afford  us  any  distinct  image  of  the  habits 
and  mode  of  life  which  characterized  this  primordial  condition  of  our  race ;  but 
it  is  gratifying  to  add  that  a  discovery  has  at  length  been  made  which  s^ms  to 
lead  m  that  direction,  and  which  is  the  more  important  inasmuch  as  it  has  given 
a  renewed  impulse  to  explorations  of  the  same  kind. 

In  the  year  1852,  a  laborer,  named  Bonnemaison,  employed  in  repairing  the 


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342  MAN   AS   THE   COTEMPORARY   OF   THE   MAMMOTH 

roads  near  Aiirignac,  in  the  department  of  the  Upper  Garonne,  observed  that 
rabbits  when  pursued  took  refuge  in  a  hole  on  the  slope  of  a  hill  in  the  vicinity. 
Into  this  hole  he  thrust  his  arm,  and,  to  his  surprise,  drew  forth,  not  a  rabbit,  but 
one  of  the  lonff  bones  of  a  human  skeleton.  Proceeding  to  dis:  into  the  hill,  he 
encountered  a  largo  flat  stone  standing  erect  and  closing  a  cavity  into  which  the 
rabbits  had  wrought  an  entrance.  When  Bonnemaison  had  removed  the  stone, 
he  saw  before  him  a  natural  cavern  wherein  lay  not  less  than  17  human  skele- 
tons. The  discovery  naturally  caused  a  sensation  in  the  neighborhood,  and  unfor- 
tunately the  mayor  of  Aurignac,  Dr.  Amiel,  felt  himself  bound  in  duty  to  have 
these  human  remains  transferred  to  the  churchyard  and  again  buried.  Not  the 
fcilightest  misgiving  seems  for  a  moment  to  have  been  entertained  by  this  conscien- 
tious functionary  that  he  was  wresting  ftx)m  science  an  invaluable  treasure.  When 
Lartet  visited  Aurignac,  eight  years  later,  and  heard  of  this  interesting  discovery, 
no  one,  not  even  the  grave-digger,  could  point  out  the  spot  where  the  skeletons 
had  been  interred.  Thus  this  lich  harvest  of  ethnological  knowledge  seems  for- 
ever lost  to  the  antiquary  and  geologist. 

Lartet  nevertheless  failed  not  to  visit  the  cavern,  and  to  institute  further 
researches.  The  rubbish  which  for  hundreds  or  thousands  of  years  had  been 
descending  from  the  summit  of  the  hill  had  buried  the  stone  by  which  the  mouth 
of  the  grotto  was  closed,  and  had  also  covered  a  small  terrace  which  existed  in 
front  of  it.  These  accumulations  being  removed,  the  original  surface  was  again 
exposed  to  view,  and  upon  this  were  found  a  number  of  calcareous  stones,  the 
remains  of  an  ancient  hearth,  as  well  as  the  bones  of  many  different  animal  sand 
objects  of  human  industiy.  In  the  bed  of  earth  which  covered  the  floor  of  the 
grotto  were  found  bones  of  the  cave  bear,  the  aurochs,  the  hoi^se,  the  reindeer, 
&c.,  which  had  been  neither  broken  nor  gnUwed,  and,  besides  these,  instruments 
of  flint-stone,  a  weapon  constructed  of  the  antlers  of  the  reindeer  which  had  been 
sharpened  at  one  end,  together  with  18  small  disks  formed  of  a  white  shelly  sub- 
stance and  perforated  through  the  middle.  These  last  were  recognized  as  being 
derived  from  shells  of  a  cockle  (Cardium)  which  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  ocean. 

The  bones  found  on  the  terrace  before  the  grotto  had  all  been  fractured,  as  if 
to  lay  bare  the  enclosed  marrow.  Still  distinctly  to  be  traced  were  the  notches 
made  by  the  stone  hatchets  or  knives  which  had  been  used  to  detach  the  flesh, 
as  well  as  marks  of  the  teeth  of  the  hyenas  which  had  resorted  hither  during  the 
night  to  feast  on  what  remained  of  the  spoils.  Even  the  excrements  of  these 
wild  animals  were  still  distinguishable.  Some  of  the  bones  bore  traces  also  of 
having  been  submitted  to  the  action  of  fire.  The  list  of  the  animals  to  which 
the  bones  pertained  was  by  no  means  a  brief  one.  Among  extinct  species  were 
recognized  the  mammoth,  the  rhinoceros,  the  gigantic  deer,  the  great  bear  and 
tiger  and  hyena  of  the  caves;  among  those  still  existing,  the  aurochs, the  horse, 
the  ass,  the  stag,  the  reindeer,  the  roe,  the  wild  boar,  the  wolf,  the  fox,  the  badger, 
and  the  polecat. 

The  objects  of  human  art  and  industry  found  in  front  of  the  OTotto  were  very 
numerous.  Sharpened  instruments  of  flint,  mostly  knives,  were  iliscovered  to  the 
amount  of  not  fewer  than  a  hundred,  and,  mingled  with  them  what  appeared 
to  be  missiles  intended  for  the  sling.  The  circumstance  that  these  objects 
were  accompanied  by  cores  or  nuclei  of  flint,  the  material  from  which  they  were 
made,  would  seem  to  indicate  that  some  of  them  had  been  manufactured  at  this 
spot.  Other  objects  also  were  found  in  considerable  number,  wrought  of  bone, 
and  especially  of  the  antlers  of  the  reindeer,  such  as  points  for  arrows  witliout 
baibs,  a  shape  with  which  we  become  familiar  at  a  later  age ;  a  bodkin  formed 
of  the  more  compact  bone  of  the  roedeer  and  sharply  pointed,  so  as  to  be  well 
suited  for  piercing  the  hides  of  animals  in  sewing  them  together;  and  still  another 
of  smaller  size,  provided  with  a  very  sharp  point,  which  had  probably  been 
employed  for  tattooing.  Many  flat  pieces  of  reindeer's  horn,  polished  on  lH>th 
sides,  closely  resemble,  according  to  Steinhauer.  of  the  museum  of  antiquities  at 


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AND  THE  REINDEER  IN  MIDDLE  EUROPE  343 

Copenhagen,  certain  implements  still  in  use  among  the  Laplanders  for  pressing 
the  rough  seams.  Another  plate  of  the  same  substance  exhibits  on  one  side 
many  transverse  lines  ti'aced  at  equal  distance  from  each  other,  and  inteiTiipted 
in  the  middle  so  as  to  form  two  rows.  On  both  faces  of  the  plates  are  notches 
cut  still  deeper  than  the  lines,  but  also  at  equal  intervals.  May  not  these  have 
been  counters  for  marking  the  values  of  different  objects,  or,  as  Steinhauer  con- 
jectures, memorials  of  the  chase  t  Finally,  a  fang  of  the  cave  hcarjfUrsus  spe- 
Utus,J  perforated  lengthwise,  as  if  for  suspension  as  an  ornament  or  amulet, 
affords  us  rather  an  elaborate  work  of  men's  hands,  a  primitive  attempt  of  art  to 
imitate  the  animal  form,  being  carved  into  the  rude  likeness  of  the  head  of  a 
bird. 

It  is  not  without  interest  to  remark  that  the  bones  of  the  carnivorous  animals 
found  around  the  hearth  were  entire,  and  showed  no  mark  proceeding  from  the 
use  of  the  flint  knives.  Even  the  hyenas  appear  to  have  i-eiected  them.  The 
bones  which  had  been  opened  and  were  gnawed,  belonged  especially  to  the 
aurochs,  (Bison  europcsusj  the  reindeer,  and  the  horse.  The  skulls  of  these 
animals  were  wanting ;  probably  they  had  been  broken  to  pieces  in  order  to  come 
at  tho  brain,  and  the  fragments  thrown  into  the  valley.  Pallas  tells  us  that,  at 
this  day,  the  Samoeides  eat  the  brain  and  marrow  of  the  reindeer  raw. 

From  the  above  facts  Lartet  has  drawn  the  following  conclusions :  The  burial- 
place  of  Aurignac  reaches  back  to  the  highest  antiquity  mi  our  race  j  a  proof  of 
this  is  furnished  by  the  fauna  found  on  tne  site,  and  which  in  part  has  long  dis- 
appeared from  the  earth.  The  depth  of  the  layer  of  ashes,  as  well  as  the  great 
number  of  animal  bones,  show  that,  in  front  of  this  grotto  funeral  feasts  were 
held,  and  that  it  has  been  opened  at  different  times  to  receive  new  bodies,  until 
the  cavity  was  filled.  On  the  other  hand,  the  uninjured  bones  found  in  the  interior 
of  the  cave  evince  that  offerings  have  been  here  consecrated  to  the  dead.  The 
various  implements  were  deposited  that  the  deceased  might  avail  themselves 
thereof  on  entering  upon  another  life ;  a  custom  which  we  know  to  be  still  in  use 
among  various  uncivilized  tribes.  The  carnivorous  animals  which  man  seems 
not  to  have  eaten  may,  by  means  of  their  skins  or  in  some  other  manner,  have 
borne  a  part  in  these  primitive  rights  of  sepulture. 

The  absence  of  all  traces  of  pottery  is  a  further  proof  of  the  very  remote  anti- 
quity of  the  human  remains  here  discovered.  We  see,  however,  that,  even  at  that 
distant  time,  man  was  not  destitute  of  a  certain  degree  of  practical  skill.  Already 
there  are  instruments  of  hom,  and  the  bodkin  in  particular  was  not  ill  adapted 
for  sewing  together  the  skins  which  protected  the  person  from  thorns  as  well  as 
cold.  Nay,  the  rude  inhabitant  aspired  to  some  amount  of  luxury,  though,  it 
must  be  confessed,  of  a  very  primitive  sort.  The  disks  pierced  in  the  middle 
must  have  served  to  form  either  an  armlet  or  necklace,  and  in  the  bear's  fauff 
above  spoken  of  we  have  perhaps  the  oldest  monument  of  art  which  has  descended 
to  us  from  its  earliest  infancy. 

When  Bonnemaison,  the  laborer  who  discovered  the  grotto,  first  entered  it, 
there  were  within  it  several  entire  skulls.  According  to  the  recollection  of  Dr. 
Amiel,  who  counted  the  bodies,  the  remains  were  those  of  a  race  under  the  nver- 
a^  size,  and  the  skulls  were  brachycephalio  or  round,  which  accords  with  tho 
discoveries  made  at  Moulin  Quimon,  and  in  other  caverns.  A  human  maxillary 
bone  found  by  Lartet,  imbedded  in  the  loose  soil  within  the  grotto,  points  also  to 
the  same  inferiority  of  stature. 

In  reference  to  these  discoveries  Sir  Charles  Lyell  expresses  himself  in  the 
following  manner : 

If  the  fossil  memorials  of  Aurignac  have  been  correctly  interpreted — ^if  we  have  here  before 
Its  at  the  northern  base  of  the  Pyrenees  a  sepalchral  vault  with  skeletons  of  hnmau  beingrs, 
consigned  by  friends  and  relatives  to  their  last  resting  place — if  we  have  also  at  the  portal 
of  the  tomb  the  relics  of  funeral  feasts,  and  within  it  maications  of  viands  destined  u>r  the 
use  of  the  departed  on  their  way  to  a  land  of  spirits — while  among  the  funeral  gifts  are 
weapons  wherewith  in  other  fields  to  chase  the  gigantic  deer,  the  cave  Hon,  the  cave  bear 


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344     MAN  AS  THE  COTEMPORART  OF  THE  MAMMOTH 

and  wooUj  rhinoceros — we  have  at  last  succeeded  in  tracing  back  the  sacred  rites  of  burial, 
and,  more  interesting  still,  a  belief  in  a  future  state,  to  times  long  anterior  to  those  of  history 
and  tradition. 

It  may  perhaps  seem  strange  that  this  depository  of  the  dead  at  Auriffnao 
should  have  been  preserved  for  us  so  many  thousands  of  years,  and  not  nave 
been  swept  away  by  the  diluvial  cataclysms.  But  when  it  is  considered  that, 
excepting  at  certain  points  where  the  upheaval  of  the  soil  has  been  distinctly 
ascertained,  the  height  of  these  inundations  over  the  regions  in  question  has  not 
exceeded  600  to  750  feet,  it  is  clear  that  the  grotto  of  Aurignac,  which  has  an 
elevation  of  1,290  feet,  was  beyond  their  reach.  There  are  various  other  cav- 
erns, moreover,  in  which  proof  exists  of  the  cotemporaneous  existence  of  man  and 
extinct  animals  of  the  quaternary  period.  In  a  general  point  of  view,  these 
caverns  may  be  divided  into  three  groups,  those  which  have  been  inhabited  by 
men,  those  which  have  served  as  burial  places,  and  those  which  have  formed  the 
lair  of  the  greater  carnivorous  animals.  These  last  contain  numerous  bones,  the 
remains  of  the  prey  dragged  thither  by  such  wild  beasts  as  the  tiger,  the  hyena, 
and  the  bear.  The  bones  are  gnawed,  never  split  lengthwise,  nor  do  any  traces 
occur  which  would  point  to  the  presence  of  the  human  race.  The  caverns,  on 
the  other  hand,  which  have  formed  the  habitations  of  man  ai*e  readily  to  be  dis- 
tinguished,  even  in  the  absence  of  human  remains,  by  the  existing  bones  being 
cleft  lengthwise  in  the  manner  which  was  uniformly  employed  to  get  at  the  mar- 
row. In  certain  caverns  are  found  one  or  more  overlying  strata  containing 
remains  and  corresponding  to  different  epochs.  The  grottoes  which  have  served 
as  burial  places  are  usually  small,  and  entered  by  a  narrow  passage,  so  as  to  be 
readily  closed  by  a  flat  stone  in  order  to  protect  the  dead  bodies  from  the  rapacity 
of  hyenas  and  other  carnivorous  animals. 

It  is  easily  conceived  that  many  caverns  exist  which  do  not  fall  within  either 
of  these  three  classes.  Some  of  them,  which  have  two  entrances,  may  have  been 
emptied  of  their  contents  by  floods,  or  been  completely  filled  up  with  mud  and 
rubbish.  Others  have  been  inhabited  by  man,  after  having  been  previously- 
occupied  as  dens  by  wild  beasts.  Others  still  have  been  hollowed  out  by  men^ 
in  order  to  be  used  for  different  purposes.  In  the  latter,  as  in  those  exposed  to 
the  action  of  water,  much  circumspection  is  requisite  to  determine  the  age  of  the 
remains  which  are  found  therein. 

The  principal  caverns  pertaining  to  the  age  of  the  great  cave  bears  are  the 
following :  (1.)  The  grotto  of  Vallieres,  in  the  department  of  the  Loire  and 
Cher.  It  contains  bones  of  the  rhinoceros,  the  hyena,  the  gigantic  deer,  the 
bear,  the  aurochs,  a  horse,  (Equus  adamiticusj  mingled  with  stone  hatchets,  of 
the  kind  found  in  the  valley  of  the  Somme.  (2.)  The  grotto  of  Arcy-sur-Yonne. 
Under  a  more  recent  deposit  it  presents  two  strata  of  the  quaternary  period. 
Here  were  found  bones  of  the  elephant,  the  rhinoceros,  the  bear,  and  the  hyena, 
intermingled  with  stone  implements ;  also  the  two  branches  of  a  human  under 
jaw,  with  teeth  well  preserved.  (3.)  The  cave  of  Fontaine,  in  the  environs  of 
Toul,  containing  bones  of  the  beai*,  the  hyena,  and  the  rhinoceros,  as  well  as 
objects  of  human  industry,  including  a  needle  of  bone,  provided  with  an  eye. 
(4.)  The  cave  of  Pontil,  in  the  department  of  Herault.  It  contwns  a  lower  bed 
bearing  the  remains  of  the  large  extinct  animals,  and  an  upper  one  with  human 
remains,  charcoal,  and  implements  of  stone,  bone,  and  buckhom,  mingled  with 
the  bones  of  horses  and  bisons.  On  the  surface  have  been  collected  the  bones  of 
the  polecat,  together  ^vith  smooth  stone  hatchets,  and  objects  which  point  to  the 
age  of  bronze.  (5.)  The  grotto  of  Moustier,  in  the  district  of  Peyzac,  (Perigoixt) 
Here  were  presented  the  remjuns  of  the  cave  hyena,  the  great  bear,  and  scales 
of  the  molar  teeth  of  the  elephant,  such  as  were  found  at  Aurignac  and  other 
places  which  had  been  inhabited  by  men.  With  the  animal  remains  were  min- 
gled stone  implements  bearing  a  resemblance  to  those  found  at  Abbeville.  (6.) 
The  upper  grotto  of  Massat,  in  the  department  of  Ariege.  Here,  besides  many 
animal  bones,  have  been  recovered  two  human  teeth  and  an  ar^^^^^'^'^  ^xf  bone. 


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AND  THE  BEINDEEB  IN  MIDDLE  EUBOPE.  345 

The  caverns  in  which  sach  discoveries  have  been  made  are  not  confined  alone 
to  France ;  in  other  countries  revelations  of  the  same  kind  have  taken  place. 
Thus,  for  extfinple,  Colonel  Wood  has  brought  to  light,  in  the  cavern  of  Longhole, 
(England,)  the  remains  of  two  different  species  of  the  rhinoceros,  (Rhinoceros  ticluh 
rhinus  and  i?.  hemUoechus,)  together  with  knives  of  flint.  In  the  cave  of  Wells, 
in  Somersetshire,  in  the  Wokey  cave,  and  in  several  caverns  of  the  peninsula  ol 
Gower,  in  Wales,  bones  of  extinct  animals  have  been  found,  but  the  cotemporary 
presence  of  man  has  not  as  yet  been  substantiated.  The  celebrated  Gailenreu- 
ther  cave  in  Franconia  is  well  known  to  be  rich  in  remains  of  wild  animals.  The 
grotto  of  Chiango,  near  Vicenza,  and  that  of  Laglio,  on  the  shore  of  Lake  Como, 
contain  numerous  bones  of  cave  bears,  mixed  with  some  implements  and  the 
relics  of  rude  earthen-ware,  a  rare  contribution  from  so  remote  an  epoch  of  the 
haman  race.  In  Sicily  have  been  found,  in  the  grotto  of  Macagnome,  bones  ol 
the  El^has  antiquus,  a  cotemporary  of  man,  together  with  bones  of  other  beasts, 
and  the  remnants  of  human  industry.  Were  we  to  enumerate  all  the  caverns  of 
this  sort,  the  list  would  be  a  long  one.  We  find  such  in  all  parts  of  the  earth, 
and  it  is  not  seldom,  as  for  instance  in  Syria,  Brazil,  &c.,  that  they  afford  evidence 
of  the  cotemporary  existence  of  man  and  fossil  species.  Nor  are  the  discoveries 
which  prove  this  synchronism  of  man  with  the  great  extinct  mammalia  limited 
to  the  caves  alone.  The  valleys  of  the  Somme,  the  Thames,  &c.,  furnish  the 
traces  of  human  industry  in  the  form  of  implements  wrought  of  flint-stone,  in 
common  with  the  bones  of  the  mammoth  and  rhinoceros.  Especially  rich  are 
these  kinds  of  depositories  in  France,  Belgium,  and  England. 
'  But  how  was  it  that  man  and  these  great  mammalia  of  the  quaternary  era  pen- 
etrated to  England,  after  minting  from  the  north  of  Asia,  where  they  perhaps 
existed  at  the  pliocene  period  f  It  is  readily  seen  that  the  migrations  may  have 
taken  place  before  the  irruption  of  the  waters  into  the  En^sh  channel,  or  if 
later,  over  the  ice  of  the  frozen  sea,  for  the  winters,  at  the  date  of  the  upper  sili- 
cious  deposit  in  the  valley  of  the  Somme,  must  have  been  very  rigid. 

The  era  of  the  cave  bears  embraces  several  thousands  of  years.  During  this 
period  the  temperature  in  Europe  was  less  inhospitable,  but  on  the  approach  of 
the  epoch  known  as  that  of  the  reindeer  a  recurrence  of  intense  cold  must  have 
taken  place. 

It  is  now  some  30  years  since  the  statement  was  authoritatively  made  in 
Switzerland  that  the  glaciers  had,  at  a  geological  period  of  the  earth's  history 
which  can  scarcely  yet  be  considered  as  having  passed  away,  occupied  a  far 
wider  extent  than  at  present,  and  not  only  descended  to  the  level  country,  but 
piled  themselves  to  a  considerable  height  against  the  wall  of  the  Jum,  opposite 
to  the  Alps.  Regarded  at  flrst  by  the  older  geologists  as  a  rash  and  visionary 
hypothesis,  the  glacier  theory  has  continued  to  gain  ground,  basing  itself  on 
researches  restricted  to  no  latitudes,  but  laying  under  contribution  alike  the  north 
and  south,  the  mountains  and  the  valleys ;  so  that  in  these  later  times  its  most 
bigoted  adversaries  will  scarcely  venture  to  deny  that  it  has  always  followed 
with  scrupulous  steps  the  observation  of  facts,  and  has  never  accepted  anything 
as  proved  which  could  not  be  established  by  direct  reference  to  the  glaciers  ana 
arctic  seas  of  the  present  day. 

The  rocks  of  Norway  and  Sweden,  as  well  as  those  of  Iceland,  are  in  so  many 
places  rubbed  away,  scratched  and  furrowed,  that  it  may  with  certainty  be 
aasmned  that  the  agent  by  which  these  phenomena  were  produced  has  been  in 
operation  over  the  whole  region,  and  that  where  they  fail  to  appear  they  have 
been  obliterated  by  subsequent  influences,  particularly  elementary  abrasion. 
The  polished  and  furrowed  surfaces,  all  tending  in  a  certain  direction,  are  found 
at  a  height  of  5,000  feet  in  the  Norwegian  mountains,  so  that  few  peaks  and 
ridges  rise  above  the  level  of  the  phenomenon.  This  has  undoubtedly  greatly 
contributed  to  the  uniformity  of  outline  in  the  mountain  chains  of  Norway } 
while  in  the  Alps,  where  the  height  of  the  phenomenon  reaches  8,000  feet^  the 


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346     MAN  AS  THE  COTEBCPORABT  OF  THE  MAMMOTH 

nniformly  rounded  Bummits,  the  bellying  convexity,  as  it  is  called,  of  the  sur- 
face show  themselves  only  below  that  bmit,  and  above  it  first  commeDces  the 
peculiar  form,  the  individualizing  structure  which  gives  to  the  wBole  chain  so 
striking  and  sublime  an  ^ect. 

As  in  all  other  mountain  ranges,  these  scoured  and  furrowed  surfaces  stand 
here  in  the  most  exact  parallelism  with  the  heaps  of  gravel  and  sand,  as  well  as 
the  boulders,  which  occur  now  on  the  sides  and  now  on  the  beds  of  the  valleys, 
and  which  have  evidently  been  transported  from  far  distant  localities.  In  Scan- 
dinavia, equally  as  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Alps,  hundreds  of  places  can  be 
pointed  out  where  blocks  of  enormous  weight  and  magnitude  with  sharp  edges, 
and  which  can  therefore  by  no  possibility  have  been  rolled,  are  found  leagues 
away  from  their  place  of  ori^n  and  deposited  on  a  substratum  of  rock  widely 
differing  from  their  own  structure.  The  direction  of  the  furrows  and  striaa  on 
the  abnided  surfaces  accords  with  the  route  which  these  blocks  must  have  fol- 
lowed in  their  migratory  movement;  as  it  shows  also  the  points  from  which  the 
moving  force  derived  its  impulse. 

In  various  charts  the  observations  made  in  Scandinavia  and  Finland  respecting 
the  form  and  arrangement  of  these  abrasions  have  been  collected  and  compared. 
Conformable  for  the  most  part  with  the  direction  of  the  great  valleys  and  the 
general  slope,  the  highest  point  of  which  is  found  in  the  long  coast-chain  of 
Norway,  there  are  yet  points  where  isolated  mountain  summits  rise,  as  in  the 
Alps,  to  a  loftier  altitude,  and  from  these  the  traces  of  the  abrasion  radiate  into 
the  subjacent  valleys. 

From  a  collation  of  the  phenomena  under  consideration,  the  abraded  sur^Eices 
with  their  rounded  outlines  and  linear  furrowings,  the  angular  and  unworn 
erratic  rocks,  the  accumulations  of  gravel  and  sand  which  either  run  along  the 
sides  of  the  valleys  or  form  in  theur  beds  transverse  walls  or  ramparts,  convex  in 
the  direction  of  the  descending  slope,  there  caxi  be  no  longer  any  reasonable 
doubt  that  we  have  before  us  in  these  phenomena  the  work  of  glaciers — glaciers 
which  once  covered  all  the  surfaces  on  which  this  assembla^  of  phenomena  pre- 
sents itself,  and  which  therefore  overspread  as  with  a  contmuous  roof  of  ice  the 
whole  of  the  Scandinavian  peninsula  and  Finland. 

M.  Kjerulf,  of  Christiania,  calls  notice  very  justly  to  the  observations  of  Dr. 
Bink,  who  passed  several  years  in  Greenland  and  there  attentively  studied  the 
ice  envelope  of  the  interior  countiy.  A  continent  of  wide  dimennons,  not 
smaller  than  the  whole  Scandinavian  peninsula,  is  here  seen  covered  with  an 
enormous  ice-crust,  which  attains  a  height  of  1,000^  feet,  and  which  exhibits  a 
general  movement  from  the  interior  towards  the  western  coast.  Slowly  but 
steadily  does  this  mass,  bearing  its  adventitious  freight  of  rocks,  glide  downward 
to  the  sea,  where  it  breaks  off  in  immense  fragments ;  and  it  is  these  fragments 
which  as  icebergs,  often  of  colossal  size,  are  borne  by  the  ocean  currents  even  as 
far  as  the  latitude  of  the  Azores,  melting  away  CTsdually  in  then:  progress,  and 
depositing  their  rocky  burden  on  the  bottom  of  the  sea. 

.  Precisely  the  same  phenomenon  was  once  exhibited  in  Norway,  Sweden,  and 
Finland.  The  land  was  hidden  under  a  vast  covering  of  ice,  which  carried  down 
towards  the  sea  the  pebbles  and  ffravol,  or,  if  the  expression  may  be  allowed,  the 
emeiy  which  served  this  stupen£)us  polishing  apparatus  as  a  substratum.  The 
whole  mass  of  Norwegian  rock  was  worn  down  and  striated  as  we  now  see  it : 
but  the  Arctic  ocean  itself  which  surrounded  this  pre-historical  Greenland  stooa 
at  first  deeper  than  the  present  one ;  for  at  many  points  the  abraded  surfaces, 
with  the  furrows  well  preserved,  stretch  down  under  the  water.  If  this  droum- 
stance  be  not  of  itself  sufficient  to  explain  the  refrigeration  of  this  northern 
region  in  a  degree  equal  to  that  of  Greenland,  it  is  to  be  considered  that  the  greater 
elevation  of  the  land  above  the  sea  must  to  some  extent  have  co-operated  to  that 

*  2,000  feet  perpendicular  at  the  heada  of  the  fiords  which  intersect  the  coast.  (Lyeir« 
Ant,  of  Man.)  '^ 


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AND  THE  REINDEER   IK  MIDDLE  EUROPE.  347 

eflfeet.  Bat  where  sorfaceB  abraded  by  the  glaciers  show  themselves  under  the 
present  sea  the  water  most  certainly  have  once  stood  at  a  lower  level,  for  the 
ice  descends  not  beneath  the  plane  of  the  sea,  but  is  melted  and  undermined  by 
the  latter,  as  is  witnessed  in  the  case  of  the  polar  glaciers,  under  which  explor* 
ers  have  found  it  practicable  to  penetrate  at  ebb  tide  to  considerable  distances.* 

The  sea  meantime  climbed  upwards,  the  land  became  warmer,  the  general 
ice-envelope  melted,  the  loftier  ridges  came  to  light,  while  the  glacial  mass  sep- 
arated into  isolated  glaciers  which  filled  the  valievs  to  their  mouths.  Now,  firet 
occur  distinct  monunes,  as  in  the  glaciers  of  to-day,  lateral  moraines,  terminal 
moraines,  ramparts  of  rock  heaped  in  lines,  of  which  the  outermost  stretch  to  the 
present  coast,  while  the  innermost  rise  to  a  certain  height  on  the  walls  of  the 
valleys,  or  form  barriers  across  them,  where  they  denote  the  halting  point  of  the 
retreat  before  the  sea.  The  sea  followed  to  the  height  of  some  500  feet,  for  at 
this  elevation  are  found  banks  of  shells  containing  mollusks  which  belong  to  the 
Arctic  ocean.  At  the  same  time  the  mighty  masses  of  ice,  as  they  melted,  gave 
forth  streams  which,  dammed  up  here  and  there  by  the  terminal  barriers  of  the 
glaciers,  formed  inland  seas,  while  the  fine  material,  which  all  glacier  currents 
bear  along  with  them  in  great  quantities,  settled  down  in  the  form  of  clay,  marl, 
and  sand.  The  ocean  on  the  one  side,  the  inland  waters  on  the  other,  plied 
their  work  of  erosion  on  the  older  masses  underlying  the  ice  envelope ;  the  gla- 
ciers continued  to  brin^  down  erratic  blocks  which,  after  being  long  chari- 
oted on  their  icy  vehicle,  finally  sank  on  the  sites  where  we  now  find  them. 
And  thus  was  gradually  brought  about  the  geolo^cal  period,  in  which  the  gla- 
ders  extend  only  at  a  few  places  to  the  sea,  or  else  impend  at  a  considerable 
height  above  its  level,  while  in  the  bosom  of  the  valleys  reigns,  for  the  most 
port,  a  mild  and  genial  climate. 

This  prehistorical  glacier  period  c^  the  north  is  no  romance ;  its  consistency 
with  observed  facts  is  undeniable.  The  series  of  these  facts  is  thus  given  by  M. 
Kjemlf: 

What  do  we  find  to  be  the  jprerailing  ftrrangement  among  these  glacial  masses  piled  np 
and  diatribnted  by  the  sea?  Undennoet,  where  they  could  not  again  be  subjected  to  the 
action  of  water,  sand,  and  rolled  stones,  that  is  to  say,  scoured  sand  and  stones.  In  these 
we  have  the  material  which  was  moved  forward  under  the  pressure  of  the  ice  over  the  face 
of  the  rock.  Would  we  learn  the  direction  of  the  scouring  process,  it  is  to  the  blocks  thus 
moved  that  we  most  have  recourse.  As  these  are  mostly  brm^en  to  pieces,  small  and  rounded, 
ihej  have  been  called  **  rolled  stones,'*  though  this,  strictly  speaking,  is  an  improper  name, 
ana  they  might  more  properly  be  called  ** scoured  stones."  They  have  not  been  rolled,  but 
have  been  reciprocally  crushed  by  one  another,  and  fiz^  in  the  ice,  like  the  diamond  in  the 
graver's  burin,  they  have  traced  furrows  and  strise  in  the  subjacent  rock.  Above  the  scoured 
sand  banks  of  rolled  stones  lie  the  different  sorts  of  loam ;  first,  calcareous  loam,  marl  loam ; 
IB  pvseinets  open  to  the  waters  of  the  glaciers,  sedimentary  lime  and  loam  brought  down 


from  the  Silurian  strata ;  next  shell  loam  generally,  where  the  elevation  was  not  too  great  or 
the  currents  of  cold,  fresh  water,  product  bv  thawing,  not  too  powerful ;  then  brick  earth, 
withoQt  shells,  referable  perhaps  to  an  age  when  the  inundation  of  the  interior  country  was 


at  its  highest:  then  sand,  and  on  the  top  of  all  sand  loam. 

The  great  erratic  blocks  first  occur  above  the  beds  of  scoured  stones,  loam, 
and  sand;  in  Scandinavia  they  have  been  brought  into  the  position  in  which  we 
now  find  them  in  some  instances  by  cakes  of  doating  ice,  but  for  the  most  part 
by  the  glaciers  themselves. 

We  have  thus  a  long  tract  of  time  before  us,  during  which  a  state  of  things 
like  that  now  existing  in  Greenland  prevailed,  and  an  icy  ocean  washed  the 

•  The  statement  given  by  Sir  Charles  Lyell,  in  bis  Geological  Evidences  of  the  Antiquity 
of  Man,  varies  in  some  respects  from  the  views  of  the  text:  **  When  these  masses  of  ice 
reach  the  friths  of  Greenland  they  do  not  melt  or  break  up  into  fragments,  but  continue  their 
course  in^  a  solid  form  under  the  salt  water,  grating  along  the  rocky  bottom,  which  they 
must  polish  and  score  at  depths  of  hundreds,  and  even  of  more  than  a  thousand  feet.  At 
length,  when  there  is  water  enough  to  float  them,  huge  portions,  having  broken  off,  fill 
Baffin's  bay  with  icebergs  of  a  size  exceeding  any  which  could  be  produced  by  ordinary 
laud  glaciers.'*    (  CAap.  xili.) 


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348  MAN  AS  THE  COTEMPOBABT  OF  THE  BfAMMOTH 

glacier-crowned  coasts  of  Scandinavia  and  Finland,  which  together  constitated 
at  that  time  a  separate  continent.  But  it  is  not  in  this  frozen  continent  alone 
that  the  proofs  of  such  a  polar  sea  are  to  be  found.  The  whole  level  country 
of  central  Europe  from  Holland  to  Russia  is  strewn  with  erratic  blocks,  with, 
rolled  or  scoured  stones,  which  have  all  been  derived,  from  Scandinavia  and 
Finland,  and  whose  southern  limit  is  determined  by  the  elevation  of  the  land 
which  passes  under  the  name  of  the  Weser  chain,  the  Hartz  and  £rz  mountainsy 
and  the  Riesengebirc^e.  To  the  east  the  limit  of  these  erratic  blocks  winds 
through  the  Russian  lowlands  to  the  Ural,  and  thence  around  to  Finland  by  eo 
regular  a  curve  as  to  be  almost  susceptible  of  being  described  with  a  pair  of 
compasses  on  the  map.  Here,  then,  we  have  the  circle  of  dispersion  of  the  icy 
ocean  in  question,  within  which  the  blocks  were  stranded,  and  from  the  circmt 
of  which  it  is  at  once  to  be  discerned  that  the  Scandinavian-Finnish  r^on 
was  an  island,  and  that  a  broad  arm  of  the  sea  connected  the  present  Arctic  ocean 
and  the  White  sea  with  the  Baltic. 

II.  More  than  20  years  ago,  an  English  geologist,  Smith,  came  to  London 
with  a  collection  of  shells,  which  he  laid  before  the  director  of  the  appropriate 
department  of  the  British  museum,  with  the  request  that  he  would  pronounce 
on  their  value  and  import  "My  dear  sir,"  said  the  director,  after  a  cursory 
examination,  "you  have  been  taken  in  by  some  whale  fisher;  these  are  muscles 
which  have  been  picked  up  on  the  shores  of  the  Arctic  ocean,  but  they  are  in 
bad  condition,  weather-worn,  and  in  part  broken  to  pieces,  and  are  at  best  only 
fit  to  be  thrown  into  the  street."  " I  did  not  buy  the  shells,"  replied  Smith ;  "I 
collecte<l  them  myself  from  a  stratum  of  argillaceous  earth  on  the  banks  of  the 
Clyde,  in  Scotland,  where  they  form  an  ancient  sea-beach."  Nor  was  there  in 
this  any  misrepresentation ;  there  exists  in  Scotland  a  formation  which  contains 
a  complete  arctic  fauna  of  the  class  of  shells  in  question. 

Since  that  time  such  researches  have  been  multiplied.  In  the  whole  extent 
of  the  North  American  continent  as  low  as  New  York,  in  England  and  Scotland, 
in  Scandinavia  and  Finland,  and  far  to  the  east  among  the  wastes  of  northern 
Russia,  occur  everywhere  the  same  formations;  banks  of  rounded  stones, 
(Sdieuersteine,)  with  superincumbent  clay,  marl,  and  sand,  containing  the  specific 
mollusks  of  the  high  Arctic  seas,  or  such  kinds  as  only  attain  their  full  dimen- 
sions in  those  waters,  but  which  degenerate  more  and  more  in  size  as  they 
approach  a  southern  latitude;  whence  it  is  to  be  inferred  that  their  true  home 
must  be  sought  in  thcJ  higher  regions  of  the  north. 

Quite  recently  Sars,  of  ChrisUania,  has  directed  his  special  attention  to  the 
shell  banks,  which  occur  in  southern  Norway,  and  has,  with  his  characteristic 
sagacity  and  knowledge  of  the  distribution  of  individual  spedes,  combined  the 
results  of  his  observations.  From  the  collections  of  shells  as  well  as  from  their 
geolo^cal  stratification,  he  has  been  enabled  to  distinguish  two  difierent  groups 
of  shell  deposits,  of  which  one  corresponds  to  the  highest  advance  of  the  Arctic 
sea,  the  other  to  the  later  epoch  of  its  retreat.  To  the  former  are  related  the 
more  elevated  accumulations  of  shells,  which  reach  a  height  of  more  than  400 
feet  above  the  present  level  of  the  sea,  and  the  deposits  of  loam  which  lie  imme- 
diately above  the  gravel  and  rounded  stones,  attaining  at  most  a  height  of  240 
feet  above  the  sea.  These  are  the  lines  of  strand  and  the  more  deep-lying  deposits 
of  the  gkcial  sea  at  the  period  of  its  greatest  extension.  In  these  deposits  of 
the  sea,  at  its  highest  elevation,  there  are  found,  according  to  M.  Sars,  either 
species  which  occur  only  in  the  north  of  Norway,  and  on  similar  glacial  lines  of 
coast,  or  else  such  as,  when  met  with  in  South  Norway,  England  and  Scotland, 
evidently  languish  and  contrive  to  subsist  only  under  a  diminished  form ;  while 
on  the  north  coast  and  in  the  Arctic  ocean,  where  the  full  conditions  of  their 
existence  are  present,  they  attain  the  size  which  they  exhibit  in  the  geological 
strata.  Here,  then,  the  high  northern  fauna  flourished  in  its  fullest  development, 
and  those  species  which  at  present  only  reach  their  full  size  and  complete  organ- 


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ANP  THE  BEINDEEB  IN  MIDDLE   EUROPE.  349 

izadon  in  a  glacial  sea,  maintained  them  at  that  distant  time  in  one  wbich 
washed  the  southern  coasts  of  Norway.  A  further  note-worthy  fact  results  from 
these  researches  of  M.  Sars.  There  exists  on  the  northern  and  western  coasts 
of  Norway  a  beautiful  coral,  which  forms  large  rose-colored  branches,  and  which 
is  only  found  in  the  rocky  chasms  of  the  ocean,  at  the  immense  depth  of  900 
to  1,000  feet.  0.  Vogt  collected  some  pieces  of  this  coral  {LopJielia  proljfera) 
during  an  excursion  to  the  Pippertind  glacier,  where  the  poor  Laplanders  of  the 
coast,  in  fishing  for  cod,  had  probably  brought  it  up  from  the  sea  mth  their 
angles. 

This  coral  likewise  occurs  in  the  older  shell-strata,  but  only  in  those  beds  which 
lie  almost  immediately  on  the  beach  of  the  sea,  or  under  its  level  at  a  depth  of 
from  60  to  90  feet.  In  these  old  submarine  banks  of  shells  the  stems  of  the 
coral  are  still  adherent  to  the  rocks,  but  they  are  all  dead,  since  the  depth  of 
water  requisite  for  their  life  is  wanting.  These  facts  admit  of  an  easy  explana- 
tion. At  the  time  when  these  zoophytes  lived,  the  sea  stood  some  600  feet  higher 
than  at  present,  and,  of  course,  there  was  the  depth  of  water  required  for  their 
existence. 

Above  these  older  strata,  with  their  testacea  of  the  high  north,  lie  now  the 
more  recent  shell-strata  which  ascend  to  a  level  of  some  300  feet,  and  corre- 
spond with  the  period  of  the  retreat  of  the  glacial  ocean.  Here  the  remains  of 
the  same  shell-fish  occur,  which  live  at  present  on  the  south  coast  of  Norway, 
though  isolated  species  are  also  present,  derived  from  the  arctic  fauna.  The 
arctic  species  had  in  general  withdrawn  towards  the  north  as  soon  as  the  i*etreat 
of  the  sea  commenced,  while  the  temperature  of  the  subsiding  waters  became  ^ 
like  that  which  now  prevails  along  the  coasts  of  Norway. 

All  these  results  are  further  confirmed  by  discoveries  recently  made  in  the 
depths  of  the  great  Swedish  lakes,  the  Wettersee  and  the  Wenersee,  and  which 
have  been  described  by  Lovdn  from  his  own  observation.  In  efiect,  there  have 
been  here  captured  specimens  of  Crustacea,  several  species  of  which,  though  very 
different  from  those  now  living  in  the  sea,  are  clearly  related  to  marine  forms; 
among  these  a  species,  Misis  relicta,  (Geisselkrebs,)  whose  congeners  live  alto- 
gether in  the  ocean,  and  those  resembling  this  new  variety  only  in  the  most 
northern  latitudes.  Another,  of  the  species  Gamntartts  loricatuSj  which  is, 
thus  far,  found  only  in  the  Arctic  ocean,  in  Baffin's  bay,  Greenland,  and  Spitz- 
bergen  j  the  Idothea  entamoriy  (Schlachtwurm,)  which  only  occurs  in  the  Arctic 
and  the  Baltic ;  and  still  another,  a  small  Fontqporcia  affinis,  which  is  still  found 
in  the  Baltic,  but  whose  related  species  only  occur  in  the  Greenland  seas.  These 
singular  discoveries  show  clearly  that  the  Wenersee  and  Wettersee,  the  former 
of  which  has  an  elevation  of  300  feet  above  the  present  plane  of  the  Baltic, 
were  formerly  in  communication  with  the  general  ocean.  At  that  time,  therefore, 
these  lakes  were  deep  fiords,  colonized  by  a  marine  fauna  which  altogether 
resembled  that  of  the  polar  ocean,  and  the  period  of  communication  undoubtedly 
corresponded  with  the  higher  advance  of  the  glacial  seas  as  indicated  in  Nor- 
way and  Sweden.  The  sea  subsided  or  the  land  was  upheaved ;  the  inlets 
were  more  and  more  detached,  and  finally  altogether  separated  from  the  sea, 
and  have  since  slowly  and  gradually  been  filled  with  fresh  water ;  this  change 
having  been  effected  apparently  as  well  by  sources  in  the  bed  of  the  lake  as  by  the 
few  tributary  streamlets.  Now,  few  marine  animals  endure  the  sudden  transition  . 
to  brackish  water,  and  fewer  still,  when  the  change  is  very  gradual,  allow  them-  ' 
selves  to  be  borne  over  into  it.  The  colony  of  the  sea  gradually  died  out, 
leaving  in  the  depths  only  a  few  Crustacea,  which,  as  has  been  seen,  correspond 
in  part  to  the  species  of  the  Baltic  sea,  and  in  part  to  those  of  the  Arctic  ocean. 
But  there  are  other  not  less  interesting  conclusions  to  be  drawn  from  these 
few  species  existing  in  the  lakes  of  the  interior,  as  well  as  from  most  of  the 
species  of  fish  now  living  in  the  Baltic.  In  general  there  can  be  recognized  a 
close  relationship  with  polar  and  arctic  forms,  even  when  the  species  are  not  the 


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350  MAN  AS  THE  COTEMPORABT  OF  THE  MAMMOTH 

same.  In  general,  also,  there  is  a  diverdty  observable  as  r^^ards  the  spedes 
liviDg  on  the  western  side  of  Norway.  From  this,  as  well  as  fix>in  the  difference 
of  the  testaceiu  which  are  met  with  in  the  older  deposits,  Lovdn  has  very  jostly 
infened  that  the  basin  of  the  Baltic  was  once  connected  with  the  Arctic  ocean 
by  an  arm  stretching  eastwardly  over  Lakes  Ladoga  and  Onega  to  the  White 
sea,  but  was,  on  the  other  hand,  separated  by  a  narrow  strip  of  land  or  isthmus 
f]X)m  the  western  ocean,  with  which  it  now  commmiicates  through  the  sound. 
This  separation  must  first  have  taken  place  when  the  glacial  sea  was  on  the 
retreat.  I'estaceous  beds  are  met  within  the  region  of  the  eastern  sea  at  an 
elevation  of  130  feet,  and  these  correspond  in  some  species  with  the  arctic  char- 
acter. BulL  as  Lov^n  properly  remarks,  the  fortunes  of  the  glacial  fiaana  of 
the  east  differed  firom  those  of  the  same  fauna  in  the  west.  The  basin  of  the 
Baltic  was  by  degrees  wholly  separated  from  the  polar  seas,  and  the  water,  by 
progressive  freshening  and  depression,  became  more  and  more  unsuitable  for 
arctic  life ;  while,  at  the  west,  the  sea  surrounding  the  southern  coasts  of  Nor- 
way stood  constantly  ki  open  connection  with  the  Arctic  ocean,  yet  g^Miually 
acquired  during  the  retreat  a  higher  temperature,  so  that  the  noithem  fauna  was 
driven  thence,  and  was  replaced  by  southern  forms.  This  substitution  did  not 
take  place  in  the  Baltic.  The  opening  of  the  sound  at  a  later  period  brought 
into  that  basin  no  new  species  from  the  western  sea.  The  Baltic  basin,  there- 
fore, grew  poor  through  the  deperdition  of  unreplaced  species;  while  the  western 
sea,  by  the  accession  of  the  fauna  belonging  to  warmer  waters,  acquired  new 
affluence. 

Middle  Europe  also  has  had  its  glacial  era.  On  both  sides  of  the  Alps,  in 
the  Vosges  and  the  Black  forest,  in  the  Pyrenees  and  other  great  mountmn 
ranges  of  Europe  and  lesser  Asia,  the  stone  barriers  and  erratic  blocks,  the 
rolled  pebbles,  the  polished  and  grooved  rocks,  which  speak  so  plainly  of  gla- 
cier action,  have  been  pointed  out. 

At  the  time  of  the  so-called  reindeer  epoch,  an  advance  of  the  glaciers  took 
place  for  the  second  time,  and  this  in  consequence  of  a  great  inundation  which 
was  slow  in  attaining  its  ultimate  limits.  By  this  incursion,  most  of  the  low- 
lying  tracts  of  Europe  were  laid  under  water.  In  Belgium,  according  to  Dupont, 
the  flood  must  have  reached  a  height  of  450  feet.  To  this  inundation  are  to 
be  ascribed  the  masses  of  gravelly  clay,  or  calcareous  mud,  which  have  covered 
a  part  of  France  and  Belgium. 

The  cold  during  this  new  overflow  must  again  have  become  intense,  but  not 
so  formidable  as  during  the  great  glacial  era.  As  most  caverns  were  submerged, 
and  men  were  forced  to  withdraw  into  the  more  elevated  regions,  a  chasm  pre- 
sents itself  in  the  paleo-archeological  documents  of  this  period,  which,  from  the 
indications  we  possess,  embraced  several  thousand  years.  Glaciers  are  not  sud- 
denly melted ;  valleys  do  not  soon  become  filled  with  alluvium  reaching  to  a 
height  of  some  hundreds  of  feet  on  their  side- walls;  tracts  of  country  and 
mountain  chains  cannot  be  heaved,  at  a  jerk,  as  it  were,  into  the  air  and  raised 
high  above  their  previous  level.  Processes  of  this  sort  require  time,  much  time; 
and  it  is  only  by  slow  degrees  that  a  state  of  great  refrigeration,  even  when  its 
causes  have  ceased,  is  transmuted  into  one  of  warmth  and  comfort. 

After  the  final  retreat  of  the  waters,  the  caves  would  again  come  into  the 
possession  of  men,  and  numerous  and  valuable  proofs  of  human  industry  be 
prepared,  which  have  been  preser\'ed  even  to  the  present  time. 

Here  commences  the  tine  reindeer  era.  The  reindeer,  as  the  most  charac- 
teristic representative  of  the  northern  fauna,  had,  beyond  a  doubt,- inhabited, 
with  the  cave-bear  and  mammoth,  the  south  of  France.  But  it  is  at  this  period 
that  it  first  makes  its  appearance  in  great  numbers.  It  now  spread  in  large 
herds  as  far  as  the  Pyrenees,  leaving  no  grounds  for  supposing  that  it  had  beoi 
introduced  by  man  and  kept  in  ancient  folds.  On  the  contrary,  it  lived  here  in 
its  wild  and  naturally  free  condition.     The  last  mammoths  were  yet  alive,  as 


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AND  THE  REINNEEB  IN   MIDDLE  EUROPE.  851 

were  also  the  rhinoceros  and  the  great  tiger.  Bat  the  hyenas  and  the  cave- 
beaiB  existed  no  longer  in  middle  Europe.  An  entire  fauna  of  the  larger  ani- 
mals becomes  extinct,  and  man  witnesses  its  disappearance  from  the  earth. 

The  anthropological  &cts  which  we  possess  in  regard  to  this  far  distant  time 
are  of  course  not  very  numerous,  but  not  the  less  do  they  enable  science  to  gather 
the  general  characteristics  of  the  hnman  race  which  lived  at  the  reindeer  era  and 
m  the  period  oi  stone  implements  which  followed  it.  The  stature  of  that  race 
was  small  and  the  head  round,  (brachycephaloas,)  the  ist/ce  broad  and  square,  the 
hair  black.*  The  skull  was  usually  thicker  than  with  men  of  the  present  day. 
Nor  is  there  anything  which  announces  that  the  people  of  the  reindeer  era  were 
particularly  intellectual.  From  negative  proofs  it  may  be  inferred  that  man  at 
that  remote  period  believed  in  another  life,  but  there  is  nothing  on  which  we  can 
fomid  an  inquiry  as  to  forms  of  worship.  We  find  no  figures  or  symbols  which 
p(Hnt  to  a  veneration  of  idols.  There  has,  indeed,  been  discovered  a  rude  figure 
of  a  woman,  carved  on  an  elephant's  tooth,  but  the  idolatrous  destination  of  this 
relic  is  not  generally  recognized.  But  while  no  reli^ous  idea  can  well  be 
attached  to  it,  it  affords  a  proof  that  an  advance  had  been  made  in  art,  which  we 
cannot  but  consider  highly  creditable  for  this  dawn  of  its  development.  The 
Marquis  de  Vibraye,  to  whom  we  owe  this  discovery,  remarks: 

The  maii  of  the  earliest  age  makes  himself  known  through  his  works ;  he  connects  himself 
through  his  relics  with  the  extinct  animals :  and  finally  becomes  the  revealer  of  his  own 
existence  by  bequeathing  us  a  representation  of  his  corporeal  figure. 

Besides  this  rude  female  image,  there  is  also  a  naked  human  figure,  which 
seems  to  bear  a  staff  on  the  shoulder,  that  has  come  down  to  us  on  a  piece  of 
reindeer's  horn.  The  meagreness  of  the  haunches  and  thighs,  the  prominent 
belly,  somewhat  reminds  us  of  that  type  of  Australian  savages  which  we  have 
learned  to  recognize  from  frequent  representations  by  travellers,  as  for  instance, 
from  the  atlas  annexed  to  the  voyage  of  Duraout  d'Urville.  The  head  is 
delineated  only  by  a  circular  line.  Accompanying  this  figure  are  two  horses' 
heads,  the  neck  of  one  horse  being  partially  veiled  by  the  human  form,  which 
again  is  closely  followed  by  what  is  apparently  intended  to  represent  a  reptile  of 
considerable  length,  perhaps  a  serpent,  but,  judging  from  the  shape  of  the  head, 
body,  and  tail,  with  some  traces  of  fins,  more  probably  a  large  eel  trailed  along 
hy  the  person  in  advance. 

To  the  human  figures  in  question  is  limited  the  personal  representation  which 
has  so  far  descended  to  us,  of  the  race  of  men  living  at  the  period  of  their  execu- 
tion, and  it  may  well  be  supposed  that  they  afford  imperfect  grounds  for  ethno- 
logical deductions.  Yet,  rude  as  they  are,  they  do  not  want  a  certain  interest 
arising  from  the  consideration  that  in  presenting  the  human  form  entirely  nude, 
they  may,  perhaps,  indicate  that  such  was  the  habitual  condition  of  that  ancient 
population,  an  inference  which  the  climate  of  the  south  of  France,  at  least  in 
Bommer,  would  render  credible. 

The  discovery  at  Aurignac  has  already  initiated  us  into  the  burial  rites  of  the 
oldest  known  period  of  oiu:  race,  nor  had  the  man  of  the  reindeer  age  changed 
the  ceremonial  which  tradition  bad  handed  down  to  him.  The  grotto  of  Frontal 
at  Furfooz,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Dimant,  disclosed  very  nearly  the  same  pecu- 
liarities as  the  sepulchral  cavern  of  Aurignac.  The  remains  of  thirteen  human 
hodies,  thrown  one  upon  another  by  the  floods  of  the  diluvial  era,  have  been  here 
iliscovered  at  a  depth  of  51  feet  under  the  gravel,  and  at  an  elevation  of  390 
feet.  The  entrance  of  the  grotto  had  been  originally  closed  with  a  flat  stone, 
but  this  barrier  has  been  destroyed  by  the  irruptive  waters.  Two  skulls  only 
remain  entire ;  as  yet,  however,  the  conclusions  to  which  these  curious  relics  of 

*This  round-headed  race  disappeared  in  great  part  after  the  immigration  of  the  Aryschen 
lace  (dolichocephalous  or  oval-h^ed)  from  Asia,  bnt  it  has  not  wholly  perished.  Accord- 
ing to  Nicolacci,  it  is  still  found  in  Hungary  (the  Magyars,)  in  Liguria,  in  the  country  of 
the  Basques,  in  Finland,  Lapland,  &c 


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352  MAN  AS  THE  COTEMPORART  OF  THE  MAMMOTH 

the  antideluvian  era  may  conduct  ns,  have  not  been  discnssed.  According  to 
Beneden  and  Dupont,  there  is  a  great  difference  between  the  two  remaining 
skulls :  the  one  is  orthognathous,  that  is  to  say,  with  the  teeth  and  bones  of  the 
chin  in  a  right  line,  while  the  other  is  prognathous,  having  the  jaws  and  teeth 
projecting;  still  the  latter  is  said  to  have  a  higher  forehead,  and  the  cavity  of 
the  skull  a  greater  capacity.  Together  with  these  remains  was  found  an  nm, 
which,  unfortunately,  is  broken  to  pieces.  In  this  we  have  the  oldest  extant 
specimen  of  the  yet  infant  art  of  pottery.  This  burial  vault  contains,  besides 
the  above  objects,  instruments  of  stone,  an  awl  and  needle  of  bone,  an  arrow  point 
and  an  articulation  of  the  foot,  which  has  evidently  been  wrought  into  some  instru- 
ment. Thus  it  appears  that  the  men  of  the  reindeer  period,  like  those  of  the 
age  of  the  cave-bear,  were  accustomed  to  deposit  with  their  dead  objects  of 
industry  and  ornament,  which  the  deceased  had  doubtless  been  in  the  habit  of 
using.  As  regards  the  bones  of  foxes,  goats,  and  wild  boars,  which  are  also 
present,  it  is  uncertain  whether  they  have  been  borne  hither  by  floods  or  are  the 
remains  of  offerings  which,  as  at  Aurignac,  have  been  set  apart  for  the  deceased. 
In  the  wide  space  before  this  cavernous  sepulchre  have  been  found  numerous 
implements  of  stone  and  reindeer's  horn,  and,  moreover,  traces  of  a  hearth,  which 
probably  indicates  that  a  funeral  feast  had  been  held  at  the  entrance  of  the 
cavern. 

The  people  of  the  reindeer  era  were  not  acqumnted  with  husbandry,  and  as 
little  with  the  domestication  of  animals.*  No  instruments  for  fishing  have  been 
recognized.  If  the  weapons  of  the  age  were  still  imperfect,  they  answered  all 
necessaay  purposes,  for  we  have  already  had  occasion  to  notice  the  skill  with 
which  barbarous  races  of  men  contrive,  with  but  rude  instruments,  to  slay  the 
swiftest  and  fiercest  animals. 

The  beasts  which  lived  cotemporaneously  with  man  were,  at  this  period, 
besides  the  reindeer,  which  had  now  attained  its  widest  distribution  through 
middle  Europe,  the  following :  the  aurochs  (Bison  europosuSj)  the  horse,  which 
has  improperly  been  regarded  as  differing  from  that  of  the  present  day,  the  pri- 
meval ox  (Urus  primigenmSj)  the  musk-ox  (Bos  maschatuSyJ  the  deer  with 
collossal  antlers  (Megaceros  hibemicus,)  the  elk  fCervus  dices  J  the  roe-buck 
(  Cervus  daina,)  the  wild  goat,  the  chamois,  the  wild  boar,  which  was  either  rare 
or  its  flesh  not  eaten,  the  glutton,  the  beaver,  lemming,  a  species  of  hare,  fLag(h 
mysj  and  the  marmot.  Among  birds,  we  may  mention  the  great  auk,  the  heath 
cock,  the  moor-hen,  the  snowy  owl,  &c.  It  affords  an  argument  for  the  preva- 
lence of  a  great  degree  of  cold  in  om:  region  at  the  time  in  question,  that  the 
greater  pail  of  the  animals  just  cited  live  most  generally  at  the  present  day  in 
high  northern  latitudes,  or  on  the  snow-covered  peaks  of  the  Pyrenees  and  Alps. 
The  musk-ox  descends  in  America  only  to  the  parallel  of  60®,  and  habitually 
frequents  the  limits  of  perpetual  snow. 

In  this  reindeer  period,  the  use  of  metals  was  unknown.  Mankind  continued 
to  avail  themselves  of  stone  for  the  construction  of  their  implements,  though, 
together  with  this,  they  occasionally  employed  bone^  horn,  and  ivory.  There  is 
evidence  that  the  commerce  of  men  at  this  time  already  extended  to  considerable 
distances.  The  population  of  Belgium,  for  instance,  sought  for  silex  in  Cham- 
pagne, which  they  might  have  found  still  nearer,  in  the  vicinity  of  Maestricht 
and  in  Hainault.  From  this  it  may  probably  be  inferred  that,  in  certain  direc- 
tions, communication  was  attended  with  much  difficulty.  Bridges  and  artificial 
roads  there  were  none,  nor  is  there  anything  to  show  that  resort  was  then  had  to 

*  A  fra{^ent  of  a  reindeer's  skull,  which  still  contained  the  arrow-bead  of  stone  with  which 
the  animal  was  slain,  shows  that  the  reindeer  was  hunted  as  a  beast  of  chase.  It  has  aJso 
been  observed  that  the  cartilage  was  still  attached  to  bones  which  have  been  thrown  away 
bj  man  after  the  extraction  of  the  marrow,  and  that  the  edges  of  the  fractures  thereby  occa- 
sioned are  still  shaip,  which  would  not  be  the  case  if  the  dog  had  been  at  that  time  a  domes* 
ticated  animal. 


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AND  THE  REINDEEB  IN  MIDDLE  EUBOPE.  353 

boats  for  the  passage  of  water-courses.  Unwieldy  rafts  were  seemingly  the  only 
means  of  conveyance  when  inundation  or  other  exigencies  stimulated  the  earliest 
attmnpts  at  navigation.  To  travel  in  unknown  regions,  standing  thick  with 
woods,  where  no  trace  marked  out  the  way,  was  itself  a  circumstance  well  calcu- 
lated to  repress  adventure;  yet  not  the  less  did  these  Belgians  hold  communica- 
tion with  what  is  now  known  as  Touraine,  a  fact  which  is  satisfactorily  proved 
to  us  by  discoveries  made  in  the  cavern  of  Chaloux. 

Human  food  was  chiefly  animal ;  the  horse  and  reindeer  furnished  its  principal 
staple.  But  tlie  bison,  the  great  ox,  the  goat,  the  chamois,  wei*e  also  eaten,  and 
even  the  rhinoceros,  when  he  could  be  mastered.  The  marrow  and  brain  of 
animals  were  coveted  as  luxuries  by  a  race,  which  did  not,  however,  disdain  the 
watOT  rat,  if  the  chase  had  been  rewarded  by  nothing  more  acceptable.  In  the 
cave  of  Chaleux,  Dupont  found  in  the  vicinity  of  the  hearth  more  than  20  pounds 
weight  of  bones  of  the  above  animals,  some  of  which  had  evidently  undergone 
the  action  of  fire.  Yet,  as  the  organization  of  the  human  frame  is  shown,  even 
hy  its  dental  system,  rather  more  adapted  to  a  diet  of  fruits  than  of  flesh,  it  may 
readily  be  supposed  that  this  primitive  people  laid  the  forest  under  contribution 
for  something  more  than  its  contingent  of  animals.  Acorns  and  chestnuts  at  least 
must  have  entered  into  then*  dietary  with  the  horse  and  reindeer,  and  while  it 
would  be  vain  to  challenge  any  proof  of  this,  it  must  be  considered  that  such 
articles  could  not  fail  totally  to  disappear  in  the  lapse  of  so  many  ages.  It  would 
he  difficult,  in  the  midst  of  our  civilization,  to  form  a  conception  of  the  uncleanly 
customs  of  this  reindeer  epoch,  and,  indeed,  even  of  times  still  later.  The  bones 
left  from  their  meals  were  carelessly  thrown  into  the  comers  of  the  cave,  filling 
it,  of  course,  with  putrescent  miasmas.  To  find  at  present  an  analogous  condition 
of  things,  we  must  go  to  the  Esquimaux,  who  live  towards  the  north  pole.  Like 
the  latter,  the  people  of  whom  we  have  been  ti^eating  cared  little  for  the  accumu- 
lation of  filth  in  their  habitations,  but  here,  at  least,  the  winds  had  free  access, 
and  would,  to  some  extent,  expel  the  gases  of  decaying  animal  remains. 

All  caves  in  Belgium,  France,  England,  6cc„  which  were  easily  accessible, 
and  provided  with  a  sufficient  opening,  were  inliabited.  In  the  middle  was  the 
hearth,  paved  with  sandstone  or  slate,  and  around  this  the  family  gathered  dming 
the  season  of  intense  cold.  There  were  caves  also,  which  being  too  much  exposed 
to  the  weather,  served  only  as  a  dwelling  in  summer.  Such  occur  in  the  south 
of  France,  and  are  destitute  of  any  traces  of  a  hearth,  though  otherwise  affording 
the  clearest  evidence  of  having  been  inhabited  by  men.  Are  we  justified  in 
concluding  from  this,  as  Professor  Owen  has  done  in  regard  to  the  inhabitants 
of  the  cave  of  Bruniquel,  that  mankind  in  the  reindeer  era  devoured  the  flesh  of 
animals  raw  f  It  is  not,  however,  in  caves  alone  that  we  find  traces  of  the  habi- 
tation of  men.  Numerous  dwelling-places  have  been  recognized,  especially  in 
Perigord,  which  were  established  under  the  open  sky,  in  the  neighborhood  of 
water-courses,  and  sheltered  by  a  sloping  bank  or  overhanging  rock.  Here  have 
been  detected  layers  of  ashes,  bones  which  have  been  crushed,  weapons,  imple- 
ments, and  even  the  crude  essays  of  a  primitive  art. 

For  clothing,  at  this  era,  man  had  recourse  to  the  skins  of  animals.  That 
these  were  stripped  off  for  this  purpose  there  is,  singularly  enough,  adequate  evidence 
still  in  existence.  Incisions  made  in  certain  bones,  and  particularly  in  the  skulls 
of  reindeers  close  to  the  antlers,  can  only  be  supposed  to  have  proceeded 
from  the  act  of  flaying.  Numerous  instruments  everywhere  collected,  and  which 
could  have  served  for  nothing  else  but  scraping,  show  that  the  hair  was  in  some 
cases  removed  from  the  skin.  Means  were  probably  known  for  making  the  hide 
pliable,  so  that  it  might  serve  for  clothing  in  summer,  while  for  winter  vesture 
the  fur  would  be  preserved.  We  can  of  course  know  nothing  as  to  the  fashion 
in  which  the  man  of  the  reindeer  age  shaped  this  clothing,  but  we  are  at  least 
certun  that  sewing  was  employed  in  preparing  it.  Bodkins  or  awls  for  making 
holes  in  the  hides  are  not  of  rare  occurrence,  and  needles  furnished  with  an  eye 
23  8  67 


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354  MAN  AS  THE   COTEMPOBART   OF  THE  MAMMOTH 

testify  plainly  enougli  to  the  practice  of  sewing.  We  know  also  that  for  thread 
the  sinews  of  raniinnting  animals,  especially  the  reindeer,  were  employed.  Tho 
long  shank-bones  of  these  beasts  often  present  a  transverse  incision,  joBt  at  tho 
point  where  the  lower  end  of  the  great  tendon  is  inserted. 

It  may  appear  somewhat  snrprising  that  a  taste  for  personal  adornment  should 
have  insinuated  itself  among  the  hard  necessities  of  snch  a  state  of  existence ; 
yet  such  a  taste  there  was,  if  of  a  very  humble  description.  Bracelets  and  neck- 
laces were  then  worn,  sometimes  composed  of  strings  of  shells,  as  well  of  fossil 
as  still  surviving  species,  sometimes  of  the  teeth  of  different  annuals.  The 
ivory-like  part  of  the  ear-bone  of  the  horse  is  also  found  pierced,  probably  with 
a  view  to  being  worn  on  the  neck.  Tho  canine  teeth  of  the  greater  camivori 
(tiger,  wolf,  lynx)  were  often  pierced  for  the  same  purpose.  On  the  tooth  of  a 
bear  has  even  been  found  the  carved  representation  of  a  bird's  head.  In  fine, 
from  the  old  dwelling  sites  of  this  period  have  been  gathereil  pieces  of  fluor-spar, 
jet,  silex,  and  copper  ore,  all  alike  perforated  in  the  centre,  besides  other  objects 
which  have  a  semblance  of  having  served  as  amulets.  The  cave  of  Chaleux, 
near  Dinant,  in  Westphalia,  has  furnished  54  shells  of  fossil  testaoea,  which  it 
is  clear  can  only  have  been  brought  from  Champagne,  where  it  is  probable  they 
were  picked  up  by  the  ancient  Belgians  when  they  resorted  thither  for  silex. 
Most  of  these  shells  have  the  central  perforation,  which  denotes  their  destination 
for  the  toilet ;  no  very  costly  ornamentation,  it  is  true,  but  something  foreign  and 
exclusive,  and  not  to  be  obtained  by  everybody. 

The  weapons  and  implements  were  in  the  reindeer  period  of  an  improved  con- 
struction when  compared  with  those  of  the  age  of  the  cave-bears.  The  weapons 
consisteil  of  lances  and  javelins,  but  the  stone  points  of  these  were  more  finely 
cut.  The  arrow-head  of  stone,  without  barbs,  was  not  discarded,  but  a  preference 
was  given  to  arrows  made  from  bone,  or  the  horn  of  the  stag  and  reindeer,  and 
elaborated  with  more  art  and  diligence  than  those  of  stone.  Some  of  these  have 
been  found,  which  are  furnished  with  barbs  on  both  sides,  and  specimens  occur 
in  which  the  barbs  are  hollowed  out,  as  if  for  reception  of  a  poisonous  substance. 
The  number  of  barbs  is  from  four  to  six,  ranged  alternately  on  either  side. 
Lartet  has  discovered  in  Perigord  a  dagger  of  reindeer's  horn,  on  the  hilt  of 
which  is  to  be  seen  the  rudely  carved  image  of  a  reindeer.  The  points  of  arrows 
and  lances  thus  furnished  with  barbs  may  have  served  alike  for  the  chase  and  for 
fishing.  We  know  that  in  the  hands  of  the  South  Sea  islanders  and  the  Esqui- 
maux these  barbed  points,  however  clumsy  they  may  seem,  are  no  despicable 
weapons  on  land  or  in  water. 

Very  numerous  are  tho  utensils  and  implements  found  in  the  caves  and  at 
other  primeval  dwelling  sites  of  Perigord  and  Belgium.  First  among  them  may 
be  mentioned  small  saws,  being  plates  of  flint,  dexterously  notched  or  dentated 
along  the  edge.  This  instrument  was  used  to  divide  the  antlers  of  the  reindeer, 
a  circular  incision  being  made  with  it  in  the  horn,  which  was  then  broken. 
Knives  or  blades  of  flint,  generally  small  ones,  are  everywhere  plentiful,  as  are 
also  implements  for  scraping.  The  stone  hatchets,  on  the  other  hand,  have 
almost  disappeared.  A  block  of  quartz  has  been  found,  which  probably  served 
as  an  anvil,  for  it  still  bears  the  tiuoe  of  blows  with  the  hammer.  Among  objects 
prepared  from  other  substances  we  distinguish  awls  of  bone  and  needles  of  bone, 
horn  and  ivory.  Both  instruments  have  been  found  in  different  places.  Theie 
are,  besides,  instruments  for  smoothing,  such  as  are  in  use  among  the  Esquimaux 
to  press  the  seams  of  the  skins  worn  for  clothing.  Spoons  of  lK>ne  or  horn  also 
occur,  set  off  with  a  certain  primitive  ornamentation,  and  used  probably  to  extract 
the  marrow  from  bones.  We  find,  further,  hunting  whistles  piercefl  with  a  round 
hole^  and  formed  from  the  first  joint  of  a  deer's  foot;  also  knuckle-bones,  need, 
as  now,  in  sports  and  games,  together  with  many  other  objects,  whose  purpoee 
has  not  been  determined. 

Among  the  stone  instruments  particularly  worthy  of  note  are  the  augers  or 


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AND  THE  RBINDEBB  IS  MIDDLE  EUBOPE.  355 

gimlets  which  were  employed  to  bore  larger  or  smaller  holes  in  bono  or  horn. 
When  teeth  and  bones  were  first  found,  now  presenting  needles  pierced  with  a 
small  eye,  and  again  containing  holes  as  much  as  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  these 
quite  round  and  thoroughly  perforated,  explorers  attempted  to  produce  similar 
holes  with  the  usual  stone  implements;  but  in  vain:  the  points  splintered,  and 
no  such  hole  could  be  wrought.  There  were  English  philosophers  who  asserted, 
especially  in  view  of  these  failures,  that  perforations  of  this  sort  could  not  be 
made  without  metal.  Now,  M.  Lartet  has  discovered  cei*tain  implements  of 
flint,  large  as  well  as  small,  whose  points,  instead  of  being  made  sharp,  are 
roughly  cut,  so  as  to  form  angles  not  unlike  those  of  a  crystal.  It  occurred  to 
him  that  these  had  served  for  drilling  the  holes  in  question.  He  therefore  fixe<l 
one  of  these  pieces  in  the  cleft  of  a  stick  split  for  the  purpose,  and  by  dint  of 
turning  it  between  both  hands  to  and  fro,  found  that  it  performed  the  work  of 
boring  with  great  success.  The  communication  of  this  fact  has  satisfied  scepticism 
as  to  the  destination  of  these  instruments,  which  are  found  in  considerable  quan- 
tities and  of  different  sizes. 

At  Tayac  and  Eizies  have  been  found  pieces  of  quartz,  either  round  or  quad- 
rangular, which  have  been  hollowed  out  in  the  middle.  M.  do  Vibraye  con- 
jectures that  they  were  used  for  giinding  grain,  but  most  of  them  are  too  small  to 
have  served  for  this  purpose.  M.  Lartet  is  of  opinion  that  they  were  made  use 
of  in  kindling  dry  wood  by  rapid  attrition. 

The  people  of  the  reindeer  era  manufactured  by  hand,  and  without  the  help 
of  the  potter's  wheel,  a  sort  of  rude  eaithenware  of  a  black,  gray,  and  yellow 
color,  all  tinged  more  or  less  with  red.  The  clay  was  commonly  mixed  with 
qnartzose  sand,  the  better  to  withstand  the  action  of  fire.  A  circular  mark 
formed  the  sole  ornament.  Theso  imperfectly  baked  vessels,  of  which  only 
fragments  have  been  found,  are  not,  however,  the  oldest  specimens  of  the  ficti^ 
art  in  existence.  Traces  of  it  have  already  been  discovered  in  three  grottoes  of 
the  age  of  the  cave-bears.  In  the  earliest  times  man  would  feel  the  necessity 
of  providing  a  supply  of  water  in  his  cavernous  dwelling.  A  cavity  in  a  mass 
of  clay  would  be  the  receptacle  of  the  water  brought  in  skins  from  the  brook. 
To  render  the  utensil  lighter,  superfluous  parts  would  be  removed,  and  it  would 
be  dried  in  the  sun,  in  order  to  harden  it.  Still  later,  man  learned  to  mould  rude 
vessels,  which  he  exposed  to  the  heat  of  the  hearth  to  procure  a  degree  of  hard- 
ness greater  than  that  produced  by  the  sun's  rays.  Such  were  the  humble  begin- 
nings of  an  art  whose  finished  performances  surprise  and  delight  us  in  the  fabrics 
of  Dresden  and  Sevres. 

III.  It  is  now  known  that  the  populations  of  the  reindeer  era  were  not  wholly 
destitute  of  a  certain  plastic  culture  and  of  the  art  of  delineation.  If  the  forms 
of  most  of  the  instruments  of  horn  which  have  been  found  are  susceptible  of 
explanation  from  the  necessities  of  oomraon  life,  and  from  the  instruments  which 
have  been  used  at  later  periods,  such  is  not  the  case  with  a  class  of  objects 
whose  signification  and  use  had  not  heretofore  been  unriddled.  These  consist 
for  the  most  part  of  the  entire  stem  of  a  reindeei-'s  antler,  frequently  with  one  or 
more  prongs,  especially  that  next  the  root,  always  smoothly  polished,  and  at 
times  charged  with  a  simple  linear  ornamentation.  But  in  the  generality  of 
cases  these  stems,  more  than  a  foot  in  length,  are  furnished  with  holes,  which, 
to  the  number  sometimes  of  four,  are  seen  ranged  one  after  the  other,  while 
the  whole  length  of  the  stem  is  ornamented  with  curiously  carved  lines  and 
figures,  among  which  horses  and  reindeers  are  particularly  numerous.  In  the 
International  Exposition  of  1861,  among  the  objects  sent  by  the  savf^es  of 
Vancouver,  figured  just  such  a  staff,  polished  and  bearing  engraved  lines ;  pro- 
bably an  ensign  of  command  or  rank.  Might  we  not  assign  to  the  ancient  staff 
the  same  signification,  and  consider  the  holes  and  figures  as  bearing,  in  their 
number  and  size,  some  relation  to  the  circumstances  of  the  owner  f 

Wo  have  thus  arrived  at  the  most  striking  of  these  relics  of  a  remote  antiquity. 


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356  MAN  AS  THE  COTEMPORART  OF  THE  MAMMOTH 

for  from  no  other  sourco  probably  can  we  derive  sucb  distinct  ideas  of  tbo  life 
and  habits  of  the  reindeer  hunters  of  southern  France  as  from  the  remarkable 
representations  of  the  animal  world  which  we  find  engraved  chiefly  on  these 
remnants  of  reindeer  horn,  but  sometimes  also  on  pieces  of  bone,  ivory,  or  slate. 
Thus  far,  indeed,  and  until  further  indications  offer  themselves,  we  must  ascribe 
the  practice  of  this  primitive  art  solely  to  the  population  who,  within  a  circum- 
scribed space,  inhabited  Dordogne.  The  representation  of  real  objects  for  the 
Eurpose  of  ornament  is,  in  this  case,  the  more  remarkable,  inasmuch  as  in  far 
iter  times,  those  namely  of  the  pile-constructions  of  Switzerland  and  the  stone 
age  of  Denmark,  no  trace  of  such  an  application  of  art  is  to  be  met  with ;  on 
the  other  hand,  however,  indicative  in  form  of  a  certain  degree  of  taste,  the  orna- 
mentation of  these  later  ages  is  altogether  confined  to  a  combination  of  different 
lines,  of  angles,  circles,  zigzags,  &c.,  and  never  consists  in  an  imitation  of  either 
animals  or  plants.  We  should  certainly  have  obtained  a  much  clearer  knowl- 
edge of  the  social  condition  of  men  in  the  time  of  the  pile-structures  if  we  pos- 
sessed in  reference  thereto  representations  similar  to  those  which  the  reindeer 
caves  of  Dordogne  have  supplied  j  for  if  these  convey  to  a  certain  extent  iUas- 
trations  of  the  hunter  and  fisher  life,  the  pile-builders,  had  their  art  taken  the 
same  direction,  would  doubtless  have  bequeathed  to  us  images,  carved  upon 
horn  or  other  material,  illustrative  of  their  husbandry  and  domestic  industry. 
This  difference  can  perhaps  only  be  accounted  for  through  the  original  genius  of 
the  races,  as  it  can  hardly  be  supposed  that  in  the  narrow  district  of  Perigord  a 
particular  population  should  have  flourished,  together  with  the  whole  northern 
fauna,  as  it  were  upon  an  island,  and  only  at  a  later  period  attained  that  higher 
degree  of  art  which  distinguished  it ;  and  the  less,  as  cotemporary  deposits  from 
other  caves  show  nothing  of  the  sort  Thus  the  museum  in  Greneva  contains  a 
truncheon  of  horn  from  a  grotto  at  Sal^ve,  which  marks  the  eastern  point  of  the 
reindeeif  caves;  and  this  instrument,  while  it  is  bored  through  the  end,  and  the 
general  workmanship  is  the  same  as  in  Perigord,  nowhere  exhibits  any  other 
than  the  common  linear  ornamentation  of  the  period. 

It  is  a  fact  worthy  of  note  that  in  all  the  figures  yet  found,  no  plants,  but 
only  animals,  are  represented.  This  circumstance  may  not  be  withdut  its  signi- 
ficance in  the  absence  of  all  proofs  of  a  vegetable  diet  on  the  part  of  these  hunts- 
men of  the  reindeer  era.  Yet  it  is  to  be  observed  that  this  defect  of  vegetable 
forms  plainly  harmonizes  with  a  certain  vivid  feeling  of  the  artists  for  the  repre- 
sentation of  movement.  Animals  stationary  or  in  repose  are  extremely  rare. 
Beindeers,  as  well  as  other  animals  of  the  deer  species,  are  shown  in  rapid  flight, 
as  testified  by  the  head  bowed  back  upon  the  neck,  the  outstretched  legs,  some- 
times b^  the  gaping  mouth  and  panting  nostrils ;  at  other  times  they  are  repre- 
sented m  the  act  of  springing,  with  the  fore  legs  bent  back  beneath  the  body, 
the  hinder  legs  stretched  stimy  out  behind.  The  climax  of  this  infant  art  seems 
to  have  been  reached  on  a  sheet  of  slate  in  the  possession  of  the  Marquis  of 
Vibraye,  which  is  plainly  intended  to  represent  a  group  of  fighting  reindeers. 
One  of  these  struggles  while  lying  on  its  back  with  its  legs  in  the  lur;  another 
draws  itself  together  as  in  the  act  of  onset;  a  third,  with  head  sunk  down,  has 
evidently  iust  overthrown  the  first. 

Assui^ly  we  do  not  mean  to  claim  for  these  delineations  anything  like  uni- 
form merit,  or  an  exact  appreciation  of  characteristic  peculiarities ;  the  figures 
present  sometimes  but  a  stiff  and  wooden  appearance,  and  we  are  even  left  in 
doubt  whether  we  have  before  us  an  ox,  a  horse,  or  a  reindeer.  It  is,  however, 
but  just  to  say  that  such  enigmatical  figures  are  firagmentary  only,  and  we  should 
doubtlessly  recognize  them  more  readily  if  the  picture  had  remained  entire.  Most 
of  the  figures,  on  the  other  hand,  evince  no  mean  facility  of  the  artist  in  seizing 
on  distinctive  traits,  so  as  to  enable  us  at  the  first  glance  to  determine  the  species ; 
though,  of  course,  tbere  can  be  no  question  here  of  finished  execution,  but  merely 
of  a  successful  rendering  of  the  most  essential  details;  the  characteristio  oatlme 


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AND  THE  REINDEER  IN  MIDDLE  EURRPE  357 

conveyed  in  a  fe\r  simple  strokes.  The  reindeer,  horse,  bison,  steinbock,  ele- 
phant, are  not  to  be  mistaken,  and  even  the  peculiar  mode  of  movement  of  each 
of  these  animals  is  rendered  uith  ^*eat  truth.  In  these  cases  a  certain  freedom 
of  execution  is  often  exhibited  which  could  only  have  been  acquired  by  much 
practice.  Now,  it  is  precisely  this  freedom  in  the  representation  of  motion  which 
has  inspired  many  with  doubt  as  regards  the  authenticity  of  these  relics ;  it  indi- 
cates, they  argue,  an  advanced  stage  of  art,  long  observation,  and  persevering 
practice  of  the  eye  and  hand,  to  render  such  representation  possible,  and  if  the 
saints  and  madonnas  of  the  first  Christians  are  commonly  stiff  and  clumsy,  cer- 
tainly the  products  of  prehistoric  art  must  be  expected  to  betray  this  character. 
Admitting  these  views  to  be  somewhat  plausibh^,  wo  may  yet  venture  to  oppose 
to  them  the  fact  that  the  earliest  attempts  of  Greek  sculptiux;  are  particularly 
distinguished  by  the  characteristic  conception  of  motion ;  that  in  the  group  of 
the  ^ginetes,  for  instance,  the  movements  of  the  figures  in  battle  are  rendered 
with  great  felicity,  while  the  expression  of  the  faces  is  wholly  slighted.  It  is 
altogether  the  same  in  the  present  instance.  The  art  of  the  reindeer  period  had 
advanced  so  far  as  to  be  capable  of  manufacturing  a  stone  dagger  whose  hilt 
represents  a  reindeer  in  the  act  of  springing ;  the  horns  and  extremities  are  credit- 
ably executed,  and  the  movement  is  perfectly  represented  j  but  the  skill  of  the 
artist  has  failed  in  giving  an  expression  of  reality  to  minuter  features. 

It  may  be  regarded  as  characteristic  also  that  these  representations,  where  they 
occur  on  fragments  of  some  size,  always  place  before  us  a  number  of  animals  of 
the  same  species,  and  disposed  in  such  a  manner  as  is  usual  when  they  move  in 
herds,  being  sometimes  wide  apart,  and  sometimes  so  closely  cro\vded  that  the 
body  of  one  covers  more  or  less  that  of  another.  Since  attention  was  paid  to 
this  rule  of  representation,  it  has  been  observed  that,  on  the  celebratetl  matumoth 
piece  hereafter  to  be  noticed,  there  are  certain  strokes  which,  besides  the  princi- 
pal animal,  indicate  two  others  of  the  same  species. 

If  these  representations  are  in  themselves  highly  worthy  of  our  attention  as 
art-productions  of  the  earliest  times,  they  are  even  more  so  in  reference  to  the 
objects  represented,  for  these  afford  us  a  criterion  of  the  methods  of  inquiry  here- 
tofore followed  in  regard  to  the  animal  bones  which  have  been  exhumed  from  the 
caves.  To  many,  who  want  confidence  in  the  rigorous  procedures  of  compara- 
tive anatomy,  it  may  perhaps  have  seemed  presumptuous  that  a  savant,  having 
before  him  only  a  joint  of  the  foot,  the  end  of  a  bone  or  a  tooth,  should  pro- 
nounce authoritatively  that  here  a  reindeer  and  not  a  hart,  that  there  a  bison  and 
not  a  common  ox,  has  existed ;  but  when,  as  now,  a  verification  is  afforded  by  an 
exhibition  of  the  entire  animal  form  in  its  sculptured  representative,  when  it 
results  from  this  that  he  who  carved  it  on  the  horn  must  have  kno^n  the  animal, 
and  accurately  known  it,  in  order  to  portray  it  in  its  proper  shape,  all  doubt  must 
vanish.  The  bones  of  the  reindeer  and  bison  could  not  have  been  washed  hither 
in  a  deluge  from  the  far  north  and  deposited  in  the  southern  cavern,  as  has  been 
pretended ;  the  animal  must  there  have  lived  in  its  flesh  and  blood  where  to-day 
we  find  its  bones  and  its  sculptured  figiu-e.  Let  us  see  what  were  the  species 
known  at  present  to  have  been  thus  represented. 

Among  these  the  reindeer  is  by  far  the  most  frequent,  while  its  antlers  have 
in  great  part  furnished  the  material  on  which  the  representation  is  carved.  The 
form  of  the  head  and  horns  and  the  hair  of  the  neck  leave  no  doubt  in  the  deter- 
mination of  the  species.  The  stag,  which  occurs  more  seldom,  admits  of  easv 
discrimination.  Next  follows  the  horse,  evidently  of  a  race  with  shoit,  thick 
head,  short  neck,  compact  body,  strikingly  similar  to  the  northern  race  of  our 
own  times.  He  that  has  once  seen  the  Iceland  horse,  as  it  roams  at  large  in  its 
native  island,  will  here  instantly  recognize  the  original  pattern. 

On  the  piece  on  which  is  represented  the  man  with  horses  and  an  eel,  we  see 
on  the  other  side  two  heads  of  bisons,  which  are  perfectly  characterized  by  the 
profile  of  the  forehead,  the  insertion  and  curvature  of  the  short  horns,  and  the 


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358  MAN  AS   THE  COTEMPORART  OF  THE  MABfMOTH 

profuse  crinosity  of  the  neck  and  head.  The  bison  or  aurochs  therefore  flourished 
here  in  companionship  with  man,  the  horse,  and  the  reindeer.  Another  figure, 
which  unfortunately  is  nmtilated;  but  is  distinguished  by  the  fineness  of  its  hair, 
seems  to  point  to  another  of  the  bovine  species  differing  from  the  bison ;  nor  is 
this  a  matter  of  surprise,  since  the  testimony  of  the  bones  is  to  the  same  effect. 
An  animal  of  the  goat  kind,  probably  the  steinbock,  is  not  wanting,  while  some 
other  figures  of  horned  and  graminivorous  species  must  be  acknowledged  to  bo 
deficient  in  point  of  distinctness. 

The  most  remarkable  relic,  however,  is  the  representation  of  the  primeval 
elephant,  a  real  mammoth,  on  a  plate  of  ivory,  which  formed  part  of  a  tusk  of 
large  dimensions.  In  May,  1846,  M.  Lartet,  in  company  with  l)r.  Falconer  and 
Vemeoil,  both  well-known  naturalists,  caused  excavations  to  be  made  in  the 
stratum  of  the  cavern  of  the  Madelaine.  "At  the  moment  of  our  arrival,"  says 
Lartet,  "  the  laborers  disinterred  five  fragments  of  a  rather  thick  plate  of  ivory, 
which  must  have  been  detached,  ages  before,  from  a  large  tusk.  After  having 
fitted  the  pieces  together  by  their  corresponding  edges,  I  pointed  out  to  Dr.  Fal- 
coner numerous  scratches  and  lines  somewhat  deeply  engraved,  which,  on  collo- 
cation, constituted  an  animal  figure.  The  practiced  eye  of  the  distinguished 
paleontologist,  better  versed  than  any  one  else  in  the  study  of  elephantine  ani- 
mals, at  once  recognized  the  head  of  an  elephant.  He  then  directed  our  atten- 
tion to  the  other  pai*ts  of  the  body,  and  especially  to  certain  tufted  lines  in  the 
region  of  the  neck,  denoting  the  characteristic  mane  of  the  mammoth  or  elephant 
of  the  glacial  era.  It  is  generally  known  that  this  peculiarity  which  marks 
the  arctic  habitat  of  the  animal,  was  verified,  in  the  year  1719,  by  Adams,  a 
member  of  the  Academy  of  St.  Petersburg,  in  the  carcass  of  such  an  elephant, 
found  imbedded  in  ice  near  the  mouth  of  the  Lena.  A  bunch  of  its  hair  is  still 
to  be  seen  in  the  geological  collection  of  the  Garden  of  Plants  at  Paris. 

"  I  have  shown  the  piece  in  question  to  competent  observers,  such  as  Milno 
Edwards,  de  Quatrefages,  Desnoyers  Longperier,  and  Franks,  director  of  the 
Loudon  Antiquarian  Collection  j  and  the  latter  has,  by  means  of  the  pencil, 
rendered  the  characteristic  lines  more  distinct  in  the  plaster  cast  which  had  been 
taken  of  the  object. 

**  This  new  fact  only  tends  to  strengthen  the  conviction  already  acquired  of 
the  existence  of  man  at  the  same  time  with  the  mammoth  and  the  other  largo 
graminivorous  and  carnivorous  l>east8  which,  according  to  the  geologists,  lived 
in  the  first  section  of  the  quaternary  period.  The  truth  of  this  historical  fact 
results  from  so  many  concurrent  observations  and  from  material  facts  of  such  plain 
import,  that  even  the  most  prejudiced  cannot  fail  to  recognize  its  entire  validity, 
if  they  will  permit  themselves  to  see  and  judge  with  ordinary  conscientiousness." 

The  elephant,  thickly  clad  with  hair  on  the  neck,  forehead,  and  breast,  is  seen 
in  profile  and  at  its  full  length  in  the  act  of  striding  forward.  At  first  it  was 
not  rightly  known  what  was  to  be  made  of  a  tuft  of  hair  and  certain  marks  which  are 
seen  to  the  left  in  advance  of  the  line  which  forms  the  profile  of  the  forehead, 
Bepeated  and  closer  scrutiny  of  the  fragment  has  enabled  us,  in  the  end,  to 
recognize  therein  the  eye,  the  outline  of  the  forehead,  together  with  the  proboscis 
of  a  second  elephant,  which  is  advancing  close  by  the  side  of  the  firet.  Some 
lines  on  the  leg  would  lead  us  to  conjecture  a  third  elephant,  which  followetl  on 
the  part  of  the  plate  which  is  broken  off.  The  drawing  of  the  figures  is  exe- 
cuted with  a  free  and  bold  hand,  and  the  characteristic  movement  of  tlie  elephant, 
which  raises  simultaneously  the  legs  of  the  same  side,  is  well  preserved. 

Another  memorial  of  the  art  of  this  ancient  epoch  is  an  elephant's  head  carved 
on  a  reindeer's  horn,  which  was  also  discovered  in  Perigord  by  the  Marquis  de 
Vibraye.  These  two  relics  are  the  more  interesting  as  furnishing  the  proof  that 
man  actually  existed  as  the  cotemporary  of  the  mammoth  or  gigantic  elephant,  a 
fact  which  has  been  so  often  and  so  obstinately  contested.  But  since  the  locali- 
ties where  these  objects  of  primitive  art  have  bf  Questionably  belong 

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AND  THE  BEINDEER  IN  MIDDLE  EUROPE.  359 

to  the  reindeer  period,  it  is  conclusively  shown  that  some  of  the  mammoth  species 
survived  to  that  time. 

It  is  rather  remarkable  that  as  yet  only  a  single  delineation  has  been  found 
which  can  bo  interpreted  as  relating  to  tho  bear,  being  the  head  of  that  animal, 
while  the  rest  of  the  camivora  are  wholly  unrepresented.  That  representations 
of  tho  unavoidable  struggles  of  man  with  these  animals  should  not  have  been 
left  behind  is  scarcely  to  be  believed,  especially  when  their  teeth,  pierced  with 
holes  and  destined  for  suspension  as  trophies,  bear  unequivocal  testimony  to  such 
encounters.  Birds  and  reptiles  have  not  hitherto  been  found  represented.  Fish, 
on  the  other  hand,  are  very  frequent,  and  can,  for  tho  most  part,  bo  recognized  as 
belonging  to  the  carp  family,  which  still  frequents  the  fresh  waters  of  the  region. 
"We  meet  with  no  trace  of  marine  animals ;  the  men  who  lived  in  Dordogne  at  the 
era  of  the  reindeer  seem  to  have  known  nothing  of  the  sea  and  its  inhabitants. 

These  objects  of  art  have  been  found  only  in  the  three  grottos  of  Les  Eyzies^ 
Zaugerie-Basse,  and  La  Madelaine,  in  the  department  of  Dordogne.  The  first 
of  these  is  high  and  wide  enough  to  enable  the  light  to  penetrate  throughout, 
being  12  metres  deep,  16  broad,  and  6  metres  high;  it  appeal's  to  have  been 
nsed  in  the  middle  ages  as  a  stable  for  horses.  When  Lartet  and  Christy  began 
their  explorations,  the  grotto  had  been  considerably  enlarged  and  deepened  by 
earlier  occupants,  though  the  explorers  found  at  the  bottom  a  compact  floor,  from 
which  projected  masses  of  blackish  stalagmite,  flint  instruments,  stones,  and 
pieces  of  bone  j  this  bone-breccia  lay  immediately  on  the  rock  floor  of  the  cave, 
and  showed  a  thickness  of  one  to  three  decimetres.  Large  pieces  were  broken 
loose,  which  were  sent  partly  to  different  museums,  but  in  greater  quantity  to 
Paris,  with  a  view  to  more  exact  examination.  The  station  of  Laugerie-Basse  is 
partly  in  the  hollow  of  a  rock,  whose  face  is  100  feet  high,  while  a  part  of  the 
formation,  on  which  appeared  traces  of  an  ancient  fire-place,  extended  outwardly 
in  front  of  the  cavern.  Within,  the  breccia  was  full  three  metres  in  depth.  Tho 
neighboring  station  of  the  Madelaine  lies  at  the  foot  of  the  rock,  and  forms  a 
decayed  heap  15  metres  in  length,  7  in  breadth,  and  3  in  depth,  in  which 
some  human  bones  were  found,  but  unfortunately  not  complete  enough  to  indi- 
cate tho  laoe  of  men  from  whom  they  proceeded.  Some  fragments  of  blood- 
stone and  a  coaree  stick  or  pencil  of  ochre  leave  it  to  be  inferrea  that  in  that  dis- 
tant age  colored  diawings  were  sometimes  executed. 

Thus  we  see  how  civilization  was  undergoing  a  slow  but  constant  develop- 
ment among  the  oldest  inhabitants  of  middle  Europe.  The  facts  which  the 
excavations  of  Chaleux  have  disclosed,  in  connection  with  those  discovered  in 
the  grottos  of  Furfooz,  furnish  a  picture  of  the  first  age  of  mankind  in  Belgium. 
These  old  populations,  with  all  their  usages,  reappear  before  us,  after  having 
been  many  thousand  years  forgotten,  reminding  us  of  the  fabulous  bird  which 
sprang  with  renewed  life  from  its  ashes.  So  the  primeval  age  of  mankind  is 
rebuilt  from  its  own  ruins. 

We  see  them  in  theur  dark,  underground  retreats  surrounding  the  primitive 
health,  shaping  with  some  skill  and  greater  patience  their  weapons  from  flint- 
stone  and  their  utensils  from  reindeer's  horn,  in  the  midst  of  the  unwholesome 
exhalations  of  animal  remains,  which  in  their  carelessness  they  have  heaped 
around  them.  The  skins  of  captured  beasts  are  stript  of  hair,  and  from  these 
clothing  is  prepared  by  means  of  an  awl  of  silex  and  a  needle  of  bone.  We  see 
them  armed  with  arrows  and  lances,  whose  points  of  flint  have  been  sharpened 
for  deadly  execution,  pursuing  the  beasts  of  the  waste.  We  visit  them  in  their 
fastnesses,  where  a  horse,  a  bear,  a  reindeer,  forms  the  product  of  a  successful 
cBase,  and  the  repulsive  flesh  of  rats  their  resource  against  contingent  famine. 
They  C9nduct  a  commerce  \\ith  the  populations  of  France,  and  bring  thence 
molluscous  shells  and  jet,  with  which  they  delight  to  adorn  themselves,  and  silex, 
which  is  so  indispensable  for  arms  and  implements.    Her€  is  a  store  .of  fluor-^ 


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960  MAN  AS  THE  COTEMPORABT  OF  THE  IIAMHOTH 

Bpar,  wbose  colors  beguile  tbeir  fancy  with  a  show  of  luxury,  and  there  the  wide 
plate  of  sandstone  destined  for  paving  around  the  hearth. 

But  there  come  days  of  disaster,  and  truly  disaster  is  not  spared  them.  A  con- 
cussion, a  sudden  downfall  drives  them  from  their  rocky  dwelling.  The  objects 
of  their  veneration,  their  utensils,  are  alike  shattered,  and  they  are  cast  forth  to 
seek  for  some  other  shelter.  Or  death  invades  them  mth  its  desolations,  and 
what  pious  cares  do  they  then  consecrate  to  those  whom  they  have  lost !  We  see 
that  they  lay  the  body  away  in  a  cave;  an  urn,  weapons,  amulets,  constitute  the 
equipment  for  the  vault.  A  broad  plate  of  stone  guards  against  the  entrance 
of  wild  beasts.  Then  begins  the  funeral  feast  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the 
sepulchre ;  fire  is  kindled  on  the  hearth,  large  animals  are  dismembered,  and  the 
roasted  flesh  is  distributed  among  the  guests.  There  are  no  doubt  other  strange 
ceremonies  practised,  as  is  now  the  custom  with  the  rude  tribes  of  America  and 
Africa,  but  those  we  can  only  conjecture.  Analogy  would  point  to  songs,  dances^ 
adjurations,  but  science  can  afford  us  here  not  the  slightest  information.  Agsda 
and  often  will  this  vault  open,  and  small  children,  as  well  as  men  of  full  statorei 
take,  one  after  another,  ihek  place  in  the  cavern  amidst  the  same  ceremonies. 

But  the  end  of  this  oldest  of  known  epochs  is  at  hand.  Floods  overwhelm  the 
region.  The  dwellers,  driven  from  their  caves,  seek  refuge  in  vain  on  the  hills. 
Death  overtakes  them ;  a  dark  grotto  becomes  the  grave  of  those  hapless  fugi- 
tives who,  as  at  Furfooz,  were  witnesses  of  this  great  catastrophe.  Nothing  is 
spared  by  the  fearful  element.  The  sepulchral  caverns,  the  objects  of  a  touch- 
ing solicitude  on  the  part  of  these  poor  people,  are  forced  open  by  torrenta 
of  water,  and  the  bones  of  the  dead  are  generally  scattered  abi-oad.  Only  the 
dwelling-place  of  Chaleux  is  exempt  from  the  ruin;  it  is  protectejd  by  an  earlier 
cati^trophe.     This  consisted  in  the  downfall  of  the  roof  of  the  cavern. 

Lucky  and  multifarious  discoveries  have  conducted  us  to  these  results.  The 
usages  and  industry  of  these  tribes,  which  reach  back  to  so  distant  an  antiquity, 
can  be  pictured  with  some  exactness.  But  much  yet  lies  in  darkness.  We  know 
nothing  of  their  relations  to  the  people  of  earlier  times.  Had  they  predecessors 
in  the  land  f  The  important  discoveries  which  Schmerling  and  Prof.  Malaise 
have  made  at  Engihoul  seem  to  show  that  the  men  whose  remains  were  found 
on  the  Lys  were  not  the  aboriginal  inhabitants  of  Belgium,  but  only  successors 
of  an  older  population.  At  Chaleux  also  were  found  substantial  indications  of 
that  primeval  ancestry,  but  the  traces  were  scarcely  discerned  when  they  were 
again  lost. 

Besides  the  three  stations  above  named,  a  large  number  of  caves  have  been 
discovered  in  France  and  Belgium,  which  everywhere  contained  the  bones  of  the 
same  animals.  Among  these,  the  reindeer  plays  the  principal  part,  and  is  always 
accompanied  by  the  horse,  the  steinbock,  the  chamois,  and  the  bison.  The  remains 
of  the  mammoth,  rhinoceros,  wolf,  brown  bear,  lynx,  glutton,  sheep,  marmot, 
and  common  deer,  are  seldom  found ;  still  more  seldom  those  of  the  hyena,  the 
tiger,  the  porcupine ;  while  the  bones  of  birds  and  fresh-water  fishes,  which  we 
need  not  enumerate,  occur  in  abundance. 

In  the  cavern  of  Bruniquel  were  found,  by  its  owner,  1,500  diffei-ent  objects, 
which  were  all  purchased  by  Professor  Owen  for  the  British  Museum.  Here  were 
also  discovered  human  remains,  especially  a  jaw  bone.  The  cavern  of  Chaleux, 
in  the  valley  of  the  Lys  and  neighborhood  of  Dinant,  presents  a  remarkable 
peculiarity,  an  analogue,  so  to  say,  of  Pompeii  and  Herculaneum,  cities  which 
Vesuvius  did  not  destroy,  but  has  preserved  for  us.  All  the  objects  contained 
in  the  cavern,  just  as  it  was  occupied  at  the  time,  have,  as  already  mentioned^ 
been  kept  entire  by  the  downfall  of  its  roof.  The  rubbish,  under  which  the 
various  articles  lay  buried,  has  prevented  the  destructive  effects  of  the  diluvial 
corrents.  After  the  removal  of  eight  feet  of  compact  detritus,  the  proper  floor 
of  the  cavern,  upon  which  man  had  resided  wn**  r«n/»hed.  Probably  the  inhabi- 
tants were  absent  on  the  chase  at  the  oocu^  ^  -^atastrophe,  for  no  hamaa 


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AHD  THB  UUMDEBK  IN  lODDLE  EUROPE.  36] 

bones  bave  been  found  bere,  but  some  3,000  implements  of  flint,  as  well  as  otbeis 
of  bone  and  reindeer's  bom  have  been  reooverecL  The  hearth,  paved  with  flat 
stones,  lay  in  the  middle  of  the  cave^and  on  it  were  still  found  coals  and  ashes. 

However  incomplete  may  be  the  results  thus  far  obtained,  they  still  show  in 
the  most  conclusive  manner  the  ccHrectness  of  the  deductions  winch  have  been 
drawn  horn  them.  The  remains  which  have  descended  to  us  undoubtedly  pre- 
sent many  a  riddle,  but  we  should  not  despair  of  their  ultimate  solution.  Per- 
haps a  fortunate  incident  may  bring  us,  sooner  than  we  think,  the  desired  expla- 
nation. 

In  conclusion,  we  should  say  something  respecting  the  animals  which,  in  that 
distant  age,  liv^  as  the  cotemporaries  of  man.  The  cave  bear,  f  Ursus  sp^aus^J 
according  to  Owen  and  Pomel,  first  made  its  appearance  in  England  and  at 
Champeix  in  Auveigne,  towards  the  end  of  the  tertiary  epoch.  If  all  the  deter- 
minations are  correct,  its  remains  have  been  found  in  Siberia,  Scania,  Franoe, 
Belgium,  England,  and  (Jennany.  The  cave  bear  was  the  lai^gest  of  the  species 
known,  and  seems  to  have  become  extinct  before  the  reindeer  era. 

The  mammoth  (Elephas  primigenius)  was  living  in  middle  Asia  about  the 
end  of  the  tertiary  epoch,  but  in  Europe  its  remains  are  first  found  in  the  quater- 
nary formations.  It  has  inhabited  a  wide  geographical  zone,  for  it  q>rcad  from 
Sicily  to  England,  but  to  the  south  it  extended  not  beyond  central  Italy  and  the 
Pyrenees.  In  Italy  and  southern  France  it  seems  to  have  survived  during  a 
part  of  the  reindeer  period,  whUe  further  to  the  north  it  had  disappeared. 

The  rhinoceros  lived  almost  universally  in  company  with  the  mammoth,  and 
became  extinct  during  the  reindeer  age.  It  is  generally  known  that  a  carcass  of 
thb  rhinoceros  was  preserved,  together  with  a  mammoth,  for  many  thousand 
years  in  the  ice  of  Siberia.  When  discovered,  they  were  found  to  be  still  fur- 
nished with  both  bide  and  hair. 

The  cave  hyena  (Hyoma  speloeaj  was,  during  the  quaternary  epoch,  of  very 
fireqnent  occturence  in  Europe.  It  is  commonly  supposed  to  have  belonged  to 
one  of  the  two  different  African  species  still  surviving.  Thus  far,  traces  of  this 
animal  have  only  been  found  in  the  pliocene  or  upper  tertiary  deposits,  and  it 
seems  to  have  lived  neither  in  Spain,  the  south  of  Italy,  nor  in  Sicily.  The  cave 
hyena  became  extinct  during  the  reindeer  period,  and  in  Belgium  even  before 
that  era. 

The  gigantic  cat  of  the  caves,  (Felis  spdcsaj  whether  tiger  or  lion,  a  point 
very  difficult  to  be  decided  from  the  parts  of  the  skeleton  found  in  those  reposito- 
ries, makes  its  appearance  only  with  the  quaternary  period,  and  seems  to  have 
disappeared  with  the  smne.  The  reindeer  period  reveals  some  traces  of  it,  and 
this  indicates  that  the  feline  tenant  of  the  caves  had  not  then  disappeared,  like 
its  cotemporary,  the  cave  bear.  Lartet  even  asks  whether  the  former,  like  the 
aurochs,  while  withdrawing  further  to  the  east,  did  not  survive  within  the  period 
of  histoiy.  In  fact,  the  lion  of  Thessaly,  spoken  of  by  Herodotus,  and  which  is 
figured  on  Grecian  coins,  endured  a  climate  like  our  own,  and  could  not  there- 
fore be  the  present  African  species.  Dr.  Falconer  has  gone  even  further :  in  his 
opinion  the  gieat  feline  animal  which  subsists  on  the  slopes  of  the  Altai  and  in 
the  north  of  China,  and  which  is  generally  supposed  to  be  identical  with  the 
Bengal  tiger,  may  well  be  the  Felis  spekeaj  which,  by  reason  of  the  increase  of 
mankind  and  the  development  of  civilization,  has  retreated  into  the  deeper  recesses 
of  Asia.  f 

The  gigantic  deer  was  chiefly  an  inhabitant  of  England  and  Ireland.  A  com- 
plete and  very  fine  specimen  of  it  may  be  seen  in  the  British  Museum.  Its  remains 
are  met  with,  but  not  very  frequently,  in  France  as  far  as  the  Pyi-enees,  in  Ger- 
many and  the  north  of  Italy.  This  animal  existed  as  early  as  the  pliopeneera, 
and  became  extinct  during  the  reindeer  period.  Its  horns  measured  from  10  to 
11  feet  in  breadth.  It  has  been  improperly  called  the  deer  of  the  peat  moorSi 
since,  at  the  time  when  these  moors  were  formed,  it  no  longer  existecL 


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362      MAN  AS  THE  COTEMPORABT  OF  THE  liAMMOTH,  ETC. 

The  reindeer  fCervus  iarandusj  made  its  appearance  with  the  mammoih  in 
middle  Europe,  and  hence  at  the  beginning  of  the  qoatemary  period.  Its  romains, 
which  occur  so  abundantly  in  the  caves  and  other  sites  where  man  has  dwelt, 
testify  to  a  vast  numerical  development  at  the  epoch  to  which  the  animal  has 
given  its  name.  This  circumstance  enables  us  in  some  measure  to  account  for 
the  rare  occurrence  of  the  ure  ox  and  the  deer,  for  it  is  known  that  both  these 
animals  entertain  a  great  antipathy  for  the  reindeer.  Where  the  latter  has  rested, 
the  former  avoid  feeding.  The  reindeer,  whose  geographical  habitat  extended  to 
the  Pyrenees,  withdraws  towards  the  north  and  disappears  in  middle  Europe  at  the 
period  of  the  last  great  movement  of  the  waters  and  of  the  red  diluvium.  At 
the  epoch  of  the  peat  moors  it  no  longer  existed  in  France.  At  present  it  inhaUts 
the  coldest  regions  of  northern  Europe.  The  remains  of  the  elk  fCervus  aloes  J 
are  seldom  met  with  in  the  temperate  European  latitudes.  It  seems  to  have  fol* 
lowed  the  reindeer  in  its  migration  to  the  north,  where  it  now  exclusively  sojourns. 

The  aurochs  (Bison  europcem,)  This  wild  ruminant  seems  to  have  existed 
in  the  pliocene  period,  and  was  very  widely  distributed  in  middle  Europe.  ItA 
remains  occur  sparingly  in  the  peat  moors  and  in  the  pile  settlements  of  Switzer- 
land. Caesar  did  not  observe  it  in  Gaul  or  in  the  Ilercynian  forest,  but  Pliny 
asserts  that  the  bison,  which  could  be  none  other  than  the  aurochs,  lived  in  Ger- 
many. The  animal  is  now  nearly  extinct,  being  found  only  in  Lithuania,  where 
it  is  protected  by  stringent  laws,  and  at  G^rvais,  in  the  forests  of  the  Caucasus. 

The  great  ox,  or  ure  ox,  (Bos  primigeniusj  appears  with  the  quaternary  era, 
and  attains  so  wide  a  geographical  diffusion  that  its  remains  are  found  in  the 
whole  of  Europe.  It  suivived,  li'ke  the  aurochs,  the  ages  of  stone  and  bronze, 
and  subsisted  even  in  the  age  of  iron.  Csesar  mentions  it  in  his  commentaries, 
Mid  the  Veson  comipotens  of  the  Chronicle  of  St.  Gall  (10th  century)  is,  acoMti- 
ing  to  Steenstrup,  nothing  else  than  the  Urus  of  Caesar.  The  species  is  at 
present  wholly  extinct. 

The  musk  ox,  (Bos  tnoschatusj  a  smaller  ruminant,  is  intermediate  between 
the  ox  and  the  he-goat.  It  lived^  in  France  and  England  simultaneously  with 
the  cave-dwellers.  Its  remains  are  found  in  the  flint  formations  of  the  diluvium. 
At  present  it  lives  only  in  the  coldest  regions  of  America. 

The  horse  (Equus  adamiticus)  dates  from  the  origin  of  the  quaternary  forma- 
tions. It  differs  from  the  horse  of  the  tertiary  era,  but  seems  identical  with  the 
now  existing  species,  (Equus  cabaUus.J  In  the  age  of  the  cave  bears  and  the 
reindeer,  the  horse  was  veiy  widely  distributed  through  middle  Europe,  and  fur- 
nished the  populations  of  that  time  with  their  principal  food.  A  smaller  race 
is  met  with  in  the  pile  settlements  of  Switzerland  and  in  the  Pyrenees.  It  was 
at  a  later  period  that  man  availed  himself  of  the  horse  for  riding,  especially  in 
war.  The  Greeks  seem  first  to  have  practised  equitation  about  the  seventh 
century  B.  0. 


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PHOTOCHEMISTRY. 


B  Y  M.  Jamin. 


TrmuMidtedfor  the  SmiUuonian  Insiiiuiiomfrom  the  **  Rtvue  des  Cour$  tdnU^/iques  d$  la  Framm 
€t  de  Vetramger,"  20  Julg,  1867. 


Solar  radiations,  and  in  general  those  of  all  luminous  bodies,  are  composed 
of  a  multitude  of  supei-posed  vibrations  endowed  with  very  distinct  properties, 
and  which  it  is  practicable  to  isolate  by  means  of  the  prism.  The  firat,  and 
least  refrangible,  are  obscure,  and  manifest  themselves  to  our  organs  only  by 
the  calorific  phenomena  which  they  produce.  These  are  followed  by  the  lumin- 
ous radiations  which  succeed  one  another  from  the  extreme  red  to  the  ray  H 
of  the  spectrum.  To  the  violet  rays,  finally,  succeeds  a  large  number  of  radi- 
ations, invisible  it  is  tnie,  but  whose  existence  ia  revealed  by  their  power  of 
effecting  decompositions  or  chemical  combinations. 

I  have  heretofore  insisted  on  the  point  that  there  were  not  three  special  classes 
of  radiations  superposed  at  a  given  point  of  the  spectrum,  and  differing  by  their 
nature  itself,  but  a  single  ray  capable  of  possessing  three  properties — of  being 
calorific,  luminous,  and  actinometric.  From  one  end  of  the  spectrum  to  the 
other,  the  rays  remain  identical  in  their  nature,  but  possessing  increasing  refran- 
gibilities  and  vibratory  velocities,  more  and  more  rapid.  I  have  shown,  by  the 
phenomena  of  phosphorescence  and  fluorescence,  that  these  different  rays  can 
be  transformed  one  into  the  other.  Tims,  when  luminous  radiations,  simple 
and  well  defined,  fall  on  a  metallic  plate,  they  are  at  first  absorbed  by  degrees; 
the  plate  grows  warm;  it  then  radiates  in  its  turn,  but  gives  out  only  obscure, 
that  is  to  say,  less  refran^ble,  radiations.  Thus  again,  in  the  curious  phenomena 
of  phosphorescence  and  fluorescence,  we  have  seen  that  the  ultia  violet  radiations, 
scarcely  visible,  were  absorbed  by  different  bodies,  and  became  transformed  finally 
into  luminous  radiations.  In  a  word,  different  substances  have  the  proj>erty  of 
selecting  and  absorbing  certain  simple  radiations  in  preference  to  others,  of  them- 
selves entering  into  vibration,  and  of  3'iclding  up  by  radiation  the  active  force 
absorbed,  with  this  constant  character,  that  a  simple  iray  has  been  finally  trans- 
formed into  an  assemblage  of  other  mixed  radiations,  all  less  refrangible. 

It  is  another  fonn  of  this  proposition  which  I  am  about  to  expound  in  the 
course  of  this  lecture.  I  propose  to  show  that  the  medium  may  retain  the 
vibrations  which  it  has  absorbed,  and  that  the  active  force  which  they  have 
communicated  to  it,  being  incapable  of  being  lost,  is  applied  to  the  production 
of  an  equivalent  chemical  effect.  It  is  with  photocliemistry,  in  a  word,  that  we 
shall  now  occupy  ourselves. 

Scheele  discovered,  in  1770,  that  chloride  of  silver  exposed  to  the  liffht 
assumes  a  >nolct  tint,  but  he  did  not  stop  thei*e.  Proceeding  to  inquire  to  what 
simple  radiations  this  phenomenon  was  due,  ho  studied  it  in  the  spcctmm,  and 
found  that  the  violet  rays  were  alone  capable  of  producing  it.  He  named  them, 
on  this  account,  cJiemical  rays.  Wollaston  caiefully  repeated  this  experiment, 
and  observed  that  there  existed  beyond  the  ultra  violet  radiations  still  other 
radiations,  more  refrangible  and  wholly  invisible,  but  capable  of  acting  on  tho 
chloride  of  silver. 


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364  PHOTOCHEMISTRY. 

This  admirable  discovery,  which  is  the  principle  of  all  the  phenomena  of 
photochemistry,  remained  long  unexplained,  under  the  chemical  point  of  view. 
The  explanation  was  given  by  MM.  Girard  and  Duvanne.  These  two  chemists, 
having  exposed  chloride  of  silver  to  the  solar  rays,  fonnd  that  this  blackened 
chloride  was  susceptible,  in  part,  of  being  attacked,  with  disengagement  of 
hvponitric  acid,  by  nitric  acid,  a  manifest  proof  of  a  partial  reduction  of  the 
chloride  into  chlorine  and  into  metallic  silver  under  the  influence  of  the  light- 
But  this  compound  is  not  the  only  one  in  which  this  phenomenon  is  observed. 
Light  acts  as  a  reductive  agent  on  the  nitrate  of  silver,  the  chloride  of  gold,  the 
chloride  of  platina,  and  in  general  on  almost  all  the  chlorides,  bromides,  and 
iodides  of  metals  the  least  oxidizable.  The  eame  is  the  case  with  a  great 
number  of  oxygenated  metallic  compounds.  Every  one  knows  that  concentrated 
nitric  acid,  entirely  colorless  when  exposed  to  the  light,  is  quickly  colored  yellow, 
inconsiderable  quantities  of  this  acid  becoming  decomposed  into  hyponitric  acid 
and  oxygen.  The  same  may  be  said  of  chromic  acid,  which  undeigoes  a  par- 
tial reduction,  loses  a  certain  quantity  of  oxygen,  and  is  transformed  into  sesqui- 
oxyde  of  chromium. 

In  all  these  cases  the  light  acts  on  the  metallic  compounds  as  an  agent  essen- 
tially reductive.  We  are  now  about  to  see  this  same  agent,  in  another  order  of 
experiments,  produce  very  varied  oxidations,  and  favor  combinations  in  general. 
Let  us  take,  for  instance,  a  mixture  of  chlorine  and  hydrogen,  and  expose  this 
mixture,  enclosed  in  a  flask,  either  to  the  solar  i-adiations  or  the  brilliant  flame 
of  magnesium.  A  sharp  detonation  will  immediately  announce  the  instantaneous 
combination  of  these  two  gases  in  forming  chlorhydric  acid. 

There  is  here,  then,  no  longer  an  action  of  reduction,  but  an  action  of  com- 
bination, which  the  light  has  exerted.  The  phenomenon  is  the  same  for  all 
organic  substances.  We  know,  for  example,  that  if  hydrogenated  compounds 
be  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  sun  in  presence  of  chlorine  or  bromine,  combi- 
nations are  always  formed  in  which  the  chlorine  or  bromine  is  substituted,  equiv- 
alent by  equivalent,  for  the  hydrogen  of  the  organic  compound.  This,  in  effect, 
is  the  starting  point  of  the  theory  of  substitutions  devised  by  M.  Dumas.  The 
process  of  bleaching  cloths  by  exposing  them  to  the  sun  is  a  phenomenon  familiar 
to  every  one,  and  is  also  owing  to  a  slow  oxidation  of  the  tissue. 

Among  these  different  examples  of  oxidation  produced  under  the  influence  of 
light,  there  is  one  which  it  is  especially  incumbent  on  us  to  cite,  because  it  has 
been  rendered  famous  by  an  ingenious  experiment,  made  in  1813,  by  Jean 
Nicdphore  Niepce,  an  experiment  which  was  in  some  sort  the  starting  point  of 
photography. 

Nici§phore  Niepce,  having  taken  bitumen  of  India,  (asphaltura,)  dissolved  it 
in  oil  of  lavender,  and  was  thus  enabled  to  spread  it  on  a  plate  of  glass,  which 
he  exposed  to  the  sun  after  having  covered  it  with  an  enffi'aving.  Now,  bitumen 
has  the  curious  property  of  becoming  insoluble  in  volatile  oils  when  it  has  been 
for  some  time  exposed  to  the  light.  This  light  penetrated  to  the  bitumen  through 
all  the  white  parts  of  the  engraving,  but  was  arrested  by  the  black  lines ;  and 
by  afterwards  washing  his  plates  with  oil  of  lavender,  M.  Nict^phore  Niepco 
obtained  a  reproduction  of  his  engravings.  The  white  parts  therein  were  rep- 
resented by  the  bitumen,  now  become  insoluble  and  of  a  milky-white  appearance, 
the  parts  from  which  the  bitumen  liad  been  removed  representing  the  black  por- 
tions. 

This  experiment,  as  I  have  said,  was  the  point  of  departure  for  photography. 
Still  another  example  of  these  phenomena  of  oxidation  remains  to  be  noticed. 
It  is  afforded  by  the  resin  of  guaiacum,  which  has  the  singular  property  of 
changing  to  a  deep  blue  in  the  light  at  the  same  time  that  it  is  oxidized.  If, 
therefore,  it  is  dissolved  in  alcohol,  and  a  sheet  of  paper  be  impregnated  with  it, 
we  ma^  obtain  copies,  as  with  the  bitumen,  by  covering  the  paper  with  an 
engraving  and  exposing  it  to  the  sun*  ^•"*  •*"  **  remains  white  tinder  the  black 


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PHOTOCHEMISTBT.  365 

lineB,  and  becomes  a  deep  blue  under  the  white,  wo  obtain,  in  reality,  an  inverse 
image.     This  is  a  negative  proof. 

Thus  we  see  that  the  solar  radiations,  in  acting  on  different  bodies,  may  give 
rise  to  two  very  distinct  orders  of  chemical  phenomena :  phenomena  of  reduction 
in  all  the  metEJlio  compounds ;  oxidation,  a  tendency  to  favor  combination,  as 
TC^^ards  all  organic  bodies. 

If  the  opinions  thus  advanced  are  well  founded,  it  is  evident  that  by  mixing 
with  metallic  salts  organic  substances  we  shall  double  the  effects  by  augmenting 
the  sensibility  of  the  photochemic  action.  This  may  be  demonstrated  by  numer- 
ous experiments.  The  following,  which  is  one  of  the  most  decisive,  we  owe  to 
M.  Niepce  de  Saint  Victor,  nephew  of  the  inventor  of  photography.  Ho  took 
a  piece  of  porcelain  presenting  a  fresh  fracture  and  covered  it  with  a  solution 
of  nitrate  of  silver ;  be  then  exposed  it  to  the  sun  while  screened  from  all 
organic  matter.  The  nitrate  of  silver  remained  unaltered  ;  but  when  a  leaf  of 
paper  was  imbued  with  this  solution,  or  the  nitrate  of  silver  was  mingled  with 
any  organic  matter,  (gelatine,  tartaric  acid,  for  example,)  before  covering  the 
porcelain,  the  action  of  the  solar  rays  was  immediatelv  manifested,  and  the  sil- 
ver was  reduced  to  the  metallic  state.  It  is  evident  that  in  this  experiment  the 
active  co-operation  of  the  organic  matter  admits  of  no  doubt. 

We  may  further  adduce  an  experiment  of  Professor  Haghen,  of  Koenigsburg, 
which  leads  to  the  same  conclusions  with  the  preceding.  M.  Haghen  took  two 
tubes  and  filled  them,  one  with  a  solution  of  nitrate  of  uranium  in  distilled 
water,  the  other  with  an  alcoholic  solution  of  the  same  salt.  The  first  of  these 
tubes  was  carefully  closed,  to  exclude  the  access  of  any  organic  matter ;  both 
were  afterwards  exposed  to  the  sun,  and,  agreeably  to  M.  Haghen's  previsions, 
the  second  alone  was  altered  and  partially  reduced.  These  results  are  con- 
stantly turned  to  advantage  in  the  art  of  photography. 

And,  indeed,  in  the  preparation  of  sensitive  paper  the  only  object  in  covering 
the  sheet  with  a  thin  layer  of  choloride  of  silver  is  to  bring  together  in  a  state 
of  considerable  division  the  reducible  metallic  salts  and  the  organic  matter  des- 
tined to  effect  the  reduction.  It  is  proper,  however,  to  add  that,  in  order  to  still 
further  augment  the  sensibility  of  the  papers  intended  for  photographic  proofs,  it 
is  the  practice  to  dip  them,  in  the  last  place,  in  a  solution  of  a  chloride,  a  bro- 
mide, or  an  alkaline  iodide. 

The  following  will  serve  as  a  final  example  of  the  energetic  part  which 
organic  substances  play  in  these  photochemic  actions.  About  1850,  M.  Poitevin, 
one  of  the  most  celebrated  French  photographers,  took  a  salt  of  sesquioxide  of 
iron,  the  sesquichloride,  added  to  its  solution  an  organic  matter,  and  saturated 
some  leaves  of  paper  with  this  mixture.  Under  the  influence  of  liffht  and  by 
virtue  of  the  presence  of  organic  matter  this  salt,  which  the  light  alone  could 
not  modify,  was  partially  reduced,  and  passed  to  the  state  of  a  photochloride.  In 
taking  a  photographic  proof  with  such  paper,  it  is  sufficient,  in  order  to  make  the 
image  appear,  to  wash  the  sheet  with  a  solution  of  cyanoferride  of  potassium  or  tan- 
nin. These  compounds  reacting  only  on  the  perchloride  of  iron  wherever  it  has 
been  preserved  intact,  that  is  to  say,  under  the  black  portions,  we  obtain  a  positive 
proof,  colored  blue  or  black,  according  to  the  compound  employed  for  washing. 

I  shall  not  further  multiply  these  examples ;  but  there  is  a  fact  of  much  more 
importance,  and  to  which  I  proceed  to  call  your  attention  for  a  moment :  I  refer 
to  what  are  called,  in  photography,  the  revealing  phenomena. 

It  is  generally  known  that,  when  the  sheet  of  prepared  paper  is  withdrawn 
from  the  camera  obscura,  the  action  of  the  light  seems  to  have  produced  no  par- 
ticular effect  on  its  surface ;  and  yet,  when  it  is  inunersed  in  a  certain  bath, 
the  image  immediately  appears.  This,  in  the  language  of  the  photographers, 
is  the  revelation  of  the  image.  We  shall  accept  this  word,  ambitious  as  it  is, 
and  endeavor  to  render  an  account  of  the  phenomenon,  the  most  important  and 
certainly  the  most  curious  of  photochemistry. 


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366  PHOTOCHBMISTRT. 

What  we  must  first  remark  is  the  following  observation  of  M.  Niepoe  de 
Saint  Victor :  the  function  of  the  two  active  substances  is  reciprocal ;  it  is  a 
matter  of  indifference  whether  the  substance  styled  sensitive^  iodide  of  silv^ 
for  example,  be  exposed  to  the  light  and  afterwiuxls  washed  with  the  revealing 
substance,  pyrogallic  acid,  or,  inverting  the  process,  the  gallic  acid  be  impressed 
and  the  sheet  washed  in  the  bath  of  silver.  As  regards  intensity,  the  same 
effect  is  always  obtained  by  exposing  one  or  the  other  to  the  sun. 

M.  Niepce  de  Saint  Victor  studi^  this  phenomenon  with  care,  and  the  fol- 
lowing are  some  of  the  experiments  which  he  made  to  this  effect.  He  exposed 
to  the  sun,  for  some  time,  a  sheet  of  white  paper  which  had  received  no  prepara- 
tion, and  he  perceived  that  this  paper,  placed  in  the  camera  obscura  on  a  sheet 
of  sensitive  paper,  blackened  it  as  Uie  light  itself  would  have  done.  Upon  this, 
he  conceived  the  idea  of  insolating  or  exposing  to  the  sun  his  sheet  of  paper 
after  having  first  covered  it  with  a  photoffraphic  stereotype ;  he  then  plaoea  it 
on  a  sensitive  paper.  Not  only  had  the  ^vhite  paper  thus  insolated  acquired  the 
pi-operty  of  reducing  the  salt  of  silver  of  the  sensitive  paper,  but  it  reproduced 
on  its  surface  the  figure  of  the  stereotype. 

This  curious  property  is  exerted  at  a  certain  distance,  but  it  ceases  if  a  plate 
of  glass  or  of  mica  be  interposed.  The  insolated  paper  retains  this  property 
for  some  time  in  darkness,  but  when  once  this  paper  has  produced  a  certain  effect, 
the  property  is  completely  annulled ;  a  new  exposure  to  the  sun  is  nec^sary  to 
restore  it. 

M.  Niepce  made  this  discovery  under  rather  singular  circumstances.  He 
exposed  a  sheet  of  paper  to  the  action  of  the  sun,  enclosed  it  in  a  tube  of  tin, 
and,  at  the  end  of  some  months,  having  opened  the  tube,  he  placed  the  paper  on 
a  sheet  which  had  been  rendered  sensitive.  The  latter  received  the  impression 
in  the  whole  extent  of  the  section  of  the  tube. 

How  is  this  phenomenon  to  be  explained  1  There  are  two  modes  of  doing  it 
M.  Niepce  supposes  that  there  is  light  imprisoned  in  the  insolated  substance. 
This  light  sometimes  remains  stored  therein  for  a  considerable  time,  till  the  oppor- 
tunity occura  for  it  to  produce  an  eflicient  chemical  action.  It  is  scarcely  neces- 
sary to  say  that  this  explanation,  simple  as  it  is,  has  not  met  with  universal  acqui- 
escence 'y  difiiculty  has  been  felt  in  comprehending  how  light  oould  thus  remain 
in  a  latent  state  on  the  surface  of  bodies  for  a  time  which  may  be  termed  indefinite. 

Another  explanation  has  therefore  been  advanced :  it  has  been  supposed  that 
the  solar  radiation  occasions  the  formation  of  highly  oxydable  chemical  pro- 
ducts when  it  takes  impression  on  the  organic  material.  It  would  be  easy  then 
to  explain  the  indefinite  preservation  of  a  volatile  substance  capable  of  acting  at 
a  distance,  and  disappearing  after  having  produced  a  determinate  chemical  enect 

To  which  of  these  two  explanations  should  we  give  the  preference  f  For  my 
own  part,  I  strongly  incline  to  that  of  M.  Niepce,  chiefly  on  account  of  the  fol- 
lowing experiment :  M.  Niepce  takes  a  piece  of  porcelain  presenting  a  fresh 
fractme,  exposes  it  to  the  sun,  and  then  plunges  it  in  the  bath  of  silver,  avoiding 
with  care  the  contact  of  organic  substances ;  having  afterwards  washed  it  with 
pyrogallic  acid,  he  sees  the  silver  immediately  reduced.  It  is  impossible,  how- 
ever, to  admit  the  production  of  an  organic  matter  under  these  conditions.  The 
action  of  the  sun,  whether  on  the  salts  of  silver,  or  on  cnganic  matter,  or  on 
porcelain,  always  produces  the  same  effect. 

I  have  said  that  I  incline  to  the  explanation  of  M.  Niepce :  I  do  so,  however, 
with  some  degree  of  hesitation ;  and  yet,  when  I  see  the  phenomencm  of  phospho- 
rescence, when  I  see  an  alkaline  sulphur  absorb  light  and  give  it  out,  in  the  end) 
under  the  form  of  light,  how  can  we  persist  in  doubting  that  a  substance  like  a 
fracture  of  porcelain  may  so  far  retain  light  as  to  cause  it  to  produce,  i^ter  a  time, 
not  phosphorescence,  indeed,  but  a  chemical  actbn  t  It  is,  in  a  word,  a  force 
which  remains  there,  for  quite  a  long  interval,  until  it  finds  the  ocotaion  ica  ezeit* 


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PHOTOOHBMISTBY.  367 

ing  itself  in  reparodocing  the  phenomenon  of  photochemistry.  However  this 
may  be,  we  continue  the  study  of  these  phenomena. 

If  we  receive  a  pure  spectrum  on  paper  rendered  sensitive,  we  shall  find  that 
the  calorific  rays  do  not  in  general  act :  the  more  luminous  take  no  effect ;  the 
more  refrangihle  rays,  on  the  contrary,  which  also  produce  phosphorescence  and 
fluorescence,  are  the  only  ones  capable  of  developing  chemical  action.  For  the 
chloride  of  silver,  the  effect  commences  at  the  ray  F,  attains  its  maximum  at  H,  and 
becomes  progressively  weaker  up  to  the  limits  of  the  ultra-violet  rays.  For  the 
chloride  of  gold  the  effect  is  more  capricious ;  the  action  is  slow  in  being  pro- 
duced, but,  once  commenced,  it  continues  spontaneously,  even  in  the  dark.  The 
iodide  of  silver  begins  to  alter  in  the  red  and  presents  two  maximums.  These 
few  examples  suffice  to  show  that  each  substance  is  impi'essible  by  particular 
rays. 

We  must  not  think,  however,  that  the  calorific  and  luminous  rays  are  destitute 
of  all  action.  If  a  paper  rendered  sensitive  be  covered  with  glass  of  various 
colors,  blue,  yellow,  or  violet,  for  example,  we  shall  find,  after  an  exposure  of 
some  moments  to  the  sun,  that  the  red  and  yellow  glasses  have  produced  no 
action,  and  that  the  blue  glass  alone  has  acted.  If,  however,  we  begin  by  caus- 
ing the  violet  rays  to  act  for  a  very  short  time,  and  the  sensitive  paper  be  then 
placed  under  red  glass,  the  action  is  continued.  The  red  glass,  which  did  not 
possess  the  property  of  commencing  the  chemical  action,  has  therefore  the  prop- 
erty of  continuing  it  after  it  has  commenced.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  M.  Ed. 
Becquerel,  who  discovered  these  phenomena,  has  given  to  the  rays  of  little  refran- 
gibility  the  name  of  continuator  rays, 

ITie  resin  of  guaiacum  presents  a  peculiar  phenomenon :  it  becomes  oxydized 
only  under  the  influence  of  the  violet  rays.  M.  Becquerel,  having  impregnated 
a  leiif  of  paper  with  resin  of  guaiacum  dissolved  in  alcohol,  exposed  it  to  the 
violet  rays,  which  oxydized  it  in  rendering  it  blue ;  having  then  submitted  it  to 
the  action  of  light  under  a  red  glass,  he  found  that  it  became  deoxydized.  In 
the  case  of  organic  substances,  then,  there  is  an  inverse  action  between  the  lumin- 
ous rays  and  the  chemical  rays  which  it  would  be  interesting  to  study,  especially 
with  reference  to  the  different  phenomena  of  photochemistry.  We  have  pre- 
viously seen  that,  with  the  metallic  salts,  the  chemical  rays  were  alone  excitatorsj 
but  that  the  luminous  rays  were  contintiators.  This  very  important  distinction 
between  the  different  rays  of  the  spectrum  is  again  encountered  in  the  dagueiTco- 
type.  Every  one  knows  how  daguerrean  proofs  are  made.  The  operation  con- 
sists in  exposing  to  the  vapors  of  iodine  a  well-polished  plate  of  silver,  for  the 
purpose  of  covering  it  with  a  thin  layer  of  the  iodide  of  silver ;  it  is  afterwards 
exposed  to  the  light  in  the  camera  obscura.  Wherever  the  light  has  struck  it 
the  iodide  of  silver  is  reduced.  It  suffices  next,  in  order  to  render  the  ima^e 
visible,  to  expose  it  to  mercurial  vapors;  the  mercury  is  fixed,  wherever  the  light 
has  struck  the  plate,  in  the  form  of  minute  globules,  giving  it  a  deadened  color; 
it  is  now  only  necessary  to  wash  the  plate  with  hyposulphite  of  soda.  M.  Glau- 
det  has  shown,  by  the  following  experiment,  that,  even  on  daguerrean  plates, 
the  luminous  rays  destroy  the  effect  of  the  chemical  rays.  He  exposed  an  iodized 
plate  in  the  camera  obsoura,  and  then  cut  it  into  four  parts;  he  observed  that  the 
first  could  condense  the  vapor  of  mercury  and  yield  an  image ;  the  second  he 
left  in  the  dark,  and  placed  the  third  under  a  red  glass.  At  the  expiration  of 
some  time,  the  third  had  lost  and  the  second  had  retained  the  property  of  giving 
an  image  with  mercury;  the  fourth,  kept  also  under  red  glass,  recovered  its  for- 
mer sensibility,  while  it  had  lost  all  trace  of  an  impression.  It  would  therefore 
serve  anew  to  produce  an  image,  a  fact  very  important  in  practice,  because  it 
admits  of  operating  in  the  light. 

Thus  we  see  that  the  violet  rays  possess  the  property  of  deoxydizing  the  metal- 
lic salts  and  of  acting  as  oxydants  on  organic  substances.    The  red  rays,  on  the 


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368  PHOTOOHBMISTBT 

contrarr^  in  the  first  case  are  only  continnators,  bat  they  become  redactors  in  tbe 
presence  of  organic  snbstances. 

MM.  Bansen  and  Boscoe  have  soagbt  to  estimate  the  qaantity  of  the  cheraical 
forces  annually  dischaiged  on  the  globe  by  the  sun ;  they  caused  the  solar  light 
to  penetrate  by  a  very  narrow  aperture  to  a  vessel  containing  a  mixture  of  chlo- 
rine and  hydrogen.  These  gases,  which  do  not  combine  in  darkness,  combined 
over  the  whole  tract  of  the  luminous  ray  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of  the 
radiations  absorbed.  In  a  word,  if  the  aperture  by  which  the  light  arrives  be 
doubled  or  tripled,  the  quantity  of  chlorhydric  acid  formed  is  also  doubled  or 
tripled.  In  this  way,  MM.  Bunsen  and  Roscoe  found  that  the  quantity  of  chemi- 
cal rays  annually  discharged  by  the  sun  is  capable  of  combining  a  stratum  35 
metres  in  depth  of  mixed  hydrogen  and  chlorine  gas.  The  terrestrial  atmo- 
sphere absorbs  a  part  of  these  rays,  so  as  to  reduce  to  17  metres  the  stratum  of 
chlorhydric  acid  which  would  be  formed  under  the  normal  inclination,  and  to  11 
metres  if  the  sun  traversed  the  atmosphere  at  45  degrees. 

It  is  also  to  photochemistry  that  the  action  exerted  by  light  upon  vegetables 
is  to  be  referred.  Bonnet  ascertained  that  leaves  immereed  m  water  and  exposed 
to  the  sun  disengage  a  gas  by  their  under  surface.  Priestley  announced  that 
plants  have  the  property  of  restoring  its  primitive  purity  to  the  air  vitiated  by 
animals.  Towards  the  close  of  his  life,  having  repeated  his  experiment,  be 
arrived  at  a  different  result,  and  failed  to  detect  the  secret  of  this  difference.  It 
was  Ingenhousz  who  explained  this  phenomenon  in  1779.  He  proved  that  under 
the  action  of  the  solar  rays  the  green  parts  of  plants  purify  the  air,  while,  on  the 
contrary,  they  vitiate  it  in  darkness.  By  what  rays  are  these  effects  produced! 
If  the  view  which  we  have  taken  may  be  regarded  as  correct,  we  are  justified  in 
saying  that  it  is  the  red  and  the  yellow  rays  which  caase  the  production  of  oxy- 
gen; the  others  produce  carbonic  acid.  The  experiment  has  been  conducted  by 
M.  Draper,  under  conditions  which  leave  nothing  to  be  desired.  He  took  seven 
tubes  of  glass  containing  water  charged  with  carbonic  acid,  and  introduced  into 
each  a  leaf  of  grass ;  he  then  caused  one  of  the  seven  colors  of  the  spectrum  to 
fall  on  each  tube.  After  an  interval  of  time,  oxygen  was  disengaged  in  the 
tubes  exposed  to  the  yellow  and  red  rays ;  in  the  others  there  was  none.  The 
red  and  yellow  rays,  therefore,  are  those  alone  which  give  to  plants  the  property 
of  renewing  the  oxygen  of  the  air. 

I  shall  conclude  by  stating  in  a  few  words  the  means  employed  in  the  practice 
of  photography.  A  plate  of  glass  is  taken,  perfectly  cleansed,  and  is  covered 
with  a  thin  coat  of  collodion  containing  suitable  proportions  of  bromides  and 
iodides.  Before  the  plate  is  entirely  dry  it  is  plunged  into  the  bath  of  silver, 
the  operation  being  conducted  under  protection  from  the  light;  it  is  then  exposed 
in  the  camera  obscura.  To  bring  out  the  image  it  is  enough  to  wash  with  pyro- 
gallic  acid.  Lastly,  to  prevent  ulterior  alteration  it  is  washed  with  the  hyposul- 
phite of  soda.  It  is  thus  that  a  negative  proof  is  obtained ;  to  obtain  positive 
proofs  it  suffices  to  apply  this  on  paper  rendered  sensitive  and  to  expose  the  whole 
to  the  light 

It  is  not  probable  that  photography  will  be  limited  to  the  progress  which  it 
has  made  up  to  the  present  time.  At  this  moment,  great  hopes  are  entertained 
of  obtaining,  and  that  at  no  distant  day,  not  only  the  outline  of  objects,  but  also 
their  proper  color.  Some  time  has  already  elapsed  since  M.  Edmond  Becquerel 
conceived  the  idea  of  submitting  to  the  action  of  the  solar  spectrum  a  plate  on 
which  he  had  deposited  a  thin  layer  of  iodide  of  silver.  After  the  lapse  of  a 
considerable  time  he  thus  obtained  a  perfectly  distinct  image  of  the  spectrom, 
with  its  stripes ;  and,  what  is  remarkable,  even  the  obscure  calorific  rays  were 
also  represented.  But  the  point  most  to  be  remarked  in  this  experiment  is  that 
the  spectrum  was  colored.  Unfortunately  it  was  impossible  to  fix  these  images, 
and  only  a  very  fugitive  proof  was  obtained.  M.  Niepoe  de  Saint  Victor  ocoa- 
pied  himself  with  these  phenomena,  and  obtained  in  the  camera  obscura  photo 


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PH0T0CHEMI8TRT.  369 

OTaphio  portraitares,  chiefly  of  dolls,  with  their  colors.  He  did  not  succeed, 
however,  any  more  than  M.  Becquerel,  in  obtaining  a  persistent  image.  M. 
Poiterin  has  taken  up  the  inquiry,  and  by  means  of  paper  rendered  sensitive 
throagh  chloride  of  gold  and  chromic  acid,  has  obtained  colored  images  of  qnite 
pleasing  i^pearanoe,  a  little  more  darable,  and  which  mav  be  even  preserved  in 
an'albmn.  Their  preservation,  however,  is  cpmpatible  only  with  a  diffused  light ; 
but  it  is  probable  that  ere  long  success  will  attend  the  efforts  for  perfecting  this 
part  of  photography. 

In  concluding,  I  would  wish  to  give  especial  prominence  to  the  idea  that,  if 
heretofore  much  attention  has  been  bestowed  on  photography,  there  is  still  some- 
thing more  interesting.  It  is  the  chemical  action  of  light ;  it  is  this  transforma- 
tion of  a  certain  sort  of  movements  in  a  phenomenon  which,  until  now,  has  been 
considered  as  a  mechanical  one,  but  which  enters,  through  these  experiments, 
into  the  phenomena  of  optics. 


24  s  67 


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DORPAT  AND  POULKOVA. 


BT  CLEVKLAND  ABBE,  DIRECTOR  CIKCIirNlTI  0B8ERVAT0RT. 


The  present  condition  of  practical  astronomy  in  the  limited  States  most 
awaken  strong  hopes  of  oar  future  eminence  in  cultivating  this  most  useful 
science.  But  in  order  to  avoid  committing  grave  mistakes  and  to  press  due 
onward  in  the  path  of  usefulness,  we  must  carefully  study  and  profit  by  the  expe- 
rience of  our  predecessors.  Gennany  and  England  have  each  impressed  certain 
characteristic  features  upon  astronomical  instruments  and  methods  of  research : 
it  may  be  expected  that  the  younger  nations,  Russia  and  America,  will  with  cos- 
mopolitan impartiality  make  such  use  of  the  results  of  the  past  experience  of 
astronomers  as  will  determine  an  epoch  of  still  further  advancement. 

We  should  do  injustice  and  convey  an  erroneous  iraiJi'ession,  however,  if  we 
characterized  any  school  of  astronomy  as  especially  national — for  it  is  and  must 
be  in  a  considerable  degree  individual.  It  is  to  Kepler  and  Roeraer,  to  Bradley 
and  Herschel,  to  Bessel  and  Airy,  that  practical  astronomy  is  indebted  for  much 
of  its  present  perfection,  if,  indeed,  we  ought  to  make  any  distinctions  among  tn 
host  of  names  of  those  who  have  contributed  their  experience  and  labors  towards 
the  increase  of  human  knowledge.  Those  who  have  studied  the  steady  march 
of  our  science  during  the  past  fifty  yeare  scarcely  need  to  be  reminded  of  him 
to  whom  Dorpat  owes  its  fame  and  Poulkova  its  magnificence.  To  appreciate 
this  latter  imperial  observatory  one  must  consider  the  beginning  of  the  history 
of  Struve  and  his  school  of  astronomy  in  their  humbler  home  in  Dorpat,  iho 
Heidelberg  of  northern  Europe  :  to  that  beautiful  city  let  us  direct  our  steps. 

Leaving  the  St.  Petersburg  and  Warsaw  milroad  at  Pskoff,  whose  mouldering 
battlements  have  not  long  been  deserted  by  mailed  warriors,  sunrise  finda  us  on 
board  of  a  neat  little  steamboat  that  is  to  bear  us  down  a  quiet  river  and  over 
the  famous  lake  Peipus,  away  from  Russia  westward  into  the  ancient  country 
of  the  conquered  Letts.  Very  interesting  are  the  views  of  the  Lettish  fishermen 
and  their  villages  on  our  right  and  left  as  we  in  the  afternoon  ascend  the  mean- 
dering Embach.  At  length  the  last  rays  of  the  setting  sun  suddenly  disclose 
before  us  the  dome  of  the  observatory  and  the  ruins  of  the  cathedral,  amidst 
gix)ves  whose  bright  autumn  leaves  annually  strew  and  will  at  last  obliterate 
the  battle-field  and  the  fortress. 

Many  are  the  eventful  years  preserved  in  the  history  of  the  ancient  town  of 
"  Derpt."  Centuries  before  the  building  of  its  majestic  cathedral,  the  fortreesed 
hill,  covered  with  its  primeval  forests,  was  the  chosen  battle-ground  of  Swedes, 
Letts,  Finns,  and  Ests — themselves  the  successors  of  the  antediluvian  races 
whose  only  records  are  now  found  in  the  stone  implements  collected  in  the 
museum  of  the  Univcreity.  The  westwai'd  progress  of  the  Sclavonic  empire 
caused  the  village  at  the  foot  of  the  hill  to  become  a  city  of  merchants ;  whilst 
with  its  increasing  wealth  and  strong  fortifications  it  became  in  peace  the  thorough- 
fare of  the  overland  traffic  between  Europe  and  China  and  in  war  the  coveted 
strategic  post.  Seven  times  sacked  and  burned,  it  had  as  often  risen  anew  from 
beneath  its  ashes,  until  finally  the  civilization  of  southern  Europe  and  the  found- 
ing of  St.  Petersburg  robbed  Dorpat  of  its  importance.  An  hundred  years  ago 
there  remained  only  ruins  and  the  remembrance  of  former  glory.  Hei^e,  black 
and  mossy  with  age,  the  old  stone  bridge  still  spanned  the  Embach  j  thciv, 
portions  of  the  rebuilt   walls,  and  the  quaint  chiux;h  of  St.  John's^  told  uf 


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DORPAT  AND   POULKOVA.  371 

bygone  times ;  whilst  always,  with  impressive  silence,  the  crumblinff  cathedral 
looked  down  from  its  commanding  height,  directing  one's  thoughts  through  the 
five  past  centuries  back  to  the  time  when  its  own  beauty  was  renowned  through 
all  the  land. 

Seeking  to  retain  for  Dorpat  its  former  military  importance,  the  Empress 
Catherine  ordered  her  engineers  to  make  of  the  entire  hul,  including  the  cathe- 
dral, an  impregnable  fortress.  The  work  was  left  only  partially  finished  at  the 
close  of  the  past  century,  and  the  immense  earthworks  still  remain.  May  they 
ever  stand  as  an  emblem  that  wisdom  is  stronger  than  force,  and  that  the  reign 
of  war  is  to  be  everywhere  succeeded  by  the  reign  of  knowledge. 

It  was  certainly  the  instinct  Of  true  wisdom  that  in  1802  prompted  the  Emperor 
Alexander  I  to  dedicate  this  hill  to  the  use  of  his  new  university.  The  for- 
fortifications  have  been  planted  with  shade  trees,  in  the  midst  of  which  are  found 
the  ruined  cathedral,  several  of  the  university  buildings,  and  the  pleasure  walks 
of  the  Dorpat  students.  On  the  northeast  brow  of  the  hill  is  the  observatory, 
built  upon  the  massive  foundation  walls  of  the  former  bishops'  palatial  residence;  a 
few  steps  from  its  porch  brings  one  to  the  brink  of  bastions  fifty  and  one  hundred  feet 
high ;  whilst  from  its  dome  the  eye  ranges  over  that  beautiful  country  whose  fitness 
inviie<l  Stmve  to  begin  the  geodetic  work  that  forty  years  later  had  stretched  north- 
wards to  the  Arctic  sea  and  southwards  to  the  Danube.  As  the  illustrious  Carl 
Bitter  could  in  the  growth  of  his  own  mind  trace  the  influence  of  the  wide  pano- 
ramic view  familiar  to  him  in  his  youth,  so  may  we  well  believe  that  the  ever 
present  "Dom  Ruine"  and  the  beautiful  broad  landscape  have  exerted  no  little 
influence  upon  the  lives  of  Struve  and  the  many  others  who  with  him  hail  Dor- 
pat as  Alma  Mater.  Thrice  dedicated ;  to  l^ar,  to  Religion,  to  Education ;  may 
'^coming  centuries  still  find  the  home  of  leai*ning  sheltered  beneath  those  quiet 
groves." 

It  is  with  pleasure  that  one  contemplates  the  life  of  a  great  and  good  man, 
whose  whole  course  was  a  continued  success,  and  who  richly  merited  the  unbounded 
favor  of  emperors  and  the  lasting  respect  of  all.  Such  was  Friedric  Georg 
Wilhelm  Struve  j  and  often  as  the  story  of  his  brilliant  career  has  been  told,  we 
will  again  reheai'se  its  noteworthy  features. 

Inheriting  great  ability,  he  received  at  the  hands  of  wise  and  devoted  chris- 
tian parents,  at  their  home  in  Altona,  so  thorough  a  physical  and  mental  develop- 
ment that  at  his  entrance,  in  1808,  at  the  age  of  15,  into  the  student  life  of  the 
university  at  Dorpat,  his  superiority  was  already  perceived.  His  elder  brother 
Carl  was  then  a  lecturer  at  the  university,  and  his  own  attention  was  strongly 
turned  to  philology  as  afibrding  a  very  congenial  field  for  futui-e  lifelong  labor. 
It  was  not  until  after  three  yeare  spent  in  hterary  studies,  and  after  gaining  the 
highest  university  prizes,  that  he  began  to  attend  the  lectures  of  II nth  on  math- 
ematics and  of  PaiTot  on  physics.  Iluth  had  in  1809  succeeded  Pfafl'  as  pro- 
fessor of  mathematics  and  director  of  the  observatory,  and  held  this  chair  until 
his  death,  in  1815. 

Obliged,  for  self-support,  to  give  instmction  as  a  private  tutor,  his  residence  at 
Sagnitz  with  his  patron,  the  Count  von  Berg,  was  fortunate,  in  that  Struve  could 
find  convenient  relaxation  from  his  duties  in  making  a  slight  topographical  i-econ- 
noissance  of  the  suiTounding  country.  This  was  in  the  summer  of  1811,  a  period 
signalized  by  the  splendor  of  the  gieat  comet  of  that  year.  No  wonder  then, 
that  when  in  the  autumn  Struve  began  his  attendance  upon  the  scientific  lectures 
of  Iluth  and  Panot,  he,  as  an  enthusiastic  student,  with  his  own  hands  released 
the  long-neglected  telescopes  from  their  packing  boxes,  and  periected  himself  in 
their  use.  Ilis  obsen'alions  of  the  angle  of  position  of  the  components  of  Castor, 
in  August,  1811,  show  that  his  attention  was  now  engaged  by  astronomy  as 
decidedly  as  it  had  in  the  eariy  summer  been  turned  towards  geodesy.  Through 
the  remainder  of  Struve's  life  these  correlated  subjects  equally  engrossed  his 
energies  and  were  equally  advanced  by  his  labors. 


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372  DORPAT  AND  POULKOYA. 

With  tlie  reception  of  bis  doctor^s  degree,  in  October  1813,  and  tbe  commem- 
orative memoir  upon  tbe  geograpbical  pomtion  of  Dorpat,  Strove  ceased  to  be 
ranked  among  tbe  students,  and  receiveci  in  tbe  following  montb  an  appointment 
as  professor  extraordinary  and  astronomical  observer.  Tbis  was  accomplisbed 
tbrougb  tbe  influence  of  Professor  Parrot,  to  wbom  Dorpat  and  science  tbus  owe 
many  tbanks. 

The  observatory  bad  been  built  under  Pfaff's  directorsbip,  and  fomisbed  witb 
some  instruments ;  but  tbese  migbt  bave  long  remained  useless  and  unknown 
bad  not  an  indefatigable  observer  been  sent  in  tbe  person  of  tbe  young  student 
who  now  succeeded  to  Paucker  as  tbe  **  observer"  under  Hutb's  directorsbip. 

It  was  not  in  Strave's  power  to  remove  tbe  many  defects  in  tbe  observatory 
building  and  instraments;  but  then,  as  ever  afterward,  be  showed  bis  ability  and 
disposition  to  make  the  best  possible  use  of  whatever  means  were  at  bis  disposal, 
as  be  himself  explains  in  the  introduction  to  tbe  first  volume  of  tbe  Dorpat 
Observations : 

When,  three  years  ago,  the  position  of  observer  in  this  astronomical  observatory  was 
given  to  me,  I  considered  long  and  seriously  whether  I  might  not,  in  the  then  state  of  the 
observatory,  carry  on  such  a  class  of  observations  as  that  something  of  use  in  increasing  our 
knowledge  of  the  starry  heavens  might  possibly  be  deduced  therefrom. 

England  bad  long  been  celebrated  for  instroments,  and  tbe  massive  walls  of 
Dorpat  observatory  contained  fine  specimens  of  tbe  work  of  tbe  best  English 
mechanicians.  One  may  still  see  tbese  preserved  there  as  mementos  of  bygone 
days. 

The  control  of  tbe  instroments  was  now  left  by  Huth  entirely  in  Strave's 
bands,  and  from  the  commencement  of  1814  dates  tbe  scientific  activity  of  tbe 
obseiTatory,  whose  history  for  twenty-five  years  continues  to  be  identified  with  that 
of  Strove ;  for  the  succeeding  quarter  century  it  has  been  honored  by  the  pi-esence 
of  the  illustrious  Maedler ;  at  present  Professor  Clausen  witb  cordial  hospitality 

Presides  within  its  honored  waJls.     It  is  not  our  design  to  trace  minutely  tbe 
istory  of  the  observatory  and  its  director,  but  rather  to  call  attention  to  the 
steps  by  which  were  realized  the  hopes  and  plans  of  Strove's  early  youth. 

In  June,  1812,  whilst  conducting  some  experimental  trigonometrical  surveys 
in  Livonia,  Strove  foresaw  the  grandeur  of  the  geodesical  operations  that  migbt 
grow  from  the  beginning  there  made.  His  first  scientific  journey  in  1814,  and 
bis  second  in  1815,  (which  was  also  bis  wedding  tour,)  introduced  him,  as  tbe 
astronomical  observer  of  Dorpat,  to  many  of  the  prominent  German  astronomers, 
and  opened  a  personal  acquaintance  that  was  afterwards  of  eminent  seiirice  to 
bim.  His  succession  in  1815  to  tbe  vacancy  caused  by  the  death  of  Professor 
Huth  placed  him  in  a  position  uf  authority  j  and  the  separation  in  1822  of  the 
chairs  of  astronomy  and  mathematics  (tbis  latter  being  given  to  Professor  Bartela, 
to  whom  Professor  Minding  now  succeeds)  left  Strove  full  liberty  to  push  for- 
ward in  his  chosen  field  of  activity. 

The  geodesic  work  for  tbe  map  of  tbe  province  of  Livonia,  ordered  by  tbe 
Lieffland  Economic  Society,  occupied  tbe  summers  of  the  years  1816-1819,  and 
brought  theguodesist  in  contact  with  General  Tenner,  of  tbe  Kussian  military  engi- 
neers, who  was  pursuing  a  similar  work  in  tbe  neighboring  provinces.  No  sooner 
was  Struve's  work  finished  (in  its  prosecution  a  1 0-inch *sextant  and  an  arc  for  tbo 
measurement  of  small  vertical  angles  wei'e  tbe  principal  instroments  used)  than 
be  laid  Lis  definitive  plans  for  the  measurement  of  an  arc  of  3"*  35'  before  tbe 
council  of  the  university,  by  whom  the  luidei'taking  was  sanctioned.  The  neces- 
sary appropriation  was  grantetl  by  tbe  Emperor  Alexander,  who  directed  that 
Strove  should  order  tbe  needed  instroments  in  person,  from  the  best  makers ; 
and  who  further  showed  bis  appreciation  of  the  astronomer's  past  labors  by  a 
munificent  appropriation  for  the  purchase  of  better  instruments  for  tbe  university 
observatory. 

In  the  summer  of  1820  Strove  made  hi?  fl"«^  '^nroey,  visiting  soutbera  as 


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DORPAT  AND   POULKOVA.  373 

well  as  northern  Grermany,  drawing  to  bim  the  hearts  and  good  wishes  of  all, 
er^pecially  his  younger  co-workers.  Having  seen  the  most  renowned  mechanists 
and  discussed  with  them  the  details  of  his  new  and  Icme-hoped-for  instruments, 
he  retmned  to  the  nniversity  to  await  their  arrival.  The  Beichenbacb  Uni- 
versal Instrument  was  received  in  1821,  and  in  1824  he  began  to  use  it  in  the 
proposed  geodesic  operations,  (in  which  Baron  von  Wrangell,  of  the  Russian  navy, 
was  his  emcient  co-laborer.)  This  latter  work  was  nearly  completed  in  five  years. 
The  results  are  found  in  the  "  Beschreibung  der  Breitengradraessung ;  Dorpat, 
1831."  The  three-foot  meridian  circle,  the  mate  of  which  was  found  atKdnigs- 
berg,  was  received  at  the  observatory  in  1822.  Observations  with  it  began  in 
October,  the  winter  months  being  henceforth  especially  devoted  to  astronomical 
labors.  It  was  in  this  year  also  that  officers  of  the  army  and  navy  began  to  be 
sent  to  Dorpat  to  study  practical  astronomy  under  a  man  of  such  abuity.  In 
JCovember,  1824,  the  nine-inch  refractor  erf  Frauenhofer  was  received,  and  in 
February  was  begun  the  review  of  the  heavens,  whose  results  were  published 
in  1827  in  the  ^'Catalogus  novus  generalis  stellarum  duplicium  et  multiplicium." 
Jn  this  latter  year  it  was  that  Professor  Parrot  was  called  from  Dorpat  to  reside 
at  St.  Petersburg  as  a  member  of  the  Imperial  Academy  of  Sciences,  and  almost 
directly  thereafter  he  was  commissioned  to  prepare  for  the  Academy  the  plans 
for  the  new  astronomical  observatory,  whose  erection  had  long  been  before  the 
oonsidemtion  of  that  body. 

The  labors  imposed  on  Dorpat  during  the  years  1820-1830  only  stirred  the 
unwearied  savant  to  greater  undertakings,  and  as  the  work  on  the  arc  of  the 
meridian  drew  to  a  close,  Struve,in  1830,  presented  to  the  Prince  von  Lieven,the 
minister  of  public  instruction,  a  memoir  relative  to  the  possibility  of  prolon^ng 
this  arc  northwards  through  Finland.  Simultaneously  with  Struve,  General  Ten- 
ner had  been  at  work  to  the  southward ;  the  junction  of  Tenner's  and  Struve's 
work  had  been  effected  in  1828-1829,  affording  a  meridian  arc  of  8''  2^,  which, 
by  the  proposed  measurement  of  an  arc  of  6**  26'  in  Finland,  could  be  united  to 
the  work  of  the  French  astronomers  in  Lapland,  thus  completing  an  arc  of  15  J**. 
The  difficulties  to  be  encountered  in  Finland  promised  to  be  unusually  great, 
but  the  desirability*  of  the  work  was  properly  represented,  and  the  Emperor 
Kieholas  I  granted  at  once  the  sum  thought  to  be  sufficient  for  its  completion 
within  ten  years. 

In  the  spring  of  this  year,  and  in  connection  with  the  great  undertaking  just 
mentioned,  Struve  made  his  fourth  scientific  journey,  extending  it  to  England, 
and  in  December  visited  St.  Petersburg,  where  he  was,  in  January,  1831,  hon- 
ored by  a  personal  interview  with  the  Emperor— an  interview  fraught  with  the 
happiest  consequences  to  the  progress  of  astronomy  in  Eussia.  1  his  was  the 
moment  that  had  long  been  looked  forward  to  by  the  director  of  the  Dorpat 
obsei-vatory,  who  had  doubtless  foreseen  the  inevitable  result  that  would  in  due 
time  How  from  his  labors,  both  as  geodesist  and  astronomer,  during  the  previous 
fifteen  years.  Struve's  admirable  tact  and  the  eloquence  of  his  earnest  sincerity 
were  ever  equal  to  the  demands  of  the  occasion,  and  we  cannot  do  better  than  quote 
his  own  account  of  this  interview,  at  which  the  minister  of  public  instructiony 
the  Prince  von  Lieven,  was  the  third  person  present : 

Having  listened  to  my  report  upon  the  late  scientific  jonmey,  and  after  having  mcionslj 
granted  an  increased  sum  to  the  obaervatory  of  Dorpat,  the  Emperor  condeeceuoed  to  pot 
to  me  the  followiug  questions : 

*•  What  is  your  opinion  of  the  observatory  of  St.  Petersburg?" 

I  did  not  hesitate  to  respond,  in  all  frankness  and  in  accordance  with  the  exact  kmth, 
that  the  observatory  of  the  Academy  did  not  at  all  correspond  to  the  present  demands  of 
science,  and  that  it  partook  of  the  nature  of  all  the  establishments  of  its  kind  placed  in  the 
midst  of  large  cities,  as  those  of  Vienna,  of  Berlin,  &c.,  and  even  of  Paris,  where  the  meridian 
instrnmeirts  ought  to  be  removed  from  the  colossal  edifice  constructed  under  the  reig^  of 
Lonis  XIV,  and  be  placed  in  modest  apartments  adjacent  to  the  principal  strnctnre. 

Having  listened  to  this  reply,  his  Majesty  addressed  tho  miuintei  of  public  instruction, 
sa}iug  that  he  regarded  the  establishment  of  an  observatory  of  the  first  rank  near  to  the 
ca|>ital  as  an  oljcct  of  high  utility  and  important  to  the  scientific  honor  of  Soasia. 

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374  DORPAT  AND  POULKOVA. 

The  ministec  did  not  fail  to  inform  the  Emperor  that  the  Academj  of  Sciences  had  for 
Bomo  yearri  oc^npicd  itself  with  the  project  ot  a  new  observatory,  and  that  he  had  onl j 
awaited  the  completion  of  the  plans  and  drawing  in  order  to  lay  them  before  his  Majesty. 
Then  the  £mp<jror  ordered  that  th<-  project  should  be  presented  to  him  as  soon  as  it  shoald 
have  been  matured.  Finally,  his  Majesty  condescended  to  direct  his  attention  to  the  choice 
of  the  location  for  the  institution  to  be  erected.  The  minister  having^  mentioned  the  site  to 
the  north  of  the  city  and  offered  as  a  gift  to  the  Academy,  the  Emperor  condescended  to 
express  himself  in  the  following  terms : 

**^  How  ?  The  Academy  thinks  to  place  the  new  observatory  quite  near  the  city  on  the 
north  side,  and  upon  a  sandy  and  marshy  soil  ?  That  is  hardly  advisable.  I  would  suggest 
another  position.     It  is  upon  ihe  heights  of  Poulkova  that  the  observatory  should  be  placed.'* 

Then  bis  Majesty  condescended  to  address  to  me  the  following  words: 

**  Sir  Astronomer,  you  perhaps  think  it  strange  that  the  Emperor  should  wish  to  correct 
the  Academy  in  a  scientihc  matter.  But  do  you  lino w  Poulkova,  and  what  do  you  think  of 
the  site  ?  ** 

My  reply  was  that  in  1828,  passing  for  the  first  time  by  Poulkova  in  the  company  of  tha 
Baron  von  Wrangell,  I  had  beisn  so  struck  with  its  position  that  I  had,  as  if  prophetically, 
exclaimed :  '*  There  upon  the  hill  of  Poulkova  it  is  that  we  shall  one  day  behold  the  observa- 
tory of  St  Petersburg." 

Such  is  Struve^s  mphio  acoonnt  of  his  first  interview  with  the  Emperor 
Nicholas.  How  Tarely  does  history  offer  tp  us  a  brighter  pictare  than  this  in 
which,  the  fmnk  and  enthusiastic  savant  reveals  to  the  willing  monarch  the  path 
to  honorable  glory. 

The  astronomer  returned  to  Dorpat  to  find  that  the  endowment  of  his  observ- 
atory had  been  largely  increased,  and  that  he  was  in  a  position  to  undertake  still 
greater  labors. 

It  was  in  October,  1833,  that  the  Emperor  Nicholas  saw  fit  to  give  his  definite 
ordere  concerning  a  new  observatory.  The  long  matured  plans  of  Professor 
Parrot  and  the  Academy  were  thereupon  presented ;  these  being  accepted,  their 
execution,  at  an  estimated  expense  of  200,000  silver  roubles,  was  orderedi  A 
committee,  consisting  of  Messrs.  Wisnieffski,  Fuss,  Parrot,  and  Struve,  was 
appointed  by  the  minister  of  public  instruction  (Ouvaroff )  to  study  and  execute 
the  plans  approved  of  by  the  Emperor  on  the  recommendation  of  the  Academy. 
It  was  as  well  an  impulse  of  duty  towards  his  science  as  of  gratitude  to  his 
benefactor,  that  led  Struve  lo  express  to  the  minister  his  opinion  "  that  the  plan 
proposed  by  the  Academy  and  given  into  the  hands  of  this  committee  would  fail 
to  realize  the  high  anticipations  of  their  august  sovereign.''  The  committee 
were  ordered  to  revise  their  work ;  new  plans  were  matured ;  the  details  of  the 
mutual  relations  of  the  prospective  astronomers  of  the  institution  were  discussed 
with  the  Empei-or  in  person ;  Admiral  Greig,  the  founder  of  the  observatory  at 
Kicolairsk,  was  made  president  of  the  commission,  and  in  March,  1834,  the 
ground  was  occupied  for  the  erection  of  the  new  observatory.  In  tlie  following 
month  Struve,  on  behalf  of  the  committee,  was  presented  again  to  the  Emperor, 
and  a  second  time  his  personal  representations  resulted  to  the  advantage  of  the 
interests  of  astronomy.  After  explaining  the  motives  that  had  led  the  com- 
mittee to  prepare  plans  for  a  far  more  costly  observatory  than  had  been  before 
contemplated,  these  latter  received  the  imperial  sanction,  and  Struve  was  ordered 
to  superintend  in  person  the  construction  of  the  necessary  instruments. 

In  the  following  summer  a  fifth  journey  into  Germany  was  made  on  busineae, 
which  was  specially  congenial  to  Struve.  After  months  of  study  and  discussion 
on  the  details  of  the  new  instruments,  Ertel  of  Munich  and  Repsold  of  Ham- 
burg were  intrusted  with  their  construction,  and  they  have  since  proved  them- 
selves well  worthy  of  their  places  in  the  Central  Observatory.  The  coiner- stone 
of  the  building  was  laid  with  due  formality  on  the  3d  of  July,  (June  25,  O.  S.,) 
1835,  and  the  entire  structure  progressed  slowly  but  steadily  towards  completion. 
In  1838,  on  his  sixth  journey,  Struve  revisited  Hamburg  and  Munich,  examined 
his  new  instruments,  now  nearly  completed,  and,  after  making  minor  improve- 
ments, finally  approved  them  as  satisfactory.  He  had  foiu:  years  previously  been 
directed  by  the  Emperor  to  superintend  the  constiiiction  and  equipment  of  the 


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DORPAT  AND  POULKOVA  375 

observatory ;  he  was  now  chosen  by  the  Academy  of  Sciences  and  confirmed 
by  the  Emperor  as  the  first  duector.  In  the  spring  of  1839  he  removed  his 
residence  from  Doipat  tor  Poulkova,  and  on  the  19th  of  August  the  formal 
inauguration  of  the  activity  of  th^  observatory  was  celebratecl.  and  those  under 
whose  guidance  so  complete  a  success  had  been  attained  receiveti  the  well-deserved 
congratulations  of  the  Emperor  and  the  astronomers  of  his  empire. 

Whilst  we  are  thus  contemplating  the  rise  of  Poulkova  we  should  not  for- 
get the  importance  of  the  past  ten  years  in  the  history  of  Dorpat.  From  182S 
to  1831  Struve  and  Tenner  had  been  engaged  in  joining  their  respective  meas- 
urements of  meridian  arcs.  The  description  of  this  operation  was  published  in 
1832;  the  full  account  of  Struve's  work  having  appeared  in  1831  in  the  "Die 
Breitengradmessunff."  The  operations  in  Finland  were  then  taken  in  hand 
and  pushed  on  to  their  completion  in  1844,  the  difficulties  of  the  gn>und  and 
the  distraction  incident  to  the  erection  of  the  Poulkova  observatory  having 
delayed  the  work  only  a  very  little.  In  1 837  was  published  in  the  "  Mensurse 
Micrometricae"  the  observations  on  double  stars,  made  with  the  Frauenhofer 
refiractor,  during  the  thirteen  years  that  had  elapsed  since  its  i-eception  in  1824  in 
Dorpat.  In  1839  appeared  the  fine  volume  containing  the  Dorpat  observations 
of  Bailey's  comet  in  1835.  Add  to  these  the  regular  meridional  observations 
and  then:  reductions  for  the  years  1825-1841,  as  found  published  in  the  6th,  7th, 
8th  and  9th  volumes  of  the  Dorpat  '^Observationes  Astronomicae,"  and  we  see 
that  the  older  observatoir  was  not  neglected  in  the  expectation  of  the  new.  In 
the  year  1822  had  been  maugurated,  as  before  mentioned,  the  practice  of  send- 
ing a  few  military  and  naval  officers  to  Dorpat  to  study  under  Struve ;  his 
course  of  lectures  was  continued  with  but  few  interruptions  until,  by  his  removal 
to  Poulkova,  he  was  able  to  make  that  a  school  of  practical  astronomy  as  well 
I  as  an  observatory. 

The  history  of  Dorpat  after  the  inauguration  of  Poulkova  presents  several 
very  interesting  chapters ;  the  quiet  of  the  shady  walks  under  her  linden  groves 
was  no  longer  enlivened  by  the  activity  of  the  many  students  whom  Struve  had 
gathered  about  him,  but  if  the  professors  missed  their  brilliant  co-worker,  or  the 
social  circles  missed  his  numerous  family,  all  were  in  part  reconciled  to  their  loss 
by  the  presence  of  his  celebrated  successor  who  was  called  to  Dorpat,  after  some 
little  delay.  In  the  winter  of  1865-'66  Professor  Maedler  retired  from  his 
directorship  to  find  in  elaborate  historical  investigations  that  rest  from  his  exhaust- 
ing astronoYnical  labors  which  failing  sight  had  forced  upon  him.  Six  volumes  of 
Dorpat  observations  published  during  the  quarter  century  of  his  administration 
attest  the  activity  of  the  observatory,  and  many  investigations  into  the  orbits 
of  double  stars,  as  well  as  those  upon  the  proper  motions  of  the  stars  and  of  our 
eolar  system,  show  his  ability  as  an  astronomer.  The  present  director.  Professor 
Clausen,  and  his  assistant,  Mr.  Schwartz,  well  known  by  his  contributions  to  the 
geography  of  Siberia,  have  added  to  their  other  labors  a  series  of  observations 
with  the  Reichenbaeh  meridian  circle  in  accordance  with  the  plan  proposed  by 
Argelander,  as  a  means  for  comparing  the  peculiarities  of  the  principal  instra- 
ments  and  observers  of  the  world. 

It  has  been  remarked  that  after  the  inauguration  of  Poulkova  it  became  instead 
of  Dorpat  the  school  of  practical  astronomy  for  Eussian  officers  and  scientists. 
Of  the  former  over  seventy  names  are  recorded  during  the  first  twenty-five  years 
of  the  existence  of  the  observatoiv,  all  of  whom  have  more  or  less  distinguished 
themselves  by  their  ability  and  activity.  Of  Eussian  and  foreign  professional  astro- 
nomers about  forty  have  within  the  same  period  availed  themselves  of  the  privi- 
lege of  from  one  to  five  years'  residence  at  this  magnificent  institution,  of  whom 
many  are  alreadv  well  known  in  the  astronomical  world.  It  was  inevitable 
that  the  educated  geodesists  sent  out  from  Poulkova  through  the  length  and 
breadth  of  the  Eussian  dominions  should  secure  for  thek  scientific  alma  mater 
the  honor  and  influence  that  she  so  richly  merited.    Struve  was  pre-eminently  an 

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376  DORPAT  AND  POULKOVA. 

utilitarian,  and  lie  found  in  this  opening  field  of  usefulness  the  proper  opportu- 
nity for  fully  reimbursing  the  government  for  the  great  expenses  attendant  upon 
the  maintenance  of  the  observatory.  But  the  diversion  of  the  small  astronomi- 
cal force  of  the  observatory  from  scientific  investigations  to  practical  appUcadons, 
from  study  to  teaching,  in  the  course  of  time  threatened  to  seriously  interfere 
with  the  attainment  of  the  first  and  important  aim  of  the  institution.  So  long  aa 
the  extended  labors  of  the  Central  Observatory  were  borne  by  five  persons,  (the 
director  and  four  adjunct  astronomers,)  so  long  must  the  general  progress  of  the 
observatory  work  be  painfully  slow,  and  the  urgent  need  for  making  provision 
for  further  assistance,  especially  in  the  matter  of  reductions,  became  daily  more 
pressing. 

It  was  in  1856  that  the  observatory  was  called  upon  to  lament  the  death  of  its 
founder  and  friend,  Nicholas  I,  whose  name  it  has  since  borne,  but  the  imperial 
successor,  the  present  Alexander  II,  failed  not  to  provide  bountifully  for  the 
proper  maintenance  of  an  institution  so  usefril  to  the  state  and  so  honorable  as  a 
testimonial  to  the  wise  munificence  of  his  father.  Within  a  year  the  annual 
income  of  the  observatory  was  doubled,  and  the  friendly  dispositions  of  the 
department  of  war,  of  the  navy,  and  of  public  instruction,  were  abundantly  mani- 
fested by  their  respective  ministers.  Not  only  were  the  hitherto  meagre  salaries 
of  the  four  astronomers  now  properly  incrc^ised,  but  by  the  addition  of  two 
adjunct  astronomers  and  two  permanent  computers,  as  well  as  by  the  ability  to 
engage  temporary  assistance,  the  effiective  working  force  of  the  observatory  was 
nearly  doubled,  and  the  immediate  danger  that  abstract  science  would  be  entirely 
supplanted  by  its  practioal  applications  was  averted. 

The  change  in  the  relations  of  the  Central  Observatory  to  the  various  depart- 
ments of  the  civil  government  which  was  brought  about  during  the  succeeding 
five  yeai's  was  the  inevitable  consequence  of  iis  active  usefulness  during  the  first 
eighteen  years  of  its  history.  We  will  briefly  condder  the  work  done  at  Poul- 
kova  during  this  period,  though  we  can  scarcely  do  more  than  enumerate  the 
titles  of  the  most  important  of  the  one  hundred  and  fifteen  memoirs  published  by 
its  astronomers  previous  to  1858. 

The  long  series  of  Dorpat  meridian  observations  extending  from  1822  to  1843, 
already  published  in  successive  volumes  and  in  separate  treatises,  required,  iu 
Struve's  opinion,  a  final  revision  as  regards  their  reductions,  and  a  publication  as 
one  work,  inasmuch  as  they  had  been  conducted  upon  one  plan  and  formed  con- 
secutive portions  of  a  symmetrical  whole.  The  original  Dorpat  records  of  obser- 
vation are  still  preserved  at  Poulkova  in  accordaiice  with  the  laws  regarding 
that  observatory,  ahd  from  them  were  compiled  the  resulting  catalogue :  Stel- 
larum  fixarum  positiones  mediae;  auctore  F.  G.  W.  Struve,  Petropoli.  1852. 
The  following  works  must  be  considered  as  preliminary  to  this  invaluable  cata- 
logue :  The  Deduction  of  the  Constant  of  Precession,  (St.  Petersburg,  1842,)  by 
Otto  Struve ;  the  Deduction  of  the  Constants  of  Nutation  and  Aberration^  by 
Schidlofiski,  (Dorpat,  1841,)  by  Lundahl,  (Helsingfors,  1842,)  and  by  Peters, 
($t.  Petersburg,  1842.)  In  conjunction  with  the  last  named  memoir  is  to  bo 
placed  the  determination  by  Struve  (St.  Petersburg,  1843,)  of  the  constant  of  aber- 
ration from  his  own  observations  made  in  1839-1842  with  the  Poulkova  Repsold 
Prime  Vertical  Transit  This  last  was  the  first  important  publication  of  observa- 
tions made  at  Poulkova,  and  was  shortly  followed  (1844)  by  Peters's  Observa- 
tions with  the  Ertel  Vertical  Circle  upon  the  Pole  Starj  in  both  of  which 
works  the  scientific  world  found  the  proof  of  the  superiority  and  accuracy  of 
these  new  instruments.  The  first  publication  of  observations  with  the  Merid- 
ian Ti-ansit  is  found  in  lindhagen's  memoir  (St.  Petersburg,  1849)  upon  the  oon- 
stant  of  aberration  deduced  from  observations  made  on  the  Pole  i^tar. 

^I'hese  works  of  universal  interest  and  importance,  inasmuch  as  they  have 
established  the  authority  of  the  so-called  ''  Poulkova  Constants,"  now  in  ^neral 
Qse  among  asti\)nomers,  were  accempanied  by  others  of  sinular  value }  bqcu  wero 

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DORPAT  AND  POULKOVA.  377 

the  Revision  of  the  northern  heavens  for  all  stars  to  the  eighth  magnitude,  by  Otto 
Strave,  in  1841-42,  and  the  resulting  catalogue  of  514  new  multiple  stars,  (St. 
Petersburg,  1843;)  the  publication  of  Weisse^s  Reduction  of  BesseVs  Zones, 
(St.  Petersburg,  1846 ;)  of  Dollen's  Reduction  of  the  Kdnigsberg  Declinations, 
^St  Petersburg,  1849;)  of  Otto  Struve's  Revised  Catalogue  of  Double  Stars 
aiscovered  at  Poulkova,  (St  Petersburg,  1850 ;)  of  Fedoi*enWs  Reduction  of 
Lalande's  Circumpolar  Stars,  (St.  Petersburg,  1854.) 

And  to  these  we  must  add  certain  studies  which  are  of  great  interest  and 
value  from  their  bearing  upon  subjects  of  investigation  that  still  elude  our  secure 

0>:  Struve's  Etudes  d'Astronomie  Stellaire,  (St.  Petersburg,  1848;)  Peters's 
erches  sur  la  Parallaxe  des  etoiles  fixes,  (St.  Petersburg,  1848;)  Otto 
Stnive's  Investigations  into  the  Parallaxes  of  1830,  Groombridge,  (1850;)  of 
a  LyraB,  (1852;)  of  a  Lyrse  and  61  a  Cygni,  (1854;)  Dollen's  Criticism,  St.) 
Petersburg,  1853 ;)  of  Wichman's  Parallax  of  1830,  Groombridffe. 

Nor  had  the  attention  of  the  observatory  been  drawn  from  the  bodies  of  the 
solar  system.  In  1843  was  published  the  elaborate  memoir  on  the  orbit  of  the 
eomet  of  1839-*40  by  Peters  and  Otto  Strove;  in  1849  and  1850  the  Observa- 
tions of  the  Satellite  of  Neptune  and  Deduction  of  Neptune's  Mass,  by  Otto  and 
August  Struve;  in  1852  Otto  S trove's  Observations  of  the  Rings  of  Saturn,  and 
in  1854  his  Observations  of  Biela's  Comet ;  finally,  in  1853,  by  Strave  and 
Liapounoff,  the  Reduction  of  the  Dorpat  Observations  of  the  Sun,  Moon  and 
Planets. 

In  practical  astronomy  the  publication  (1845)  of  the  Description  of  the  Cen- 
tral Observatory  had  formed  a  memorable  epoch,  and  the  annual  Russian  edition 
of  the  English  Nautical  Almanac  brought  that  indispensable  work  to  the  conve- 
nient use  of  the  Russian  officers. 

In  geodesy  the  expedition  of  1838-'41,  suggested  and  planned  by  Strave  for 
the  determination  of  the  difference  of  level  between  the  Black  and  Caspian  Seas, 
(St.  Petersburg,  1849,)  had  added  much  to  the  geograpliy  of  that  little  known 
portion  of  what  was  then  the  Russian  frontier,  and  gave  occasion  to  Strave  to 
make  a  very  valuable  contribution  to  our  knowledge  of  terrestrial  refraction ; 
the  longitude  expeditions  to  Altona  and  Greenwich  in  1 843-'44,  and  the  annual 
geographic  expeditions  into  the  interior  of  Russia,  and  especially  the  steadily 
prc^essing  measurement  of  a  grand  meridional  arc  of  25  degrees  of  latitude, 
were  continual  reminders  of  the  vastness  and  national  importance  of  the  works 
undertaken  by  the  Central  Observatory,  and  by  those  who  were  the  co-workers 
of  ita  amiable  du*ector. 

Nor  was  the  rapid  progress  of  astronomy  in  Russia  unnoticed  by  the  astrono- 
mers of  foreign  countries.  Already  in  1840  had  the  kindly  Schumacher  cele- 
brated the  25th  year  of  their  friendship  by  a  personal  visit  to  Strove,  and  had 
borne  testimony  to  the  advance  that  haa  been  realized  by  the  establishment  of  so 
imperial  an  institution;  and  in  1842  the  King  of  Prussia,  on  beholding  the 
splendor  of  Poulkova,  had  the  condescension  to  promise  that  Bessel  and 
Argelander  should  certainly  have  opportunities  given  them  to  visit  this  "  Eldo- 
rado,'' It  was,  however,  not  until  1853  that  the  latter  was  able  to  leave 
Bonn  and  gratify  his  long-repressed  desire,  and  the  life-long  friend  of  Strove 
could  but  say  that  the  half  had  not  been  told  him.  Even  from  America  came 
tributes  to  the  fame  of  Poulkova ;  first,  when  in  1848  it  was  visited  by  our  emi- 
nent countryman,  whose  impressions  as  published  in  the  North  American  Review 
(1849)  created  among  us  a  wide-spread  interest  in  Struve  and  his  Central  Obser- 
vatory ;  and  again  when  visited  in  1851  by  the  late  director  of  the  Harvard  Col- 
lege Observatory,  to  whom,  when  still  at  a  distance  from  St.  Petersburg,  Strove 
sent  a  message  of  welcome. 

It  was  in  1857,  when  the  high  rank  of  Pou/kova  in  matters  pertainiuff  to 
astronomy  and  geodesy  had  thus  been  so  forcibly  demonstrated  at  home,  ana  so 
widely  acknowledged  abroad,  that  the  necessity  became  imperative  for  a  change 


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378  DORPAT   AND   POULKOVA. 

in  the  relations  of  tlie  observatory  to  the  state.  In  effectinff  sucli  a  change,  one 
long  previously  foreseen  by  Stnive,  many  dangers  were  imminent,  many  obstacles 
were  to  be  overcome.  But  if  the  director  at  any  moment  needed  coonsellors,  his 
wide  acquaintance  with  and  profound  knowledge  of  men  secured  to  him  such  as 
were  desirable,  and  among  them  was  one  whose  position  as  astronomer  royal  of 
England  and  whose  eminent  usefulness  gave  weight  to  every  suggestion. 

In  1844  the  advanced  condition  of  the  work  on  the  Finland  prolongation  of 
the  arc  of  the  meridian  had  demanded  that  the  next  step,  namely,  the  prelimi- 
naries to  its  extension  to  the  North  Cape  and  to  the  Danube,  should  be  defin- 
itely agreed  upon.  Struvo  had,  therefore,  been  sent  to  Stockholm,  where  an 
interview  with  the  Swedish  commissioners  and  a  final  interview  with  the  King 
of  Sweden  led  to  a  most  satisfactory  adjustment  of  the  relations  to  be  borne  by 
the  various  parties  in  the  concluding  portion  of  this  extended  international  work. 
On  account  of  the  quarantine  regulations  Struve  found  it  convenient  to  visit  Grer- 
many  and  England  in  the  course  of  this  journey.  This  visit,  in  connection  with 
the  longitude  expedition  of  the  same  year,  had  opened  a  most  valuable  intercourse 
with  the  observatory  at  Greenwich,  and  the  personal  firiendship  between  Struve 
and  Airy  was  cemented  in  1847,  not  only  during  Struve's  third  visit  to  England, 
(on  the  occasion  of  the  transportation  of  one  of  the  bars  of  the  Indian  base  appa- 
ratus,) but  still  more  by  Airy's  consequent  visit  to  Poulkova  and  his  kindly 
criticism  of  the  peculiar  features  of  that  observatory.  Widely  as  the  latter  insti 
tution  differed  firom  its  English  predecessor,  they  yet  had  many  common  interests. 
Central  in  its  location,  honorable  in  the  history  of  its  usefulness,  and  |;eculiarly 
favored  by  the  state  patronage,  the  position  of  the  Royal  Observatory  of  Eng- 
fand  was  very  similar  to  that  which  Poulkova  now  virtually  occupied,  and  it 
became  Struve's  desire  to  secure  more  completely  for  the  latter  that  stability  and 
unembarrassed  independence  that  had  long  been  enjoyed  by  Greenwich.  Not 
only  prudential  considerations,  but  also  the  interests  of  the  many  other  observa- 
tories in  the  empu^,  were  a  matter  of  anxiety ;  possibly  a  certain  clause  in  the 
original  laws  reffardinff  the  Central  Obscrvatorj-,  or  possibly  the  name  itself, 
may  sometimes  have  led  similar  institutions  in  Russia  to  fear  lest  Poulkova, 
overstepping  proper  bounds,  might  assume  authority  over  them;  but  the  astron- 
omers of  the  imperial  establishment  had  ever  labored  to  dispel  any  such  injuri- 
ous illusion.  The  appointment  of  Struve  by  the  Imperial  Academy,  in  1857,  to 
prepare  a  new  set  of  laws  for  the  reorganization  of  the  internal  and  external 
relations  of  the  observatory  was  the  opportunity  by  which  he  sought  to  remove 
all  misapprehension  and  to  realize  increased  usefulness.  Five  years,  however, 
must  elapse  before  the  new  code  of  laws  could  officially  go  into  operation ;  a 
delay  which,  while  it  may  have  resulted  in  perfecting  the  new  statutes,  was  itself 
the  consequence  of  most  painful  events. 

His  exhausting  labors  in  connection  with  the  invaluable  new  catalogue  of  the 
Poulkova  libraiy,  and  the  publication  of  the  *'  Arc  du  Meridian  cntre  le  Dan- 
ube et  la  mer  Glaciale,  St.  Petersbourg,  1860-'61,"  had  necessitated  a  little 
recreation,  which  Struve  found  in  a  short  trip  in  October  and  November,  1857, 
to  Germany,  France,  Switzerland,  and  England.  This  was  Struve's  eleventh 
absence  from  Russia,  and  afforded  him  the  opportunity  of  urging  the  importance 
of,  and  of  preparing  the  way  for,  an  international  measurement  of  an  arc  of  lon- 
gitude, in  which  work  he  had  ten  years  previously  enlisted  the  active  co-opera- 
tion of  General  Wrontschenko,  then  conducting  the  Russian  geodetic  surveys. 
In  January,  soon  after  his  return  to  Poulkova,  a  severe  attack  of  cancer  pros- 
trated his  strength  and  necessitated  a  prolonged  absence  in  the  warmer  climates 
of  southern  Europe.  The  vice-director,  Otto  Struve,  officiated  in  his  father's 
plac«  until  the  return  of  the  latter  in  August,  1859,  and  in  January*,  1862, 
Otto  Struve  succeeded  as  director  of  the  observatoiy  ujwn  the  resignation  of 
the  former,  since  there  no  longer  appeared  reasonable  hope  of  his  recovery. 
It  waathus  reserved  to  the  present  director,  finally,  to  harmoniously  adjust  lUl 


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DORPAT  AND  POULKOVA.  379 

the  relations  of  tlio  observatory,  and  to  realize  the  ideal  clearly  conceived  by  th6 
father  fifty  years  previously.  It  was  proper  that  the  son  should  complete  the 
immortal  work  of  the  father,  but  it  is  satisfactory  to  know  that  before  the  death 
of  the  latter  he  had  already  in  1864,  on  the  occasion  of  the  celebration  of  the 
twenty-fifth  annivei-sary  of  the  inaugumtion  of  the  observatoiy,  received  the  con- 
gratulations of  assembled  astronomers,  statesmen,  and  friends,  upon  the  successful 
completion  of  his  life-labor,  and  the  auspicious  entrance  of  the  observatory  upon 
its  new  career. 

The  period  from  1857  to  August  26-14,  1862,  marked  as  it  was  by  the  ill- 
ness of  Struve  and  the  succession  of  his  son,  may  be  considered  as  a  period  of 
transition  which  was  terminated  on  the  latter  date  by  the  imperial  approval  of 
the  new  "  Statutes  of  the  Nicholas  Central  Observatory." 

These  statutes  recognize  the  observatory  as  having  become  a  scientific  astro- 
nomical institution  of  permanent  practical  importance  to  the  interests  of  the 
state ;  and,  therefore,  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  to  which  body  it  had  hitherto 
been  directly  sulyect,  is  now,  to  a  great  extent,  released  from  the  responsibility 
of  its  maintenance  and  activity.  In  order  to  avwd  the  danger  lest  the  extra- 
neous geographic  and  geodetic  operations  should  interfere  with  the  progress  of 
scientific  investigation,  the  working  force  was  further  increased  by  placing  at 
the  disposal  of  the  director  four  positions  additional  to  those  created  in  1857, 
thus  increasing  the  scientific  corps  to  thirteen  persons,  and  a  regulation  requiring 
from  each  paid  astronomer,  except  the  director,  three  hours  daily  of  computation 
on  the  reduction  of  current  work  assures  us  that  the  long  desired  Poulkova  obser- 
vations will  hereafter  be  rapidly  reduced  and  published. 

The  ne^jessity  for  promptness  in  business  mattere  was  of  itself  sufficient  to 
demand  the  newly  introduced  and  direct  responsibility  of  the  director  of  the 
observatory  to  the  minister  of  public  instruction,  thus  avoiding  the  frequent 
delays  incident  to  the  previous  relations,  with  the  Academy  of  Sciences.  But 
this  most  radical  and  beneficial  change  was  accompanied  by  the  equally  vnsQ 
interposition  of  a  "  committee,"  reminding  one  of  the  "  board  of  visitors"  of 
Greenwich,  which  should  annually  report  to  the  minister  the  condition  of  the 
observatory  affairs,  and  whose  recommendation  or  approving  vote,  by  ix'ason  of 
the  high  authority  of  the  individuals  composing  this  body,  **  would,  at  any  time, 
authorize  the  observatory  to  expect  governmental  support  in  its  undertaking." 
The  fifth  article  of  the  new  laws  defiuoing  the  membership  of  this  committee  reads 
in  part  as  follows : 

Section  5.  The  committee  will  be  composed  of  periiODs  who  beloog  to  those  departments  on 
which  the  labors  of  the  observatory  have  a  direct  bearing.  It  consists  of  tbe  president  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences,  as  chairman ;  the  president  of  the  Imijperial  Geographical  Society ; 
the  director  of  the  Military  Topographical  Bureau ;  the  chietof  the  Nicholas  Academy  of 
the  General  Staff;  the  president  of  toe  honorable  Naval  Board;  the  director  of  the  H^dro- 
graphical  Department ;  the  permanent  secretary  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences ;  and  ot  four 
persons  who  will  be  annually  chosen  by  the  Academy  from  among  their  active  or  honorary 
or  corresponding  members,  &c. 

On  the  occasion  of  the  May  visitation  of  this  committee  to  Poulkova  it 
receives  the  annual  report  of  the  director.  It  is  by  the  organization  and  active 
co-operation  of  this  committee,  which  is  indeed  nearly  equivalent  to  a  "  board 
of  commissioners,"  that  the  Central  Observatory  may  expect  to  steadily  advance 
in  prosperity.  In  it  are  represented  not  only  the  scientific  Academy,  but  those 
departments  of  the  government  which,  having  an  interest  in  the  observatory, 
Lave  also  a  common  duty  toward  it. 

As  to  the  scientific  members  of  the  observatory  coips,  we  must  notice  that 
the  election  of  the  director  by  the  Academy  of  Sciences  and  his  confirma- 
tion by  special  imperial  assent,  the  nomination  of  the  four  senior  astronomers 
by  the  director  and  their  confirmation  by  the  Academy,  the  nomination  of  the 
adjuncts  bv  the  director  and  their  confirmation  by  the  minister  of  i)ublic  instnic- 
tion,  all  combine  to  give  high  political  authority,  to  secure  acknowledged  scien- 


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380  DORPAT  AND  POULKOVA. 

tific  ability,  and  to  insure  permanent  stability — from  all  of  wllicb  there  will  follow 
tbe  most  energetic  and  best  directed  activity.  These  precautions,  taken  to  secure 
the  best  use  of  the  money  appropriated  to  scientific  research,  strike  one  with  the 
more  admiration  as  existing  under  a  government  so  autocratic  as  the  Russian. 
They  are  due  not  only  to  the  wisdom  of  the  Emperor  Alexander  II,  and  espe- 
cially to  his  brother  the  Grand  Duke  Constantino,  but  also  to  the  diversity  of 
the  many  interests  that  had  clustered  about  an  astronomical  observatory,  and  to 
the  sagacity  of  Strove  and  his  illustrious  successor. 

But  if  we  return  to  the  external  scientific  relations  between  Poulkova  and 
the  other  observatories  of  Russia,  we  are  still  more  deeply  convinced  of  Strave's 
consummate  ability,  in  that  he  was  able  to  dispel  the  fears  which  might  have 
led  many  to  suspect  that  he  aimed  at  a  legalized  astronomical  autocracy.  Per- 
haps the  name.  Central,  was  unfortunately  chosen ;  certainly  it  might  please 
a  military  monarch  better  than  the  quiet  student.  But  the  experiences  of  others 
stood  the  astronomer  in  good  stead,  and,  notwithstanding  the  well-meant  sug- 
gestions of  political  fiiends,  he  endeavored  to  realize  that  which  would,  in  its 
moral  beauty,  eclipse  the  material  splendor  of  Poulkova.  "  This  observatory 
wiU  always  be  a  central  scientific  authority,  so  long  as  it  deserves  to  be 
SUCH,"  was  the  sentiment  on  which  Strove  rightly  desired  the  prosperity  of 
Poulkova  to  be  based.  The  interpretation  given  by  the  Poulkova  astronomers 
to  the  obnoxious  clauses  in  its  former  code  of  laws  is  found  in  the  following 
quotation : 

It  is  allowed  to  the  Central  Observatoiy  to  apply  the  gpreater  means  over  which  she  has  con- 
trol to  the  assistance  of  the  other  observatories  and  the  furtherance  of  the  labors  that  thej 
undertake ;  and  as  the  central  institution  it  must  strive  for  the  most  successful  co-operation 
of  the  different  observatories  of  the  empire.  To  this  latter  end,  however,  it  possesses  no 
other  means  than  fraternal  intercourse.  The  use  of  and  even  the  exbtence  of  such 
intercourse  must  remain  entirely  dependent  upon  the  estimation  in  which  such  is  held  by  the 
individual  directors  of  other  observatories." 

This  was  "co-operation — not  monopoly.''  As  to  the  realization  of  these 
principles,  we  may  now  behold  an  empire  dotted  with  many  scientific  zistrouom- 
ical  institutions,  harmoniously  co-woming  under  the  stimulating  influence  of 
EXAMPLE.     The  progress  of  each  is  the  good  of  all. 

As  we  perceive  the  external,  wide-spread,  national  influence  of  Poulkova  to 
be  pre-eminently  beneficial,  wo  ai*e  thus  prepaied  for  the  hannony  that  exists 
within.  Honor  to  those  wjiose  entire  devotion  to  the  solitary  studies  of  the 
astronomer  has  enabled  them,  durin<j  many  years,  to  labor  amicably  together, 
absorbed  in  the  search  for  troth  lather  than  fame,  and  imbued  with  the  spirit 
of  the  example  of  their  revered  senior. 

On  the  23d-llth  November  1864,  Struve  quietly  passed  away.  His  ftmeral 
discourse  was  appropriately  based  upon  the  text,  **  God  is  love ;  and  he  that 
dwelleth  in  love  dwelleth  in  God,  and  He  in  him."  Only  such  a  charitable 
spirit  as  he  possessed  could  ever  be  admitted  within  the  little  social  circle  that 
constitutes  the  isolated  scientific  society  of  the  observatory  of  Poulkova. 

We  have  followed  the  history  of  the  Nicholas  Centi-al  Observatory  from  its 
fitst  conception  in  the  mind  of  Strove  to  the  complete  development  of  the 
clearly  defined  ideal  through  the  munificence  of  the  Emperor  Nicholas  I  and 
the  liberal  patronage  of  his  worthy  successor,  Alexander  II.  The  call  of 
"Strove  to  the  observatory  of  Dorpat  in  1813,  the  inangoration  of  the  observa- 
tory at  Poulkova  in  1839,  the  permanent  organization  of  1862,  and  the  sub- 
sequent quarter-century  anniversaiy  celebration  in  1864,  embrace  a  space  of  fifty 
years.  In  the  history  of  the  past  five  years,  as  rocordeil  in  the  annual  reports  of 
the  director,  we  shall  find  ample  testimony  to  the  vigor  of  the  maturity  of  the 
observatory.  If,  turning  from  the  contemplation  of  its  past  history,  one  «tudiee 
Poulkova  as  it  is,  there  is  found  on  every  side  that  which  pleases  both  the  man 
and  the  astronomer.  An  honor  to  the  Russian  empire,  it  may  well  serve  as  a 
study  and  example  to  other  nations  and  to  other  men. 


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DORPAT  AND  POULKOVA.  381 

We  eliall  supplement  our  rude  bistoricfil  sketch  by  a  few  words  upon  its  inner 
oi^anization  and  present  scientific  activity,  but  would  recommend  to  all  the 
interesting  work  of  Sir  Charles  Piazzi  Smyth,  prompted  by  the  hospitality 
extended  to  him  during  his  visit  to  Russia  in  1859. 

Among  the  marshes  at  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Finland,  and  on  the  islands 
in  the  mouth  of  the  river  Neva,  under  the  60th**  of  north  latitude,  Peter  the  Great 
founded  the  city  of  St.  Petersburg.  A  plain  surrounds  the  city  on  all  sides,  but 
at  various  distances  to  the  east  and  south  this  is  bounded  by  ridges  that  were 
once  the  shores  of  the  gulf,  when  its  waters  covered  the  site  of  the  northern 
capital;  beyond  these  the  elevated  table  lands  of  the  rolling  steppes  begin. 
Directly  south  of  the  city  the  plain  is  limited  by  a  moderate  elevation,  "  the 
mountain  Poulkova,"  a  hill  laid  out  by  Catherine  for  a  pleasure  warden,  but  chosen 
long  before  her  time  by  Peter  as  a  favorite  resort  whilst  fighting  the  Swedes 
and  building  up  St.  Petersbiu-g.  The  great  military  road  southward  from  St. 
Petersburg  to  Warsaw,  bending  as  its  course  strikes  the  steep  northern  face  of 
the  ridge^  sends  a  branch  off  to  the  southeastward  to  Tsarskoe-Selo,  but  itself 
half  encircling  the  hill  Poulkova,  continues  onward  until  lost  to  the  sight  behind 
other  ridges  far  to  the  southward.  A  village  of  peasants,  formerly  imperial 
serfs,  sheltered  from  the  violent  westerly  gales,  has  clustered  along  the  roadside, 
and  has  given  its  name  to  the  hill.  On  the  northeast  outskirts  of  the  village,  and 
not  a  mile  distant  from  the  observatory,  the  centre  of  attraction,  we  find  a 
favorite  spot,  whence  we  behold  at  once  the  full  beauty  of  the  observatory  hill. 
Looking  to  the  southwest,  we  see  at  first  only  the  log-houses  and  fruit  gardens 
of  the  villagers,  whilst  beyond  a  wild  forest  covers  the  mountain.  But  a  more 
careful  scrutiny  converts  the  forest  into  a  semi-artificial  grove,  '*  the  little  Switzer- 
land" of  the  Poulkovites  covering  the  abrupt  northern  slope  of  the  declivity. 
The  curving  and  ascending  Warsaw  road  bounds  our  diminutive  forest  on  the 
side  nearer  to  us ;  on  the  roadside  nestling  amidst  the  green  trees  of  the  observa- 
tory park  is  a  white-arched  porch,  covering  a  far-famed  spring.  A  little  further 
up,  and  to  the  left  is  the  dwelling  of  the  former  observatory  mechanician,  whilst 
very  far  behind  it  one  sees  a  tall  geodetic  signal.  Behind  the  grove  peeps  out  the 
tasteful  little  observatory  of  the  officers  of  the  military  academy ;  then  the  green 
lawn  spreads  out  in  front  of  the  imperial  establishment,  whose  three  turretted 
domes  crown  the  hilL 

Those  three  domes  even  from  a  great  distance  are  noticeable  features  in  the 
landscape.  Let  us  leave  St.  Petersburg  by  the  broad  "  Tsarskoe-Selo  avenue," 
and  long  before  entering  upon  the  Warsaw  road,  even  before  passing  under  the 
triumphal  arch,  if  we  look  directly  south  we  may  see  between  its  pillars  the  long 
straight  road,  the  Poulkova  hill  and  the  domes  ten  miles  distant.  The  middle 
and  uirgest  dome  appears  connected  with  the  macadamized  road  by  a  narrow 
line,  but  our  swift  troika  soon  brings  us  near  enough  to  perceive  that  the  line 
is  a  footpath  leading  straight  up  the  hill  dividing  the  green  forest  of  our  little 
Switzerland  into  equal  portions  on  the  right  hand  and  on  the  left.  Only  the 
monotony  of  the  sun-ounding  plains  can  justify  our  comparison  with  Alpine 
scenery,  as  we  readily  acknowledge  when  having  ascended  to  the  topmost  step 
of  the  footpath,  we  learn  that  the  village  behind  is  scarcely  100  feet  below  us. 
Behind  us  is  the  long  road,  with  its  double  row  of  lindens,  and  St.  Petersburg 
in  the  distance;  before  us  is  a  grassy  lawn  of  ten  acres,  and  beyond  that  the 
observatory.  Our  path  leads  without  turning  straight  through  an  avenue  of 
lindens,  and  between  fragrant  flower  beds  up  to  the  doric  columns  of  the  ves- 
tibule. A  shaded  path  to  the  left  takes  us  behind  ancient  elms  to  the  obser- 
vatory of  the  military  academy;  one  to  the  right  brings  us  through  a  charming 
grove  of  evergreens  to  the  "Peter's  stone"  and  the  tall  signal.  The  Russian 
architects  well  understand  the  use  of  colors  in  relieving  the  monotony  of  a  wintry 
snow-covered  landscape ;  we  have  before  us  on  either  hand  the  deep  red-brick 
dwellings,  flanked  by  evergi'eens  and  birches,  and  enclosing  the  observatory.. 


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382  DOBPAT  AND  POULKOVA 

whose  brown  woodwork  and  cream-colored  stucco  resting  upon  light  sandstone 
foundations,  contrast  as  beautifully  with  January's  snows  as  with  the  fi'esh 
green  of  June.  One  should  visit  the  Peter's  stone  and  the  quiet  grave-yard,  and 
linger  in  this  beautiful  park  before  entering  the  observatory.  Under  the  noble 
elms  the  village  peasants  spend  many  a  summer  holiday ;  here  travellers  stop  to 
rest  and  lunch,  and  enjoy  the  view,  and  of  a  pleasant  sitemoon  the  observatory 
families  may  be  seen  dining  and  chatting  over  coffee  or  tea — all  enjoying  the 
luxury  of  that  open  mr  life  that  Europeans,  and  especially  the  Germans,  indulge 
in  so  heartily. 

Struve^s  appreciation  of  the  beautiful  is  seen  not  only  at  every  step  of  our 
walk  through  the  grounds  and  in  the  exterior  of  the  buudings,  but  as  pleasantly 
impresses  one  on  entering  within.  Whether  we  consider  the  director's  cosy 
study  or  the  elegant  proportions  of  the  airy  observing  rooms ;  whether  we  visit 
the  magnificent  library  or  the  unique  portrait  gallery  of  the  central  rotunda ; 
or  study  the  details  of  the  instruments,  or  the  methods  of  using  them,  every- 
where is  appropriate  symmetry,  harmony  and  beauty.  But  leaving  for  the  present 
the  material  structure,  every  detail  of  which  is  so  minutely  recorded  in  Struve's 
"Description  de  I'Observatoire,"  let  us  fii-st  consider  that  which  is  of  prime 
importance  to  the  interests  of  science. 

The  inner  organization  of  any  institution  should  depend  not  only  upon  the 
nature  of  the  material,  but  equally  upon  the  conditions  and  nature  of  the  work 
to  be  performed.  The  variety  of  the  demands  made  upon  the  Royal  Observatory 
at  Greenwich,  and  the  imperative  call  for  daily  and  annual  results,  as  well  as  the 
singleness  of  the  object  kept  in  view,  have  necessitated  a  simplified  daily  routine, 
and  a  regulated  organization  of  all  the  working  forces;  so  that  the  director 
holds  in  his  hand  a  control  over  the  minutest  detail  of  operations,-  only  thus  could 
all  demands  be  met  with  unfailing  regularity.  At  Paris,  but  only  to  a  slight 
extent  at  Washington,  a  similar  course  has  been  imposed.  The  value  of  the 
regular  annual  publication  of  reduced  observations  is  seen,  not  only  in  the  useful- 
ness of  these  larger  observatories,  but  also  in  that  of  smaller  ones,  such  as  those 
at  Berlin,  Konigsberg,  Brussels,  Dorpat,  Oxford,  Edinburg,  Madras,  &c.,  and 
the  arrangement  by  which  Poulkova  could  have  published  annual  volumes  of 
results,  would  perhaps  have  been  effected  by  Strave,  had  not  his  small  force 
and  the  diversion  of  their  labors  into  various  channels  hindered  the  execution  of 
this  portion  of  the  duties  of  the  institution,  until  it  became  apparent  that  the 
observations  could  only  be  properly  published  when  the  distinct  work  to  which 
they  belonged  should  be  completed,  and  when  the  diverse  parts  of  each  could 
be  framed  mto  an  indi\idual  consistent  whole. 

Thus  there  came  to  be  impressed  more  and  more  deeply  upon  the  observatory  a 
prominent  trait  in  Struve's  own  character,  who  working  always  with  energies  con- 
centrated upon  the  matter  in  hand,  preferred,  if  possible,  to  bring  each  special  work 
to  a  speedy  conclusion,  that  it  might  be  given  to  the  world,  arranged  as  a  syste- 
matic treatise  or  investigation.  "  A  definite  aim  being  presented,  its  attainment 
should  mark  the  proper  time  for  publication."  This  principle  is  not  entirely 
inconsistent  with  the  custom  of  annually  publishing  the  various  successive  por- 
tions of  the  work  in  hand ;  indeed,  even  the  publication  of  unreduced  observa- 
tions is  valuable,  both  as  making  them  accessible,  and  as  an  evidence  of  life  and 
activity.  But  loving,  as  Struve  did,  general  and  comprehensive  views,  and 
believing  that  the  advance  of  astronomy  was  marked  by  investigations  and 
memoirs,  and  not  by  observations  alone,  being  measured  by  generations  of  men, 
and  not  by  single  years,  this  publication  of  annual  fragments  seemed  only  a 
deceitful  appeaiance  of  progress  and  advancing  knowledge ;  the  preliminary 
results  to  be  expected  from  his  new  instruments,  even  if  desired  as  being  in  their 
crudeness  better  than  the  most  of  those  accessible  to  astronomers,  ought  to  \ye 
withheld  until,  after  severe  investigation,  they  could  be  presented  to  the  world  as 
the  best  results  the  instruments  could  yield.     This  train  of  thought  and  the 


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DORPAT  AND  POULKOVA.  383 

similar  coarse  pui^ued  in  the  early  history  of  many  observatories,  (of  which 
Greenwich  was  itself  a  notable  example,)  decided  Struve  to  seek  usefulness  to 
a  fnture  generation,  rather  than  to  the  immediate  present,  and  not  to  organize  a 
mechanic^  observatory,  deficient  in  intelligence,  and  progressing  only  with  the 
progress  of  the  science,  but  rather  to  develop  a  "  living  institution,''  an  associa- 
tion of  astronomers,  desirous  like  himself  by  their  own  labors  to  lead  on  in 
promoting  the  progress  of  their  science. 

The  wide  field  in  which  these  Poulkova  astronomers  should  pursue  their  inde- 
pendent yet  correlated  investigations  is  indicated  in  the  following  article  of  the 
statutes  of  1862: 

$.  2.  The  establishment  of  the  Nicholas  Central  Observatory  has  for  its  object : 

a.  The  nninternipted  prosecution  of  observations  and  works  for  the  promotion  of  astronomy 
AS  a  science. 

b.  The  improvement  of  practical  astronomy  in  its  application  to  geogpraphy  and  naviga- 
tion, the  execution  of  observations  in  the  interest  of  the  astronomical  and  geographical  labors 
Bjstematicallj  undertaken  by  the  different  departments  of  the  empire,  the  connection  of  these 
labors  with  each  other,  and  their  scientific  assistance. 

e.  To  assist  other  Russian  observatories  in  the  attainment  of  a  more  successful  prosecu- 
tion of  astronomy. 

d.  To  offer  to  the  officers  of  the  general  staff  of  the  topographical  corps  and  of  the  navy, 
as  also  to  other  young  scientists  the  opportunity  of  perfecting  themselves  in  practical  astro- 
nomy, and  its  application  to  geography  and  geodesy. 

To  the  attainment  of  these  objects  this  institution  freely  opens  to  those  young 
astronomers  who  have  resided  at  Poulkova  as  guest-students,  as  well  as  to  those 
who  are  its  permanent  officers,  the  use  of  the  rich  material  of  instruments,  obser- 
vations, and  books  in  its  possession.  As  to  the  relations  with  other  similar  estab- 
lishments in  Russia,  their  annual  reports  show  how  frequently  in  the  details  of 
their  equipment  and  work  they  are  arranged  in  accordance  with  the  suggestions 
emanating  from  the  Central  Observatory.  In  matters  pertaining  to  the  applica- 
tions of  astronomy  to  geography  there  is  an  especial  activity  not  only  in  that 
^ve  or  ten  officers  of  the  general  staff  here  pursue  their  two  years'  imictical  courco 
imder  the  directions  of  Mr.  DoUen,  but  also  in  that  the  plans  for  geographical 
expeditions  and  the  working  up  of  the  results  are  generally  mure  or  less  con- 
fided to  him.  As  to  the  astronomical  investigations  carried  on  at  the  observatory 
proper,  although  all  are  engaged  therein,  yet  these  are  especially  expected  from 
the  senior  and  adjunct  astronomers,  who  form,  as  was  Stnive's  desire,  an  associa- 
tion whose  members  labor  individually  for  the  promotion  of  their  science.  The 
choice  of  the  senior  astronomers  takes  place  according  to  the  following  article 
of  the  statutes: 

$  19.  The  senior  astronomers  of  the  observatory  must  be  chosen  from  among  men  of  acknowl- 
edged ability  in  the  department  of  astronomy.  Unto  them  by  preference  will  be  intrusted 
bvthe  director  the  execution  of  all  the  works  to  be  undertaken  for  the  attainment  of  the 
objects  of  the  observatory,  mentioned  in  ^2,  The  choice  of  a  candidate  for  the  occupancy 
of  a  vacancy  in  on^  of  these  positions  is  the  duty  of  the  director.  He  proposes  the  chosen 
candidate  t4i  the  Academy  of  Science,  which  body,  when  it  by  ballot  has  approved  the  choice, 
on  its  part  presents  the  same  to  the  minister  of  public  instruction  for  confirmation. 

It  follows  from  the  precautionary  process  thus  enjoined  that  the  four  senior 
astronomers  (one  of  whom  is  also  the  vice-director)  are  but  inconsiderably  infe- 
rior to  the  director  in  experience  in  their  profession,  and  form  a  permanent 
council,  whose  valuable  suggestions  always  have  weight  in  the  conduct  of  scientific 
affairs. 

Besides  the  preceding  permanent  members  of  the  astronomical  corps,  the  third 
article  allows  two  adjunct  astronomers  and  two  permanent  computers.  Thus  far 
the  observatory  has  been,  and  probably  it  always  will  be,  successful  in  securing  for 
these  positions  young  men  of  promising  ability.  Indeed,  although  no  system  of 
promotion  is  officially  recognised,  yet  it  will  generally  happen  that  the  director 
will  bo  able  to  fill  these  positions  from  among  the  numerous  young  men  who  have 
resided  at  the  observatory,  and  similarly  to  find  among  the  adjunct  astronomers 
those  well  qualified  to  become  seniors;  this  is  evidently  peculiarly  desirable  in 

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384  DOBPAT   AND  POULKOVA. 

an  institution  tbat  differs  in  many  details  from  others  now  existing,  and  con- 
tributes not  a  little  to  the  consistency  of  the  steady  progress  that  experience 
secures.  On  the  other  hand,  the  fact  is  never  lost  sight  of  that  very  often  profit- 
able suggestions  and  the  infusion  of  new  life  are  to  be  expected  from  the  intro- 
duction of  an  entire  stranger  into  the  observatory  corps;  thus  the  whole  institntion 
preserves  its  cosmopolitan  character  and  is  kept  from  becoming  antiquated. 

To  the  nine  members  of  the  permanent  scientific  corps  are  to  be  added  the 
younger  persons,  not  military  officers,  who  seek  a  residence  at  Poulkova,  as 
allowed  by  §§  27,  28,  29,  30,  for  their  own  advantage ;  generally  these  inevita- 
bly contribute  something  to  the  furtherance  of  the  scientific  work  of  the  observ- 
atory, whilst  receiving  horn  it  the  treatment  of  guests.  The  new  statutes  allow 
the  director  to  give  these  young  men  a  position  and  rank  as  civilians  serving  the 
observatoiy,  but  not  in  the  service  of  the  state ;  thus  they  may  be  properly 
considered  as  supernumerary  astronomers,  who,  however,  enjoy  some  of  the  priv- 
ileges of  such  as  are  peimanently  in  the  state  service,  which  is  no  mean  advan- 
tage in  the  autocratic  Eussian  empire.  Although  these  are  at  liberty  to  devote 
their  whole  time  to  their  own  studies,  they  yet  generally  choose  to  contribute 
several  hours  daily  to  the  regular  work  of  the  observatory,  receiving  a  small 
compensation  therefor.  As  there  are  often  four  such  supernumerary  astronomers, 
we  may  consider  the  effective  scientific  force  to  number  thirteen  persons. 

The  young  officers  of  the  military  and  naval  schools  who  receive  their  instruc- 
tion from  Mr.  Dollen,  as  they  do  not  dwell  on  the  observatory  grounds  and 
only  rarely  take  part  in  its  geographical  work  until  after  their  graduation,  are 
not  to  be  considered  as  attached  to  the  observatory. 

To  the  preceding  general  outline  of  the  officers  of  the  institution  let  as  add 
the  names  of  those  who  were,  in  1866,  attached  to  the  observatory : 

His  Excellency  Otto  Struve,  director ;  A.  Wagner,  senior  astronomer  and  vice- 
director;  W.  Dollen,  senior  astronomer;  H.  Gylddn,  senior  astronomer;  P. 
Smyssloff,  adjunct  astronomer ;  A.  Kortazzi,  adjunct  astronomer ;  C.  Linnsser, 
computer ;  H.  Fritsche,  computer ;  Messrs.  V.  Fuss,  A.  Gromadski,  G.  Berg,  and 
C.  Abbe,  supernumerary  astronomers. 

At  present,  however,  several  changes  are  noticed  since  Colonel  Smyssloff 
has  accepted  the  directorship  of  the  Wilna  observatory,  and  Mr.  Berg  is  his 
assistant.  Mr.  Fuss  has  been  made  adjunct  astronomer.  Mr.  Fritsche  Iulb 
become  the  diret  tor  of  the  magnetic  observatory  at  Pekin,  Mr.  Knone,  of  Berlin, 
fills  his  place. 

To  the  preceding  officers  should  be  added  the  secretary,  the  mechanician,  the 
intendent,  and  the  physician ;  all  of  whom,  with  their  families  and  the  soldiers 
assigned  to  duty  at  the  observatory,  constitute  a  colony  of  an  hundred  and  twenty 
souls  or  more. 

The  members  of  the  scientific  corps  have  been  spoken  of  as  the  col  leagues 
of  the  director,  and  the  genial  spirit  infused  by  Stnive  will  always  retain  to 
them  that  pleasant  relationship ;  but  a  great  power  must  needs  be  vested  in  the 
hands  of  the  superior,  not  only  in  order  to  perserve  harmony  of  action,  but 
also  because  of  the  responsibilities  imposed  on  the  director.  The  tenth  article  of 
the  statutes  defines  the  duties  of  the  director  as  follows : 

Rec.  10.  The  principal  aim  of  the  director  U  to  direct  all  the  forces  and  means  of  the 
observatory  to  the  successfal  accomplishments  of  the  objects  of  this  institution,  detailed  in 
section  two.  He  must,  therefore,  see  that  astronomical  ob»eryations  of  the  hicrhebt  perfec- 
tion be  conducted  uninterruptedly,  and  that  the  instruments  used  to  this  edd  always  corre> 
spond  to  the  actual  demands  of  science.  As  immediate  chief  of  the  observatory  and  of  the 
persons  stationed  there,  he  conducts  the  works  that  are  to  be  executed,  allots  them,  and 
nimself  takes  part  In  them. 

As  it  was  thus  the  pleasure  of  the  elder  Struve,  so  is  it  still  the  privilege  of 
his  successor,  to  realize  that  "  the  activity  of  tbe  entire  institution  concentrates 
in  him;''  whilst  as  its  head  he  skilfully  controls  the  moulding  of  the  independent 
works  of  his  colleagues  into  one  united  efibrt  for  the  advancement  of  then*  bciencc 


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DOBPAT  AND   POULKOVA,  385 

The  activity  of  the  Central  Observatory  lias  doubtless  suffered  somowliat  from 
tLe  restricted  communication  between  Poiilkova  and  tbo  neighboring  cities,  St. 
Petersburg  and  Tsarskoe-Selo.  For,  however  much  this  isolation  favora  the 
undisturbed  prosecution  of  obseiTations  and  study,  it  imposes  a  di'eaded  monot- 
ony upon  tlio  lives  of  the  non-astronomical  portion  of  the  community,  from  the 
effects  of  which  the  astronomers  themselves  cannot  bo  entirely  free.  To  coun- 
teract the  influence  of  this  sameness — so  prejudicial  to  mental  and  physical 
health,  and  so  detrimental  to  the  harmony  of  society — ^requires  the  constant 
attention  of  each  individual  living  at  the  observatory.  It  will  thus  be  easily 
understood  that  the  personal  example  and  the  influence  of  the  director  as  a  man, 
no  less  than  his  experience  as  an  astronomer,  are  needed  in  order  to  secure  the 
happiest  working  of  all  the  parts.  Possibly  the  sameness  of  the  social  circle 
exaggerates  the  influence  of  the  monotony  of  the  astronomical  work,  for  there  is 
in  Poulkova  no  rotation  of  duties,  such  as  in  some  other  observatories  affords  a 
slight  relief  to  the  members  of  the  corps. 

It  was  in  accordance  with  Struvo's  foresight  that  the  efforts  of  the  observatory 
to  realize  its  general  object,  "the  advancement  of  astronomy  as  a  science,'' 
should  be  principally  confined  to  stellar  astronomy,  and  that  to  each  astronomer 
should  be  assigned  the  instruments  needed  for  the  work  undertaken  by  him, 
and  for  whose  execution  he  is  responsible,  thns  reversing  a  very  common  prac- 
tice of  assigning  the  observer  to  an  instrument.  The  description  of  the  instru- 
ments and  the  mode  of  using  theiiFmay  bo  found  fully  given  in  the  well  known 
"Description  de  Pobservatoire."  The  following  condensed  notice  of  the  progress 
of  the  works  there  indicated  as  having  been  begun  will  perhaps  have  interest. 

The  Great  Eefractor,  made  by  Frauenhofcr,  in  the  central  dome,  has,  since  its 
erection,  been  used  principally  by  the  present  director.  The  general  survey  iu 
1841  of  the  northern  heavens,  requiring  the  examination  of  17,000  stars,  and. 
leading  to  the  discovery  of  nearly  500  new  double  stars,  has  been  already  men- 
tioneil.  Up  to  the  present  time  micrometric  observations  of  relative  position* 
have  been  made  upon  1,200  double  stars,  which  will  probably  bo  publislied  iu 
1869  in  all  their  details.  Struve's  method  of  observing  position  angles,  /.  e,y, 
by  placing  the  two  parallel  threads  of  his  micrometer  so  that  the  space  included 
between  them  is  bisected  by  a  line  joining  the  two  stars,  leads  probably  to  the 
interesting  systematic  errors  in  obsei-ved  angles  of  position,  investigated  by  him. 
in  1852-*56,  and  again  in  1866,  by  observations  upon  artificial  double  stars.. 
In  the  latter  year  an  investigation  was  also  made  of  the  errors  of  estimated 
small  distances,  and  a  simple  systematic  correction  deduced,  by  which  theso- 
become  as  valuable  as  actual  measurements  with  the  micrometer.  Nino  optically 
double  stare  have  been  made  the  subjects  of  special  investigations  for  relative 
parallax.  The  detenni nations  of  rclativp  ])ositions  of  comets  and  faint  com- 
parison stars  have  next  claimed  attention.  The  series  upon  the  Biela's,  Faye's,. 
and  Donati's  comets,  and  those  of  1861  and  1865-'66,  are  to  be  specially  men- 
tioned, as  also  the  fruitless  search  after  Biela's  comet  at  its  late  predicted  retmii. 
The  observations  of  Neptune's  satellite  and  the  determination  of  the  planets- 
mass  have  been  already  mentioned ;  a  large  number  of  observations  upon  the 
satellites  of  Uranus  and  Neptune  still  await  publication.  The  occultations  of  the 
Pleiades,  in  which  a  dozen  observers  sometimes  combine,  have  been  regularly 
continued.  The  study  of  Satum's  rings  and  of  the  great  nebula  in  Orion  have 
also  claimed  attention  whenever  circumstances  have  conspired  to  favor  the  pros- 
ecution of  these  very  delicate  observations.  The  results  already  attained^  and 
their  comparison  with  those  of  the  Bonds  at  Cambridge,  are  already  well  known 
to  the  world.  The  instrumental  changes  made  in  the  great  refractor  have  been 
quite  insignificant ;  but  on  account  of  increasing  unsteadiness  in  the  parallactic 
movement  the  director  has  proposed  to  replace  the  clock-work  by  some  one  of 
the  improved  mechanisms  now  made.     This  will  become  the  more  necessary  ir 

25  S  67 

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o8j  DORPAT  AND  POULKOVA 

order  to  prrosccate  telescopic  spectrom  investigations,  the  appaTotns  for  which 
was  received  in  1866  from  Donati. 

The  HdUmetery  made  by  Merz  and  M&hler,  in  the  eastern  dome,  for  want  of 
an  observer  conld  not  be  brought  into  continuous  use  until  quite  recently.  Noi 
only  was  this  delay  caused  by  the  necessity  of  making  several  much-needed 
instrumental  changes  tending  to  convenience  of  use  and  accuracy  of  results,  but 
it  was  also  best  to  await  the  result  of  the  further  experience  of  Bessel,  Wich- 
man  and  Johnson,  before  deciding  to  trust  so  complicated  an  instrument  in 
delicate  investigations.  Possibly  Dr.  Auwer's  study  in  1861-62  of  the  heliome- 
tor  used  by  Bessel  confirmed  the  decision  to  use  the  Poulkova  instrument  for 
other  purposes  than  that  for  which  it  was  originally  intended  ;  and  certainly  the 
reported  valuable  results  recentlv  obtained  by  Rutnerford  in  stellar  photography 
assure  us  that  probably  this  metLod  will  advantageously  replace  the  heliometric 
for  the  measurement  of  large  relative  distances.  From  1858  to  1864  this  tele- 
scope has  been  used  by  Dr.  Winnecke  in  photometrical  measurements  and  in 
observations  upon  the  several  comets,  as  also  upon  the  conjunction  of  Venus  and 
Jupiter  in  1859.  Since  1864  Mr.  Fritsche  has  made  use  of  it  in  the  observa- 
tions of  several  asteroids. 

The  Small  Itcfractor,  made  by  Baader,  in  the  western  dome,  has  been  princi- 
pally used  in  the  observation  of  comets,  asteroids,  and  occultations. 

The  Prime  Vertical  Tran^iY,  made  by  Repsold,in  the  south  wing,  was  used  imtil 
the  end  of  1842  by  Struve  himself  on  the  series  for  the  determination  of  the 
constant  of  aberration.  Seven  stars  were  observed  upon  at  the  periods  of  maxi- 
mum and  minimum  influence  of  aberration  and  parallax,  and  the  results  are  pub- 
lished in  his  well-known  memoir.  Observations  on  three  of  these  stars  were  con- 
dnued  for  the  determination  of  the  constant  of  nutation ;  the  series  being  inter- 
rupted in  1856  by  Struve's  illness,  was  continued  by  Otto  Stiuve,  and  \v\\l  pro- 
bably be  soon  published.  In  1861-63  this  instnmient  was  used  by  Lieutenant 
Oom,  (now  director  of  tbe  Royal  Observatory  at  Lisbon,)  in  determining  the 
zenith  distances  of  about  80  stars  whose  declinations  are  between  57°  46'  and 
59°  ^.6%  each  star  being  observed  at  least  four  times.  After  the  determination  of 
abeiTation  and  nutation,  the  proper  use  of  this  instrument  is  found  in  the  inves- 
tigation of  absolute  annual  parallax ;  accordingly,  in  1866  it  was  used  in  the 
determination  of  tbe  relative  declinations  of  certain  double  stars  as  preparatory 
to  an  extended  series  in  which  the  subjects  of  relative  and  absolute  parallax, 
aberration  and  periodicity  of  latitude  should  be  simultaneously  investigated. 

To  the  Meridian  Circle,  made  by  Rcpsold,in  the  east  ix>om,  was  assigned  tho 
observations  for  a  catalogue  of  3,755  stars,  including  all  of  the  sixth  magnitude 
north  of  15°  of  south  declination.  This  work  was  begun  in  1841  by  Sabler, 
and  continued  by  him  until  1854,  assisted  in  tbe  interval — 1844  and  1849 — ^by 
DoUen.  In  the  years  1853-56  Sabler  and  Lindhagen  were  occupied  in  obser- 
vations of  the  comparison  stars  of  Biela's  comet.  The  catalogue  work  was  con- 
tinued by  Winnecke  from  1858  until  1864  :  in  1866  its  further  continuation  was 
assigned  to  Mr.  Groraadski,  whose  diligence  in  filling  up  tbe  many  gaps  caused  by 
tbe  imfavorable  weather  of  the  winter  months  and  tbe  twilight  of  tbe  summer, 
authorize  the  belief  that  the  completion  of  the  series  is  soon  to  bo  looked  for. 
Tbe  number  of  stars  that  will  have  been  observed  with  the  meridian  circle  will 
be  greater  by  1,500  than  that  of  the  catalogue  originally  contemplated ;  tho 
reduction  of  this  series  of  observations  has  been  delayed  moro  than  tlmt  of  any 
other  undertaken  by  the  obeervatoiy.  It  is  intended  that  each  star  shall  bo 
observed  in  the  two  positions  of  the  circles  and  of  the  intci-cbangeable  ocular 
and  objective.  The  published  results  of  Sablei'^s  and  Lindbagen's  obser\'ations, 
as  given  in  Gould's  Astronomical  Jom*nal,  and  those  of  Winnecke  made  at 
the  opposition  of  Mars  in  1862,  give  assurance  of  the  high  value  that  tbe  cata- 
logue will  have  when  published.  With  this  instrument  will  bo  made  the  deter- 
minations of  tbe  positions  of  tho  500  stars  to  bo  used  as  fundamentals  in  the 


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DOEPAT  AND  POULKOVA.  387 

new  review  of  the  heavens  lately  nndertaken  by  the  German  Astronomical  Asso- 
ciation. 

-  The  spirit  of  investigation  inculcated  by  Strove  asks  for  the  simplest  instro- 
ments  and  the  smallest  ones  consistent  with  optical  power,  and  demands  the 
most  laborious  watchfulness  over  the  instramental  errors,  together  with  such 
a  symmetrical  arrangement  of  the  observations  as  to  necessitate  only  the  simplest 
possible  assumptions  with  regard  to  the  unknown  or  suspected  sources  of  cn*or. 
These  principles  have  possibly  increased  the  labor  and  somewhat  retarded  the 
completion  of  the  work  assigned  to  the  meridian  circle,  but  have  had  a  still  more 
decided  influence  upon  the  progress  of  the  work  undertaken  with  the  two  prin- 
cipal meridian  instroments.  These  stand  in  the  west  room,  and  some  of  the 
results  attained  by  them  are  already  known  through  the  memoirs  of  Lindhagen 
and  Peters. 

The  Vertkal  Circle,  made  bv  Ertel,  standing  on  the  west  side  of  the  observing 
room,  was  used  by  Peters  until  1849,  in  observations  for  latitude  and  the  declina- 
tions of  about  350  bright  stars.  The  determination  of  latitude  has  been  already 
published  in  a  memoir  previously  cited,  as  also  has  been  the  special  series  in  which 
the  absolute  pai-allaxes  of  the  stars  Polaris,  a  Aurigae,  e  UrsfieMajoris,  Groombridge, 
1830,  a  Bootis,  a  Lyra,  a  Cygni,  61  Cygni,  were  investigated.  Dr.  Gyld6n's 
refraction  tables  for  Poulkova,  deduced  from  Poters's  observations,  were  pub- 
lished in  1865 ;  the  entire  series  of  observations  previous  to  1849  will  probably 
be  published  within  three  years  as  a  complete  work,  although  the  places  of  a 
number  of  stars  in  the  original  catalogue  remain  undetermined.  From  1849  to 
1863,  the  vertical  circle  was  used  by  Dollen  principally  for  observations  of  the 
son,  and  in  determinations  of  the  declinations  of  stars  used  in  the  geodesic  work  of 
the  Russian  surveys.  Since  1863  Dr.  Gylden  has  with  this  instroment  directed  his 
attention  towards  the  standard  stars  of  the  Berlin  and  British  almanacs  j  some 
observations  upon  Venus,  made  at  her  superior  conjunction  in  1865,  are  valuable 
as  affording  strong  negative  testimony  on  the  question  of  the  solar  atmosphere  j 
equally  interesting  are  the  thorough  investigations  made  into  the  errors  of  the 
meteorological  instruments  used  in  connection  with  the  vertical  circle,  and  into 
I  he  law  of  the  decrease  of  temperatiu-e  with  increasing  altitude  above  the  earth's 
surface. 

The  Principal  Meridian  Transit,  made  by  Ertel,  at  the  east  end  of  the  west 
observing  room,  was  designed,  in  connection  with  the  Kessel  normal  clock,  not 
only  to  give  the  time  to  the  rest  of  the  observator}%but  also  for  the  determination 
of  the  absolute  right  oscensions  of  some  300  fundamental  stars ;  this  latter  num- 
ber was  increased  to  400,  and  the  prescribed  series  of  observations  was  substan- 
tially finished  in  1853.  A  preliminary  series  specially  directed  to  the  circumpo- 
lar  stars  had  been  made  by  Peters  in  1840.  New  piers  having  been  provided, 
the  two  meridian  maiks  established,  and  the  nonnal  clock  received,  observations 
on  the  fundamental  catalogue  were  begun  by  Schweizer  and  continued  by  him 
from  1842  to  1844 ;  by  Fuss  from  1844  to  1847;  by  Lindhagen  from  1847  to 
1850;  by  Wagner  from  1850  to  1857.  In  1855  and  1856  the  transit  was 
nded  by  Lindeldf  in  determining  the  right  ascensions  of  suu's  used  in  the  lon- 
gitude expeditions.  In  1860  the  instroment  was  given  into  the  hands  of  Mr. 
Brauer,  the  successor  of  Pohrt  as  the  observatory  instroment  maker ;  several 
changes,  including  the  regrinding  of  the  pivots,  were  then  mjide,  and  in  1865  the 
objective  was  mounted  upon  three  points  in  order  if  possible  tc  secure  greater 
constancy  in  the  colliraation  error.  Since  1860  the  redetermination  of  the  400 
fundamental  right  ascensions  haa  been  undertaken  by  Wagner,  and  the  series 
will  probably  bo  completed  before  1870.  The  reduction  of  the  observations 
previous  to  1853,  and  the  compilation  of  the  resulting  catalogue,  are  now  finished ; 
their  publication  may  bo  looked  for  in  the  present  year.  The  reduction  of  tho 
second  series  (made  with  the  transit  since  its  improvement  by  Mr.  Brauer,  and 
recorded  chronographically)  progresses  with  the  observations. 


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388  DOBPAT  AND  POULKOVA. 

TLo  reduction  of  tlie  "eye  and  ear''  observations  Laving  shown  that  the 
Houtli-Wctzer  clock  in  the  west  room,  and  the  KesseFs  noimal  clock  originally 
placed  in  the  central  rotunda,  were  afiecte4  by  the  unavoidable  changes  of  temper- 
ature, the  former  was  replaced  in  1861  by  a  dial  connected  by  electricity  with  the 
normal  clock,  thus  avoiding  the  laborious  comparisons  by  chronometer  that  liad 
been  until  that  time  earned  on  daily.  In  order  to  secure  a  still  more  uniform 
temperature  the  normal  clock  was  then  placed  in  an  inner  vault  imdemeath  the 
rotunda,  where  the  daily  thermometric  term  in  the  clock  rate  is  quite  impercep- 
tible. Since  1862  the  observations  have  been  recorded  upon  a  Krillo's  chrono- 
gi'aph,  which  stands  in  a  warmed  room  adjacent  to  the  observing  room,  and  differs 
from  those  in  common  use  in  America  principally  in  that  the  observei'^s  pen  is 
independent  of  the  neighboring  clock  pen,  and  in  having  a  very  convenient 
arrangement  by  which  the  obseiTcr  at  the  tmnsit  can  at  will  stop  the  revolving 
cylinder  or  set  it  in  motion  again.  The  clock  automatic  circuit-breaker  is  that 
of  Kiille.  It  consists  of  a  thin  vertical  slip  of  mica  at  the  extremity  of  a  short 
arm  attached  at  right  angles  to  the  upper  portion  of  the  pendulum,  and  in  the  piano 
of  vibration  ;  at  eveiy  sixond  the  mica  cuts  through  a  small  horizontal  thread 
of  mercury  through  which  the  electric  cmrent  is  passing.  The  Mubton  mean  time 
clock  was  in  1866  connected  with  the  central  telegraph  station  in  St.  Peters- 
burg, and  regulates  several  sympathetic  clocks.  A  noonday  signal  is  also  auto- 
matically given. 

The  exquisite  small  Meridian  Transit,  made  by  Brauer,  and  now  found  in  an 
appropriate  building  southwest  of  the  lai'ger  observatory,  was  used  in  the  longi- 
tude expeditions  to  Dorpat,  Moscow,  &c.,  and  has  been  employed  by  Fritsche 
in  the  series  of  lunar  observations  recently  published  by  him  in  the  Bulletin  of 
the  St.  Petersburg  Academy.  A  mate  to  this  fine  instmment  is  to  be  found  at 
the  naval  observatory  at  Cronstadt.  The  five-inch  Steinheil  objective,  mounted 
in  1866  paral tactically  in  the  east  dome  of  the  small  auxiliary  observatory  ei'ected 
in  1863,  100  yards  south  of  the  principal  one,  is  intended  to  be  used  by 
Wagner  in  an  investigation  into  the  relative  parallaxes  of  some  of  the  brighter 
stars.  The  evidences  of  the  extraordinary  accuracy  attained  with  the  Meridian 
Transit  are  such  as  to  justify  the  expectation  that  very  decisive  results  will  ensue 
from  this  renewal  of  the  method  so  lately  applied  by  Auwers  to  the  determina- 
tion of  the  parallax  of  34  Groombridge. 

The  celestial  photometry  which  has  remained  until  lately  in  so  crude  a  state, 
thanks  to  the  labors  of  Steinheil,  SeiiJel,  and  ZoUner,  promises  in  futm'e  to  rank 
as  an  exact  science.  An  ingenious  Pliotomcterj  invented  and  made  by  Professor 
Schwerd,  of  Speyer,  was  mounted  in  1866  by  Messre.  Smyssluff  and  Berg  in  the 
west  dome  of  the  anxilliary  observatory,  and  offers  a  fine  opportunity  for  research 
in  a  field  that  has  as  yet  been  but  too  little  cultivated.  A  mate  to  this  unique 
instrument  has  been  ordered  fur  the  observatoiy  of  Bonn  by  Professor  Arge- 
lander,  who  has  signified  his  intention  of  devoting  his  future  years  to  its  use. 

A  little  to  the  northeast  of  the  central  building  is  the  convenient  and  tasteful 
observatory  erected  at  the  expense  of  the  military  academy,  and  furnished  with 
a  clock,  a  fixed  transit,  and  very  many  portable  instruments,  together  with  very 
convenient  arrangements  for  their  use.  This  structm-e,  completed  in  1857,  is  of 
course  exclusively  for  the  use  of  the  officers  of  the  geodetic  division  of  the  Nicolas 
Military  Academy  whilst  pursuing  at  Poulkova  their  course  in  practical  astron- 
omy. Among  the  works  executed  by  these  officers  under  Dollens's  directions  «uro 
several  whose  results  may  be  looked  for  \iith  general  interest,  such  as  the  twelve 
repetitions  of  the  measurement  of  a  short  base  line,  in  the  year  1865,  and  the 
observations  made  in  1866  for  the  investigation  of  the  local  attraction  of  the 
plumb  line  in  the  neighborhood  of  Poulkova. 

In  recounting  the  larger  fixed  instruments  of  the  Central  Observatory,  wo  must 
not  omit  a  few  words  C4mcerning  the  smaller  portable  ones,  of  which  the  insti- 
tution possesses  several  line  specimens  of  the  best  workmanship  of  Ertel,  the 


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DORPAT  AND  POULKOVA.  389 

Bepsolds,  Brauer  and  others.  These  have  found  their  most  frequent  use  in  con- 
nection with  the  geographic  and  geodetic  labors  conducted  by  its  astronomers, 
of  which  we  shall  only  mention  the  two  grand  international  undertakings  that 
have  not  as  yet  been  surpassed  in  their  magnitude — we  refer  to  the  measure- 
ment of  an  arc  of  latitude  of  25®,  and  one  of  longitude  of  69^*.  The  foiiner  wo 
have  already  frequently  mentioned  as  being  a  work  intimately  connected  with 
tbe  foundation  and  the  history  of  the  first  25  years  of  the  observatory's  exist- 
ence. The  preliminary  steps  for  continuing  this  work  ten  degrees  further  south- 
ward to  the  island  of  Crete  are  now  being  taken.  To  this  meridian  measure- 
ment that  of  an  arc  of  longitude  naturally  forced  itself  upon  Struve's  attention 
as  a  necessary  supplemental  undertaking,  and  he  had  already,  in  1848,  prepared 
the  way  by  enlisting  the  interests  of  General  Wrontschento,  then  engaged  in 
the  triangulation  of  the  southern  part  of  Russia.  This  original  project  of  a 
measurement  along  the  47th  parallel,  as  proposed  by  Struve  in  1857,  having 
failed  of  execution,  Otto  Struve  in  1860  proposed  the  measurement  of  an  arc 
from  Valentia,  in  Ireland,  eastward  to  Orsk,  at  the  southern  end  of  the  Ural 
mountains.  This  work  will  be  brought  to  a  close  this  present  summer — ^the  future 
further  prolongation  of  tlie  line  through  Narvaul  and  Irkutsk  to  Nicolaieff  may  bo 
confidently  expected.  The  Bepsold  Portable  Vertical  Circle  has  been  used  in  the 
latitude  determinations  on  this  measurement  of  an  arc  of  longitude ;  the  Brauer 
Portable  Extra-meridional  Transit  has  been  adopted  for  the  telegraphic  longitude 
determinations,  all  of  the  latter  being  made  by  two  observere,  Dr.  Thiele  of 
Bonn  and  Captain  Jalinski  of  Poulkova.  The  instruments,  as  well  as  the  observ- 
ers, exchange  places  during  tho  seasiin's  work.  We  may,  then,  soon  expect  from 
this  grand  operation  valuable  additions  to  our  knowledge  of  the  curvature  of 
the  European  portion  of  tho  earth's  surface.  The  portable  instruments  alluded 
to  merit  more  than  a  passing  allusion.  The  Repsold  Circle  has  been  made  the 
subject  of  an  elaborate  monograph  by  Smj'ssloft*;  a  short  notice  of  its  construc- 
tion and  pertbrmance  will  bo  found  in  Silliman's  American  Journal  for  1867. 
The  Brauer's  Transit  has  not  as  yet  been  similai'ly  brought  to  public  notice  ;  this 
is  owing  to  tho  fact  that  the  few  (six)  that  have  been  made  by  Brauer  have  been 
in  continual  use  since  they  left  his  hands,  but  it  is  promised  that  this  neglect 
shall  bo  remedied  ere  long.  These  instruments,  constructed  at  Poulkova  at 
DoUen's  suggestion,  are  specially  adapted  to  use  out  of  the  Meridian,  for  which 
purpose  nothing  can  be  desired  more  convenient  than  the  formulse  given  by  Dollen 
in  his  memoir  entitled  "  Die  lioitbestimraung,"  &c.,  **  Tho  detennination  of  the 
time  by  means  of  a  portable  transit  instrument  established  in  tho  vertical  of  the 
Pole  Star.     St.  Petersburg,  1863." 

In  connection  with  geodesy  wo  must  not  omit  to  notice  tho  Base-measuring 
Apparatus  used  in  Struve's  work,  and  now  generally  adopted  by  the  Russian 
geodesists.  This  is  distinguished  by  its  simplicity  and  the  facility  with  which  it 
is  used.  Each  piece  is  a  plain  bar  of  iron  furnished  at  one  end  witn  a  touch  lever 
and  enclosed  in  a  packing  of  cotton  within  its  wooden  case ;  two  interior  ther- 
mometers and  a  reversible  level  complete  the  apparatus.  With  such  means  the 
rapidity  and  ease  ^vith  which  a  base  is  measured  compares  favorably  with  that 
attaincKl  in  other  countries,  and  the  accuracy  of  the  results  have  never  as  yet,  wo 
believe,  been  called  in  question.  One  of  the  most  interesting  operations  per- 
formed in  connection  with  this  base  apparatus  was  the  comparison  with  specimen 
bars  used  in  other  countries.  This  work,  conducted  during  the  interval  1850-54, 
has  only  been  surpassed  in  magnitude  by  the  more  recent  comparisons  made  at 
Southampton. 

Among  the  geodetic  apparatus  worthy  of  special  mention  is  the  Pendulum  Appa- 
ratus made  by  the  Repsolds  for  the  Central  Observatory,  and  used  since  1864  by 
Professor  Sawitsch,  who  proposes  to  visit  all  the  stations  of  the  Russo-Scandi- 
navian  meridian  arc.  This  apparatus  may  bo  defined  as  Bessel's  symmetrical 
pendulum  with  reciprocal  axes,  being  constructed  according  to  tho  views  of  that 


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390  DORPAT  AND  POULKOVA. 

eminent  astronomer  as  gathered  from  his  well-known  memoirs  and  his  posthamous 
papers,  published  in  the  Astronomische  Nachrichten,  volume  xxx.  In  this  con- 
struction we  find  the  effect  of  atmospheric  resistance  reduced  to  a  minimum,  and 
by  the  exchange  of  the  knife  edges  the  effect  of  their  curvature  may  be  elimi- 
nated. A  mate  to  the  Poulkova  apparatus  may  be  found  at  Greneva,  and  the 
complete  investigations  published  by  Plantamonr  demonstrate  its  excellence.  The 
full  publication  of  Professor  Sawitsch's  results  will  be  looked  for  with  the  more 
interest  because  of  the  early  attention  paid  in  Russia  to  these  matters.  Preuss 
in  Kotzebue's  voyage  of  circumnavigation  in  1822-28,  and  Parrot  and  Feodoroff 
in  their  ascent  of  Mont  Ararat  in  1830,  were  the  first  to  attempt  to  directly  measure 
the  influence  of  mountains  in  causing  local  irre^laiities  in  the  earth's  attraction, 
if  we  except  an  almost  forgotten  and  unpublished  "  pendulum  survey"  of  the 
Harz  and  Brocken  hills,  by  Zach,  in  1797. 

Finally,  yet  among  the  really  most  important  instruments,  we  notice  with  great 
interest  the  many  chronometers  deposited  at  the  Central  Observatory,  and  contin- 
ually being  investigated  there  when  not  in  use  in  the  longitude  expeditions.  To 
their  investigation  Colonel  Smyssloff  has  given  very  special  attention,  and  to  bis 
results,  as  well  as  to  the  care  with  which  they  are  used  and  their  own  intrinsic 
excellence,  are  to  be  attributed  the  accuracy  of  the  longitude  determinations 
annually  made  throughout  the  empire. 

In  closing  this  notice  of  the  observatories  of  Dorpat  and  Poulkova,  we  can- 
not but  revert  to  that  very  wide-spread  but  erroneous  notion  that  astronomy  is  a 
science  that  of  all  others  has  least  to  do  with  the  everyday  wants  of  mankind. 
Such  an  opinion  ignores  that  history  which  clearly  points  back  through  thousands 
of  years  to  a  long  array  of  learned  men  who  have  hailed  astronomy  as  the  senior 
and  protector  of  all  learning.  In  the  most  ancient  times  the  astronomer  (and 
not  merely  the  astrologer)  was  honored  for  his  valuable  services,  but  it  was 
reserved  for  Greenwich  and  Poulkova  to  develop,  each  for  itself,  a  path  of  use- 
fulness through  which  to  make  its  importance  felt  by  the  state.  In  so  far  as 
similar  efforts  are  made  by  savants  everywhere,  they  may  rightfully  look  to  the 
state  for  support :  especially  in  this  democratic  country,  where  education  is  so 
widely  diffused  and  useful  science  so  liberally  supported,  is  it  the  duty  of  inves- 
tigators to  show  that  the  national  progress  consists  not  in  the  mere  repetition  to 
the  children  of  that  which  their  fathers  knew,  but  in  the  actual  increase  of 
knowledge. 


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ON  TRACES  OF  THE  EABLY  MENTAL  CONDITION  OF  MAN. 


By  Edward  Burnet  Taylor,  Esq. 


[FROM  THX  PROCIEOINGS  OF  THE  ROT AL  INSTITUTION  OP  ORIAT  BRTTAUf.] 


If  an  antiquary  is  asked  his  opinion  as  to  the  eai'ly  condition  of  mankind,  he 
will  probably  take  up  the  question  with  reference  to  an  excellent  test  of  man's 
civilization,  the  quality  of  the  tools  and  weapons  he  uses.  He  will  show  how, 
within  our  own  knowledge,  the  use  of  metal  instniraents  has  succeeded  the  use 
of  sharpened  stones,  or  shells,  or  bones  j  how  the  stone  axes  and  arrow-heads 
found  buried  in  the  ground  prove  that  in  every  great  district  of  the  world  a  Stone 
Age  has  prevailed  at  some  more  or  less  remote  period ;  and  lastly,  how  recent 
geological  researches  have  displayed  to  us  the  traces  of  a  Stone  Age  extraordi- 
narily low  and  rude  in  character,  and  belonging  to  a  time  as  extraordinarily 
remote  in  antiquity.  The  history  of  man,  as  tlms  told  by  a  study  of  the  imple- 
ments he  has  used,  is  the  history  of  an  upward  development,  not  indeed  a  gradual 
steady  progress  of  each  family  or  tribe,  but  a  general  succession  of  higher  pro- 
cesses to  lower  ones. 

Now  there  also  exists  evidence,  by  means  of  which  it  is  possible  still  to  trace, 
in  the  history  of  man's  mental  condition,  an  upward  progress,  a  succession  of 
higher  intellectual  processes  and  opinions  to  lower  ones.  This  movement  has 
accompanied  his  progress  in  the  material  art«  during  a  long  but  undeRned  period 
of  his  life  upon  tlio  earth ;  and  of  this  evidence,  and  of  the  lines  of  argument 
that  may  be  drawn  through  it,  the  object  of  the  present  discourse  is  to  give  a 
few  illustrative  examples. 

I.  In  the  first  place,  the  art  of  counting  may  be  examined  from  this  point  of 
view.  We  ourselves  learnt  to  count  when  we  were  children,  by  the  aid  of  a 
series  of  words,  one,  two,  three,  four,  and  so  on,  which  we  were  taught  to  associate 
with  certain  numbers,  1,  2,  3,  4,  and  can  thus  reckon  up  to  the  laigest  imaginable 
.number,  and  down  to  the  smallest  imaginable  fraction.  But  if  we  look  round 
among  other  tribes  of  men  wo  find  a  very  different  state  of  things.  As  we  go 
lower  in  the  scale  of  civilization,  it  becomes  easier  and  easier  to  puzzle  a  man 
with  the  counting  of  20  objects,  or  even  of  10,  and  to  drive  him  to  the  use  of 
nature's  counting  machine,  his  fingers.  When  we  reach  the  low  level  of  the 
savages  of  the  Brazilian  forests  or  of  Australia,,  we  find  people  to  whom  3  or  4 
are  large  numbers.  One  tribe,  described  by  Mr.  Oldfield,  reckoned  one,  two, 
and  then  hooUtha,  "many;"  but  when  their  poor  word-language  fails  them  they 
fall  back  on  gesture-reckoning.  Mr.  Oldfield  tells  us,  for  instance,  how  he  got 
from  a  native  the  number  of  men  killed  in  a  certain  fight.  The  man  began  to 
think  over  the  names,  taking  a  finger  for  each,  and  thus,  after  many  unsuccessful 
trials,  ho  at  last  brought  out  the  result  by  holding  up  his  hand  three  times,  to 
show  that  the  number  was  15. 

Now  our  words,  one,  two,  three,  four,  &c.,  have  no  etymology  to  us,  but  among 
a  large  proportion  of  the  lower  races  numerals  have  a  meaning ;  as  among  many 
tribes  of  North  and  South  America  and  West  Africa  are  found  such  expressions 
as,  for  5,  "a  whole  hand,"  and  for  6,  "one  to  the  other  hand;"  10,  "bothhand&," 


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392   ON  TRACES  OP  THE  EARLY  MENTAL  CONDITION  OF  MAN. 

and  11,  "one  to  the  foot;''  20,  "one  Indian;"  and  21,  "one  to  the  bands  of  tbi 
other  Indian ;"  or  for  11,"  foot  1 ;"  for  12,  "  foot  2 ;"  for  20,  "  a  person  is  finished ;" 
whilst  among  the  miserable  natives  of  Van  Dieman's  Land,  the  reckoning  of  a 
single  hand,  viz:  5  is  called  i^w^awwa,  "a  man." 

For  displaying  to  ns  the  picture  of  the  savage  counting  on  bis  fingers,  and 
being  struck  with  the  idea  that  if  he  describes  in  words  bis  gestures  of  reckoning, 
these  words  will  become  a  numeral,  perhaps  no  language  approaches  the  Zulu. 
Counting  on  his  fingers,  he  begins  always  with  the  little  finger  of  his  left  band, 
and  thus  reaching  5,  he  calls  it  "  a  whole  hand ;"  for  6,  be  translates  the  appro- 
priate gesture,  calling  it  tatisitupaj  "  take  the  thumb ;"  while  7,  being  shown  in 
gesture  by  the  forefinger,  and  this  finger  being  used  to  point  with,  the  verb  komba, 
"to  point/'  comes  to  serve  as  a  numeral  expression,  denoting  7. 

Now,  though  many  numerals,  especiSilly  fives,  tens,  and  twenties,  were  named 
from  the  fingers,  hands,  and  feet,  this  is  far  from  being  the  only  source  of  numerals. 
Many  centuries  ago,  the  Hindu  scholars,  besides  their  regular  series,  made  a  new 
set  of  words  to  serve  as  a  sort  of  memoria  technica  for  remembering  dates,  &c. 
Thus,  for  1  they  said  ^^cartU^  or  ^hnoon;^  for  2  "eye,"  or  ^^arm,^^  or  ^'^tcing;^ 
for  3,  ^^Ilatna,^^  or  ^^fire,^  or  ^^ quality'^ — there  being  considered  to  be  3  Ramas, 
3  kinds  of  fire,  3  gunas  or  qualities ;  for  4  "  a^e"  or  "  veda,^  because  there  are  4 
ages  and  4  vedas.  One  line  of  an  astronomical  formula  will  show  the  working 
of  the  system : 

Yohni  tri  rtwisha  gUDenda  knt&gnibhtkta : 
That  is  to  say : 

'*Fire,  three,  season,  arrow,  quality,  moon,  four  of  dice,  fire,  eloment:" 
That  is3  3  6  5-3  1  4  35. 

When  Wilhelm  von  Humboldt,  more  than  30  years  ago,  looked  into  this 
artificial  system  of  numeration,  it  struck  him  that  be  had  before  him  a  key  to 
the  general  formation  of  numerals.  When  a  Malay,  he  said,  calls  5  limay  that 
is,  "hand,"  he  is  doing  the  same  thing  that  the  Hindu  pandits  did  when  they 
took  "  wing"  as  the  numeral  for  2 ;  and  then,  he  suggested,  the  numeral  words 
having  thus  been  once  made,  the  sooner  their  original  meaning  was  got  rid  of 
and  they  were  reduced  to  the  appearance  of  mere  unmeaning  symbols,  the  better 
it  would  be  for  their  practical  use  in  language.  Now  a  number  of  actual  fects 
may  be  brought  forward  in  support  of  Humboldt's  far-sighted  suggestion.  The 
Abipones  of  South  America  counte<l  to  3,  and  for  4  said  "ostrich  toes,"  from  tho 
division  of  their  ostrich's  feet;  then,  for  5,  "one  hand;"  for  10,  "two  bands," 
and  so  on.  In  Polynesia  there  is  a  regular  set  of  decimal  numerals,  bnt  some- 
times, for  superstitious  reasons,  they  turn  words  out  of  their  language  for  a  time, 
and  have  to  use  fresh  ones.  Thus,  in  Tahiti,  they  ejected  rua  2,  and  rtma  5; 
and  in  a  missionary  translation  of  the  Bible  we  find  piti  and  pae  instead ;  now 
piiiy  the  new  word  for  2,  means  "  together,"  and  j>aa,  the  new  word  for  5,  means 
"side." 

In  other  South  Sea  islands,  the  habit  of  counting  fish  or  fniit  one  in  each 
hand  has  leil  to  tautuiy  "a  pair,"  becoming  a  numeral  equivalent  for  2;  the  habit 
of  tying  broad  fruit  in  knots  of  4  has  made  a  new  numeral,  jpono,  "a  knot," 
while  other  terms  for  10  and  100  have  had  their  origin  from  words  meaning 
"  bunch"  and  "  bundle."  And  so,  even  in  European  languages,  numeral  words 
break  ont  from  time  to  time,  ready  to  become  proper  numbers,  shonld  a  vacancy 
be  made  for  them  in  the  now  meaningless  series,  one,  two,  three,  four.  Thus  in 
English  we  have  pair  or  couple  for  2,  and  score,  that  is  "  notch,"  for  20.  The 
Letts  count  crabs  and  little  fish  by  throwing  them  3  at  a  time,  and  thns  the 
wonl  mettens,  "a  throw,"  has  come  to  mean  3,  and  so  in  many  other  cases  in 
other  languages. 

Now  when  tribes  count  by  saying  Jiand  for  5,  take  the  thutnb  fnr  6,  Tuilfa  num 
for  10,  and  so  on,  it  is  evident  that  tho  basis  of  their  numeration  is  finger  counting. 


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ON  TRACES  OP  THE  EARLY  MENTAL  CONDITION  OF  MAN.  393 

But  thcro  is  also  evidence  in  the  systems  of  numeration  of  most  civilized  lan- 
guages that  they,  too,  m-o  the  6nccessoi*s  of  a  mde  unspoken  system  of  gesture 
counting.  The  mlo  of  the  whole  world  is  to  count  hy  lives,  tens,  and  twenties; 
the  exceptions  are  so  late  or  so  incidental  tliat  we  may  neglect  them  and  say  that 
the  original  counting  of  mankind  is  the  quinary,  the  decimal,  or  the  vigesimal 
system,  or  a  combination  of  these.  We  need  not  go  abroad  for  examples.  In 
the  Roman  numerals,  which  count  to  V,  and  then  begin  again  VI,  VII,  we  have 
the  quinary  system.  The  decimal  system  is  our  familiar  one.  And  when  wo 
speak  of  "threescore  and  ten,"  "foui-score  and  thirteen,"  we  are  counting  by  the 
vigesimal  system,  each  "score"  or  notch,  thus  ideally  made,  standing  for  20,  for 
"one  man,"  as  a  Mexican  or  Carib  would  put  it.  It  is  a  very  curious  thing  that 
both  we  and  the  French,  having  two  good  decimal  systems  of  our  own,  should  havo 
run  off  into  vigesimalism.  Why  should  wo  have  ever  said  "fourecore  and  thir- 
teen" for  the  93,  which  we  have  good  Saxon  tens  to  express?  and  why  should 
they  say  in  Fiunce,  "  quatre-vingt-treize,"  instead  of  holding  to  the  Latin  oiiginal 
of  their  language,  and  saying  "nonante-troisT"  The  reason  seems  to  be  that 
counting  by  scores  is  a  strongly  marked  Keltic  characteristic,  found  in  Welsh, 
Irish,  Gaelic,  and  Breton,  and  has  been  taken  up  into  the  alien  numeral  systems 
of  France  and  England.  At  any  rate,  the  rale  of  the  world  is  to  count  by  fives, 
tens,  and  twenties ;  and  the  connection  of  this  rule  with  the  practice  of  counting 
on  the  fingers  and  toes  will  hardly  be  disputed.  Indeed  the  remark  has  often 
been  made  that  the  fact  of  our  having  10  fingers  and  10  toes  has  led  us  into  a 
system  which  is  actually  not  the  best ;  while  if  we  had  had  6  fingers  on  each 
hand,  and  6  toes  on  each  foot,  we  should  probably  havo  taken  to  using,  like  the 
carpenter,  the  more  convenient  system  of  duodecimals. 

These  are  examples  of  the  facts  which  tend  to  show  that  man's  eaily  way  of 
counting  was  upon  his  fingers;  as  Massieu,  the  Abb6  Sicard's  celebrated  deaf 
and  dumb  pupil,  records  in  describing  his  recollections  of  his  yet  uneducated 
childhood :  "I  knew  the  numbers  before  my  instruction ;  my  fingers  had  taught 
me  them.  I  did  not  know  the  ciphers.  I  counted  on  my  fingei*s."  Among  the 
lower  races,  the  use  of  word  language  has  only  to  a  small  extent  encroached 
upon  gesture  language  in  counting ;  amqpg  races  above  these,  numeral  words 
are  more  largely  used,  but  preserve  evident  traces  of  a  growth  out  of  gesture 
counting;  while  among  the  higher  peoples,  though  language  gives  little  trace  of 
the  original  signification  of  numerals,  there  still  prevails  the  system  of  counting 
by  fives,  tens,  and  twenties,  of  which  we  can  hardly  doubt  that  the  norm  is  given 
by  the  arrangement  of  the  fingers  and  toes.  Thus  it  appears  that  in  the  mental 
history  of  mankind  we  may  see  back  to  a  condition  so  much  lower  than  our  own, 
that  the  numerals,  which  we  look  upon  as  so  settled  a  part  -of  speech  that  wo 
use  them  as  one  of  the  fhrst  tests  of  the  common  derivation  of  languages,  were 
still  unspoken,  and  their  purpose  was  served  by  the  ruder,  visible  signs  which 
belong  to  the  department  of  gesture. 

II.  The. next  argument  to  be  brought  forward  belongs  to  a  very  different 
province  of  thought,  and  touches  on  the  early  opinions  of  mankind  as  to  the 
nature  and  habits  of  spiritual  beings.  It  is  well  known  that  the  lower  races  of 
mankind  account  for  the  facts  and  events  of  the  outer  world  by  ascribing  a  sort 
of  human  life  and  personality  to  animals,  and  even  to  plants,  rocks,  streams, 
winds,  the  sim  and  stars,  and  so  on  through  the  phenomena  of  natiu*e.  It  is 
also  known  that  a  low  stmtum  of  the  religion  of  the  world  consists  in  belief  in, 
and  adoration  of,  spiritual  beings  who  inhabit  the  winds  and  trees  and  streams, 
who  preside  over  the  ripening  of  fruits  and  the  falling  of  rain,  give  success  in 
war,  or  inflict  disease  or  misfortune  on  the  sava^  hunter.  Thus  the  Mintira,  a 
low  tribe  on  the  Malayan  peninsula,  ascribe  every  ailment  that  happens  to  them 
to  a  spirit  or  liantu.  One  causes  smallpox,  another  brings  swelling  and  inflam- 
mation in  hands  and  feet,  another  causes  the  blood  to  flow  from  wounds ;  indeed, 
to  enumerate  all  these  luintus  would  be  to  give  a  list  of  all  then:  known  ailments. 


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394   ON  TEACE8  OP  THE  EARLY  MENTAL  CONDITION  OP  MAN. 

The  worship  of  such  spirits,  found  among  the  lower  races  over  almost  the  whole 
world,  is  commonly  known  as  "fetichism/'  It  is  clear  that  this  childlike  theory 
of  the  animation  of  all  nature  lies  at  the  root  of  what  we  call  mythology ;  if  the 
sun  aid  moon  are  described  as  semi-human  beings,  called  by  the  Greeks  Helios 
and  Selene,  by  the  Esquimaux  Anninga  and  Malina,  this  personification  is 
founded  on  an  original  opinion  still  found  in  lively  existence  in  the  world,  that 
the  sun  and  moon  are  living  Anthropomorphic  creatures.  It  would  probably 
add  to  the  clearness  of  our  conception  of  the  state  of  mind  which  thus  sees  in 
all  nature  the  action  of  animated  life  and  the  presence  of  innumerable  spiritual 
beings,  if  we  give  it  the  name  of  animism  instead  of  fetichism.  Now,  by 
examining  a  single  phase  of  this  animism,  it  seems  possible  to  give  some  idea 
how  generally  man  in  his  lowest  known  state  of  culture  is  a  wonderfully  igno- 
rant, consistent,  and  natural  spiritualist ;  and  also  how  the  effects  of  his  early 
spiritualism  may  be  traced  through  the  development  of  more  cultured  races  in 
proceedings  which  have  often  changed  their  meaning,  and  lost  their  original  con- 
sistency by  the  encroachment  of  mroe  real  knowlec^e. 

We  all  know  how  deep  and  sincere  is  the  terror  of  ghosts  among  savages. 
It  is  often  no  exaggeration  to  say  that  they  are  in  more  deadly  fear  of  a  man 
after  ho  is  dead  than  while  he  is  alive.  The  savage's  notion  of  a  ghost  corre- 
sponds very  nearly  with  that  of  the  English  peasant  in  our  own  day — ^it  is  a 
thin  phantom  going  from  place  to  place,  like  the  person  it  belonged  to,  when  it 
does  appear,  but  often  invisible,  though  capable  of  knocking  and  uttering  sonnds. 
The  notion  of  the  ghost  runs  almost  inextricably  into  that  of  the  spirit  or  soul, 
of  the  breath  and  the  blood,  and  of  those  unsubstantial  somethings  which  follow 
the  man  and  are  like  him,  his  shadow  and  his  reflection  in  the  water.  Now  it  is 
consistent  with  this  opinion  of  ghosts  to  hold  that  by  killing  a  man  yon  can 
release  his  ghost  and  send  it  where  you  will.  This  is  what  the  King  of  Dahomo 
does  when  he  sends  men  day  after  day  to  take  messages  to  his  father  in  the  land 
of  shadows.  The  Gets,  according  to  Herodotus,  sent  a  man  every  five  years  to 
their  god  Zamolxis,  giving  him  their  messages,  and  then  throwing  him  up  and 
catching  him  on  their  spears.  Thus,  in  British  India,  some  80  years  ago,  it  is 
on  record  that  two  Biuhmins,  believing  that  a  man  had  taken  40  rupees  out  of 
their  house,  took  their  own  mother  and  cut  her  head  off,  that  her  ghost  might 
torment  and  pursue  to  death  the  offender  and  his  family — the  old  woman  being 
herself  a  consenting  party  to  the  transaction.  This  is  not  an  isolated  case,  but 
one  belonging  to  a  recognized  Hindu  practice. 

In  perfect  accordance  with  this  opinion  we  find  in  almost  every  country  in  the 
world,  at  some  time  or  other,  the  practice  of  slaying  men  and  women  at  the 
graves  of  the  dead.  In  one  of  the  South  Sea  Islands  a  cord  is  put  round  the 
wife's  neck  at  her  marriage,  and  when  her  husband  dies  it  will  be  tightened,  to 
i-elease  her  soul,  that  it  may  accompany  his  to  the  land  of  shadows,  and  continue 
to  catch  fish  and  cook  yams  for  him  there.  The  Dyaks,  of  Borneo,  have  a 
passion  for  waylaying  their  enemies  and  bringing  home  their  heads;  as  they 
told  Mr.  St.  John,  "the  white  men  read  books,  we  hunt  for  heads  instead." 
They  do  this  to  secure  the  services  of  a  slave  in  the  next  world.  These  practices 
are  the  consistent  working  out  of  a  spiritualistic  theory,  which,  if  crude.and  false, 
is  at  any  rate  intelligible.  To  some  extent  the  same  may  be  swd,  when  not  only 
the  dead  man's  wives  and  slaves,  but  his  dogs  and  horses  are  killed,  and  buried 
or  burnt  at  his  grave.  The  man's  ghost  is  to  ride  the  horse's  ghost  in  the  land 
of  shadows,  and  the  dog's  ghost  will  run  on  before  after  ghostly  game;  or,  as  in 
Mexico,  the  dog  was  to  carry  the  man  across  the  river  which  lies  between  the 
world  of  the  living  and  the  world  of  the  dead;  while  in  Greenland,  a  dog's  head 
was  placed  by  the  grave  of  a  little  child,  that  the  soul  of  the  dog,  who  ever 
knows  his  way  home,  might  guide  the  helpless  infant  to  the  land  of  spurits. 

But  when  not  only  men  and  animals,  but  inanimate  objects  are  buried  or  burnt 
for  the  dead,  what  does  this  meant    When  the  hunting  tribes  of  North  America 


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ON  TRACES  OP  THE  EARLY  MENTAL  CONDITION  OP  MAN.     3C5 

provide  the  dead  man  with  bis  favorite  horse,  and  at  the  same  time  with  his  bow 
and  arrows;  while  the  fishing  tribes  bury  the  dead  man  in  his  canoe,  with  the 
paddle  and  the  fish  spear  ready  to  his  hand,  what  difFerence  can  we  disceni 
between  the  purpose  of  the  animate  and  of  the  inanimate  oflferings,  which  alike  are 
to  serve  the  spirit  of  their  owner!  When  the  dead  chief's  wives  and  his  slaves, 
his  horses,  his  weapons,  his  clothes  and  ornaments,  are  indiscriminately  buried 
with  him ;  when  food  is  put  in  the  grave  with  the  dead  man,  and  fresh  supplies 
brought  every  month ;  when  the  little  child  is  provided  with  its  rattle  and  play- 
things, and  the  dead  warrior  has  the  ceremonial  pipe  put  in  his  hand,  that  he 
may  hold  it  out  as  a  symbol  of  peace  when  he  comes  to  the  other  world,  while 
a  store  of  paint  is  buried  with  him  that  he  may  appear  decently  among  his 
brother  warriors ;  in  these  and  hundreds  of  other  instances,  the  spuit  of  the  dead 
man  is  to  use  the  spirits  alike  of  men  and  animals,  and  of  weapons,  clothes,  and 
food.  Then  we  should  expect  savages  to  be  found  recognizing  the  existence  of 
something  of  the  nature  of  a  spirit  or  ghost  belonging  to  inanimate  objects;  and 
this  in  fact  they  do.^  The  existence  of  the  Fijian  opinion  is  well  authenticated, 
that  lifeless  objects  have  spirits,  and  that  the  souls  of  canoes,  houses,  plants, 
broken  pots,  and  weapons  may  bo  seen  floating  down  the  river  of  death  into  the 
land  of  souls;  and  crossing  into  North  America  we  find  the  same  idea,  not  only 
that  souls  are  like  shadows,  and  that  everything  is  animate  in  the  universe,  but 
that  the  souls  of  hatchets,  kettles,  and  such  like  things,  as  well  as  of  men  and 
animals,  have  to  pass  across  the  water  which  lies  between  their  home  in  this  life 
and  the  Great  Village  where  the' sun  sets  in  the  for  West.  We  must  not  expect 
the  spirits  of  spears  and  kettles  to  have  the  same  distinctness  and  vitality  in 
savage  philosophy  as  the  spirits  of  men  and  horses.  Inanimate  objects  want 
those  signs  of  life  that  are  given  to  men  and  animals  by  the  breath,  the  blood, 
the  independence  of  voluntary  action ;  but  at  any  rate  they  have  shadows,  as  in 
the  New  Zealand  tale  of  Te  Kanawa,  who  offered  the  fiuries  his  neck  ornament 
and  ear-rings ;  they  took  the  shadows  of  them,  but  the  substance  they  left  behind. 
They  have  also  that  property  which  in  the  mind  of  the  savage  has  so  much  to 
do  vnih  defining  the  nature  of  ghosts — their  impalpable  phantoms  can  and  do 
appear  far  away  from  where  their  real  substance  is,  in  the  dreams  and  hallucina- 
tions which  savages  look  on  as  real  events.  When  we  meet  with  notions  of 
apparitions  among  more  civilized  people,  it  seems  that  they  hold  a  theory  inher- 
ited from  the  full  animism  of  the  lower  races,  but  much  damaged  in  its  consist- 
ency by  the  interference  of  a  better  knowledge  of  facts.  When  the  ghost  of 
Hamlet's  father  appeared,  he  '*  wore  his  beaver  up."  What  beaver  T  To  an 
European  believer  in  ghosts,  it  would  seem  foolish  to  talk  of  the  ghost  of  a 
helmet;  but  to  a  North  American  Indian  it  is  quite  reasonable  that  a  helmet 
should  have  a  ghost  as  well  as  the  warrior  who  puts  it  on  his  ghostly  head.  The 
opinion  of  the  European  ghost-seer  is  no  doubt  the  more  scientific,  the  more 
affected  by  knowledge  of  the  facts  of  natnre ;  but  the  broader  spiritualism  of 
the  savage  is  more  full,  more  thoroughly  consistent,  because,  as  there  is  much 
reason  to  think,  it  is  nearer  to  its  source. 

A  slight  acquaintance  with  the  spiritualism  of  the  savage  has  sometimes  led 
to  its  being  considered  as  the  result  of  a  degeneration  from  the  opinions  of  more 
cultured  races ;  but  more  complete  knowledge  of  the  facts  tends  to  show  that 
such  an  opinion  inverts  the  real  history  of  events.  The  way  in  which  the  fullest 
and  most  consistent  theory  of  ghosts  is  at  home  among  savage  tribes  is  w«ll 
shown  by  the  belief  that  the  spkit  arrives  in  the  next  world  whole  or  mutilated, 
according  to  the  condition  of  the  body  at  death.  For  instance,  there  is  an  Aus- 
tralian tribe  who  believe  that  if  a  man  be  left  unbmied,  his  soul  becomes  a 
wandering  ghost.     If  one  of  their  warriors  kills  his  enemy,  he  is  sometimes 

*  The  speaker  mentioDed  that  he  had  jtut  found  in  the  works  of  an  American  writer,  Mr. 
Aleer,  independent  confirmation  of  the  view  be  had  taken  of  the  savage  theory  of  spirits, 
as  inclading  spectres  of  inanimate  as  well  as  of  animate  objects. 

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396  ON  TRACES  OF  THE  EABLY  MENTAL  CONDITION  OF  MAN. 

cmbaiTassed  witb  the  difficulty  that  by  so  doing  be  is  setting  free  a  bostile  gbost 
to  vex  bis  own  people,  and  tberefore  bo  resorts  to  tbe  device  of  cutting  off  the 
dead  man's  rigbt  tbumb,  so  tbat  tbe  gbost  can  no  longer  tbrow  bis  spear,  and 
may  be  safely  left  to  wander  as  an  evil  spirit,  malignant,  but  barmless.  Tbe 
bistory  of  tbe  very  funeral  offerings  just  spoken  of  sbows  in  tbe  most  interesting 
way  tbe  progi'css  of  a  ceremony  from  its  source  in  a  crude  and  savage  pbilosopby 
to  its  gradual  breaking  down  into  mere  formality  and  symbolism.  To  tbe  Axyan 
of  tbe  Vedas  it  was  quite  reasonable  to  bum  tbe  priestly  sacrificial  implements 
witb  tbe  dead  man's  body  for  bis  use  in  tbe  next  world ;  but  tbe  modem  Hindu 
lays  one  tbread  of  woollen  yarn  on  tbe  funeral  cake  of  bis  fatber,  saying,  "May 
tbis  apparel,  made  of  woollen  yam,  bo  acceptable  to  tbee!"  We  may  leara 
from  Ovid  bow  tbe  offerings  of  food  to  the  dead,  in  rader  times  a  tborough  prac- 
tical savage  proceeding,  bad  in  bis  time  dwindled  to  a  mere  affectionate,  senti- 
mental ceremony.  Gailands,  be  says,  and  some  scattered  com  and  grains  of 
salt,  and  bread  steeped  in  wine,  and  violets  laid  about :  witb  tbese  the  shade 
may  be  appeased.  "Little  tbe  manes  ask,  tbe  pious  thought  stands  instead  of 
the  rich  gift,  for  Styx  holds  no  greedy  gods." 

'*  Parva  petunt  maDes— pietas  pro  divite  grata  est 
Mnnere.    Nod  avidos  Styx  habet  ima  deos." 

Wc  may  see  bow  tbe  eai-ly  Christians  kept  up  tbe  heathen  custom  of  burying 
omaments  witb  tbe  dead,  of  putting  playthings  in  a  child's  grave,  doing  just 
what  a  red  Indian  squaw  will  do,  but  doing  it  witb  bow  changed  a  purpose. 
Tbe  Chinese  keeps  up  the  time-honored  custom*of  providing  tbe  dead  with  clothes 
and  money ;  but  the  money  that  he  will  palm  off  on  bis  dead  father  is  a  pastelioard 
coin,  stamped  like  a  Spanish  dollar,  and  covered  witb  silver-leaf;  tbis  he  will 
bum,  and  bis  father  will  have  tbe  spirit  of  it  to  spend  in  the  next  world.  The 
same  Chinese  will  yearly  spread  a  feast  for  the  souls  of  his  dead  ancestors ;  he 
and  bis  friends  will  wait  a  decent  while  for  the  ghosts  to  eat  tbe  spirits  of  the 
food,  and  then  they  will  fall  to  themselves.  To  see  the  same  thing  done  nearer 
home,  you  have  only  to  travel  into  Brittany,  where  on  the  night  of  tbe  F^te 
des  Morts  yon  will  find  tbe  iire  made  up  and  the  hearth  swept,  and  the  supper 
left  on  tbe  table  for  tbe  souls  of  tbe  dead  to  come  and  take  their  part.  And 
when  wc  see  a  wTcath  of  everlastings  laid  upon  a  tomb,  or  a  nosegay  of  fresh 
flowers  thro\ra  into  an  open  grave,  a  full  knowledge  of  tbe  bistory  of  funeral 
offerings  seems  to  justify  us  in  believing  what  we  should  hardly  have  guessed 
without  it,  tbat  even  here  wo  see  a  relic  of  the  thoughts  of  the  mdest  savages 
who  claim  a  common  humanity  witb  us,  a  funeral  offering  vastly  changed  in 
signification,  but  nowhere  broken  in  historic  sequence. 

Lastly,  Another  subject  may  be  found  to  throw  light  upon  an  early  condition 
of  men's  minds.  We  are  all  agreed  tbat  there  is  a  certain  mental  process  called 
the  association  qf  ideas.  That  wo  are  in  the  habit  of  connecting  in  our  minds 
different  things  which  have,  in  actual  fact,  no  material  connection,  we  all  admit 
as  a  matter  belonging  to  this  association  of  thoughts  or  of  ideas.  Now  we  have 
been  taught  to  keep  an  eye  on  the  action  of  the  association  of  thoughts,  to 
reco^ize  it  as  a  fallacious  process  apt  to  lead  us  into  all  manner  of  unreasonable 
opinions.  But  if  we  descend  to  a  lower  range  of  civilization,  we  shall  find  that 
the  mental  association  which  we  tolerate  as  a  sort  of  amiable  weakness,  and 
against  which  we  are  at  any  rate  forewamed  and  forearmed,  is  the  very  philos- 
ophy of  the  savage.  There  is  one  particularly  excellent  way  of  studying  the 
effects  of  the  association  of  thought.  It  began  to  produce,  in  a  time  associated 
witb  a  very  low  human  condition,  a  set  of  opinions  and  practices  known  as  tbe 
occult  sciences,  witchcraft,  divination,  astrology,  and  the  like.  The  germs  of 
tbese  imaginary  sciences  are  to  be  found  still  lively  among  the  lower  races. 
Their  development  into  elaborate  pseudo-scientific  systems  belongs  to  a  period 
now  beginning  to  pass  away ;  and  wc  can  still  study  them  in  their  last  stage 
of  existence,  that  in  which  their  remnants  have  lingered  on  into  a  period  of 


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ON  TRACES  OF  THE  EARLY  MENTAL  CONDITION  OF  MAN.      397 

Liglier  mental  cultui'e,  and  bave  become  survivals,  or,  as  we  call  them,  "  super- 
stitions." In  producing  the  occult  sciences,  the  association  of  thought  works  in 
ways  most  distinctly  recognizable.  When  th^  Polynesian  weathcr-raakor  prac- 
tices on  his  sacred  stone,  wets  it  when  he  wants  to  produce  rain,  and  ])ut8  it  to 
the  fire  to  dry  when  he  wants  dry  weather;  and  when,  in  Europe,  water  is  pom*ed 
on  a  stone,  or  a  little  girl  led  al>out  and  pails  of  water  pom'ed  on  her  that  rain 
may  in  like  manner  be  poured  down  from  the  sky,  we  have  practices  resting  on 
the  most  evident  and  direct  association  of  thoughts. 

Thus  we  may  see  a  Zulu  busy  chewing  a  bit  of  wood,  and  thereby  peiforming 
an  ideal  operation,  softening  the  heart  of  another  Zulu  with  whom  he  is  going 
to  trade  C4)ws,  that  he  may  get  a  better  bargain  out  of  him.  So  it  is  when  wo 
find  lingering  in  England  a  practice  belonging  thoroughly  to  the  savage  sorcerer, 
that  of  making  an  image  representing  an  enemy  or  part  of  him,  and  meltiiiff  it, 
dr}'ing  it  up,  or  wounding  it,  that  the  like  may  happen  to  the  person  with  whom 
it  is  associated.  From  time  to  time  there  is  still  found  hidden  about  some  coun- 
try fann  such  a  thing  as  a  heart  stuck  full  of  pins,  the  record  of  some  seci-et 
story  of  attempted  magic  vengeance. 

In  the  ancient  and  still  existing  art  of  astrology  we  see  the  same  early  delusive 
association  of  ideas  producing  results  so  perfectly  intelligible  to  us  that  it  is 
really  difficult  for  educated  people  to  have  patience  to  study  its  details.  An 
astrologer  will  tell  us  how  the  planet  Jupiter  is  connected  with  persons  of  a  bold, 
hearty,  jovial  temperament ;  and  how  the  planet  Venus  has  to  do  with  love  and 
marriage ;  while  to  us  the  whole  basis  of  this  theory  lies  in  the  accident  of  the 
names  of  certain  gods  having  been  given  to  certain  stars,  which  are  therefore 
supposed  to  have  the  attributes  of  these  gods.  The  wonder  is  not  that  much 
of  the  magician's  sham  science  is  inexplicable  to  us,  but  that  the  origin  of  so 
many  of  its  details  is  still  evident. 

[An  extract  from  ZatlkieFs  almanac  was  here  read,  with  the  object  of  showing 
the  principle  on  which  the  astrologer's  deductions  arc  still  made,  the  movements 
of  the  heavenly  bodies  being  simply  taken  to  symbolize  human  action,  virtue 
and  good  fortune  being  connected  with  the  aspects  of  the  sun  and  Jupiter,  (sunny 
and  jovial  influences,)  &c.,  the  working  of  the  early  childlike  principle  of  the 
association  of  ideas  being  thus  traceable  through  the  occult  sciences  from  their 
rise  among  savages  to  their  decay  among  educated  men.] 

By  the  study  of  facts  like  those  of  which  a  scanty  selection  has  here  been 
brought  foi-ward,  it  seems  possible  to  look  back  to  an  early  condition  of  our  race 
much  mure  nearly  corresponding  with  that  of  existing  savages  than  with  that 
of  the  civilized  nations  even  of  very  ancient  times.  Wo  seem  to  have  before 
us  the  traces  of  a  state  of  language  so  low  that  words  for  counting  had  not  yet 
aiisen  in  it,  but  mere  gesture-language  served  their  purpose.  It  is  not  meant 
to  imply  that  we  have  evidence  of  a  state  of  pure  gesture-language  anterior  to 
any  spoken  language  j  we  do  not  seem  to  have  such  evidence,  and  even  among 
the  lower  animals  we  find,  in  a  rudimentary  form,  expression  by  action  and  b}' 
voice  going  on  together.  In  the  working  of  the  minds  of  these  early  tribes, 
we  trace  a  childlike  condition  of  thought  in  which  there  is  a  wonderful  absence 
of  definition  between  past  and  future,  between  fact  and  imagination,  between 
last  night's  dream  and  to-day's  waking.  Out  of  this  state  of  mind  we  find  aris- 
ing all  over  the  world  a  consistent,  intense,  and  all-pervading  spiritualism  to 
form  a  basis  upon  which  higher  intellectual  stages  have  been  reared.  In  this 
low  and  early  mental  state  there  reigns  supremo  the  faculty  of  association  of 
thoughts.  Out  of  this,  when  unchecked  by  experience,  arise  those  delusions  of 
sorcery  which  pei^vade  and  imbitter  the  whole  life  of  the  savage,  and  cany  a 
stream  of  folly  far  on  into  the  culture  of  the  higher  races.  But  through  age 
after  ago  there  has  gone  on  a  slow  process  of  natural  selection,  ever  tending  to 
thrust  aside  what  is  worthless,  and  to  favor  what  is  strong  and  sound.  Wiihelm 
von  Humboldt,  already  once  quoted,  may  serve  us  again  by  laying  down  in  few 


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398  ON  TRACES  OF  THE  EARLY  MENTAL  CONDITION  OF  MAN. 

words  ono  of  the  great  generalizations  of  our  intellectual  history.  "  Man,''  he 
says,  "  ever  seeks  the  connection,  even  of  external  phenomena,  first  in  the  realm 
of  thought ;  •  •  •  ♦his  first  endeavor  is  to  rule  nature  fi-om  tb«  idea 
outward." 

Now  if  the  result  of  inquiries  like  the  present  were  to  bring  out  mere  abstract 
truth,  ban*en  of  all  practical  importance,  this  would  perhaps  be  the  last  place 
where  it  would  be  needful  to  apologize  for  the  want.  But  it  is  to  be  noticed 
that  they  do  happen  to  have  this  practical  importance.  There  are  certain  studies 
which  have  entered  upon  a  thoroughly  scientific  stage,  and  ask  no  aid  from 
ethnographic  research  ;  they  care  nothing  for  the  crude  theories  of  earlier  times, 
but  go  du-ectly  to  their  own  observed  facts  by  which  they  must  stand  or  fall. 
But  there  are  other  studies,  of  not  less  importance  to  us  than  astronomy  or  chem- 
istry, which  are  in  a  very  different  state.  In  such  especially  as  relate  to  man, 
the  opemtions  of  his  mind,  his  relations  to  the  rest  of  the  universe,  the  past  and 
future  condition  of  his  mce,  his  ethical  and  political  rights  and  duties — ^in  all 
these  complex  and  difficult  problems  we  find  established  side  by  side  sources  of 
opinion  of  very  different  value.  Some  opinions  come  to  us  authorized  by  the 
best  of  evidence,  and  when  put  to  the  test  of  reason  and  experience  the  trial 
proves  their  soundness.  Others  again,  though  founded  on  some  crude  theory 
of  less  educated  times,  have  been  so  altered  in  their  scope  and  meaning  by  the 
lessons  of  experience,  as  to  be  on  the  whole  the  best  known  representatives  of  facts, 
and  by  this  not  unsatisfactory  title  they  hold  their  ground.  Others,  lastly,  may 
arise  out  of  opinions  belonging  to  a  low  stage  of  culture,  and  maintain  their 
place,  not  because  they  are  proved  to  be  true  or  useful,  but  simply  because  they 
have  been  inherited  from  long  past  generations.  Now  it  is  one  duty  of  ethno- 
graphic research  to  follow  up  these  lines  of  thought,  to  mark  out,  among  existing 
opinions,  which  are  old  notions  kept  up  in  a  modified  condition  to  answer  a  more 
modem  purpose;  in  what  cases  a  growing  knowledge  goes  about  with  the 
remains  of  the  old  philosophy  which  once  clothed  it,  now  hanging  in  strips  and 
tatters  about  its  back ;  in  what  case  opinions  belonging  to  a  low  and  early 
mental  state  survive  into  the  midst  of  a  higher  culture,  pretending  to  be  knowl- 
edge, and  being  really  superstition.  Thus  the  study  of  the  lower  races  has  a 
work  to  do  in  facilitating  the  intellectual  progress  of  the  higher,  by  clearing  the 
ground,  and  leaving  the  way  open  for  the  induction  of  general  laws  and  their 
correction  by  the  systematic  observation  of  facts,  to  the  results  of  which  method 
alone  we  may  fitly  give  the  name  of  Science. 


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ETHNOLOGY. 


IXDIAH  REMAIXS  HEAR  RED  RIVER  SETTLEMENT,  HUDSON'S  BAY  TERRITORY. 

Bv  Donald  Qunx. 

Red  River,  April  1,  1867. 

I  have  been  collecting  a  few  Indian  relics  of  former  ages,  sucli  as  stone  axes, 
mallets,  and  skulls.  The  axes  are  made  of  a  ttne-giwned  blue-stone,  the  mal- 
lets of  gneiss ;  the  skulls  were  taken  from  what  are  apparently  sepulchral 
mounds.  Last  October  a  neighbor  living  on  the  east  side  of  the  river,  reijuiring 
an  additional  cellar  to  preserve  his  root-crop  from  the  winter  frosts,  commenced 
digging  into  the  top  of  a  knoll  in  the  woods,  close  to  his  field,  taking  out  eight 
feet  square.  He  did  not  dig  precisely  into  the  centre  of  the  knoll,  but  some- 
what to  one  side  j  on  digging  down  he  was  rather  surprised  at  the  depth  of  the 
surface-soil,  or  black  vegetable  mould,  being  so  much  greater  here  than  he  had 
ever  found  it  anywhere  else  j  he,  however,  continued  digging  until  ho  got  from 
four  to  five  feet  deep.  Hero  he  began  to  cut  through  decayed  wood,  apparently 
oak,  which  had  been  laid  in  a  horizontal  position.  On  getting  afoot  or  so  below 
this,  in  paring  down  the  side  of  the  pit,  he  uncovered  a  human  skull,  having  its 
lower  jaw  attached,  and  lower  down  the  vertebrae,  8ho^ving  that  the  dead  had 
been  placed  in  a  sitting  posture.  In  digging  still  further,  he  found  other  human 
remains,  and  at  a  depth  of  eight  feet  from  the  top  of  the  tumulus  and  on  a  level 
with  the  surface  of  the  surrounding  country  he  struck  on  a  fi<M)r  of  very  smooth 
and  hard  white  mud,  which  appeared  to  have  been  hardened  by  the  action  of 
fire,  since  bits  of  coal  were  found  on  it.  On  this  clay  flooring  the  following 
articles  were  found,  \nz :  four  or  five  skulls  lying  on  the  face ;  a  number  of 
small  bones,  those  of  fingers  and  toes ;  an  earthen  kettle,  with  a  shell  in  it, 
such  as  live  at  present  in  this  river ;  bones  of  the  beaver ;  two  pipes  of  fine 
blue-stone,  without  a  perfomtion ;  three  ornaments  made  of  shell  or  bone — two 
of  them,  I  think,  of  the  shells  probably  of  the  small  turtles  found  here  in 
the  river ;  the  other  must  be  of  bone  and  is  about  five  inches  in  length  j  one 
perforated  shell,  used  for  ornament ;  a  few  beads,  made  of  shell. 

There  is  another  tumulus  400  or  500  yards  directly  south  of  this.  It  is 
larger  than  the  one  that  has  been  opened,  and  I  think  that  if  o])ened  something 
interesting  would  be  found  in  it.  These  mounds  have  been  known  for  many 
years  past,  but  never  supposed  to  have  been  works  of  art,  or  raised  by  human 
labor;  but  now  I  begin  to  entertain  the  opinion  that  many  such  sepulchral 
mounds  are  to  be  found  in  this  vicinity. 

The  Indians  dwelling  in  this  section  of  the  country  have  no  traditional 
knowledge  relating  to  these  mounds ;  when  any  questions  are  put  to  them  as  to 
the  time  when  erected,  and  the  use  for  which  they  were  raised,  they  answer 
that  they  were  mud  dwellings,  such  as  are  occupied  at  present  by  the  Mandans 
on  the  upper  Missouri  j  and  that  they  had  been  built  very  long  ago  ;  who  the 
builders  were  they  know  not. 

This  ignorance  of  former  times  can,  to  some  extent,  be  pretty  satisfactorily 
accounted  for  fi'om  the  well-known  fact  that  this  region  has  often  had  a  change 
of  inhabitants  since  the  advent  of  the  whites.  The  Cms  were  in  possession 
when  the  first  traders  found  their  way  to  Lake  Ouinipeg,  as  they  then  called  it. 
The  Assinaboines  succeeded  the  Crus,  on  the  latter  tribes  breaking  off  or  scp- 


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400  ETHNOLOGY. 

arating  from  their  kindred,  the  Dakotas.  The  Santena  or  Ojibois  followed  in 
the  wake  of  the  traders  from  Canada,  chiefly  in  the  last  decade  of  the  last  cen- 
tury. If  ever  the  Crus  or  the  Assiniboines  deposited  their  dead  under  mounds 
of  earth,  they  discontinued  that  mode  of  intennent  long  before  the  rnlvent  of 
the  whites,  otherwise  both  missionaries  and  traders  must  have  seen  and  recorded 
the  custom,  or  at  least  some  traces  of  it.  In  the  absence  of  all  testimony  we 
are  led  to  the  conclusion  that  they  are  moni^ments  of  considerable  antiquity, 
and  that  the  race  who  constructed  them,  and  whose  remains  they  cover,  havo 
passed  away  ages  since  or  become  mixed  up  with  a  race  or  races,  if  not  more 
barbarous,  evidently  less  energetic  and  industrious,  who  did  not  manifest  theur 
afilctionate  regard  for  the  dead  by  performing  so  much  labor  in  covering  their 
remains.  May  we  not  with  some  reason  conjecture  that  the  object  for  which 
these  mounds  were  heaped  up  with  so  much  toil  was  to  transmit  to  generations 
then  unborn  the  fame  of  some  renowned  patriot  or  chief  who  led  the  warriors 
of  his  tribe  to  combat  against  encroaching  foes,  and  who  was  victorious  in  Uio 
strife  f  The  fii-st  thought  that  occura  to  the  mind  in  examining  these  tokens  of 
mortality  is  that  they  were  in  course  of  erection  during  a  long  period  of  time ; 
that  succeeding  generations  took  each  a  share  in  the  work  ;  buried  their  deail 
over  those  who  had  been  deposited  before  them,  and  added  their  share  to  the 
earth  until  the  mounds  assumed  their  full  dimensions,  or  the  practice  of  this 
mode  of  intennent  fell  into  disuse  j  yet,  on  reflecting  over  the  subject,  I  am  dis- 
posed to  come  to  the  conclusion  that  these  mounds  were  raised  over  the  remains 
of  men  who  stood  high  in  the  esteem  of  their  family  and  tribe ;  who  laboreil 
to  build  their  tombs  from  the  laudable  motive  of  perpetuating  the  memory  of 
friends  and  benefactors.  The  tombs  might  have  been  reopened  fi'om  time  to 
time  to  receive  the  remains  of  the  family  or  kindred  of  the  fii*st  occupier  to 
whose  memory  it  had  been  erected,  down  to  periods  of  time  much  more  recent 
than  their  origin  ;  lor  the  Indians  might  prefer  interring  in  these  mounds,  finding 
them  dry  and  easier  to  excavate  ihan  the  surrounding  soil ;  such  seems  to  have 
been  the  case  in  regard  to  the  great  tumulus  on  the  west  side  of  this  river. 
Some  time  about  1786  the  small-pox  spread  over  what  is  now  known  as  Hudson 
Bay  temtory,  carrying  off  the  natives  by  thousands.  The  Crus  at  that  time 
occupied  this  vicinity.  1  have  seen  and  spoken  to  an  old  man,  the  only  sur- 
vivor out  of  many  tents,  who  stated  that  at  the  commencement  of  the  mortality 
the  Indians,  for  some  time,  buried  in  the  mound  above  described,  but  did  not 
erect  it,  and  that  at  a  later  period  of  the  disease  the  living  did  not  attempt  bury- 
ing the  dead. 

Up  to  the  last  years  of  the  last  century  the  Indians  on  the  western  shores  of 
Hudson's  bay  occasionally  disposed  of  their  dead  by  placing  them  on  scaflolds 
or  stages.  I  am  not  aware  that  they  ever  retmned  to  look  after  the  bones  for 
the  purpose  of  intening  them.  The  Indians  occupying  this  part  of  the  country 
at  present  inter  the  dead,  but  never,  to  my  knowledge,  in  a  sitting  posture. 
They  press  the  knees  up  towards  the  chin— in  a  word  they  roll  up  the  dead  into 
the  smallest  possible  space,  open  a  shallow  grave,  lay  the  body  on  its  side,  with 
the  face  generally  towards  the  east.  The  Assiniboines  still  continue  the  custom 
of  laying  their  dead  on  stages. 

I  trust  that  you  will  let  mo  know  if  the  Institution  is  desirous  of  having  any 
of  those  antiquities  of  which  I  have  written,  viz :  skulls,  pipes,  ornaments,  &c. 
If  they  are  desured,  I  will  search  into  some  other  mounds  in  this  vicinity  and 
send  whatever  I  find  that  may  appear  worth  the  cost  of  transportation. 

The  winter  has  been  late  in  setting  in ;  we  had  very  little  snow  before  the 
beginning  of  January.  Wo  have  had  very  little  snow  in  the  settlements ;  but 
it  is  spoken  of  as  being  very  deep  towards  the  Lake  of  the  Woods  and  in  the 
plains  towards  the  Missouri.  The  cold  has  not  been  extremely  intense,  but 
very  regular ;  this  is  the  22d  of  March,  and  wo  have  not  had  as  much  thaw  as 
to  wet  the  soles  of  our  moccasins. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


ETHNOLOGY.  401 

AKCIENT  HOUND  H£AR  CHATTANOOGA,  T£NNSSSEE. 

By  M.  C.  Read. 

The  mound  from  which  the  specimens  sent  you  were  taken  is  situated  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Tennessee  river,  above  Citico  creek,  and  about  one  mile  from 
Chattanooga.  It  is  on  the  rich  alluvial  land  bordering  the  river,  and  so  situate 
on  the  outer  side  of  a  curve  of  the  stream  as  to  bo  readily  seen  by  parties  coming 
up  or  down  the  river,  as  well  as  by  any  one  approaching  the  vculey  over  any  of 
the  hills  and  mountains  by  which  Chattanooga  is  surrounded.  Directly  east  of 
it  is  the  site  of  an  ancient  pottery  and  manufactory  of  flint  arrow-heads,  several 
acres  being  covered  with  fragments  of  broken  pottery,  bumed  clay,  chippings 
of  flint  and  arrow-heads,  many  of  them  apparently  spoiled  in  the  hands  of  the 
manufacturer.  Broken  stone  hammers,  stone  and  earthenware  pipes,  flat  circu- 
lar disks  of  the  size  of  large  checker-men,  made  of  stone,  potteiy,  and  occa- 
sionally of  hard,  mineral  coal,  are  frequently  found.  The  place  where  these 
are  found  has  been  for  years  under  the  plough,  but,  on  digging  to  the  depth  of 
eighteen  inches  or  more,  ashes  and  coal,  amorphous  masses  of  binned  clay,  frag- 
ments of  bones,  and  abundance  of  broken  pottery,  are  found.  This  is  all  of  a 
coarse  character  j  the  various  attempts  at  ornamentation  being  nule  and  inar- 
tistic. The  material  used  was  the  earth  taken  from  below  the  surface  and  Riled 
with  finely  comminuted  fragments  of  river  shells.  The  surface  is  covered  with 
these  shells,  many  of  them  in  a  good  state  of  preservation,  of  the  same  character 
with  those  found  more  abundantly  down  the  river  at  Shell  Mound  and  other 
places,  and  all  identical  with  the  species  still  existing  in  the  river.  These  facts 
are  of  especial  interest  on  account  of  their  bearing  upon  the  relative  age  of  the 
mound.  This  one  is  of  an  oval  form,  with  a  base  of  158  by  120  feet ;  the  larger 
diameter  being  upon  the  true  meridian,  or  as  near  it  as  we  could  determine  by 
an  ordinary  pocket  compass.  The 'dimensions  of  the  top,  which  was  substan- 
tially level,  are  82  by  44  feet,  and  the  heiglit  19  feet. 

For  purposes  of  examination,  and  to  provide  the  gardener  of  the  Sanitary 
Commission,  who  had  his  office  on  the  mound,  with  a  place  to  store  vegetables 
for  spring  planting,  a  tunnel  was  excavated  into  the  mound  from  the  east,  a 
little  one  side  of  the  centre,  and  on  a  level  with  the  natural  surface  of  the 
ground.  When  the  point  directly  under  the  outer  edge  of  the  top  of  the  mound 
was  reached,  holes  were  found  containing  fragments  of  rotted  wood,  showing 
that  stakes  or  palisades  had  been  erected  here  when  the  mound  was  commenced. 
The  sound  of  the  pick  indicating  a  cavity  or  difierent  material  below,  the  exca- 
vation was  carried  downward  about  two  feet,  when  two  skeletons  were  uncovered, 
fragments  of  which,  preserved,  are  marked  No.  1.  The  bones  were  packed  in 
a  small  space,  as  though  the  bodies  were  crowded  down,  without  much  regard  to 
position  of  hands,  into  a  pit  not  exceeding  three  feet  in  length.  One  of  the 
vskulls  is  of  especial  interest,  as  possibly  indicating  that  the  remains  are  those  of 
victims  immolated  in  some  sacrificial  or  buinal  rites.  The  side  was  crushed  in, 
as  if  with  a  club.  I  have  connected  together  the  pieces  of  the  upper  jaw,  so 
that  they  retain  the  position  in  which  they  were  found,  a  position  which  cannot, 
with  probability,  be  supposed  to  be  the  result  of  the  settling  of  the  earth  around 
it,  if  unbroken  when  buried.  The  bones  of  the  bodies,  although  so  friable  that 
they  could  not  be  preserved,  were  entire,  in  positions  indicating  that  the  bodies 
bad  not  been  dismembered,  and  forbidding  the  supposition  that  they  were  the 
remains  of  a  cannibal  feast. 

The  excavation  was  carried  forward  as  indicated  on  the  plat,  and  on  a  level  with 
the  location  of  the  skeletons  first  found.  It  became  evident  at  once  that  the  mate- 
rial of  which  the  mound  was  constructed  was  taken  from  the  immediate  neigh- 
borhood ;  it  being  composed  of  the  same  alluvial  soil,  full  of  the  shells  found 
on  the  surface,  but  in  a  much  better  state  of  preservation ;  but  no  arrow-Leads, 

26  8  67  r^  T 

Digitized  by  VnOOQlC 


402  ETHNOLOGY. 

cbippings  of  flints,  or  fragments  of  pottery,  now  covering  the  surfac<>,  were 
found.  These  would  have  been  abundant  if  the  mound  had  been  erected  subse- 
quently to  the  manufacture  of  the  pottery  and  arrow-heads  at  that  place.  Sin- 
gle fmgments  of  pottery  were  found,  but  these  were  painted  and  of  much  better 
quality  than  those  found  upon  the  surface. 

The  mound  was  composed  of  alternate  layers  of  earth  and  ashes,  showing 
that  a  surface  of  the  size  of  the  top,  when  finished,  was  kept  substantially  level, 
and  raised  only  two  to  three  feet  at  a  time  when  fires  were  kindled,  which  must 
have  been  large  or  continued  for  a  long  time^  as  the  amount  of  the  ashes  and 
fi-agments  of  charcoal  abundantly  indicate. 

Near  the  centre  of  the  mound  rows  of  stake-holes  were  found,  as  far  as  fol- 
lowed, marking  two  sides  of  a  rectangular  parallelogram,  which,  continued, 
would  have  formed  an  enclosure  around  the  centre.  In  some  of  these  were  the 
remains  of  the  wood  and  bark ;  not  enough  to  show  the  marks  of  tools  if  any 
had  been  used.  They  penetrated  the  natural  surface  of  the  ground  to  the 
depth  of  about  two  feet 

Here,  and  at  about  the  same  level  Us  at  No.  1,  were  found  the  skeletons  of 
which  the  skull-bones  and  other  parts  are  marked  No.  2.  They  were  appa- 
rently the  remains  of  a  youngish  woman  and  two  children,  all  so  far  decomposed 
that  only  the  parts  sent  could  be  preserved.  The  larger  skeleton  was  in  such  a 
position  as  a  person  would  take  if  kneeling  down,  then  sitting  upon  the  feet,  the 
hands  were  brought  to  the  head,  and  the  body  doubled  down  upon  tlip  knees. 
The  head  was  toward  the  south.  The  remains  of  tlie  children  were  found  at 
the  right  side  of  this  body,  the  bones  mingled  together. 

About  two  feet  directly  under  these,  the  skeleton,  of  which  the  skull  is  marked 
No.  3,  was  found  in  a  similar  position,  it  is  said,  (I  was  not  present  when  it  was 
taken  out,)  with  the  one  above  it. 

I  attempt  no  description  and  indulge  in  no  speculations  in  regard  to  these 
remains,  as  I  have  decided  to  forward  them  to  you,  for  the  examination  of  those 
who  can  compare  them  with  other  skulls,  and  are  better  qualified  to  make  a 
proper  use  of  them.  They  are  unquestionably  of  the  age  of  the  "  mound 
builders." 

I  enclose  also,  marked  No.  4,  remains  taken  from  between  two  flat  stones 
near  the  surface  of  the  mound  at  point  marked  No.  4.  These  are  doubtless 
of  Indian  orimn. 

I  enclose  also  a  poor  photograph  of  the  mound  after  it  had  been  cleared  and 
ornamented  by  the  gardener,  showing  his  office,  arbors,  seats,  &c.,  on  the  top, 
and  guards  and  laborers  in  front.  It  will  serve  to  give  you  the  outline  of  the 
mound. 

It  was  my  purpose  to  continue  the  examination  further ;  to  follow  round  the 
line  at  No.  1  j  ascertain  whether  other  bodies  were  buried  in  a  similar  position ; 
to  look  for  a  completion  of  the  parallelogram  at  the  centre  j  to  carry  a  shaft 
upward  to  the  top,  and  connect  and  measure  the  successive  layers  of  eaith  and 
ashes }  but  the  simultaneous  firing  of  the  heavy  guns  in  the  forts  about  Chatta- 
nooga, at  the  celebration  of  Lee's  surrender,  produced  such  a  shock  that  the 
mound  '*  caved  in,"  burying  tools,  vegetables,  &c.,  to  be  found,  perhaps,  by 
some  future  explorer,  as  proof  of  the  intelligence  of  the  race  of  the  mound 
builders.  No  other  works  are  found  in  the  neighborhood,  but  I  obtained  verbal 
information  of  very  many  mounds,  stone  forts,  rock  inscriptions,  &c.,  &c.,  in  the 
State,  a  careful  examination  of  which  mi^ht  throw  much  |ight  upon  the  charac- 
ter of  a  race  who  have  left  no  other  records. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


ETHNOLOGY.  403 

AKCIEITT  BURIAL  MOl  ND  IN  INDIiKi. 

Bv  William  Pidoeon. 

At  Vincennes,  Indiana,  in  1859,  in  the  remoyal  of  a  battle  bnrial  monnd,  I 
noticjed  features  altogether  unlike  any  I  had  previouBly  seen.  It  seems  not  only 
to  have  been  used  as  a  deposit  for  the  fallen  warriors,  but  also  as  a  place  in 
later  times  where  bodies  were  consumed  by  fire.  That  this  was  a  custom  of  the 
mound  builders  for  many  ages  I  have  no  doubt.  This  mound  was  removed 
from  a  plat  of  ground  owned  by  Hasselback  &  Co.,  in  the  suburbs  of  the  city, 
and  occupied  as  a  distillery  stock-yard.  It  was  hrger  than  mounds  usually  are 
of  that  description,  and  at  the  time  of  its  removal  it  had  a  diameter  at  the  base  of  66 
feet  and  a  perpendicular  altitude  of  16.  I  think  it  was  originally  pore  pyramidal 
in  form,  its  expansion  at  the  base  having  been  increased  by  the  tread  of  animals. 
It  has  frequently  been  observed  in  the  forest,  where  civilization  has  not  yet 
reached,  that  the  battle  burial  mounds  have  an  altitude  of  about  one-third  of  the 
diameter  of  the  base.  This  mound,  however,  was  the  place  of  resort,  for  two 
years,  of  several  hundred  hogs  and  cattle,  enclosed  within  less  than  three  acres, 
although  the  surface,  destitute  of  vegetation,  seemed  to  resist  all  impressions 
from  the  horns,  hoofs,  or  snouts  of  the  animals.  It  was  removed  in  a  manner 
that  favored  the  most  critical  investigation.  The  excavation,  beginning  at  the 
south  side  of  the  base,  was  continued  on  a  level  to  the  opposite  side,  presenting, 
in  well-defined  outline,  four  separate  stratifications  above  the  first,  which  con- 
sisted of  a  bed  of  human  bones,  arranged  in  a  circle  of  18  feet  in  diameter, 
closely  packed  and  pressed  together,  so  much  so  that  it  was  with  difficulty  that 
we  raised  from  the  entire  mass  two  leg-bones  retaining  their  primitive  length, 
which  was  twenty-seven  inches.  Others  longer  and  shorter  were  seen,  but  could 
not  bo  disinterred.  Around  the  outer  edge  of  this  circle  the  stratum  was  thinner 
than  in  the  centre;  skulls,  le^,  rib  and  back  bones  lying  promiscuously 
mingled,  indicating  a  pile  of  bodies  thrown  together  in  pyramidal  form.  This 
deposit  was  covered  with  a  stratum  of  tough,  grayish  clay,  that  resisted  satura- 
tion almost  as  well  as  tallow ;  the  stratum  of  bones  and  clay  each  being  thirty- 
three  inches  in  depth  at  the  centre,  the  clay  retaining  its  thickness  throughout. 
The  third  stratum  was  composed  of  earth  that  seemed  to  be  formed  of  ashes, 
with  an  occasional  speck  of  calcined  bone  throughout  the  entire  mass,  but  abund- 
ant near  the  centre.  Above  this  was  a  twelve-inch  stratum,  resembling  the 
subsoil  around  the  mound,  the  whole  being  covered  with  clay  that  resists  satu- 
ration to  an  extent  that,  if  protected  by  grass,  would  resist  the  elements  for 
centuries. 


AHCIENT  REMilXS  IN  COLORADO. 

By  £.  L.  Berthoud. 

Mat  21,  1867. 
About  half  a  mile  west  of  Golden  city,  Jefferson  county,  Colorado  Territory, 
and  near  the  entrance  of  the  cauon  of  Clear  creek,  are  ruins,  formed  of  an  old 
broken  down  circumvallating  circle  of  rough  stone  derived  from  the  neighboring 
mountains  and  a  sandstone  ndge  south  of  them.  These  ruins  are  at  the  junction 
of  a  ravine  ten  feet  in  depth  and  the  bed  of  the  creek,  which  is  about  twenty  feet 
vertically  below  the  wall.  A  large  amount  of  stone  has  been  taken  for  founda- 
tion walls,  &c.,  but  enough  remains  to  give  an  outline  of  its  position  and  shape. 
The  stones  are  in  many  places  imbedded  in  the  soil  and  mossy  with  age.  On 
the  south  &de  is  a  pit  twelve  feet  wide  and  about  fifteen  to  eighteen  inches  deep, 
shaped  like  a  saucer.     The  central  mound,  very  plainly  discernable,  is  nowhere 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


404  ETHNOLOGY. 

over  one  foot  high,  is  formed  of  granitic  sand,  and  aronnd  its  circnmference  are 
tlie  evidences  of  five  or  six  shallow  pits,  snironnded  by  a  stone  enclosure  now 
almost  all  gone  and  traced  bv  broken  fragments  of  stone,  burnt  bones,  &c. 
Both  in  the  central  mound,  in  tlie  outer  wall,. and  in  the  soil  of  the  neighboring 
pits  and  ridges,  are  many  old  decayed  bones  of  buffaloes,  fragments  of  antlers, 
&;c.  No  human  remains,  nor  any  tools,  weapons  or  utensils  of  any  kind,  except 
two  flint  firagments  and  a  number  of  plates  of  mica,  were  discovered. 


MOUXDS  IN  MISSISSIPPI. 

By  Samuel  A.  Agnew. 

GuNTOWN,  Miss.,  January  11, 1868. 

While  reading  the  article  on  "the  ancient  earthworks  in  the  United  States," 
Mi  the  appendix  to  the  Smithsonian  Report  for  1866,  I  thought  that  perhaps  I 
might  be  able  to  furnish  some  facts  relating  to  this  general  subject  which  might 
perhaps  contribute  something  to  those  engaged  in  the  study  of  ancient  Indian 
remains,  and  I  venture  to  forward  them  to  the  Institution,  although  I  am  uncer- 
tain whether  or  not  what  I  may  state  is  unknown  to  those  pursuing  such  studies. 
Dille  remarks  "no  earthworks  of  any  kind  were  seen  by  him  in  Mississippi." 
I  am  a  citizen  of  that  State  and  have  resided  here  fifteen  years,  and  being  a 
minister  of  the  gospel  have  had  occasion  to  visit  different  sections  of  this  portion 
of  the  countiy.  During  my  peregrinations  several  mounds  have  attracted  my 
attention,  and  I  will  proceed  to  note  down  the  localities  of  those  and  of  others 
of  which  I  have  some  knowledge.  I  should  state  that  when  I  mention  the 
height,  circumference,  or  area  of  mounds,  the  figures  are  not  the  result  of  meas* 
urement  but  of  an  estimate  made  from  their  appearance. 

The  following  comprises  a  list  of  some  of  the  mounds  in  this  portion  of  the 
countiy: 

No.  1.  On  the  land  of  Joseph  Agnew,  on  Camp  creek,  in  the  southeastern 
part  of  Tippah  county.  It  is  about  ten  feet  high  and  has  several  trees  growing 
on  it.     It  has  never  been  dug  into. 

No.  2  is  near  James  Wiley^s,  in  Pontotoc  county,  six  miles  west  of  Ellistown. 
It  resembles  in  appearance  and  is  about  the  same  height  as  No.  1. 

No.  3  is  near  John  M.  Simpson's,  five  miles  southeast  of  New  Albany,  in 
Pontotoc  county.  The  road  cuts  into  one  side  of  it.  The  elevation  above  the 
surface  is  six  or  eight  feet.     Human  bones  were  found  in  this  mound. 

No.  4  is  on  the  north  side  of  Tallahatchie  bottom,  on  the  road  from  New 
Albany  to  Ripley.  Its  top  has  been  flattened,  and  when  I  last  saw  it,  eight 
years  ago,  a  neat  little  residence  was  on  the  summit. 

No.  5  is  a  large  mound  in  Pontotoc  county,  near  the  residence  of  William 
Parkes,  between  Butchiecunifila  and  Oconitahatchio  creeks,  about  ten  miles 
southwest  of  New  Albany.  It  is  quadrangular,  with  a  flat  top,  and  contains,  I 
suppose,  as  much  as  a  half  acre  of  level  land  on  its  summit.  It  is  firom  ten  to 
fifteen  feet  high  and  I  think  has  not  been  examined  for  remains. 

No.  6  is  in  Tishomingo  creek  bottom,  near  Dr.  Selman's  farm,  five  miles 
west  of  this  place.  Its  summit  embraces  an  area  of  from  one-quarter  to  half  an 
acre.     Trees  are  growing  on  its  surface.     I  did  not  asoertain  its  height. 

No.  7  is  on  the  same  creek,  near  Duncan  Clark's,  ten  feet  high,  and  about 
thirty  feet  in  diameter. 

No.  8,  near  Mr.  T.  A.  Sullivan's,  in  the  same  vicinity,  is  another  mound  ten 
feet  high.  Two  large  post  oaks  are  growing  on  its  top.  It  was  dug  into 
several  years  ago  and  a  bed  of  ashes  was  reached,  when  farther  excavations 
ceased. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


ETHNOLOGY.  405 

No.  9  is  a  mound  wliich  was  on  the  Fane  place,  in  the  same  neighborhood, 
the  snrface  of  which  was  cultivated.  In  1860  a  silver  thimble  was  ploughed  up 
on  this  mound,  which  is  in  possession  of  Dr.  Selman  of  this  place.  He  says 
that  it  is  much  larger  than  ordinary-sized  thimbles,  and  is  of  the  opinion  that  it 
is  a  relic  of  past  times  evidently  of  a  civilized  people. 

No.  10  is  a  mound  in  Mr.  Lonffbridge's  farm,  near  Birmingham,  the  surface 
of  which  is  cultivated,  which  was  dug  into  eight  or  ten  years  ago,  and  pieces  of 
pottery  with  strange  figures  on  them  discovered.  Silver  ear-rings  were  taken 
from  some  ancient  graves  adjacent  to  it.  All  of  these  mounds,  from  No.  6  to 
No.  10  inclusive,  are  situated  fi*om  five  to  eight  miles  west  of  this  place. 

No.  1 1  IS  a  mound  two  miles  above  Baldwyn,  and  within  fifty  yards  of  the 
Mobile  and  Ohio  railroad,  of  considerable  size.  An  Irishman  dug  into  it  just 
previous  to  the  war,  but  I  have  not  learned  the  result  of  his  explorations. 

No.  12  is  a  mound  six  miles  southeast  of  No.  11;  on  Michenor's  near  Mana- 
tachie  creek,  thirty  or  forty  feet  in  circumference.  A  hickory  tree  two  feet  iu 
diameter  grows  on  its  top.     The  mound  is  eight  feet  high. 

No.  13  is  a  large  mound  near  Knight's  mill,  in  this  county  (Lee.)  Its  sum- 
mit contains  about  half  an  acre ;  a  dwelling  and  well  is  on  the  mound. 

No.  14  is  a  small  mound  near  Dr.  Maas,  two  miles  east  of  Ellistown,  eight 
feet  high,  which  has  a  red  oak  growing  on  it,  three  feet  in  diameter. 

No.  15  is  a  mile  south  of  Gun  town,  on  the  Mean's  farm,  sixty  yards  in  cir- 
cumference and  eight  or  ten  feet  in  height.     It  is  cultivated. 

No.  16  is  a  group  of  some  seven  or  eight  mounds,  in  Twenty-mile  creek  bot- 
tom, at  a  distance  of  from  eight  to  fifteen  miles  east  of  this. 

No.  17.  I  have  heard  of  another  mound  which  I  ought  not  to  omit  to  men- 
tion. It  is  on  the  bottom  (low  ground)  of  Yorribie  creek,  three  miles  south  of 
Birmingham,  on  the  lands  of  John  A.  McNiel,  said  to  be  one  hundred  feet  high, 
and  covers  an  are  of  a  half  acre.  Large  trees  are  growing  over  it  from  three  to 
three  and  a  half  feet  in  diameter. 

No.  18.  Near  this  mound,  in  the  same  creek  bottom,  are  two  other  mounds, 
large,  on  the  lands  of  a  New  York  land  company. 

1?  rom  all  the  information  I  have  obtained,  I  believe  that  there  are  multitudes, 
I  might  truly  say  hundreds  of  mounds  scattered  over  Tippah,  Pontotoc,  Lee,  Itaw- 
amba, and  Tishomingo  counties.  I  am  informed  that  there  are  several  in 
Osctibbeha  county,  and  perhaps  it  might  be  safely  affirmed  that  they  may  be 
found  in  the  greater  pai*t  of  the  State. 

The  mounds  are,  so  far  as  my  observation  extends,  situated  adjacent  to  water- 
courses. They  are  generally  placed  in  what  wo  call  second  bottoms— elevated 
level  land  lying  between  the  bottom  proper  and  the  hills.  Some,  however,  are 
in  the  low  ground,  near  the  water-courses.  They  are  found  on  Tallahatchie, 
Oconitahatchie,  Yorribie,  Camp  creek,  Tishomingo,  Twenty-mile  creek,  Mana- 
tachie,  &c.  Why  they  are  always  so  situated  I  am  unable  even  to  conjecture. 
It  certainly  is  not  the  result  of  chance. 

The  popular  opinion  among  the  people  is  that  the  mounds  are  places  of  burial. 
Human  bones  were  found  in  one  near  J.  M.  Simpson's.  A  gentleman  not  far 
from  here  used  the  earth  of  a  mound  for  making  brick.  He  found,  to  use  the 
expression  of  another,  **  a  heap  of  coals  and  a  piece  of  isinglass.^  In  the  mound 
near  Sullivan's,  ashes  were  found. 

Another  fact  is,  they  are  not  confined  to  a  particular  locality,  but  are  scattered 
through  the  country.  Sometimes  a  solitary  mound  stands  remote  from  others, 
and  again  you  will  sometimes  find  several  grouped  near  each  other. 

I  have  no  doubt  that  a  thorough  exploration  of  north  Mississippi  (and  I  might 
include  the  whole  State  perhaps)  would  show  that  mounds  abound,  and  no  field 
ofi*ers  more  abundant  materials  in  which  to  search  for  the  remains  of  a  departed 
race. 

YHiile  writing  of  these  Indian  mounds,  allow  me  to  direct  your  attention  to 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


406  ETHNOLOGY. 

a  fact  which  may  or  may  not  be  of  importance.  Nearly  12  years  a^o  I  had 
pointed  out  to  me  on  a  long  ridge,  between  John's  creek  and  Friendship  church, 
in  Pontotoc  county,  the  remains  of  ancient  ditches  or  embankments.  I  did  not 
examine  them  closely,  and  hence  cannot  describe  them  satisfactorily.  The 
direction  of  the  ditch  or  embankment  could  be  clearly  traced  by  the  eye,  and, 
according  to  my  recollection,  plots  of  ground  in  the  shape  of  parallelograms 
were  enclosed  by  these  ditches.  I  was  told  that  the  first  settlers  found  these 
things  when  they  came  to  the  country,  and  that  the  Indians  did  not  know  who 
had  made  them,  or  with  what  design.  To  me  they  seemed  too  regular  and  exact 
to  be  the  work  of  ignorant  savages.  The  idea  suggested  itseu  to  my  mind 
that  perhaps  these  ditches  or  embankments  were  the  remains  of  some  fortified 
camp  occupied  by  De  Soto,  during  his  famous  march  through  this  region  of 
country.  I  believe  that  our  histories  relate  that  he  spent  a  winter  in  camp  in 
the  Chickasaw  nation.  But  my  knowledge  of  the  methods  of  fortification  in 
vogue  at  that  period  is  so  limited  that  I  am  not  qualified  to  venture  an  opinion 
on  the  subject.  But  the  intelligent  antiquarian  might  in  these  remains  find  a 
clue  which  would  throw  some  light  on  the  past,  ana  interest  the  historic  world, 

AH  the  accounts  that  I  have  seen  of  the  wonderful  march  of  this  Spanish 
chieftain  agree  that  he  spent,  in  1640,  a  cheerless  winter  among  the  Chickasaws, 
his  progress  being  impeded  by  impassable  rivers,  &c.  One  historian  says  his 
camp  was  on  the  Yazoo,  but  this  must  be  an  error.  It  is  generally  conceded 
that  he  first  reached  the  Mississippi  near  Memphis,  and  in  marching  from  the 
Chickasaws  to  that  point  he  would  not  see  the  Yazoo,  which  was  in  the  Choc- 
taw country.  Some  writer  (perhaps  Wailes,  in  his  Geological  Report  of  Missis- 
sippi, 1856)  states  that  De  Soto  was  in  Pontotoc  county.  Now  there  is  no 
stream  between  Pontotoc  county  and  Memphis  bo  likely  to  hinder  his  march  as 
the  Tallahatchie.  Hence  I  think  the  cneerless  winter  he  spent  among  the 
Chickasaws  was  on  the  south  side  of  the  Tallahatchie  river.  These  remains 
are  a  few  miles  south  of  the  river,  and  possibly  this  may  be  the  very  place 
where  De  Soto  camped.  If  the  locality  remains  uncleared,  as  when  I  saw  it, 
I  have  no  doubt  they  can  still  be  traced.  And  should  their  examination  be 
deemed  of  interest,  I  will  with  pleasure  direct  any  one  to  the  gentleman  who 
pointed  them  out  to  me.  An  examination  might  demolish  my  thtory,  for  you 
remember  that  I  disclaim  any  knowledge  of  their  character  or  extent.  All  that 
I  can  state  positively  about  them  is  that  they  were  there  when  the  country  was 
first  settled  by  whites,  and  the  Indians  could  give  no  information  respecting 
them. 

Captain  B.  F.  Lou^hridge  informs  me  that  in  1852  the  silver  front  of  a  cap, 
with  the  French  inscnption :  "  Dieu  et  mon  Droit,"  was  picked  np  on  his  place. 
This,  probably,  is  a  relic  of  the  Bienville  expedition  against  the  Chickasaws, 
about  100  years  a^o.  In  the  old  Indian  fields  near  Harrisburg,  in  this  (Lee) 
county,  cannon  balls  have  been  picked  up,  and  other  evidences  of  a  battle  found. 
They  are  probably  relics  of  the  same  expedition. 


CATS  IK  CiLiTERAS  COUITTT,  CALIFORXIA. 

By  J.  D.  Whitney. 

The  following  is  an  account  of  the  cave  from  which  the  skulls  now  in  the 
Smithsonian  collection  were  taken.  It  is  near  the  Stanislaus  river  in  Calaveras 
county,  on  a  nameless  creek  about  two  miles  from  Abbey's  ferry,  on  the  road  to 
Vallicito,  at  the  house  of  Mr.  Robinson.  There  were  two  or  three  persons  with 
me  who  had  been  to  the  place  before,  and  knew  that  the  skulls  in  question  were 
taken  from  it.  Their  visit  was  some  10  years  ago,  and  since  that  the  condition 
of  things  in  the  cave  has  greatly  changed.     Owing  to  some  alteration  in  the 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


STUNOLOOT.  407 

road,  miuiDfi^  operatioDS  or  some  other  caose  which  I  could  not  ascertaiD,  there 
has  accumalated  on  the  formerly  clean  stalagmitic  floor  of  the  cave  a  thickness 
of  some  20  feet  of  snrface  earth  that  completely  conceals  the  bottom,  and  which 
could  not  be  removed  without  considerable  expense.  This  cave  is  about  27  feet 
deep  at  the  mouth,  and  40  to  50  feet  at  the  end,  and  perhaps  30  feet  in  diameter. 

It  is  the  general  opinion  of  those  who  have  noticed  this  cave  and  saw  it.  years 
ago,  that  it  was  a  burying  place  of  the  present  Indians.  Dr.  Jones  said  he  found 
remains  of  bows  and  arrows  and  charcoal  with  the  skulls  he  obtained,  and  which 
were  destroyed  at  the  time  the  village  of  Murphys  was  burned.  All  the  people 
spoke  of  the  skulls  as  lying  on  the  surface,  and  not  as  buried  in  the  stalagmite. 
The  skulls  should  be  examined  by  some  craniologist,  and  then  if  the  results 
make  it  worth  while  to  have  excavations  made  in  the  cave  to  see  if  anything 
further  can  be  discovered  underneath  the  soil,  $100  would  pay  the  expenses,  I 
presume.  In  the  mean  time  ever}'thing  will  remain  as  it  is.  There  can  be  no 
further  harm  done  or  mateiial  carried  away. 

I  visited  several  other  caves  in  this  region,  with  negative  results  as  far  as  bones 
were  concerned. 

[These  skulls  were,  with  a  large  number  of  others  belonging  to  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution,  examined  by  Prof.  Jeffiies  Wyman,  who  discovered  no  pecu- 
liarities by  which  they  could  be  distinguished  from  other  crania  of  California. 
A  complete  series  of  measurements  could  not  be  made  of  their  several  dimensions 
without  removing  the  stalagmite  which  encrusted  nearly  the  whole  surface  of 
each. — J.  H.J  s 


ITH]fOLO€II€iL  DEPiRTHENT  OF  THE  FBElf CH  EXFOSITIOX,  1887. 

[Translated  for  the  Smithsonian  Institution  from  the  Revue  de$  Coui  Scient{fique3  de  la  France 

€t  de  Vitrauger.  ] 

M.  G.  de  MortiUet  is  about  to  publish  an  octavo  volume,  having  for  its 
title  "Pre-historic  Rambles  at  the  Universal  Exposition,"  comprising  a  descrip- 
tion of  that  part  of  the  collections  which  illustrate  our  knowledge  of  the  works 
of  industry,  as  elaborated  by  our  first  ancestors,  who  were  ootemporary  with  tho 
great  fossil  animals;  for  scientific  research  has  penetrated  into  that  era,  and  is 
now  seeking  to  restore  to  us  their  customs,  moile  of  living,  and,  in  fine,  the  first 
rudiments  of  civilization.  Numerous  figures  are  given  representing  the  most 
curious  objects  to  be  found  in  this  section  of  the  Universal  Exposition ;  indeed, 
the  richest  and  most  instructive  ever  assembled  in  one  place.  We  borrow  the 
following  passage  from  this  interesting  work,  exhibiting  the  most  recent  disco- 
veries in  pre-historic  anthropology,  and  upon  a  subject  which  holds  a  place  in 
the  history  of  mankind  analogous  to  that  of  geology  to  the  history  of  the  earth. 

ART  IN  THE  CAVES. 

(First  French  corridor  of  the  history  of  labor — ^first  glass  case  firom  the  centre.) 
This  case  contains  an  exhibition  of  the  state  of  art  at  the  period  of  the  rein- 
deer, or  the  second  cave  epoch.  There  are  51  exceedingly  curious  pieces — a 
wonderful  collection,  which  has  been  estimated  at  a  million  francs  by  an  ama- 
teur, who  made  an  ofier  of  that  sum  if  the  whole  should  be  transferred  to  him. 
Undoubtedly  they  are  the  most  original  works  in  the  Exposition  of  18G7.  No- 
thing similar  has  ever  before  been  exhibited.  Of  very  recent  discovery,  and  only 
in  part  as  yet  seen  by  the  public,  they  have  never  been  brought  together  before 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


408  ETHNOLOGY. 

tliis  time.  It  may  farther  be  stated  that  they  are  exclusively  of  French  pro- 
duction, none  such  having  as  yet  been  met  with  elsewhere,  and  even  for  France 
are  only  at  present  found  grouped  in  a  small  comer  on  the  southwest  part  of  the 
empire.  One  may  almost  say  that  in  those  obscure  times  a  feeling  for  art  had 
made  its  appearance,  and  was  undergoing  gradual  development  in  a  limited 
circle,  without  spreading  among  the  adjacent  tribes,  possessed  of  similar  manners 
and  civilization.  In  fact,  it  is  only  made  apparent  at  present  by  the  representa- 
tion of  organic  beings,  by  animals  or  plants,  in  Dordogne,  (the  principal  centre,) 
Vienne,  Charente,  Tami-et-Garonne,  and  at  Ariego.  The  reindeer  period  with 
its  various  industry  has,  however,  been  recognized  at  many  points  in  the  eastern 
part  of  France.  It  has  yielded  a  rich  harvest  in  Belgium,  where  it  has  been 
studied  with  care  by  M.  Edouard  Dupont ;  finally  it  has  been  noticed  in  Wurt- 
eraberg,  not  far  from  Lake  Constance,  by  M.  Fraas,  but  neither  of  these  stations 
have  furnished  representations  of  animals. 

The  substances  in  which  the  artists  of  that  period  worked  are  sometimes  plates 
of  stone,  more  or  less  schistose  in  character ;  likewise  at  times  the  ivory  fur- 
nished by  the  defensive  organs  of  the  mammoth,  or  some  portion  of  his  bones ; 
but  the  most  common  material  was  the  horns  of  the  reindeer,  more  than  half  of 
the  objects  on  exhibition  having  been  sculptured  in  it. 

Of  the  51  pieces  on  exhibition  at  least  12  of  them  belong  to  those  6ta£^ 
pierced  with  one  or  more  large  holes  at  the  base.  The  exceeding  care  taken  in 
ornamenting  these  objects  fully  confirms  the  opinion  of  M.  Lartet,  who  looks 
upon  them  as  ins^nia  of  office  or  batons  of  command. 

Six  or  seven  other  sculptured  pieces  belong  to  those  implements  so  sharply 
pointed  at  the  upper  end  and  bevelled  or  sloped  off  at  the  base.  This  shows 
us  that  they  were  lance-points  or  heads,  since  they  would  never  with  so  much 
pains  have  ornamented  their  arrows,  which  were  to  be  lost  at  the  first  throw. 

Upon  some  of  these  lance-points,  as  I  have  already  stated  concerning  the 
second  division,  the  slope  of  the  base  cuts  awav  and  destroys  a  part  of  the  dedgn. 
In  certain  instances  of  these  batons  of  office,  piercing  the  holes  has  produced  the 
same  effect.  All  this  shows  that  these  people  placed  art  above  industir.  In 
truth,  they  were  eminently  disposed  towards  art  In  their  carving  and  sculptures 
there  may  be  observed  so  true  a  feeling  for  form  and  movement  that  it  is  nearly 
always  possible  to  pronounce  exactly  what  animal  is  represented,  and  to  perceive 
fully  the  intention  of  the  artist.  There  is  veiy  considerable  liveliness  shown  in 
the  treatment,  and,  although  only  the  in&ncy  of  art,  real  art  it  incontestably  is. 
These  efforts  are  far,  very  for  removed  from  the  clumsy,  rough  draughts  made 
by  children,  and  particularly  the  ridiculous  counterfeits,  caricatures. 

TJte  mammoth. — Standing  before  this  case  and  fronting  the  centre,  there  ifl 
perceived  a  large  plate  of  ivory,  coming  from  Madeline,  in  Dordogne,  (exhibited 
by  MM.  Lartet  and  Christy,)  upon  which  is  engraved,  in  a  sketchy  manner,  an 
elephant  with  swelling  forehead,  very  little  eyes,  and  long  trunk.  What  is  still 
more  interesting  is  that  the  tail  of  the  animal  is  clothed  with  long  hair  forming 
an  ample  tuft  or  brush,  which  proves  that  the  design  is  not  to  represent  our  living 
species,  but  that  of  the  mammoth  or  long-hair^  elephant.  Above  it  is  the 
lower  end  of  an  official  staff  or  baton  of  reindeer  horn,  carved  into  an  elephant's 
head  with  protruding  forehead,  on  either  side  of  which  may  be  seen  a  large  ear 
and  a  small  eye,  and  the  trunk  is  neatly  arranged  extended  along  the  base  of 
the  baton.  This  specimen,  which  belongs  to  M.  Vibraye,  comes  fiSm  Langerie- 
Basse,  in  Dordogne. 

Close  at  hand  is  a  piece  still  more  complete ;  it  is  an  entire  mammoth  carved 
upon  the  broad  antler  of  a  reindeer.  This  specimen  was  found  under  the  shelter 
of  a  rock  at  Bruniquel,  (Tame-et-Garonne,)  and  belongs  to  M.  Peccadcao  de 
risle.  The  four  limbs  are  at  once  recognized,  straight,  thick,  without  sensible 
joints,  and  terminated  by  large,  flat  feet.  From  the  front  passes  out  the  haft  of 
a  poniard ;  if  the  broken  stump  which  is  left  be  taken  away,  it  mil  be  seen  that 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


ETHNOLOGY.  409 

the  animal  has  hiB  head  lowered,  and  the  elonffated  trunk  extends  down  to 
between  the  two  fix>nt  feet.  The  month  is  distinctly  defined ;  the  tusks  only  ai*o 
not  exactly  in  their  right  position,  since,  for  their  support,  it  was  found  necessary 
to  lay  them  out  against  the  blade  of  the  poniard,  causing  them  to  be  placed  higher 
than  they  should  be,  and  consequently  locating  the  eyes  in  a  somewhat  abnor- 
mal relation.  This  elephant,  so  well  characterized  by  his  large,  flat  feet,  his 
trunk  and  tusks,  is  certainly  the  mammoth.  In  fact,  the  sculptor  has  given  an 
elevation  or  turning  up  to  his  tail,  which  having  been  broken  off,  as  may  easily 
be  seen,  the  artist  has  drilled  a  hole  from  one  side  of  the  palmated  antler  to  iLo 
other,  and  has  inserted  in  the  hole  another  similar  caudal  appendage.  Existing 
elephants  having  but  little  or  no  hair,  have  no  fouet,  and  do  not  turn  the  tail 
up.  With  the  mammoth,  however,  it  was  far  otherwise,  having  a  felt  thicyy 
compounded  of  wool  and  hair.  The  elevation  of  the  tail  may  also  be  noticed 
in  the  carved  mammoth  on  an  ivory  tablet  of  M.  Lartet.  Verj^  probably  it  was 
the  accidental  fracture  of  the  tail  of  the  mammoth  which  induced  the  artist  of 
Bmniqnel  to  arrange  the  tusks  a  little  out  of  their  normal  position  in  order  to 
give  them  a  more  solid  support  against  the  blade  of  the  poniard. 

The  reindeer. — A  curious,  unfinished  attempt  to  make  a  dagger  of  a  horn  of 
reindeer,  coming  to  us  from  Langerie-Basse,  exhibited  by  MM.  Lartet  and  Christy, 
explains  perfectly  the  preceding  specimen.  The  handle  is  formed  of  a  reindeer 
carved  with  his  nose  projecting  towards  the  antlers  flattened  on  his  back,  tho 
front  legs  bent  under  his  body  so  as  not  to  wound  the  hand ;  the  hind  legs  are 
stretched  out  so  as  to  connect  tho  animal  forming  the  handle  to  the  blade  of  the 
dagger,  which  is  inserted  in  the  posterior  part. 

This  specimen  is  entire,  but  the  carving  is  unfinished.  This  much  cannot  be 
8^d  for  two  other  poniard  handles  likewise  representing  the  reindeer.  They 
were  also  found  under  shelter  of  the  rock  at  Bruniquel,  as  the  mammoth  just 
described  j  they  belong  to  M.  Peccadeau  de  Tlsle,  and  are  of  ivory.  They  me 
admirably  sculptured,  nicely  finished,  and  executed  altogether  with  much  art. 
Undoubtedly  mis  is  superior  to  any  specimen  hitherto  discovered.  The  two 
reindeer  handles  have  the  nose  of  the  beast  extended  forward,  a  position  into 
which  it  is  forced  by  laying  the  antlers  along  tho  back.  The  blades  of  these 
d&ggers  are  broken.  In  one  of  them  the  blade  passed  out  of  the  upper  part  of 
the  body,  and  the  hind  legs  were  supported  against  it,  the  front  legs  being  folded 
under  the  body.  In  the  oiher,  on  the  contrary,  the  blade  passes  out  of  the 
anterior  part,  from  between  the  head  and  the  fore  legs.  The  hind  legs,  being 
projected  beyond  the  body,  unite  again  at  a  certain  distance,  leaving  an  open 
space  between  them,  which  in  all  probability  answered  the  purpose  of  a  ring,  by 
means  of  which  the  poniard  could  be  hung  up.  In  the  mammoth  the  space 
which  was  between  the  legs,  closed  at  the  feet,  answered  the  same  purpose. 

Below  these  two  handles  for  poniards  will  be  found  a  flat  piece  of  schistose 
rock,  on  which  is  engraved  a  sketch  of  an  amorous  combat  of  the  reindeer.  M. 
de  Vibraye  is  the  coUector  of  this  specimen,  this  true  picture,  at  Langerie-Basse. 
A  male  animal  is  seen  in  fierce  attitude,  which,  after  having  made  his  rival  bite 
the  dust,  approaches  the  female  in  an  amorous  manner,  of  which  nothing  is  seen 
bat  the  hind  quarter.  This  composition  of  quite  a  complicated  character,  ren- 
dered with  a  true  feeling  for  the  situation,  is  executed  with  remarkable  sprightli- 
ness.  Each  of  the  animals  is  drawn  as  if  none  other  was  present.  Thus  tho 
legs  of  the  defeated  reindeer,  which  ought  to  be  concealed  by  the  body  of  the 
female,  are,  notwithstanding,  fully  and  neatly  represented. 

In  one  of  the  angles  of  this  case  many  other  carvings  of  the  reindeer  may  be 
seen ;  among  which  one  may  be  cited,  a  very  handsomely  sculptured  head,  from 
Langerie-Basse,  belonging  to  M.  de  Vibraye,  and  a  fragment  of  a  staff  of  office, 
on  which  is  carved  a  fawn  of  this  deer  with  spotted  skin,  accompanied  by  its 
dam.  This  morceau,  of  the  collection  of  MM.  Lartet  and  Christy,  comes  from 
Madeline.    For  the  sake  of  the  locality  mention  may  be  made  of  a  fragment  of 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


410  ETHNOLOGY. 

a  lance-head  from  tbe  grotto  of  la  Chaise,  (Charente,)  belonging  to  M.  Boorgeois, 
on  which  are  carved  two  reindeer. 

Cave  tiger, — ^The  central  line  of  this  case  is  occnpied,  beginning  at  the  left, 
by  a  fragment  of  a  staff  of  office,  from  Braniquel,  (M.  Brun,)  on  which  is  neatly 
carved  a  large  tiger.  Its  head  is  rendered  perfectly,  and  comparing  it  with  a 
fine  craniam  found  in  this  case,  fronting  the  spectator,  trav^e  4,  one  easily  recog- 
nizes it  as  that  extinct  species  which  the  people  of  Braniquel  intended  to  repre- 
sent. 

Man, — Above  these  objects  are  placed  some  representations  relating  to  man. 
The  principal  one  consists  only  of  a  fragment  of  an  official  staff,  from  Madeline^ 
(MM.  Lartet  and  Christy,)  on  which  is  engiaved  a  small  human  figure  of  a  thin 
and  elongated  shape,  placed  between  two  horse^s  heads,  followed  by  a  serpent,  or 
alftsh  resembling  an  eel. 

Next  stands  a  small  statuette  in  ivory,  from  Langerie-Basse,  which  has  been 
designated  by  its  owner,  M.  de  Vibraye,  as  an  obscene  idol.  It  is  a  female  fig- 
ure, thin  and  elongated,  the  sexual  parts  being  very  large,  and  the  posteriors  also 
prominent.  The  head  and  feet  are  wanting,  having  been  broken  off  in  ancient 
times ;  the  arms  never  existed.  A  little  on  one  side  may  be  seen  a  piece  of  a 
lance-head  from  Madeline^  (MM.  Lartet  and  Christy,)  on  which  are  carved  in 
bas  relief,  one  after  the  other,  a  row  of  hands,  so  shaped  as  to  exhibit  but  four 
fingers.  M.  Lartet  has  called  attention  to  the  fact  that  certtun  savage  tribes 
still  represent  the  hand  in  this  manner,  omitting  the  thumb. 

The  ape, — Adjoining  these  human  effimes  is  a  small  plate  of  bone  from  Bra- 
niquel, (M.  Peccadeau  de  Flsle,)  on  which  is  carved  the  head  Of  an  animal 
closely  resembling  that  of  an  ape.  No  fossil  bones  of  this  animal  have  as  yet, 
however,  been  discovered. 

The  great  hear, — ^At  the  end  of  the  central  line,  right  side,  is  a  schistose  peb- 
ble, having  on  a  flat  surface  a  sketch  of  a  great  cave  bear.  This  design,  dis- 
covered in  the  grotto  of  Massai  (Ariege)  by  M.  Garrigou,  can  only  be  s^n  with 
difficulty.  At  the  time  of  its  discovery  the  depressed  tracings  were  partly  filled 
by  incrustations  which  served  io  render  it  more  plainly  visible,  but  having  passed 
through  numerous  hands,  by  which  means  the  surface  was  more  or  less  mbbed, 
these  incrustations  have  at  length  nearly  disappeai'ed,  rendering  the  sketch  but 
feebly  visible. 

Stag, — Next  to  the  pebble  of  Massai  comes  a  piece  of  stag-horn  from  Made- 
line, (MM.  Lartet  and  Christy,)  on  which  is  carved  an  ordinary  stag. 

The  aurocJis. — In  one  of  the  comers  are  grouped  different  representations  of 
this  boll.  Among  others  a  head  carved  on  a  reindeer  horn,  being  the  lower  end 
of  a  baton  of  office,  from  Langerie-Basse,  belonging  to  M.  de  vibraye.  Other 
heads  carved  in  the  same  material  or  on  bone  exoibit  handsome  types  of  bulls, 
which  should  be  referred  to  the  aurochs.  One  is  particularly  remarkable,  from 
Langerie-Basse,  and  belonging  to  M.  de  Vibraye.  From  Eyzies,  also,  (MM. 
Lartet  and  Christy,)  there  is  a  young  bull  carved  with  great  perfection. 

Horses, — In  another  comer  the  representations  of  horses  are  grouped  together. 
On  a  staff  of  office  of  reindeer  horn  from  Madeline,  (MM.  Lartet  and  Christy,) 
may  be  viewed  a  carving  of  three  horses  in  a  manner  perfectly  characteristio  of 
the  animal. 

A  very  singular  implement,  made  of  reindeer  bora,  firom  Langerie-Basse, 
(MM.  Laitei  and  Christy,)  which  is  armed  at  one  end  with  a  harpoon  carrying 
a  barb,  shows  very  near  to  this  latter  appendage  a  finely  carved  horse's  head. 
The  ears  are  carefully  elaborated — a  little  long.  If  we  connect  this  fact  with 
what  is  shown  in  the  carving  of  a  head  in  this  third  trav^e,  the  ears  of  which 
resemble  those  of  an  ass,  we  will  be  led  to  believe  that  at  that  epoch  there  existed 
a  race  of  long-eared  horses. 

There  is  yet  to  be  noticed  a  number  of  different  animals  scattered  through  this 
case,  but  more  particularly  grouped  in  the  fourth  comer,  viz : 

TJic  wild  goat, — Representations  of  th^         *     '-  are  brought  from  Madeline 

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ETHNOLOGY.  411 

and  Lan^erie-Basse,  (MM.  Lartet  and  Christy,)  axid  from  Massai,  (Ariege,)  (M. 
Grarigou.)  Those  which  are  best  executed  are  from  Langerie-Basse,  on  a  large 
palmated  surface  of  reindeer  horn. 

Birds. — Some  figures  of  birds  having  a  long  neck,  from  Madeline  and  Lang- 
erie-Basse,  (M.  de  Vibraye,)  very  much  resemble  the  swan.  On  a  piece  of  a 
lance-head  from  Madeline  (MM.  Lartet  and  Christy)  may  be  seen  a  series  of 
birds,  one  following  the  other,  probably  geese. 

Fishes, — ^There  may  be  seen  a  figure  of  a  fish  on  the  harpoon  previously 
described  as  bearing  a  horse's  head.  A  fragment  of  reindeer  horn  from  Made- 
line (MM.  Lartet  and  Christy)  contains  three  or  four  fishes  with  their  scales  dis- 
tinctly marked,  even  exaggerated ;  and  another  skeletonized,  as  it  were,  finely 
carved  on  a  piece  of  the  lower  jaw  of  a  reindeer ;  it  comes  from  Laqgerie-Basse, 

iM.  de  Vibraye.)  Another,  exhibited  by  M.  Garrigou,  brought  from  La  Vache, 
Ariege,)  is  finely  carved  on  a  piece  of  bone ;  it  is  thought  to  be  a  figure  of  the 
morse.  But  the  appendages  regarded  by  some  as  representing  the  tusks  of  that 
animal,  seem  to  me  to  be  nothing  more  than  the  beard  of  the  barbel,  gudgeon, 
or  loach,  fishes  common  in  that  region. 

Beptiles. — Figures  of  different  reptiles  more  or  less  distinct  are  exposed ;  one 
of  a  tadpole  is  very  neatly  sketched  on  a  lanoe-point,  which  comes  from  Made- 
line, (MM.  Lartet  and  Christy.) 

FhvDers.-^ThQ  vegetable  kingdom  is  infinitely  less  represented  than  the  ani- 
mal. Among  all  the  figures  here  recounted  as  filling  the  central  glass  case, 
there  are  found  sketches  of  but  three  flowers.  Two  of  these  are  large,  having 
nine  petals,  carved  upon  a  lance-point,  from  Madeline,  (MM.  Lartet  and  Christy;) 
and  one  of  the  shape  of  a  tulip  with  a  waving  stem,  also  carved  on  a  lance-point 
from  Langerie-Basse,  (M.  de  Vibraye.) 

Conclusion, — ^Tho  contemporaneity  of  man  and  the  various  extinct  animals, 
and  with  the  indigenous  reindeer  in  France,  is  broadly,  firmly,  incontestably 
proven  by  the  discovery  of  these  products  of  human  industry  and  skill,  so  abund- 
antly mingled  with  the  exuvia  of  these  extinct  or  emigrated  animals,  in  the  undis- 
turbed quartemary  beds,  and  in  the  midst  of  cave  deposits  which  have  never 
been  manipulated.  In  this  relation  an  inspection  of  the  glass  cases  which  deco- 
rate the  left  part  of  the  first  corridor  of  the  history  of  French  labor,  leaves  no 
doubt  on  the  mind ;  they  fully  convince  the  most  obstinate  and  incredulous. 

The  case  containing  an  -exposition  of  the  art  of  the  reindeer  period  affords  a 
demonstration  still  more  irresistible.  Man  has  not  onlv  perfectly  represented 
the  reindeer,  an  animal  now  emigrated  to  the  north,  but  likewise  the  great  cave 
bear,  the  cave  tiffer,  the  mammoth,  which  are  extinct,  and  habitually  the  carv- 
ings are  executed  on  the  spoils  of  the  reindeer  and  mammoth  themselves.  Be- 
yond all  question  man  was  the  conteraporaiy  of  those  animals,  parts  of  which  he 
used  for  his  sustenance,  and  which  he  has  represented  so  truly  by  his  art.  No 
more  convincing  demonstration  could  be  desired  or  expected. 


KOTIS  ON  IXDIAK  HISTORY,  ike. 

By  Dr.  P.  V.  Hatdbn,  U.  8.  Geologist. 

JULESBITRG,  COLORADO  TERRITORY,  Octobcr  10,  1867. 

I  have  made  some  interesting  observations  in  regard  to  Indian  history  in  the 
course  of  my  geological  survey  of  this  Territory.  Most  of  the  Indians  of  the 
lower  Missouri,  as  the  Pawnees,  Otoes,  lowas,  Missourias,  live  in  earth-built  or 
stationary  villages,  and  have  done  so  from  time  immemorial.  The  tribes  on  the 
upper  Missouri  do  the  same — Arickarees,  Mandans,  and  Minnetans.  All  along 
the  Missouri,  in  the  valley  of  the  Little  Blue,  Big  Blue,  Platte,  Loup  Fork 
rivers  I  have  observed  the  remains  of  these  old  dirt  villages,  and  pieces  of  pot- 
tery are  almost  invariably  found  with  them. 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


412  ETHNOLOGY. 

Bnt  on  a  recent  visit  to  the  Pawnee  reservation  on  Lonp  Fork  I  discovered 
the  remains  of  an  old  Pawnee  village,  apparently  of  greater  antiquity  than  the 
others,  and  the  only  one  about  which  any  stone  implements  have  as  yet  been 
found.  On  and  around  the  site  of  every  cabin  of  this  village  I  found  an  abund- 
ance of  broken  arrow-heads,  chipped  flints,  some  of  which  must  have  been 
brought  from  a  great  distance,  and  a  variety  of  small  stones,  which  had  been 
used  as  hammers,  chissels,  &c.  I  have  gathered  about  half  a  bushel  of  the 
fragments  of  pottery,  arrow-heads,  and  chipped  flints,  some  of  which  I  hope  to 
place  in  the  museum  of  the  Smithsonian  next  winter.  No  Pawnee  Indian  now 
living  knows  of  the  time  when  this  village  was  inhabited.  Thirty  j^ears  ago 
an  old  chief  told  a  missionary  that  his  tribe  dwelt  there  before  his  birth,  but  he 
knew  nothing  of  the  use  of  the  stone  arrowheads,  though,  he  said,  his  people 
used  them  before  the  introduction  of  iron. 

This  discoveiy  is  interesting,  as  it  is  the  first  tribe  that  I  have  ever  been 
able  to  find  connecting  the  stone  ago  with  the  persons  in  the  Missouii  valley. 
I  have  asked  the  most  intelligent  Indians  of  more  than  20  tribes  in  the  valley 
how  far  back  in  the  past  the  Indians  used  stone  arrow  points,  and  I  have 
received  but  one  answer.  They  would  point  toward  heaven  and  say,  **  The 
Great  Spirit  only  knows.     We  do  not." 

At  Pine  Bluff's,  on  Cole  creek,  a  branch  of  the  Platte,  and  on  the  line  of  the 
Union  Pacific  railroad,  there  are  large  quantities  of  chipped  flints  and  arrow- 
heads, showing  that  in  former  times  they  wrought  them  at  this  locality. 

Mr.  S.  B.  Reed,  superintendent  of  construction  Union  Pacific  railroad,  found 
specimens  of  pottery  abundant,  arrow  points,  and  chipped  flints  on  the  plains 
near  the  Humboldt  mountains. 

The  pottery  was  made  of  disintegrated  granite,  as  it  was  full  of  particles  of 
mica.  These  remains  may  possibly  be  modem,  for  the  Digger  Indians,  who 
inhabit  this  region,  a  low,  degraded  people,  even  now  use  flint  arrow  points, 
though  they  use  no  pottery.  There  is  now  no  evidence  that  the  Indians  of  this 
region  ever  used  any  pottery  like  that  found,  so  that  it  may  be  possessed  of 
some  antiquity. 

I  have  collected  considerable  material  in  the  Omaha,  Pawnee,  Winnebago, 
and  Otoe  languages  for  the  second  part  of  ethnography  and  philology  of  the 
Indian  tribes  of  the  Missouri  valley,  and  hope  to  have  the  memoir  ready  for 
publication  in  two  years. 


DESCRIPTIOir  OF  A  HUMAIf  SKULL  U  THE   COLLECTIOIT  OF  THE  8MITH80- 

KUN  IXSTITITIOX. 

BT  J.  AlTKEH  MeIOS,  M.  D. 


This  remarkable  cranium.  No.  6439  of  the  Smithsonian  collection,  was  found 
in  June,  1866,  in  a  fissure  of  the  rock,  at  Hock  Bluff,  on  the  Illinois  river, 


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ETHNOLOOT.  413 

where  this  river  is  crossed  by  the  40th  parallel  of  latitude.  The  fissure,  which 
18  three  feet  wide,  was  filled  with  the  drift  material  of  this  region,  consistinn^  of 
clay,  sand,  and  broken  stone,  the  whole  being  covered  with  a  stratum  of  sumce 
soil.  In  this  bed.  which  bad  apparently  been  undisturbed  since  the  deposit, 
was  found  the  skull  under  consideration,  at  the  depth  of  three  feet. 

It  is  dolichocephalic  and  symmetrically  oval  in  form,  and  is  especially  remark- 
able for  its  great  length,  for  the  protuberance  of  the  posterior  or  parieto-occipital 
region,  the  flatness  of  the  frontal  bone,  the  great  development  of  the  super- 
ciliary ridges  and  the  mastoid  processes,  and  the  depth  of  the  temporal  fossse. 
The  length  as  compared  with  the  breadth  is  as  41  to  27,  and  with  the  height 
as  41  to  28.  The  sagittal  suture  has  evidently  undergone  complete  ossification 
at  a  comparatively  early  period ;  a  small  portion  only  of  the  anterior  part  of 
this  suture  showing  any  traces  of  the  serrations.  The  lambdoidal  suture  appears 
to  have  become  ossified  at  a  later  period,  and  is  less  completely  obliterated  than 
the  sagittal.  The  occipito-temporal  sutures,  which  are  generally  the  first  to 
ossify,  are  still  open,  as  is  also  the  coronal  suture.  Owing  to  this  departure 
from  the  usual  order  of  ossification  of  the  sutures,  the  lateral  expansion  of  the 
brain  has  been  interfered  with,  and  its  antero-posterior  or  longitudinal  develop- 
ment greatly  favored.  The  extreme  elongation  of  the  skull,  therefore,  is  readily 
accounted  for.  From  the  superior  region  the  skull  widens  out  towards  the  base 
to  such  an  extent  that  the  intermastoid  diameter  or  breadth  at  the  base  is  some- 
what greater  than  either  the  bi-temporal  or  vertical  diameters.  The  mastoid 
processes  are  very  large.  The  upper  half  of  the  os  occipitis  is  quite  prominent, 
and  the  convexities  indicating  the  position  of  the  cerebellar  fossae  moderately 
full  and  rounded.  The  alisphenoids  curve  backwards  considerably  between  the 
anterior,  inferior  angles  of  the  parietals  and  the  squamous  edge  of  the  temporal 
bones.  Their  external  surface  is  deeply  concave,  as  is  also  that  portion  of  the 
OS  frontis  lying  directly  behind  the  external  angular  process,  and  beloNV  the 
temporal  ridge.  Hence  the  temporal  fossae  are  unusually  deep.  The  super- 
ciliary ridges  are  thick  and  protuberant,  curving  somewhat  like  the  horns  of  a 
goat,  upwards  and  outwards  from  the  glabella,  of  which  they  appear  to  be  the 
continuation,  and  completely  overhanging  the  ossa  nasi  and  the  upper  and  inter- 
nal angles  of  the  orbits  in  such  a  manner  as  to  coalesce  with  and  obliterate  the 
inner  half  of  the  supra-orbital  margins.  Above  these  ridges  the  os  frontis  is 
incurvated,  but  becomes  somewhat  more  prominent  again  at  a  point  just  below 
the  middle  of  the  frontal  suture.  The  great  prominence  of  the  superciliary 
ridges  in  this  cranium  is  a  notable  feature,  inasmuch  as  the  American  aboriginal 
skull  is  characterized  by  the  absence,  rather  than  by  the  presence  of  these  ridges. 
I  find,  upon  careful  examination,  that  in  the  great  majority  of  the  American 
Indian  crania  contained  in  the  collection  of  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences, 
these  ridges  are  wholly  or  almost  entirely  absent.  They  are  moderately  devel- 
oped in  the  following  specimens:  Assinaboin,  No.  659;  Naas,  No.  213;  Klika- 
tats,  Nos.  203,  207,  461;  Calapooyah,  No.  574;  Cherokees,  Nos.  1285,  1297; 
Chetimache,  No.  70;  Chippewa,  No.  683;  Creeks,  Nos.  441,  579,  1454,  204; 
Hurons,  Nos.  1217,  1218;  Iroquois,  Nos.  16,  989;  LenapSs,  Nos.  418,  1265; 
Mandans,  Nos.  740,  741,  742,  1220,  1222;  Miami,  No.  106;  Mohawks,  Nos. 
895,  896;  Narragansetts,  Nos.  950,  954,  956,  1040;  Natioks,  Nos.  110,  116; 
Osage,  No.  54;  Ottigamie,  No.  415;  Penobscot,  No.  89;  Pottawatomie,  No. 
737;  Seminole,  No.  732;  Shoshond,  No.  1449;  Euchee,  No.  39 ;  Oneida,  No. 
33;  Pocasset,  No.  1036 ;  Seneca,  No.  1516  ;  from  the  mounds,  Nos.  53,  1270, 
1511 ;  Inaya,  No.  990;  Araucanians,  Nos.  655,  997,  1242;  Caribs,  Nos.  638, 
692 ;  Brazilians,  Nos.  1254,  1528 ;  Peruvians,  Nos.  67,  1279.  1282,  1363,  13, 
77.  84,  S5,  92,  409,  1456,  1461,  1462,  1465,  1470,  1472,  1473,  1481,  1482, 
1499,  1500,  1504,  72,  996,  1413,  1416,  1417,  1426,  1427,  1432,  1440,  1442, 
73,  449,  68,  91 ;  Kahnica  Mexican,  No.  34 ;  Otomie  Mexicans,  Nos.  1000, 
1002;  Pames  Mexican,  No.  681;  Ancient  Mexicans,  Nos.  1314,  682,  234; 
Lipans,  Nos.  1345,  1346 ;  Modem  Mexicans,  Nos.  1515, 555,  558.    ^  t 

Jigitized  by  VjOOQIC 


414 


ETHNOLOGT. 


The  saperciliary  ridges  are  more  decidedly  developed  in  the  Lenap^s,  Noa. 
135,249;  Mandaiis,  Nob.  78,  563 ;  Miami,  No.  541 ;  Mimetari,  No.  749 ;  Otoes, 
Nos.  755,  756,  757;  Ottawa,  No.  1006;  Ottigamie,  Nos.  639,  694;  Pottawa- 
tomie, No.  657 ;  Sauks,  Nos.  561, 1246  ;  Shawnees,  Nos.  691, 1210 ;  Shoshon^s, 
Nos.  1446,  1447, 1448;  Upsarookas,  Nos.  1228,1229  ;  Winnebagoes,  Nos.  559, 
560;  Yamassees,  Nos.  1215,  1216;  Apache,  No.  935;  from  the  moonds  and 
caves,  Nos.  416,  1237,  1510,  436,  43^,  653,  439,  440,  1287,  1288,  992,  1564, 
1512;  Kenawha,  No.  212;  Brazilian,  No.  1529;  Peravians,  Nos.  1365,  1366, 
1367,  1368,  75,  95,  406,  697,  752,  1474,  1475,  1490,  1491,  1495,  1496.  1501, 
1509,  1221,  1326,  1370,  1373,  1407,  1408,  1428,  1443,  1484,  412,  414,  452, 
231;  Mexicans,  Nos.  714,  717,  718,  720. 

The  dimensions  of  the  Smithsonian  skoll  are  exhibited  in  the  following  table: 

Inches. 

Occipito-frontal  or  longitudinal  diameter 7^ 

Frontal  diameter 3  f 

Bi-temporal  diameter 5^ 

Bi-parietal  diameter 6 

Posterior  transverse  diameter,  (between  the  posterior,  inferior  angles  of  the 

parietalia) 5  f 

Vertical  diameter 5  J 

Intermastoid  diameter 5  f 

Occipito-frontal  arch 14  | 

Frontal  arch ll| 

Parietal  arch 12 

Occipital  arch 10 

Horizontal  periphery 20  f 

Meato-frontal  diameter. 4,^ 

Meato-parietal  diameter 3^^ 

Meato-occipital  diameter 4]  | 

The  region  of  country  from  which  this  cranium  was  obtained  was  occupied, 
when  first  visited  by  the  Jesuit  missionaries  in  1665,  by  the  Sauks,  Saukies,  or 
White  Clay  Indians;  the  Foxes,  Ontagamies,  or  Ottigamies,  or,  as  they  called 
themselves,  Musquakkink,  or  Bed  Clay  Indians ;  the  Kickapoos,  and  the  Illi- 
nois— the  latter  comprising  the  Kaskaskias,  Gahokias,  Tamaronas,  Peorias,  and, 
by  confederation,  though  not  by  consanguinity,  the  Mitchigamias.  These  w^estem 
tribes  of  the  great  Algonkin  stock  are  represented  in  the  academy's  collection 
by  three  Sauk,  four  Ottigamie,  and  six  Illinois  crania.  The  Smithsonian  cranium 
bears  no  resemblance  to  the  Sauk  or  Ottigamie  skulls,  nor  to  any  of  the  lUinois 
crania,  except  Nos.  1500  and  1511,  which  were  taken  from  an  ancient  mound. 
These  two  skulls  are  very  much  alike,  and  they  resemble  the  Smithsonian  head 
in  their  oval  form,  in  the  flatness  of  the  frontal  bone,  the  prominence  of  the 
superciliary  ridges,  and  the  depression  above  these  ridges.  There  are  two  other 
mound  skulls  m  the  academy's  collection,  Nos.  1287  and  1288,  which  bear 
some  resemblance  to  the  skull  under  notice.  These  were  taken  from  an  ancient 
mound  in  Chillicothe,  Ohio,  by  Dr.  E.  H.  Davis  and  Mr.  E.  G.  Squier.  No. 
1287  has  a  flat  forehead  and  somewhat  elevated  superciliary  ridges,  and  is 
dolichocephalic  and  oval  in  form.  No.  1288  is  more  like  the  Smithsonian  speci- 
men in  its  elongated  and  oval  eorm,  and  in  the  prominence  of  the  occiput; 
though  the  frontal  bone  is  not  so  recedent,  and  the  superciliary  ridges  much  less 
promment.  The  dolichocephalic  Upsaroka  skull.  No.  1228,  somewhat  resembles 
the  Smithsonian  specimen  in  the  elevation  of  the  superciliary  ridges,  and  the  flatness 
of  the  frontal  bone.  Of  all  the  American  Indian  crania,  however,  contained 
in  the  museum  of  the  academy,  No.  744,  which  I  have  provisionally  referred  to 
the  Kootenays,  approximates  the  Smithsonian  specimen  most  closely  in  its 
dolichocephalic,  oval  form,  the  flatness  of  the  forehead  and  prominence  of  the 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


ETHNOLOOY.  415 

snperciliary  ridges.  No.  744,  however,  is  less  reffularly  and  symmetrically  oval, 
projects  more  in  the  super-ccipifal  region,  and  has  a  more  i*ecedent  forehead. 
The  superciliary  ridges  are  equally  prominent  in  both  skulls,  but  in  the  Kootenay 
head  they  do  not  coalesce  with  the  supra-orbital  margins,  as  is  the  case  in  the 
Smithsonian  skull.  In  the  Kootenay  cranium  the  supra-orbital  margins  are  dis- 
tinct and  well  defined  throughout  their  whole  course,  from  the  internal  to  the 
external  angular  processes.  In  the  Smithsonian  head,  as  we  have  just  seen,  the 
inner  half  of  these  margins  are  so  encroached  upon  by  the  superciliary  ridges  as 
to  be  obliterated. 

Bearing  in  mind  the  locality  in  which  it  was  found,  the  skull  under  considera- 
tion is  so  far  unique  in  its  ethnical  character,  that  I  do  not  feel  authorized  to 
refer  it  to  any  of  the  aboriginal  American  cranial  forms  with  which  I  am 
acquainted.  If  the  position  in  which  it  was  discovered  be  any  e^^dence  of  its 
age,  it  belongs,  in  all  probability,  to  an  earlier  inhabitant  of  the  American  con- 
tinent than  the  present  race  of  Indians.  In  the  absence  of  a  complete  series  of 
American  Indian  crania,  it  is  impossible  to  assign  to  this  skull  its  proper  ethnical 
position. 


INTRODVCTIOir  TO  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  COPHC  LiNGViGE. 

By  M.  Kabis. 

I  From  the  TrmnsaetionB  of  the  Eygrptian  Ingtitute,'} 

The  Egyptians,  when  they  adopted  Christianity,  substituted  Oreek  letters  for 
the  ancient  hieroglyphics,  and  after  that  time  used  the  language  which  the  mod- 
erns designate  as  the  Coptic,  which  prevailed  over  Upper  and  Ijower  Egypt  until 
the  Arabic  language,  introduced  with  Mahomedanism,  took  its  place.  Wo  shall, 
fbrther  on,  speak  of  the  true  etymology  of  the  word  Copt ;  but  it  will  not  be 
out  of  the  way  here  to  show  what  were  the  motives  and  the  historical  circum- 
stances which  led  the  Christians  of  Egypt  to  make  this  change. 

We  have  to  remark,  then,  that  the  graphic  system  of  the  ancient  Egyptians 
was  so  intimately  connected  with  their  religious  system  that  it  was  scarcely  pos- 
sible for  one  of  them  in  the  time  of  the  Pharaohs  or  of  the  Ptolemies  to  write 
the  smallest  circumstance  without  mixing  it  up  with  the  symbols  of  mythology 
and  of  polytheism.  The  images  of  the  gods  and  of  the  sacred  animals  formed 
many  of  the  characters  employed  in  then*  wiiting ;  and  an  Egyptian  could  no 
more  avoid  using  them  than  we  could  write  without  our  alphabet.  Now,  nothing 
could  be  more  at  variance  with  the  purity  of  the  Christain  religion,  then  newly 
adopted  by  the  Copts,  and  the  piety  of  the  worshipper  than  the  profane  hiero- 
glyphic symbols.  The  early  Christians  of  Egypt  then  found  it  to  be  absurd  to 
represent  under  the  images  of  Ammon,  or  Ptah,  or  Osiris,  the  God  of  their  faith, 
whom  they  reverenced  as  a  pure  Spirit,  separate  from  every  sensible  or  material 
form.  Wishing,  then,  to  disengage  themselves  as  much  as  possible  from  the 
ancient  superstition,  these  disciples  of  St.  Mark  rejected  the  graphic  system  of 
their  ancestors,  supplying  its  place  with  the  Greek  alphabet,  to  which  thev 
added  six  purely  Egyptian  letters,  to  express  sounds  in  then:  language,  whica 
could  not  be  represented  by  the  Greek. 

With  the  alphabet  they  also  adopted  a  number  of  Greek  words.  That  was 
in  the  beginning  a  matter  of  necessity.  They  were  not  willing  to  express  in 
the  equivocal  terms  of  the  ancient  mythology  the  new  ideas  of  Christianity. 
But  this  necessity  soon  degenerated  into  an  abuse,  and  Greek  expressions 
became  the  fashion.  This  was  much  more  the  case  in  Lower  Egypt,  on  account 
of  the  frequent  intercourse  between  the  Greeks  of  Alexandria  and  the  inhabit- 
ants of  the  delta,  and  for  the  same  reason  the  dialect  of  Memphis  is  less  pure 
than  that  of  Thebes.    It  must  be  remarked,  also,  that  the  introduced  Greek 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


416  ETHNOLOGY. 

words  underwent  no  change  from  their  original  form.  They  may  be  recognized 
at  a  glance,  and  do  not  in  anywise  alter  the  face  of  the  Coptic  language.  This 
is  a  simple  and  positive  evidence  that  the  language  and  literature  of  the  Copts 
are  essentially  Christian.  Such  manuscripts  as  have  been  published,  or  up  to 
this  time  examined  by  savants,  prove  that  the  language  was  cultivated  only  by 
the  monks,  who  during  the  early  ages  of  Christianity  dwelt  in  the  deserts  of 
Egypt.  These  holy  anchorites  concerned  themselves  only  with  the  exercises  of 
devotion.  Abandoned  to  themselves,  and  separated  from  anv  intercourse  with 
the  world,  they  divided  their  time  between  prayers,  manual  labor,  reading  the 
Bible  and  the  lives  of  other  monks.  The  study  of  literature,  science,  history, 
especially  if  it  were  pagan,  had  no  interest  for  them.  Their  writing,  then,  could 
treat  only  of  religion  and  monkish  institutions.  I  believe  it  would  be  difficult 
to  find  among  Coptic  manuscripts  any  proper  scientific  compositions.  The 
Coptic  language  should  not,  however,  lose  its  interest  with  savants.  If  the 
anchorites  of  the  Thebaid  did  not  treat  ex  prqfesso  of  historical  events,  their 
writings  could,  notwithstanding,  furnish  many  historical  data  of  precious  valoe, 
and  illustrate  many  points  which  now  embarrass  the  critic.  For  it  is  well  known 
that,  since  the  time  of  Constantine,  the  history  of  Christianity  and  the  church 
is  intimately  connected  with  that  of  the  people  and  the  empire.  The  bishops 
often  shaped  the  decrees  of  the  Csesars,  and  the  latter  charged  themselves  with 
ejcecuting  the  ordinances  of  the  Pontiffs.  The  Coptic  monks,  then,  when  treat- 
ing of  the  history  of  the  church,  can  supply  us  with  interesting  documents 
ixjiating  to  the  history  of  their  age.  They  also  occupied  themselves  frequently 
in  translating  the  works  of  the  more  celebrated  Greek  fathers,  and  we  might 
find  interesting  treatises  preserved  in  Coptic,  of  which  the  original  Greek  no 
longer  exists.  I  have  myself  seen  such  fragments  in  the  library  of  the  Vatican 
at  Kome,  and  executed  a  translation  of  them  into  Latin  for  the  venerable  Car- 
dinal Mai,  curator  of  that  library.  These  are,  however,  not  the  only  motives 
to  interest  us  in  the  Coptic ;  it  has  for  us  and  all  the  learned  world  a  very  spe- 
cial and  supreme  importance.  The  immortal  Champollion  the  younger,  when 
seriously  applying  himself  to  study  the  famous  inscription  on  the  stone  found  at 
Rosetta,  during  the  French  expedition  in  Egypt,  succeeded,  in  1822,  in  deci- 
phering the  hieroglyphic  symbols.  The  interest  excited  in  Europe  by  that  dis- 
covery is  known  to  all,  and  the  learned  of  all  nations  since  have  occupied  them- 
selves in  perfecting  this  growing  science.  Now  all  the  learned,  as  well  as 
Champollion  the  elder,  have  acknowledged  that  the  Coptic  l^iguage  is  no  other 
than  that  of  the  ancient  Egyptian  Pharaohs  j  that  it  is  the  key  and  the  dic- 
tionary of  hieroglyphics ;  that  without  an  available  knowledge  of  it  it  would 
be  very  difiicult  or  well-nigh  impossible  to  interpret  them. 

There  would  be  a  truly  valuable  service  rendered  to  science  if  those  who  are 
in  position  to  do  so  would  suggest  to  hjs  highness  the  Viceroy  Mahomet-Said  to 
assemble  at  the  museum  or  at  the  Egyptian  Institute,  both  of  which  do  him  so 
much  honor,  a  collection  of  Coptif  manuscripts,  which  should  be  accessible  to 
students  and  the  learned.  In  the  Coptic  convents  there  lie,  enveloped  in  doBt^ 
innumerable  Coptic  volumes }  no  one  there  understands  them,  and  the  worms 
only  have  the  privilege  of  visiting,  gnawing,  and  destroying  them.  To  this 
class  of  MSS.  should  be  added  a  collection  of  Arabic  authors,  particularly  of 
the  middle  ages,  which  was  the  golden  period  for  Arabic  literature.     •     •     • 

If  I  have  one  msh.  which  I  should  like  to  see  reciprocated  in  the  breasts  of 
this  assembly,  it  is  that  my  colleagues  should  unite  their  efforts  with  mine  to  aid 
in  restoring  the  Coptic  language  to  life  here  in  its  own  native  place.  Our  society 
will  fail  in  its  mission  if  it  sluul  neglect  this  duty.  The  Institute  will  no  longer 
be  Egyptian  if  it  fail  to  occupy  itself  with  the  language  of  Egjrpt.  BesideSi 
all  the  learned  societies  of  Europe  are  impatient  to  see  the  results  of  our  labors 
upon  ancient  Egypt.    Behold,  then,  how  much  is  expected  of  this  Institute  1 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


NOTES  ON  THE  "TONTO"  APACHES. 


BT  CHARLES  SBfART,  BREVET  CAPTAIN  AND  ASSISTANT  SURGEON    V,  8.  ARMY, 
FORT   MCDOWELL,    ARIZONA. 


[A  partial  yocabulaiy  of  the  language  accompanied  the  original,  which  will  appear  elsewhere. ) 

Thby  fonn  a  village  or  sub-tribe  of  the  people  known  as  Apaches.  Thej 
call  themselves  "  Goyateros ; "  Americans  and  Mexicans  call  them  "  Tontos," 
applying  the  name  "Coyatero  Apaches"  to  a  tribe  dwelling  in  the  moontains- 
southeast  of  this,  beyond  the  Gila  river. 

AboQt  a  year  ago.  thai  is  previous  to  the  arrival  of  the  United  States  troops 
in  this  part  of  the  Territoiy  of  Arizona,  these  Indians  dwelt  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  what  is  now  the  site  of  Fort  McDowell,  on  the  banks  of  the  Verde  or 
San  Francisco  river,  a  few  miles  above  its  junction  with  the  Salinas,  Bio  Salado, 
or  Salt  river.  The  Verde  at  this  point  runs  southward  through  a  valley  about  ' 
twenty  miles  broad,  which  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  the  Mazatsal  range  of 
mountains,  and  on  the  west  by  a  chain  of  hills  to  which  no  name  has  been 
applied.  The  bottom  lands  are  very  narrow,  not  more  than  a  half  a  mile  broad 
at  their  broadest  part.  The  soil  is  sandy,  but  when  irrigated  is  very  fertile, 
yielding  large  returns  of  com,  sorghum,  beans,  melons,  &c.  Cottonwood  trees, 
willows,  and  alder,  line  the  banks  in  great  luxuriance,  and  grape,  melon,  and 
hop  vines  bind  the  whole,  often  into  an  impenetrable  thicket. 

From  these  low  lands,  extending  outwards  and  gradually  rising  to  the  foot- 
hills of  the  mountain  ranges,  is  a  dry  rocky  "  mesa  '*  very  irregular  in  surface, 
from  the  numberless  deep  **  arroyos  "  which  the  autumn  rains  have  washed  out. 
The  "  mesa "  is  more  or  less  completely  covered  with  sage  brush,  mesquite, 
pdio  verde,  and  a  variety  of  individuals  of  the  cactus  family.  Towards  the 
mountains  grows  the  mescal,  much  used  by  the  Indians  as  an  article  of  food. 
During  the  rainy  months,  July,  August,  and  September,  a  light  covering  of 
grass  spreads  over  it,  but  throughout  the  greater  part  of  the  year  it  is  bare 
and  garish — ^rocky  on  the  ridees,  sandy  in  the  arroyos. 

On  the  Mesa,  more  especially  towards  the  mountains,  deer  are  occasionally 
met.  Gayotes  and  rabbits  are  plentiful,  of  the  latter  two  kinds— the  cotton-tail  and 
Jackson  rabbit ;  rats,  gophers,  and  other  rodents  are  equally  numerous.  Of 
birds,  quail  exist  in  great  abundance.  Here  the  Indians  say  they  were  bom 
and  grew  up,  living  upon  deer,  rabbits,  rats,  mescal,  mesquite  beans,  cactus 
fruits,  and  a  variety  of  nuts  gathered  on  the  mountains.  They  were  at  constant 
war  with  the  Pininos,  and  made  occasional  plundering  excursions  to  Sonora, 
but  on  the  establishment  of  Fort  McDowell  tney  retir^  to  the  eastern  moun- 
tains, takine  up  their  abode  in  the  cafions  to  the  north  and  east  of  the  Mazatsal 
pedks.  Of  late  their  lancheria  has  so  often  been  broken  into  by  scouting  parties 
of  the  friendly  Indians,  that  they  do  not  seem  to  have  established  a  permanent 
settlement.  But  the  permanent  differs  in  nothing  from  the  temporary  hut,  both 
being  simply  a  brush  shanty,  with  a  hole  scoo^d  in  its  floor  by  way  of  bed- 
room* 

In  this  sub-tribe,  during  the  time  it  remained  at  the  fort,  I  counted  a  hundred 
and  fifty  warriors  and  forty  women  and  children,  but  the  majority  of  the  women 
and  children,  and  probably  a  proportion  of  the  warriors,  did  not  leave  the  moun- 
tains. They  gave  us  to  understand  that  there  was  sickness  among  the  people 
in  the  hills.    They  stated  that  there  were  other  villages  of  their  people  whom 

^^67  Digitized  by  Google 


418  NOTES   ON  THE   "TONTO"  APACHES. 

they  expected  to  arrive  at  the  fort  for  the  purpose  of  making  peace,  and  that 
together  they  numbered  about  two  thousand  (2,000.) 

Their  average  height  is  about  five  feet  four  or  five  inches.  They  are  slimly 
built,  and  possess  but  little  muscular  development,  yet  they  are  very  agile, 
climbing  the  mountains  with  great  rapidity,  and  running  on  more  level  ground 
for  many  miles  without  any  semblance  of  fatigue.  The  skin  is  of  a  light  brown- 
ish red  color,  so  fair  in  manv  instances  as  to  lead  to  the  probably  correct  sup- 
position that  Spanish  blood  has  been  mixed  with  the  Indian  stock.  The  features 
present  nothing  peculiar.  They  have  generally  the  traits  well  marked  of  the 
American  Indian ;  some,  however,  have  a  full  round  face  and  Chinese  cast  of 
countenance.  The  head  is  covered  with  a  mass  of  rusty  black  hair,  cut  off  in 
front  on  a  level  with  the  eye-brows,  and  permitted  to  grow  a  little  longer  behind, 
but  never  reaching  the  shoulders ;  occasionally  the  hair  is  worn  quite  short,  round 
head  cut  The  beard,  when  any  does  grow,  is  dragged  out  hair  by  hair,  by 
means  of  an  elongated  piece  of  tin,  formed  into  a  forceps  by  being  bent  lengthwise 
on  itself,  and  which  is  usually  carried  suspended  from  the  neck  by  a  thong  of  buck- 
skin. 

They  practice  no  such  disfigurement  as  flattening  the  head,  but  among  the 
women  were  observed  a  few  who  had  had  the  cartilaginous  portion  of  the  nose 
cut  off,  thereby  spoiling  their  good  looks,  for  it  was  noticeable  that  only  those 
who  had  any  pretensions  to  beauty  had  been  so  mutilated. 

A  scrofulous  taint  affects  their  system  ;  this  was  more  distinctly  manifested 
among  the  children;  but  of  the  adults  many  were  suffering  itom  strumouB 
ophthalmia  or  its  consequences. 

The  dysentery,  which  at  the  time  was  severe  on  the  troops  stationed  at  the 
fort,  did  not  exempt  the  Indians  from  its  attacks.  One  died  from  this  disease 
during  their  stay  here,  and  many  were  said  to  be  sick  in  the  mountains. 

With  one  exception  they  were  not  painted.  The  paint  in  the  exceptional 
case  was  of  a  grayish  white  color,  and  laid  on  in  lines,  narrow,  closely  set,  and 
wavy,  transverse  and  parallel,  covering  the  face,  chest,  and  back.  Their  dress 
consists  of  the  breech- cloth  and  a  pair  of  buckskin  moccasins.  The  latter  have 
a  stout  hard  sole,  which  curves  upwai*ds  a  little  in  front  of  the  toes;  poorer  speci- 
mens only  cover  the  ankles,  but  others  are  so  long  that  when  drawn  up  they  encase 
the  thighs.  This,  with  a  leather  bracelet  on  one  wrist  and  a  bow  and  quiver 
of  arrows,  forms  the  general  outfit.  But  others  are  more  completely  equipped, 
wearing  a  buckskin  thrown  over  one  shoulder  and  fastened  in  tne  opposite  arm- 
pit, and  perhaps  possessing  a  waist-belt  of  leather  and  an  old  sheath-knife,  the 
product  probably  of  some  Sonora  enterprise. 

Some  of  them  carried  a  straight  stick  about  five  feet  long,  curved  into  a  hook 
at  one  end,  like  the  handle  of  a  walking-stick.  This  they  call  kish-ishai,  and 
use  it  in  hooking  down  the  fruit  leguara  and  in  tearing  up  the  earth  when 
breaking  into  a  rat  or  rabbit  hole.  They  possessed  also  about  half  a  dozen 
lances,  formed  of  a  long  knife  or  bayonet  socketed  into  the  end  of  a  long  pole. 
The  bow  is  a  stout  piece  of  tough  wood  obtained  from  a  tree  stated  by  those 
who  have  seen  it  to  bear  some  resemblance  to  the  mulberry.  It  is  about  five 
feet  long,  strengthened  at  points  by  a  wrapping  of  sinew.  It  is  straight  along 
the  greater  part  of  its  length,  but  curves  lightly  towards  its  extremities,  which 
are  joined  by  a  sinew  string  stranded  and  rolled  into  a  perfect  round.  Their 
arrows  from  notch  to  point  are  three  feet  long.  They  are  formed  of  a  cane 
which  erows  in  the  mountains  in  the  neighborhood  of  springs  and  water-courses. 
For  a  distance  of  six  or  seven  inches  from  the  notch  the  cane  is  winged  with 
four  strips  of  feather,  held  in  place  by  threads  of  sinew.  Into  the  hollow  of  its 
other  extremity  is  inserted  a  slender  piece  of  stiff  wood,  which  is  colored,  as  if 
with  the  blooG  of  some  animal,  and  which  bears  on  its  free  end  an  elongated 
triangular  piece  of  quartz,  flint,  or  rarely  iron.  This  arrow-head  is  sharp  at  the 
point  and  slightly  serrated  along  the  margin.    In  some  the  slender  cylmder  of 


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190TK8   ON   THK      TOKTO*     4P4CHE8  41:^ 

wood  beariDg  the  arrow-head  is  inserted  firmly  into  the  cane  and  withed  in  that 
position,  while  a  the  others  the  attachment  between  the  two  is  so  slight  as  to 
admit  of  being  severed  by  very  gentle  traction.  None  wore  any  covering  for 
the  head  with  the  exception  of  the  chief,  whose  crown  consisted  of  a  closely 
fitting  skull-cap  of  skin,  unadorned  behind,  but  covered  in  front  with  feathers 
and  many  spangles  of  brass  and  tin.  He  also  possessed  a  doublet  of  prepared 
buckskin,  brownish  red  in  color,  with  some  blue  linen  markings  on  it.  They 
were  very  eager  to  obtain  cast-off  clothing  from  the  troops ;  and  their  requests 
for  tobacco  were  constant.  The  latter  they  mauu&ctured  into  cigaritas,  although 
they  had  no  objection  to  a  pipe  when  offered. 

The  only  methods  of  communication  between  distant  parts  of  the  country 
(excluding  the  messenger  of  course)  which  I  knew  them  to  employ  are  fire  by 
night  and  smokes  during  the  daytime. 

I  saw  no  earthenware  vessels  among  them;  the  utensils  employed  in  the 
preparation  of  food  being  shallow  basins  of  closely  netted  straw.  They  carried 
water  in  pitchers  of  the  same  material,  but  they  were  matted  all  over  with  a  pitch, 
which  communicated  its  flavor  to  the  contents. 

They  are  not  bold  in  their  manner  of  carrying  on  a  war,  attacking  only  when 
their  numbers,  and  a  well-laid  ambush,  promise  a  certainty  of  success.  They 
seldom  scalp,  but  very  frequently  mutilate  otherwise  the  bodies  of  their  slain 
enemies. 

In  disposition  they  seem  to  be  light-hearted,  but  subject  to  sudden  fits  of 
suspicion  and  timidity,  which  is  perhaps  sufficiently  accounted  for  by  the  active 
campaign  of  late  kept  up  against  them  by  our  Indian  allies,  and  the  circumstance 
of  living  for  the  nrst  time  in  the  neighborhood,  and  in  a  great  measure  in  the 
power,  of  the  whites.  Very  frequently  after  having  spent  the  evening  in  dance 
and  song,  during  the  night  they  would  become  suspicious  of  something  and  take 
to  the  mountains,  returning  only  after  some  days,  and  in  small  parties  at  a  time. 
The  dance  is  similar  to  that  of  the  California  Indians ;  a  stamp  around,  with 
clapping  of  hands  and  slapping  of  thighs  in  time  to  a  drawl  of  monotones. 

The  only  act  of  a  religious  character  which  I  observed,  took  place  during  otur 
first  interview  with  them.  The  old  squaw,  who  was  the  first  to  venture  into  the 
fort,  intimated,  through  a  Maricopa  who  possessed  a  smattering  of  Apache,  that 
her  people  wanted  peace,  but  being  afraid  to  come  among  the  whites,  prayed 
them  to  come  to  the  Ibountains  to  hold  a  council.  Some  four  or  five  officers 
accompanied  her.  Shortly  after  crossing  the  river  they  w^re  met  by  a  small 
party  of  the  Indians,  one  of  whom  chalk^  a  cross  on  the  breast  of  each,  with  a 
yellow  earth,  which  he  carried  in  a  satchel  at  his  belt.  Previous  to  doing  so  he 
muttered  some  words  very  solemnly  with  his  hand  uplifted  and  eyes  thrown 
upwards.  Again,  on  arriving  at  the  camp  of  the  people,  the  chief  and  others  in 
greeting  them  took  a  similar  vow,  touching  thereafter  the  yellow  chalked  cross. 
Donora  may  have  furnished  them  with  some  of  their  notions  of  a  Deity. 

The  peace  negotiations  fell  to  the  ground,  inasmuch  as  the  other  villages 
of  the  tribe,  not  having  been  so  great  sufferers  from  the  war  as  this  one,  refused 
to  join  it  in  its  propositions. 

GHABLES  SMART, 
Brevet  Captain  and  Afsietant  Surgeon  U.  8.  Army. 

FoaT  McDowell,  Arizona, 

SepUmher  13,  1866. 


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REPORT  OF  EXPLORATIONS  IN  CENTRAL  AMERICA. 


By  Da.  C.  H.  Berendt. 


New  York,  December  24,  1867.  ^ 
Although  my  labors  in  exploring  the  northern  part  of  Guatemala  and  sonth- 
eastern  Mexico  are  not  finished,  and  though  I  intend  to  return  to  the  work  after 
a  short  visit  to  the  United  States,  I  deem  it  my  duty  to  lay  before  you  a  report 
of  the  results  which  have  thus  far  been  obtained  under  the  auspices  of  the 
Smithsonian  Institution. 

Having  occupied  myself  in  former  travels  and  during  several  years  of  resi- 
dence in  Tabasco  with  researches  relative  to  the  geographical  and  ethnological 
features  of  this  almost  unknown  part  of  America,  I  resolved  to  complete  my 
observations  by  a  visit  to  the  belt  extending  from  the  Caribbean  sea  through 
Belize,  Peton,  and  Chiapas  to  the  F  xsifio  ocean.  This  region,  scarcely  e\'er 
visited  by  modem  travellers,  presents  objects  of  high  interest  in  ail  branches  of 
ethnology  and  natural  history  as  an  important  centre  of  ancient  civilization  and 
a  region  abounding  in  the  productions  of  both  the  vegetable  and  animal  king- 
doms. The  Institution  furnished  the  instruments  for  meteorological  observations 
and  part  of  the  outfit  required  for  collecting  specimens  of  natural  history.  It 
also  procured  letters  of  recommendation  from  the  diplomatic  agents  of  England, 
Guatemala  and  Honduras  to  the  governments  and  local  authorities  of  the  dif- 
ferent districts  to  be  visited,  and  secured  the  co-operation  of  several  learned 
societies  and  private  gentlemen  interested  in  pursuits  of  this  character,  in  con- 
tributing to  the  expenses  of  the  expedition,  with  a  view  to  obtain  a  share  of  th^ 
specimens  collected. 

I  left  the  United  States  in  the  bark  Pallas  the  2d  day  of  December,  1865, 
land  arrived  in  Belize  the  21st  of  the  same  month.  My  letters  of  introduction 
procured  me  a  very  fiiendly  reception  from  the  governor  of  the  colony.  He 
introduced  me  to  all  the  prominent  ofiicials  and  leading  merchants,  from  whom  I 
could  obtain  the  necessary  information  as  to  topoOT^pfiy  and  resources  of  the 
country,  and  in  particular  of  that  almost  uninhabited  region  through  which  I 
had  to  pass  on  my  way  to  Peten.  The  cix>wn  engineer,  Mr.  Faber,  and  two 
civil  engineers  kindly  communicated  to  me  what  they  knew  relative  to  the  regions 
which  had  been  surveyed  or  visited  by  them,  and  I  was  permitted  to  copy  a 
number  of  ancient  and  modem  manuscript  maps  of  the  colony.  With  the  chief 
magistrate  of  the  police  court.  Judge  S.  Cockbum,  a  member  and  meteorologi- 
cal correspondent  of  the  Royal  Astronomical  Society  of  London,  I  arranged 
cotemporaneous  observations  for  the  purpose  of  computing  with  more  accuracy 
the  absolute  height  of  the  principal  points  included  in  my  tour.  I  found  in 
the  possession  of  Mr.  Parson,  an  American  merchant,  a  valuable  collection  of 
specimens  of  natural  history,  and  was  so  fortunate  as  to  secure  it  for  the  Smith- 
sonian previous  to  the  des^  of  Mr.  Parson,  which  took  place  a  few  months 
afterwards.  I  also  made  a  very  agreeable  and  useful  acquuntance  in  the  per- 
son of  the  Rev.  Alexander  Henderson,  a  distinguished  linguist,*  whom  I  found 

*  The  Rev.  A.  Henderson,  Baptist  missionarv  in  Belize  since  the  year  1834,  has  written  a 
grammar  of  the  Moskito  language,  printed  in  New  York  in  1846 ;  a  Gospel  by  Lake  and  a 
vocabulary,  M8S. ;  the  Qosi^  according  to  Matthew,  in  the  Caribbean  language  of  Hon- 
daras,  printed  Edinburgh,  1847;  a  mmmar  and  enlarged  vocabalarv  of  the  same,  MSS., 
since  lb55  in  the  hands  of  the  EthncHogical  Society,  London ;  a  translation  into  English  of 
Beltran*8  Art^  de  el  Idioma  Maya ;  a  translation  into  Maya  of  the  book  of  Genesis  and  the 
book  of  Psalms,  MSS.;  a  Maya  primer,  printed  in  Birmingham,  1863,  and  two  tracts  in  the 
same  langoage,  published  by  the  American  Tract  Society. 


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REPORT   OP  EXPLORATIONS  IN   CENTRAL  AMERICA,        421 

occapied  with  a  dictionary  of  the  Maya  language,  giving  the  dialect  actually 
spoken  in  the  district  of  Bacalar,  Yucatan,  and  m  some  recent  settlements  of 
Yocatan  Indians  in  the  territory  of  the  colony.  Having  been  engaged  myself 
for  a  number  of  years  in  the  work  of  reproducing  from  old  and  rare  manuscripts 
the  Maya  language  as  spoken  and  written  in  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  cen- 
turies, I  derived  both  information  and  pleasure  from  the  intercourse  with  this 
learned  missionary.  The  collections  of  specimens  of  natural  history  made  in 
and  near  Belize  consisted  almost  exclusively  of  birds,  shot  and  prepared  by  my 
asastant,  and  have  been  forwarded  to  the  Smithsonian  Institution.  Unfortu- 
nately circumstances  beyond  my  control  obliged  me  to  part  in  Belize  with  this 
assistant,  very  much  to  my  regret,  as  his  dexterity  and  expediency  in  skinning 
and  preserving  specimens  would  have  added  a  far  greater  value  to  the  collections 
subsequently  made.  Another  unlucky  accident  was  the  loss  of  a  trunk  con- 
taining a  number  of  instruments  belonging  to  the  Institution  and  myself,  and 
several  articles  of  travelling  apparel,  stolen  from  the  loaded  boat  in  the  night 
before  my  intended  departure  from  Belize,  during  a  temporary  absence  of  the 
watchman.  Part  of  the  most  necessary  implements  was  within  a  few  months 
kindly  replaced  by  the  Institution. 

After  having  lost  a  few  days  in  fruitless  endeavors  to  recover  the  stolen  prop- 
erty, of  which  no  traces  have  as  yet  been  found,  I  left  Belize  the  12th  of  January, 
1866,  pursuing  the  course  of  the  Belize  river  upwards  as  far  as  it  is  navigable 
for  larger  canoes,  and  reached,  after  eleven  travelling  and  two  resting  days,  San 
Pedro  Buenavista,  the  farm  of  a  mestizo  from  Yucatan,  on  the  western  bmnch 
of  the  Belize  river,  a  few  miles  above  its  confluence  with  the  southern  branch, 
or  Rio  Macal.  The  Belize  river  has  its  head-waters  in  the  wide  plains  limited 
to  the  north  by  the  Chaltuna,  or  Peten  lake,  and  to  the  south  by  the  Passion 
river,  (Rio  do  la  Pasion.)  The  country  through  which  it  winds  to  the  coast  is 
alluvial,  with  sandy  tracts  between  the  tributary  rivers  and  the  main  channel 
called  pine  ridges.  Specimens  were  collected  from  three  species  of  pines  and  of 
two  oaks,  which  are  almost  the  solitary  vegetable  production  of  these  sandy  plains ; 
and  also,  among  a  few  other  birds,  a  woodpecker  which,  like  the  Melanerpes  Formu 
cwoms,  in  California,  preserves  acorns  in  neat  round  excavations  pecked  into 
the  soft  barks  of  the  pines.  This  is  for  the  purpose  of  feeding  on  the  worms 
which  soon  appear  within  the  nuts,  leaving  the  trunks  of  the  pine  trees  perforated 
with  many  holes  resembling  those  produced  by  musket  balls.  Rocky  ridges 
of  a  calcareous  stone  intersect  now  and  then  the  course  of  the  river,  causing  a 
number  of  rapids,  of  which,  in  time  of  high  water,  the  passage  is  rather  dangerous. 
Little  could  be  done  during  the  boat  voyage  beddes  a  careful  rectification  of 
the  river's  course  in  the  maps,  and  the  entering  in  their  proper  places  of  names 
of  existing  settlements  along  the  river  banks.  While  on  the  Rio  Hondo  and 
Bio  Nuevo,  as  well  as  on  the  coast  of  the  British  colony,  a  number  of  well-con- 
ducted agricultural  settlements  exist,  there  are  on  the  Belize  river  only  wood- 
catting  establishments  belonging  to  merchants  in  Belize.  These  are  either 
being  actuallv  worked  under  the  direction  of  a  foreman,  (usually  a  mulatto,)  or 
abandoned,  the  buildings  being  occupied  by  negroes,  who  make  a  scanty  living 
cutting  logwood  on  their  ow*n  account,  which  they  sell  in  Belize,  bringing  back 
brandy  and  dry  provisions,  their  only  food,  as  they  are  too  indolent  to  plant 
anything  in  the  fertile  grounds  around  their  decaying  huts.  Only  where  Yucatan 
Indians  have  settled  among  them,  a  cornfield,  a  banana  plantation,  or  fruit-trees 
are  to  bo  found.  Whenever  it  was  possible  to  make  short  excursions  without 
too  much  delaying  my  voyage,  I  examined  the  country  along  the  river.  Some 
specimens  of  petrifactions  firom  the  calcareous  ridges,  when  broken  by  the  cur- 
rent of  rivulets,  were  procured ;  also  a  number  of  land  and  fresh  water  shells, 
and  some  birds.  When  no  convenient  settlement  of  Belize  merchants  or  Indian 
houses  could  be  reached,  we  were  wont  to  camp  in  the  forest,  using  the  leaves 
of  the  corossa  or  cahoon  palm  for  shelter  and  protection. 


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422    REPORT  OF  EXPLORATIONS  IN  CENTRAL  AMERICA 

In  San  Pedro  Bnenavista  I  foond  waiting  for  me  moles  and  muleteers,  which 
the  corregidor  of  Peten  had  sent  on  at  my  request.  For  the  transportation  of 
smaller  articles  I  had  counted  upon  Indian  carriers  from  the  villages  near  this 
place,  who  generally  serve  in  that  capacity  in  the  trade  between  Belize  and 
JPeten.  But  the  recently  received  news  of  a  revolution  which  had  broken  out 
in  Peten  made  those  Indians  unwilling  to  go  to  that  place,  and  I  was  obliged 
to  stop  in  San  Pedro  until  messengeiis,  sent  through  the  wilderness,  could  pro- 
cure from  the  corregidor  of  Peten  the  necessary  number  of  carriers.  More  than 
a  month  passed  bei^re  they  arrived,  a  month  lost  for  explorations,  as  the  neces- 
sary vigilance  over  my  baggage  in  an  unclosed  hut,  among  thieving  negroes, 
forbade  my  being  absent  from  the  place.  Some  few  reptiles,  fishes,  coleoptera, 
and  molluscs  were,  however,  collected.  The  villages  in  the  neighborhood  of 
this  farm  are  of  late  origin,  peopled  by  Indians  from  Yucatan,  almost  every  one 
of  them  formerly  engaged  in  the  war  of  races  which  for  the  last  twenty  years 
has  desolated  that  unhappy  country.  From  my  host,  who  kept  some  merchan- 
dise for  trading  with  them,  and  who  employed  some  of  their  men  as  laborars  on 
his  farm,  I  had  opportunity  to  become  acquainted  with  many  of  them,  and 
obtained  interesting  information  as  to  their  social  and  political  condition.  They 
are  by  no  means  hostile  to  the  white  man  in  general ;  their  hatix»d  is  directed 
against  the  Mexican  and  Spaniard  only,  while  they  are  friendly  to  other  foreign- 
ers, and  are  remarkably  frank  and  outspoken  with  such  strangers  as  speak  their 
language  and  know  how  to  gain  their  confidence.  The  insurrection  of  the  Yuca- 
tan Indians  broke  out  in  1847,  and  spread  in  the  following  year  almost  over  the 
whole  peninsula,  approaching  as  near  as  sixteen  miles  to  Merida  and  three  to 
Campeche.  A  Catholic  priest,  sent  as  commissioner  by  the  Mcriden  guvemment 
among  the  insurgents,  caused  a  division  among  them  which  still  continues. 
Those  of  the  south  and  east,  known  by  the  whites  of  Yucatan  as  the  Huithes,* 
but  who  call  themselves  Cruzoob,t  or  Cnizes,  have  continued  an  uninteiTupted 
war  against  the  Meridcn  government,  while  those  of  the  west  have  remained  in 
peace  with  the  whites,  and  even  acknowledged  a  certain  dependency  on  the  gov- 
ernment of  Campeche.  They  are  called  Pacific  Indians.  In  the  year  1857  the 
Crazes  invaded  the  Pacific  Indians  of  the  district  of  Chichanja.  Since  that  time 
the  Pacific  Indians  of  that  T.istnct  have  settled  in  the  formerly  uninhabite<l  nton- 
tana  (forest-plains)  around  the  frontier  between  Yucatan,  Peten,  and  Belize,  and 
their  number  has  been  increased  by  numerous  deserters  from  the  ranks  of  the 
Crazes.  They  all,  threatened  by  their  common  enemy,  the  Crazes,  retain  cer- 
tain connections  with  each  other,  although  those  on  Belize  or  Peten  territory 
have  iormed  villages  under  the  authority  of  the  English  and  Guatemalean  gov- 
eraments,  while  those  in  Yucatan  and  in  the  i*egion  of  doubtful  pertinency  X 
remain  subject  to  the  chiefs  of  the  Pacific  Indians.  To  those  who  only  know 
about  the  insurgent  and  independent  Maya  Indians  fr-om  the  i-eports  of  their  bar- 
barouii  warfare  against  the  whites  of  Yucatan,  it  is  highly  surprising  to  see  these 
ferocious  warriors  organizing  themselves  without  any  external  influence  as  quiet 
settlem,  laborious  and  orderly,  submitting  to  their  self-elected  local  authorities^ 

*  Hu'lh  18  the  breech-clotb. 

t  Tht  Spanish  word  eruz  (cross)  with  the  Maya  plural  termination  oob.  They  worship 
the  croif,  in  whoso  name  the  Tat-ich  (their  head  chief)  and  twelve  governors  (military  chiera, 
pi  iesia,  and  counsellors)  govern. 

t  Thri  limits  between  these  three  countries  are  most  uncertain.  A  decree  of  the  Spanish 
goyv^nment  fixed  in^l7d7  the  boundary  line  between  the  intendencios  of  Yucatan  and  Gua- 
tem&^ib  on  the  parallel  17^  49'  north  latitude,  but  it  has  never  been  ascertained  where  this 
parallel  runs.  A  treaty  between  England  and  Guatemala  has  adjusted  a  boundary  line 
between  the  colony  and  the  republic,  running  from  Graclas  a  Dies  on  the  Sarstoon  river 
to  Garbutt  falls  on  the  Belize  river,  and  hence  northwards.  The  map  of  the  colony  (pnb- 
lish^'d  $,  L  et  a.  but  Loudon,  1864)  runs  it  to  the  18th  decree,  into  the  undoubted  territory 
of  Yucatan.  The  actual  jurisdiction  of  Peten  comprisis  all  the  villafrcs  on  and  near  the  road 
from  PeUn  to  Yucatan,  up  to  Becanchop,  ten  miles  north  from  Nqjbecan,  near  the  ^Oih 
degree,  while  the  country  to  both  sides  is  subject  to  Mexico,  and  the  census  of  thd  State  of 
CampecLitf(18(>l)  includes  all  these  villages  into  its  territory 


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EEPORT   OP   EXPLORATIONS  IN   CENTRAL  AMERICA.        423 

lionest  in  their  dealings,  rigorous  against  criminals  among  them,  and  by  far  the 
best  class  of  people  in  either  the  British  colony  or  Peten.  They  are  Catholics, 
and  ore  prond  to  show  their  abomination  of  the  heathen  worship  of  the  Cnizes. 
I  have  been  shown  a  long  memorial,  written  in  the  Maya  language,  containing 
numeroQs  letters,  orders,  proclamations,  etc.  It  states  then:  motives  why  they 
separated  from  the  Cmzes,  the  principal  and  repeatedly  asserted  reason  being — 
"  We  are  a  Christian  people.-'  As  to  the  number  of  these  Indians,  the  most 
discordant  opinions  exist.  According  to  such  Belize  and  frontier  traders  as  are 
the  best  judges,  the  Cruzes  do  not  number  less  than  10,000  and  probably  not 
more  than  15,000  warriors,  and  of  these  half  their  number  only  are  married. 
Estimating  a  family  to  consist  of  five  souls  only  on  an  average,  would  give  for 
theu:  whole  number  about  forty  thousand;  and  the  number  of  the  Pacific  Indians 
is  considered  but  little  less.  Both  together  occupy  about  one  thousand  square 
miles. 

The  main  road  from  the  last  settlements  on  the  Belize  river  to  Peten  leads 
through  immense  forests,  with  very  few  and  inconsiderable  elevations  of  the 
ground.  The  Sierra  de  Yucatan,  which  in  our  maps  diversifies  this  region,  does 
not  exist.  The  general  direction  of  the  road  is  fi*om  east  to  west.  At  distances 
from  10  tol5  miles,  in  places  where  water,  food  for  mules,  imd  palms  for  camp 
building  are  near  at  hand,  the  usual  resting  places  of  travellers  are  situated.  Wo 
left  the  main  road  at  one  of  these  places  called  San  Clemente  for  another  shorter 
road  recently  opened  by  the  Corregidor  of  Peten  for  my  convenience.  It  led  to 
the  \'illage  of  Macanch^,  on  the  lake  of  the  same  name,  and  thence  to  Roraate, 
a  deserted  hamlet  on  the  eastern  end  of  the  northern  portion  of  the  Chaltund,  or 
Peten  lake.  This  lake,  it  is  well  known,  has  almost  the  shape  of  a  horseshoe. 
Hero  we  found  canoes  from  Peten  awaiting  our  arrival,  and  were  paddled  by 
our  carriers  in  twelve  hours  along  the  northern  curve  of  the  lake  and  round  the 
point  of  Nimd  to  the  city  of  Fiores.  This  is  situated  on  the  rocky  island  of 
Remedios,  in  the  entrance  of  the  southern  portion  of  the  lake,  and  not  more  than 
a  mile  distant  from  the  southern  shore.  The  valley  or  depression  occupied  by 
this  lake  and  two  smaller  ones  is  surrounded  on  all  sides  but  the  southeastern 
by  chains  of  calcareous  hills  from  200  to  500  feet  high,  covered  with  stately  for- 
ests. A  peninsula  which,  ranning  from  east  to  west,  divides  the  northern  section 
of  the  lake  from  the  southern,  is  studded  with  low  hills,  many  of  them  being 
artificial  mounds  upon  which  are  scattered  the  dilapidated  remnants  of  ancient 
buildings. 

The  department  of  Peten,  the  largest  of  the  seventeen  into  which  the  republic 
of  Guatemala  is  divided,  covers  the  immense  area  of  from  4,000  to  5,000  square 
miles,  with  about  8,000  inhabitants.  They  live  chiefly  in  the  villages  in  the 
savanna  region  to  the  south  and  northwestern  shore  of  the  lake.  The  country  in 
its  general  character  is  flat,  covered  with  immense  forests,  and  watered  by  the 
numerous  rivulets  which  constitute  the  head  waters  of  the  Belize  river,  the  Rio  de 
la  Pasion,  and  the  Rio  de  San  Pedro.  The  Rio  de  la  Pasion  divides,  in  its  west- 
em  course,  the  departments  of  Peten  and  Verapaz,  receives  the  Lacontun  river  from 
the  mountainous  department  of  Totonicapam,  and,  breaking  through  the  chain  of 
mountains  on  the  frontier  of  Tabasco,  emerges  into  that  Mexican  state  caUed  there 
Usnmacinta.  Near  the  Passion  river  the  land  is  low,  full  of  swamps  and  lakes, 
and  subject  to  annual  inundations.  The  climate  is  warm  but  mild,  with  remark- 
ably small  daily  or  annual  changes  of  the  thermometer,  which  ordinarily  ranges 
between  70"*  and  80®;  the  lowest  and  highest  observations  during  more  than  a 
year  were  62®  and  89®.  The  rainy  and  dry  seasons  are  the  same  as  in  Yucatan 
and  Tabasco,  and  the  season  of  north  winds  is  here,  as  also  in  the  interior  of 
these  states,  marked  by  mist  and  drizzly  rains.  The  country  is  one  of  the 
healthiest  in  the  tropics,  and  the  average  duration  of  life  longer  than  in  most*othcr 
countries  of  the  same  latitude.  The  prevailing  diseases  are  intermittent  and 
remittent  fevers  throughout  the  year,  and  dysenteria  in  summer,  but  of  a  mild 


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424         REPORT   OF  EXPLORATIONS  IN  CENTBIL  AMERICA. 

cbaracter.  The  yellow-fever  has  never  apppeared,  though  the  cholera  has  made 
great  havoc  among  the  Petcneros. 

The  inhabited  part  of  Poten  is  separated  by  wide  deserts  from  all  the  sur- 
rounding countries.  The  traveller  is  obliged  to  journey,  in  going  to  Yucatan, 
nine  days,  to  Verapaz  and  Guatemala  eight  days,  (in  bad  weather  eleven,)  and 
to  Tobasco  and  Belize  six  days,  through  an  uninhabited  country.  The  Spanish 
settlement  in  this  region,  after  the  conquest  of  the  Itzas  in  1697,  was  for  half  a 
century  only  a  military  outpost  with  a  small  garrison  from  Guatemala.  After- 
wards it  was  used  by  the  government  of  that  dependency  as  a  criminal  colony, 
(presidio.)  The  offspring  of  the  prisoners,  of  their  keepers,  and  of  the  natives, 
with  some  admixture  of  negro  fugitives  from  the  coast,  together  with  the  rests  of 
the  Lacandon  tribe  on  the  Passion  river  and  the  immigrated  Maya  Indians  of  the 
inontaiia,  form  the  actual  population  of  the  department.  In  their  isolated  situa- 
tion and  at  a  distance  of  about  270  miles  from  the  city  of  Guatemala,  they  neces- 
sarily have  remained  in  a  rather  primitive  state.  The  ladinoSj  or  so-called  whites, 
(though  with  a  good  deal  of  mixed  blood,)  form  a  kind  of  patriarchal  aristoc- 
racy. The  Cndians  and  negroes  are  the  field-hands  and  house-servante  of  the 
whites,  und«r  the  system  of  peonage,  as  in  some  parts  of  3Iexico  and  Central 
America,  obliged  to  sei-vo  the  master  to  whom  they  are  indebted  until  their 
debt  is  pp'd.  Others  live  free  in  the  villages,  subject  to  the  local  authorities 
appointed  by  the  government.  The  corregidor  is  at  the  same  time  civil  gover- 
nor, mil»Kry  chief,  judge,  revenue  collector,  and  postmaster.  Ecclesiastically 
subject  ♦<>  the  bishop  of  Guatemala,  a  vicar  and  two  curates  are  assigned  for  the 
spiritual  administiation  of  the  whole  department.  The  raising  of  cattle  and 
horseo  is  almost  exclusively  the  business  of  the  country;  oxen,  hoi*se8,  hides, 
moccasins  for  the  negroes  of  the  British  colony,  a  little  coffee,  wild  cocoa,  India- 
rub^^'^r,  and  kahl  (the  palm  leaves  of  which  the  so-called  Panama  hats  are  made) 
are  their  only  articles  of  exportation.  The  returns  consist  in  cheap  merchandise, 
drv  goods,  hardwaio,  etc.,  imported  from  Belize.  Such  is  the  state  of  agriculture 
that  in  the  richest  soil  there  is  scaix>ely  produced  the  necessary  quantity  of  Indian 
com  beans,  sugar-cane,  tobacco  and  Sisal  hemp  for  their  own  consumption. 
All  the  land  belongs  to  the  government,  but  is  free  for  the  use  of  every  one. 
Schools  exist  nominally  in  the  city  and  larger  villages,  but  they  are  for  the 
greater  pait  of  the  year  closed  on  account  of  uie  want  of  funds.  There  in  little 
division  of  labor  -j  every  one  builds  his  own  house,  raises  his  own  com,  and,  if 
he  has  the  means,  some  cattle,  hogs,  and  chickens.  Every  one  is  by  turns 
butcher  or  baker,  and  sells  meat  or  bread,  (the  latter  only  in  the  city,)  ancl  makes 
his  own  soap  and  candles.  Almost  all  make  moccasins,  and  a  few  industrious 
persons  occupy  themselves,  besides  raising  their  com,  as  carpenters,  tailors,  and 
silvei-smiths.  No  store,  no  physician,  no  apothecary  is  to  be  found  in  the  coun- 
try. The  people,  poorly  educated,  unrestrained,  and  with  but  few  necessities, 
lead  a  lazy  and  sensual  Hfe,  much  given  to  gambling  and  intoxication,  and  join- 
ing now  and  then  in  a  petty  conspiracy,  or  even  in  an  open  revolt.  On  the 
other  hand  they  are  good-natured,  kind  and  hospitable ;  crimes  against  persons 
or  property  are  of  rare  occurrence.  In  their  social  intercourse  they  exhibit  the 
mild  and  polite  manners  characteristic  of  the  Spanish- American,  and  in  their 
external  behavior  they  are  far  above  the  same  cla^s  in  more  civilized  countries 
of  America  and  Europe. 

The  city  of  Flores  during  the  last  15  years  has  been  reduced  to  half  its  for- 
mer size  by  a  continuous  rising  of  the  lake  in  the  midst  of  which  it  is  situated. 
This  is  occasioned,  it  is  supposed,  by  the  stoppage  of  a  subterranean  outlet.  It 
has  now  about  900  inhabitants,  who  live,  crowded  together,  in  miserable  huts 
built  of  sticks  covered  with  mud  and  roofed  with  palm  leaves.  The  connection 
with  their  fields  and  stock,  which  are  on  the  main  land,  is  effected  by  frail  canoes, 
and  is  often  altogether  intemiptcd  when  a  northern  wind  strongly  agitates  the 
waters  of  the  lake.  I  found  here,  as  everywhere  in  the  country,  the  most  friendly 
reception,  thanks  to  the  special  orders  of  the  ffovemment  in  my  behxdf  and  to  the 


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BEPOET   OP  EXPLORATIONS  IN  CENTRAL  AMERICA.         425 

natural  kindness  and  hospitality  of  the  people.  During  a  month  which  I  remained 
on  the  island,  I  made  some  excursions  on  the  lake  and  to  the  mainland,  collect- 
ing specimens  and  examining  some  points  of  special  interest  to  archsBology. 
The  difficulty  of  movements  from  this  place,  however,  decided  mo  to  choose  another 
centre  for  my  further  explorations,  and  I  changed  to  the  village  Saclnk,  about 
20  miles  to  the  southwest  of  Flores,  situated  m  the  savanna  region,  half  wav 
between  the  lake  and  the  Passion  river.  The  prairie  lands,  bordered  at  the  north 
by  the  forest  hills  sunounding  the  Ghaltuna  lake,  and  to  the  south  and  west  by 
the  woods  along  the  Passion  river  and  its  tributaries,  are  of  a  peculiar  formation. 
An  alluvium  of  red  clay,*  covered  with  a  stratum  of  humus  form  three  to  eight 
inches  thick,  on  which  gramineae  of  great  variety  and  only  a  few  species  of  small 
trees  grow,  is  intersected  by  numerous  groups  and  chains  of  low  conical  hills 
from  30  to  120  feet  high,  formed  by  large  calcareous  rocks  (some  with  caves)  and 
boulders.  In  the  northern  part  these  hills  are  covered  with  wood  and  forest  trees ; 
in  the  southern  part  they  are,  like  the  plain,  covered  only  with  grass  and  small 
prairie  herbs.  The  country,  divided  into  numberless  smaller  and  larger  valleys, 
many  of  them  adorned  with  lakes,  around  which  the  cattle  feed,  forms  a  beauti- 
fully varied  and  picturesque  landscape.  From  this  point  I  made  numerous  excur- 
sions in  all  directions ;  I  surveyed  part  of  the  Rio  ae  la  Pasion  and  a  number  of 
its  tributary  rivers  and  lagoons,  all  of  them  located  erroneously  and  with  false 
names  in  the  existing  maps,  thus  collecting  the  material  for  the  completion  of  a 
map  of  southeastern  Mexico,  which  has  occupied  myieisnre  hours  during  a  num- 
ber of  years.  Among  the  Peten  Indians  and  the  Lacandones  of  the  Passion 
river,  who  both  speak  dialects  of  the  Maya  language,  I  found  favorable  oppor- 
tunity to  continue  my  ethnological  and  linguistical  studies,  and  was  enabled  also, 
by  occasional  meetings  with  Indians  from  Cahabon  and  Caban,  to  add  the  Queccbi 
to  my  collection  ot  vocabularies  of  languages  belonging  to  the  region  between 
the  isthmus  of  Tehuantepec  and  the  other  of  Honduras. 

Of  all  the  Indians  of  tnis  part  of  Central  America  none  are  of  so  great  interest 
as  the  Lacandones.  Once  a  numerous  and  powerful  nation,  which,  united  with 
the  Manchds  and  Acalanes,  (both  now  extinct,)  gave  so  much  trouble  to  the  con- 
querors, and,  in  fact,  have  never  been  fully  subjugated,  they  are  reduced  to-day 
to  a  very  insignificant  number,  living  on  and  near  the  Passion  river  and  its  tribu- 
taries. Some  old  authois  distinguish  the  eastern  from  the  western  Lacandones, 
and  it  seems  that  they  were,  in  fact,  as  well  as  those  of  the  west,  of  different 
tribes,  living  on  the  borders  of  the  Mexican  state  of  Chiapas,  speaking  a  differ- 
ent kmguage,  called  PtUum  or  CJicly  which  belongs  to  the  family  of  languages 
connected  with  the  Maya.  To  these  western  Lacandones  are  referred  the  stories 
of  a  large  inaccessible  city  mentioned  by  Stephens.  They  live  Hr  from  the  set- 
tlements of  the  whites  and  do  not  trade  with  them,  nor  do  they  entertain  any 
relations  with  the  eastern  Lacandones,  who  fear  and  avoid  them.  The  eastern 
Lacandones  are  a  harmless  tribe,  who  live  in  small  palm  huts,  consisting  of  lit- 
tle more  than  a  roof,  and  grouped  into  little  hamlets  of  a  few  families,  often 
changing  their  locality.  They  cultivate  the  field,  plant  fruit-trees,  sugar-cane, 
and  Si^  hemp ;  search  the  woods  for  wild  cocoa,  beeswax,  honey,  and  other 
products  of  the  forest ;  hunt  with  bows  and  stone-headed  arrows,  and  navigate, 
by  means  of  their  small  canoes,  the  lagoons  and  rivers  from  which  they  obtain 
plenty  of  fish  and  turtles.  Although  occasionally  baptized  by  Catholic  mission- 
aries and  fond  of  saying  their  prayers,  they  still  adhere  to  their  old  heathen  wor- 
ship, and  indulge  in  polygamy,  keeping  as  many  wives  as  they  are  able  to  pur- 
chase or  to  ste^.  They  visit  the  vilk^es  of  the  whites  and  settled  Indians  to 
sell  their  produce.  Having  adopted  a  little  orphan  boy  of  this  tribe,  and  speak- 
ing their  language,  I  soon  won  their  friendship.  They  have,  in  my  excursions 
on  the  water  and  in  the  woods,  been  of  the  greatest  utility  to  me,  as  also  to  the 

*  On  occasion  of  the  excavatioD  of  a  well  in  Sacluk  I  saw  the  claj  reacbiDg  a  depth  of 
60  feet*  iotersected  at  about  30  feet  from  the  surface  by  a  small  layer  of  pebbles. 


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426    BEPOBT  OF  EXPLORATIONS  IN  CENTRAL  AMERICA 

corregidor,  who,  with  their  assistance,  has  found  a  new  route  through  the  unknown 
wilderness  to  Verapaz  and  GuatemaU,  which  was  long  in  vain  searched  for,  and 
which  reduces  the  distance  to  less  than  one-half  of  that  usually  travelled. 

In  the  month  of  October,  1866, 1  was  planning  my  departure  from  Peten  fur- 
ther west,  and  had  ordered  the  required  remittances  from  Belize,  my  base  of  sup- 
plies, when  troubles  among  the  Indians  in  the  British  colony  arose  and  changed 
all  my  plans.  One  of  the  many  blunders  of  the  unhappy  Emperor  Maximilian, 
who,  with  the  best  intentions,  knew  too  little  of  the  country  which  he  thought  so 
easy  to  reform,  and  who  was  especially  unlucky  in  the  choice  of  his  employds, 
was  a  proclamation  to  the  Cruzes,  invitmg  them  to  a  fidl  amnesty,  but  threatening 
to  destroy  the  very  last  of  them  if  they  would  not  submit  to  his  fatherly  entreaty. 
The  Cruzes  wei^o  at  that  time  in  greater  part  tired  of  the  war,  and,  undisturbed 
by  the  whites,  had  eommenced  to  remain  quietly  in  their  districts.  The  menace 
stirred  them  up  again,  and  they  armed  themselves  for  resistance  with  the  war 
implements  and  supplies  which  they  could  readily  obtain  from  the  English  tra- 
ders. Maximilian- s  troops  finally  did  not  succeed  in  their  operations  against  them, 
but  had  to  retreat  after  a  fruitless  campaign,  much  reduced  in  numbers,  though 
consoling  themselves  with  boastful  reports  of  sham  victories.  The  Pacific  Indians, 
seeing  the  Cruzes  again  on  the  war-path,  and  fearing  a  long-threatened  attack 
of  their  old  enemies,  aimed  also.  One  of  their  military  chiefs  got  into  difficul- 
ties with  the  Belize  wood-cutters,  on  account  of  abuses  committed  by  the  English 
against  the  Pacific  Indians  in  the  colony,  and  also  within  the  territory  of  the  inde- 
pendent Indians.  An  insurrection  of  the  Belize  Indians  followed,  in  consequence 
of  which  all  wood-cutting  establishments  in  the  colony  were  abandoned,  and  all 
communication  between  Belize  and  Peten  cut  off.  The  English,  after  two  result- 
less  campaigns,  succeeded  in  setting  the  Cruzes  against  their  enemies,  and  a  gen- 
eral stampede  of  the  Indians  of  the  montafia  was  tlie  consequence.  These  move- 
ments caused  a  fiightful  panic  among  the  people  of  Peten,  who  arc  not  much 
given  to  fighting  and  always  afi-aid  of  one  or  the  other  invasion  of  their  country, 
which  they  imagine  to  be  superior  to  any,  and  coveted  by  all  other  nations.  Fugi- 
tives from  the  colony  and  immigrants  from  the  mont^a  kept  us  posted  on  all 
occurring  events.  1  learned  that  part  of  my  supplies,  despatched  from  Belize 
before  the  outbreak,  had  been  stored  in  some  hut  on  the  Belize  river  and  had  disap- 
l>eared.  Month  after  month  I  waited  in  vain  for  an  opportunity  to  communicate 
with  Belize,  and  ail  effoits  to  establish  a  correspondence  with  the  Gulf  coast  were 
fruitless.  I  resolved  to  go  myself  to  Tabasco  and  to  put  myself  again  in  com- 
munication with  the  United  States  and  Europe.  In  the  excited  state  of  the  coun- 
try, where  every  day  an  invasion  by  the  much-feared  Indians  was  expected,  I 
could  find  neither  earners,  mules,  nor  drivers  to  move  my  baggage  and  collections. 
I  considered  myself  happy  to  get  away  with  my  manusciipts  and  with  the  indis- 
pensable provisions  for  a  travel  through  the  wilderness,  and  left  Sacluk  in  April, 
1867,  for  Tenosiquo  and  San  Juan  Bautista,  the  capital  of  Tabasco.  From  this 
place  I  despatched  my  correspondence.  A  i-etum  to  Peten  during  the  rainy  sea- 
son being  out  of  question,  I  used  the  time  which  was  to  pass  before  answers  could 
arrive  for  a  revision  and  completion  of  my  former  surveys  of  the  Usumacinta, 
its  branches  and  tributaries,  and  followed  its  course  upwards  16^  miles  above 
Tenosique,  to  the  so-called  "Large  cataract,"  which,  however,  at  that  time,  with 
high  water,  appeared  only  as  a  rapid  with  about  three  feet  fall  within  a  distance  of 
some  20  yards.  Above  this  place  the  course  of  the  river  is  entirely  unknown  in 
a  distance  which  I  estimate  between  60  and  70  miles.  On  my  return  I  visited 
the  ruins  of  Palenque,  and  during  the  trip  was  enabled  to  complete  a  map  of  the 
department,  and  te  collect  vocabularies  of  the  Putum  and  Tzental  languages,  both 
spoken  in  Chiapas,  and  of  the  Chontal  of  Tabasco. 

I  was  thus  occupied  when  private  business  rendered  a  visit  to  the  United 
States  of  importance  to  my  personal  interests ;  but,  having  concluded  it,  I  am 
now  about  to  return  to  the  same  field  to  finish  my  interrupted  explorations,  and 
to  bring  home  the  collections  from  Peten. 

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NOTES  OF  AN  EGGING  EXPEDITION  TO  SHOAL  LAKE,  WEST  OF  LAKE 

WINNIPEG. 


Made  uitoer  the  directiok  of  the  SiUTHSOirrAN  Institution  in  1867, 
BY  Donald  Gunn,  Red  Riveb  settlement. 


On  the  6th  of  Jane,  1867, 1  had  all  things  ready  for  commencing  my  hunting 
excorsion  to  the  lake ;  but,  to  my  chagrin,  the  rain  fell  in  torrents  on  the  7th 
8th,  and  9th,  which  prevented  our  setting  out  till  the  morning  of  the  10th,  when 
the  rain  had  moderated ',  and  about  7  o'clock  a.  m.  I  left  home,  accompanied  by 
two  men,  two  oxen  in  two  carts,  carrying  a  birch-bark  canoe  and  our  baggage. 
We  plodded  on  through  "  mud  and  mire,"  travelling  very  slowly  a  distance  of 
15  miles  on  the  public  road  to  the  Frog  plain,  where  we  turned  off  to  the  plains, 
taking  the  road  leading  to  Shoal  lake,  in  a  northwest  direction.  Soon  after  we 
entered  6n  the  plain  we  halted  to  allow  our  animals  to  feed  and  to  refresh  our- 
selves. While  here  we  were  joined  by  an  Indian,  his  squaw,  and  their  son. 
These  people  had  been  to  the  settlement  with  their  spring  trade.  They  had  two 
carts,  and  were  taking  back,  in  exchange  for  their  fnrs,  flour,  clothing,  and  ammu- 
nition. This  Indian  resides  in  a  house  at  Oak  Point,  and  is  reputed  the  best 
hunter  in  that  district,  which  fact  accounts  satisfactorily  for  his  coniparativo 
wealth.  After  a  short  stay  we  resumed  our  journey,  which  was  continued  until 
dark,  making  a  distance  of  six  miles  from  the  settlement  Wo  camped  on  the 
plain,  and,  after  the  usual  preliminaries  of  cooking  and  supping,  laid  down  to  rest 
under  a  cloudless  sky,  and  slept  soundly  until  sunrise  of  a  clear  day. 

The  unbumt  portions  of  our  last  night's  fuel  were  quickly  gathered  together 
and  ignited,  water  drawn  from  the  nearest  pool,  boiled,  a  liberal  quantity  of  tea 
thrown  into  it,  boiled  again  for  a  few  minutes,  then  allowed  a  short  time  to  cool, 
when  we  all  sat  down  and  despatched  our  morning  meal  with  gi-eat  zest ;  attached 
our  cattle  to  the  carts,  and  were  on  our  journey  before  the  sun  was  a  span  high. 
The  road  led  us  over  a  beautiful,  dry,  level  plain,  a  distance  of  six  or  seven  miies, 
at  the  end  of  which  we  came  to  a  ridge  of  elevated  land  composed  of  limestone, 
gravel,  and  granite  boulders.  This  ridge  is  well  wooded  with  poplars,  and  is  a 
continuation  of  the  Grand  Coteau  at  Long  lake.  Back  of  the  Assiuiboine  its 
course  is  from  northeast  to  southwest.  It  appears  to  have  been  the  border  of, 
or  an  elevation  in,  some  ancient  lake  in  ages  long  gone  by.  Lake  Winnipeg 
might  have  flowed  round  it  or  washed  its  southeastern  face.  It  extends  eight  or 
10  miles  in  breadth.  The  declivity  on  the  northwest  side  is  gradual  but  per- 
ceptible, and  ends  at  what  is  called  the  Big  swamp,  where  we  aiTived  at  noon. 
Here  wo  overtook  our  companions  of  last  night,  and  a  heroic  dame  from  Oak 
Point,  who  left  her  home  a  few  days  before  for  Red  river,  and  was  now  on  her 
way  back  with  two  cart  loads  of  pine  boards  and  planks.  She  has  a  consider- 
able portion  of  white  blood,  yet  exhibits  all  the  hardihood  of  the  squaw,  and 
can,  with  wonderful  dexterity,  avail  herself  of  all  the  resources  of  the  forest  and 
the  lake.  Here  she  made  a  few  snares,  chased  the  rabbits  into  them,  and  in  a 
very  short  space  of  time  had  a  number  of  them  boiling  and  roasting,  and  after 
hunting,  cooking,  and  eating  her  dinner,  was  ready  to  start  as  soon  as  any  of  us. 

After  a  stay  of  two  hours  we  proceeded  on  the  road  leading  over  a  flat,  rich  soil, 
composed  of  black,  vegetable  mold  on  a  sub-soil  of  clay,  and  winding  through 
hundreds  of  young  poplars,  tall  and  slender^  but,  so  far  as  we  could  see,  uutit 


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428   NOTES  OF  AN  EGGING  EXPEDITION  TO  SHOAL  LAKE. 

for  building  purposes.  On  the  right  the  forest  extends  to  Lake  Winnipeg,  ncai 
which  pine  and  tamarack  abound,  which,  at  some  future  period,  will  be  used  for 
building  materials  in  this  region.  About  5  o'clock  wo  arrived  at  the  ridge; 
unyoking  our  cattle  we  gave  them  some  time  to  drink  and  feed.  In  a  verj 
short  time  two  or  three  fires  were  blazing  and  several  of  our  party  were  run- 
ning with  their  tin  kettles  to  bring  water,  which  was  soon  converted  into  tea ; 
after  which  wo  sat  down  in  groups  to  enjoy  this  evening  meal  without  the  luxury 
of  plates,  knives,  or  forks,  &c. ;  some,  for  the  former,  using  a  few  poplar  leaves ; 
others  a  bunch  of  green  grass ;  and  for  knives  and  forks  their  teeth  and  fingers. 
After  eating,  pipes  were  called  into  operation,  and  after  smoking,  stretching,  and 
rolling,  we,  by  mutual  consent,  haiiiessed  our  cattle  and  left  this  delightful  place. 
This  ridge  runs  parallel  with  the  other,  and  is  composed  of  similar  materials — 
abrupt  on  the  southeast  side,  but,  once  on  the  summit,  the  declivity  towards  Shoal 
lake  is  imperceptible.  A  short  time  before  sunset  we  sighted  and  were  soon 
after  travelling  along  this  irregular  sheet  of  water,  neither  fresh  nor  salt,  but 
containing  enough  of  the  latter  ingredient  to  render  its  water  very  bitter  and 
nnpalatable.  As  we  passed  along  the  lake,  I  observed  a  stone  pillar,  or  cainiy 
formed  of  small  granite  boulders  thrown  loosely  together,  and  on  inquiry  of  my 
companions  from  the  lake  "What  mean  ye  by  these  stones!^  I  was  informed 
here,  in  1843,  in  passing  from  Red  river  to  Manitowaba  to  establish  a  mission 
among  the  natives,  the  JElev.  Abraham  Cowley  and  party  passed  their  fii-st  Sab- 
bath in  the  wilderness,  and  that  these  stones  were  set  up  to  commemorate  the 
sermon  preached  on  the  occasion.  We  continued  our  journey  some  time  after 
sunset,  and  finally  encamped  for  the  night  where  wo  had  plenty  of  wood  and 
good  water.  On  the  morning  of  the  12th  wo  left  camp  about  sunrise,  continuing 
our  journey  along  the  lake,  intending  to  pass  round  to  the  north  of  that  part  of 
it  along  which  we  were  travelling,  then  turn  to  the  south  through  the  point  oppo- 
site where  we  were,  and  at  a  distance  of  five  or  six  miles  from  us,  to  a  rather 
deep  bay  in  that  point,  it  being  the  only  place  where  wo  found  the  grebes  in  any 
consideraVile  number  when  I  was  there  in  1865.  That  year  wb  encamped  on  a 
point  running  into  the  lake  from  the  south  and  at  some  distance  to  the  west  of 
the  narrows.  We  had  to  find  our  way  to  the  breeding  places,  which  consumed 
some  time,  and  proved  inconvenient  on  account  of  its  distance  from  where  cir- 
cumstances compelled  us  to  stop  with  our  carts  and  oxen.  Moreover,  on  account 
of  a  great  storm  of  south  wind  that  sprang  up  and  continued  for  48  hours,  we 
were  prevented  returning  to  cdmp  with  the  products  of  our  hunt  until  both  bii-ds 
and  eggs  were  beginning  to  spoil,  and  adding  considerably  to  the  distance  in 
going  to  Manitowaba  lake.  To  avoid  these  inconveniences  I  intended,  as  stated 
above,  to  follow  the  west  side  of  the  lake,  turn  round  the  north  end  of  that  bay,  or 
arm  of  it,  and  then  proceed  south  to  the  bay  where  we  formerly  made  our  hunt. 
On  inquiring  of  our  Indian  companion  as  to  the  kind  of  soil  to  be  travelled  over  in 
going  into  the  point,  he  represented  it  as  full  of  quagmires,  and  altogether  unfit 
to  beai*  oxen  and  carts.  This  tale,  which  in  a  few  days  after  we  found  to  be 
untixie,  and  only  showing  the  Indian  jealousy  of  intiiiders  on  their  hunting 
grounds,  made  us  stop  on  the  west  side,  whence  we  had  to  go  six  or  seven  miles 
to  hunt. 

In  tho  first  part  of  the  day  we  secnred  some  eggs  and  birds — among  others  a 
pelican.  I  remained  in  camp  to  clean  the  eggs  and  skin  the  biids.  The  pelican 
was  a  female :  she  contained  four  eggs  of  a  large  size,  with  some  smaller  ones. 
None  of  them  had  any  shell,  and  I  am  inclined  to  think  that  the  flock  of  which 
sho  formed  a  part  was  on  its  way  north  to  some  breeding  place,  probably  Lake 
Winnipeg.  They  have  for  some  years  forsaken  this  place,  being  continually  dis- 
turbed by  egg  hunters.  After  gumming  our  canoe,  my  men  (an  Indian  and  my 
youngest  son,  who  accompanied  me  in  1865)  set  off  for  Grebe  bay.  Late  in  tho 
evcnhig  the  wind  blew  strongly  from  the  southwest,  bringing  torrents  of  rain 
on  its  wings,  against  which  my  only  defence  was  an  ox-hide.     The  nun,  with 


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NOTES  OP  AN  EGama  EXPEDITION  TO  SHOAL  LAKE.   429 

some  short  intervals^  continued  durinff  the  following  day.  The  third  day  was 
dry  and  clear.  In  the  evening  our  hunters  returned,  bringing  ducks,  grebes, 
and  eggs  in  abundance.  On  their  arrival  at  the  hunting  ground  they  were  not 
a  little  surprised  to  find  others  there  before  them.  Ihese  people  were  from 
Manitowaba  lake,  having  transported  their  little  dug-out  canoes  on  carts  drawn 
by  oxen  over  the  very  ground  which  our  Indian  friend  had  represented  as  one 
continuous  quagmire.  However,  as  we  had  already  made  a  good  beginning,  we 
decided  on  remaining  where  we  were,  and  extended  our  excursions  thence.  As 
soon  as  we  had  skinned  our  birds  and  emptied  their  eggs  wo  took  to  the  lake  for 
more,  which  operation  we  repeated  from  day  to  day,  until  we  had  secured  a  con- 
siderable number  of  specimens. 

The  annual  resort  of  the  Podiceps  occidenidlis  to  Shoal  lake  is,  as  has  been 
observed,  **  remarkable."  From  the  most  reliable  information  that  I  could  obtain 
firom  the  Indians  at  this  place,  it  has  never  been  seen  on  the  Red  river,  nor  on  Lake 
Winnipeg ;  and  I  never  heard  of  its  having  been  seen  anywhere  in  what  is  com- 
monly known  as  Rupert's  Land,  except  at  Shoal  lake  and  Manitowaba ;  and  I 
may  add  that  it  is  also  remarkable  that  there  are  very  few  grebes  to  be  found  in 
any  other  of  the  bays  connected  with  the  lake,  although  all  those  bays  abound 
in  reeds  and  rushes.  Possibly  these  birds  prefer  the  bay  on  the  north  point,  on 
account  of  its  being  sheltered  from  the  wind ;  and  probably  a  greater  facility  for 
obtaining  food  in  that  locality  may  influence  them  in  the  choice  they  make.  I 
am  inclined  to  think  that  the  large  grebes  feed  on  aquatic  plants.  I  opened 
several  of  their  gizzards  and  found  nothing  in  them  but  grass.  The  western 
grebes,  when  seen  in  groups  on  the  smooth,  unruffled  waters  of  the  lake,  make 
a  splendid  appearance,  sometimes  raising  themselves  out  of  the  water  and  flap- 
ping their  wings,  their  white  breasts  glistening  in  the  sun  like  silver.  They  are 
not  timorous,  but  when  alarmed  they  sink  their  bodies  in  the  water,  and  if  the 
object  of  their  fear  still  presents  itself  they  plunge  head  foremost  and  dive,  and 
continue  a  long  time  under  the  water,  often  disappointing  the  expectations  of  their 
pursuers  by  reappearing  in  a  difierent  direction  from  that  anticipated.  They 
make  their  nests  among  the  reeds,  on  the  bent  bulrushes  of  the  last  season ;  the 
frame  or  outer  work  is  of  reeds  and  lined  with  grass  from  the  bottom  and  reed 
leaves.  The  nest  is  nearly  on  a  level  with  the  surrounding  water,  and  may  be 
said  to  float  at  its  "moorings,"  held  there  by  the  reeds.  We  found  hundreds  of 
these  nests,  containing  two,  three,  and  four  eggs  each ;  I  believe  six  to  be  the 
highest  number  we  found  m  any  one.  We  took  13  grebes,  of  which  the  males 
were  larger  than  the  females ;  the  largest  males  measured  before  skinning,  27 J 
by  36 J  inches,  and  14  inches  round  the  body  at  the  heads  of  the  ^vings.  The 
Iw-gest  female  measured  24j  by  32j  inches.  We  shot  not  a  few  of  them  in  the 
act  of  leaving  their  nests,  and  most  of  them  on  being  skinned  proved  to  bo 
males ;  which  fact  inclines  me  to  believe  that  the  male  bird  takes  his  tmn  in 
sitting  on  the  eggs. 

The  Podiceps  auratus  are  very  numerous  in  this  bay.  They  make  their  nests 
on  the  bulrushes,  composed  of  the  same  material.  We  found  as  many  as  six 
eggs  in  some  nests,  but  in  the  greater  number  of  nests  only  four.  They  are  very 
shy  and  expert  divers }  are  very  common  on  the  Red  river,  and  breed  in  the 
marshes  near  the  lake. 

I  may  here  observe  that  great  numbers  of  night-herons  breed  here.  They  fix 
their  nests  to  the  reeds  eight  or  nine  inches  above  the  water,  and  deposit  in  each 
four  or  five  roundish,  blue  eggs.  I  think  this  is  the  only  place  in  Rupert's  Land 
where  this  species  is  found.  We  gave  them  the  "go-by"  last  summer.  The 
Indians  call  them  kitch^-geskman,  i.  e.,  big  king-fisher. 

Ducks  and  their  nests  are  found  evervwhere  round  the  lake.  The  ruddy  duck 
is  sometimes  found  in  swamps  near  this  river,  but  they  are  more  numerous  at 
Shoal  lake  and  Manitowaba. 

There  are  numbers  of  terns  breeding  annually  at  Shoal  lake — some  of  them 


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430     NOTES   OF  AN  EGGING  EXPEDITION.  TO   SHOAL  LAKE. 

on  small,  gravelly  islands.  These  form  their  nests  by  removing  the  gravel, 
making  hollows  in  which  they  lay  their  eggs ;  othera  of  them  take  up  their  abodo 
among  the  reerfs  and  rushes.  *  Here  with  great  industry  and  ingenuity  they  make 
then-  nests  of  reeds  and  grass,  fixing  them  in  their  place  to  keep  them  from  float- 
ing away.  When  in  Lake  Winnipeg,  in  1862,  I  ob8er\^ed  that  the  terns  which 
occupied  sandy  and  gravelly  islands  made  their  nests  as  those  do  on  the  gravelly 
islands  in  Shoal  lake ;  and  the  terns  found  on  the  rocky  island  on  the  east  side 
of  the  lake  chose  for  their  nest«  depressions  and  clefts  in  the  surface  of  the  rocks. 
These  they  line  carefully  with  moss,  three  or  four  eggs  being  laid  in  each  nest; 
thus  exhibiting  a  remarkable  example  of  instinct,  which  teaches  these  little  crea- 
tures that  their  eggs  laid  in  soft  sand  and  in  loose  gravel  are  safe  without  any 
lining  to  protect  them,  but  that  when  laid  in  hollows  and  clefts  of  rocks,  lining 
to  protect  their  eggs  and  young  from  injury  by  these  hard  and  at  night  cold 
materials  would  be  indispensable. 

All  roimd  the  lake  there  is  an  abundance  of  wood,  with  many  fine,  open  plains 
in  every  direction,  offering  great  facilities  and  promising  rich  rewards  to  the 
industry  of  the  husbandman.  I'he  only  drawback  in  the  way  of  making  settle- 
ments at  this  lake  is  its  bitter,  disagreeable  water. 

After  a  stay  of  ten  days  at  Shoal  lake  we  set  out  early  in  the  morning  for 
the  Pitoo-Winnipeg  Manitowaba.  We  found  a  well-defined  cart  road  leading  to 
Oak  point.  On  our  way  wo  met  a  young  half-breed  from  the  bay  going  to  Grebe 
bay.  He  had  his  "dug-out"  on  a  cart  drawn  by  an  ox.  Ho  stated  that  his 
object  in  going  there  was  to  hunt  muskrats  and  collect  as  many  eggs  of  all  kinds 
as  he  could,  to  take  home  to  eat.  As  these  people  neither  sow  nor  reap,  they 
have  to  subsist  on  what  the  seasons  afford.  After  travelling  for  10  or  11  hours 
over  a  dry,  level  road,  we  arrived  at  Oak  point  in  the  afternoon.  Here  we  stopped 
a  short  time  to  dine  and  give  our  cattle  time  to  feed  and  rest.  Afterward  we 
proceeded  to  the  lake,  where  we  saw  great  numbers  of  those  beautiful  birds,  the 
Franklin  gully,  soaring  over  the  water  near  the  shore,  and  at  short  intervals 
plunging  in  to  seize  their  prey.  We  could  have  secured  numbers  of  them  if  we 
liad  had  stuffing  material.  The  following  days  we  hunted  in  marsh,  but  found 
very  few  gull  eggs.  We  procured  some  duck  nests,  and  among  them  were  two 
Aihaya  Americana,  (red-head  ducks'  nests,)  one  containing  eight  eggs,  the  other 
19.  When  I  was  there  in  1865  we  found  one  belonging  to  the  same  kind  of 
duck  containing  19  or  20  eggs.  The  Indians  accuse  this  duck  of  dishonesty* 
stating  it  to  have  very  little  respect  for  the  rights  of  property,  being  inclined  to 
rob  other  ducks  of  their  eggs  and  place  them  in  its  own  nest.  This  species  and 
the  canvas-back  are  both  found  at  Shoal  lake  and  at  Manitowaba,  but  nowhere 
in  gi'eat  numbers. 

While  hei-e  I  was  attacked  by  a  cutaneous  disease,  which  affected  my  eyes 
very  painfully.  After  a  residence  of  three  days  we  turned  our  faees  homeward. 
The  morning  was  fine  and  bright  j  in  the  afternoon  the  clouds  gathered  fast 
from  the  south.  The  night  overtook  us  before  we  crossed  the  plain  at  the  south 
end  of  Shoal  lake.  We  found  some  water  for  ourselves  and  cattle,  and  laid 
down  to  rest  under  one  of  our  caits.  Soon  the  rain  began  to  pour  dow^  in  tor- 
rents, the  wind  blew  hard,  driving  the  rain  through  all  our  defences,  and  in  a 
short  time  blankets  and  clothing  began  to  communicate  anything  but  a  pleasant 
sensation  to  our  chilled  frames.  But  the  night  was  dark,  and  we  had  to  keep 
our  post  until  daylight,  every  moment  expecting  that  ttio  lightning  would  strike 
our  cart  and  most  probably  terminate  our  journey )  and,  unfortunately,  our  speci- 
mens got  wet  and  considerably  injured.  We  attached  our  oxen  to  the  carts  and 
were  moving  off  before  sunrise.  At  8  o'clock  we  halted  at  the  Big  ridge ;  while 
there  the  sun  began  at  times  to  peep  through  the  broken  clouds,  the  laiu  ceased, 
and  at  last  the  sky  became  clear  and  the  air  warm.  The  road  was  in  many 
places  covered  with  ponds  of  water,  rendering  the  travelling  slow  and  onpleasant. 
At  noon  we  halted  at  the  Big  swamp,  had  dinner,  and  a^rwarda  xeeomed  our 

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NOTES  OF  AN  EGGING  EXPEDITION  TO  &HOAL  LAKE,   431 

jonrney,  the  weather  and  road  improving  as  the  day  advanced.  At  sunset  wo 
came  to  our  first  camping  place  from  the  settlement,  men  and  oxen  being  very 
tired,  and  I  very  unwell  and  nearly  blind  from  the  aflfection  of  ray  eyes ;  we  were, 
however,  milch  improved  by  a  good  night's  rest,  and  left  camp  after  sunrise.  In 
passing  over  the  plain  we  shot  a  meadow  lark ;  these  birds  are  found  in  pairs 
along  the  Red  river  to  the  end  of  the  plains,  and  on  the  south  side  of  the  Assini- 
boine.  They  appear  in  pairs  in  May,  generally  perched  on  a  low  tree — willow 
or  reed.  They  are  very  watchful,  seldom  allowing  the  hunter  the  chance  of  a 
fair  shot.  We  found  the  public  road  much  improved  since  we  passed  on  it, 
before ;  the  tempest  which  passed  over  us  at  Shoal  lake  did  not  extend  to  the 
settlement.     We  i*eached  homo  at  3  in  the  afternoon,  and  found  "all  well." 

It  may  not  here  bo  amiss  or  out  of  place  to  make  a  few  remarks  on  the  Mani- 
towaba  region.  I  have  travelled  a  distance  of  40  miles  on  the  east  side  of  it, 
and  am  delighted  with  the  beauty  of  the  landscape ;  the  wide  expanse  of  water 
in  the  foreground,  the  dark  green  forest  in  the  rear,  with  a  beautiful  green  plain 
of  three  or  four  miles  in  extent,  gently  declining  from  the  lorest  to  the  lake, 
inviting  the  husbandman  to  put  in  the  plough.  Here  are  neither  stones  nor 
roots  to  impede  his  operations,  and  I  am  sure  the  soil  is  generous  and  would 
amply  repay  his  toil.  This  large  lake  abounds  in  a  variety  of  fish  of  the  best 
kinds,  which  an  industrious  population  would  turn  to  profitable  account.  In 
this  region  there  are  at  present  three  small  villages :  one  at  Oak  Point,  contain- 
ing from  10  to  15  dwellings,  called  houses,  of  the  most  primitive  kind ;  another 
at  what  is  called  the  Bay,  consisting  of  seven  or  eight  houses,  and  favored  as 
the  residence  of  a  Catholic  priest.  A  third  village  is  rising  two  or  three  miles 
to  the  south  of  the  latter.  The  population  of  these  villages  is  composed  of 
Indians,  of  half,  three-quarter,  and  of  seven-eighth  Indians,  with  a  few  veiy 
aged  French  Canadians.  These  people  are  like  the  fowls  of  heaven ;  they 
**  neither  sow  nor  reap,"  nor  do  they  even,  as  far  as  I  have  been  able  to  see,  plant 
potatoes.  They  possess  a  few  cattle  and  horses ;  the  latter  roam  through  the 
woods  summer  and  winter,  living  independent  of  their  masters'  care.  The  finest 
of  bay  grows  within  a  few  yards  of  their  houses,  yet  I  have  been  infonned  that 
many  of  these  people  aie  so  indolent  as  to  allow  their  animals  to  die  in  winter 
from,  starvation.  There  are  two  or  three  exceptions  to  the  above  rule.  The 
question  will  naturally  arise,  how  do  people  so  bound  down  by  indolence  procure 
food  and  clothing?  In  answer  to  this  query  we  will  begin  with  the  opening  of 
the  spring.  I  said  above  that  the  lake  abounded  with  fish.  As  soon  as  the 
thaw  commences  the  fish  forsake  the  deep  places  to  which  they  resorted  as  the 
winter  advanced,  and  swarm  towards  the  shore,  and  run  into  the  many  little  creeks 
that  pass  out  of  the  marshes  into  the  lake.  Here  they  are  taken  in  nets  and  by 
angling  from  the  beginning  of  April  until  the  breaking  up  of  the  ice  in  the  latter 
end  of  May,  and  for  some  time  after  continue  plentiful  until  the  water  in  the  lake 
becomes  warm,  when  the  fish  return  again  to  the  deep  places.  In  April  the  ducks 
and  geese  return  in  great  numbers,  become  plentiful,  and  feed  in  numerous  flocks 
in  all  the  marshes  fringing  the  lakes  for  at  least  a  month  and  a  half.  The  gray 
geese  and  ducks  dmw  off"  by  degrees  in  May,  but  the  white  geese  (wawee)  come 
generally  in  the  last  week  of  April,  and  begin  to  clear  away  for  Hudson's  bay 
on  the  13th  or  14th  of  May,  where  they  invariably  arrive  on  the  15th  of  Mayj 
tho  last  of  them  leave  here  from  the  20th  to  the  25th  of  the  same  month. 

While  tho  fish  and  wild  fowl  can  bo  had  these  people  enjoy  a  continual  feast  j 
and  when  these  fail,  rats,  which  have  been  taken  in  gieat  numbers  for  some  years 

East,  are  considered  desirable  articles  of  food ;  oven  when  plenty  reigns  in  the 
md  tho  rat  furnishes  them  not  only  with  food  but  with  the  means  of  providing 
themselves  with  clothing.  Since  the  country  has  been  partially  opened  the  furs 
are  busily  competed  for,  and  it  follows  that  a  high  price  is  invaiiably  paid  for 
them.  When  all  the  wild  fowl  have  taken  to  their  breeding  places  the  people 
have  a  hard  struggle  for  dear  life  against  hunger,  which  compels  them  to  searcl 


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432   NOTES  OF  AN  EGGING  EXPEDITION  TO  8H0AL  LACE. 

along  all  the  lakes  and  marshes  for  eggs,  and  for  every  other  eatable  that  falls 
in  their  way ;  and  daring  the  month  of  July  and  part  of  August  they  suffer  much 
privation  of  food,  unless  possessed  of  means  to  enable  them  to  draw  on  the  set- 
tlement for  flour ;  but  when  the  young  ducks  take  to  their  wings  and  the  fisb 
begin  to  approach  the  shore,  they  are  able  again  to  set  hunger  at  defiance  for  a 
time.  In  the  beginning  of  October  the  fall  fishing  commences,  t.  tf.,  the  white 
fish  (the  a-ticki-meg  of  the  Indian)  approach  the  shore  and  the  shoals  for  the  pur- 
pose of  spawning,  and  if  the  season  be  favorable  those  who  command  a  little 
industry  and  plenty  of  nets  will  bo  able  to  lay  in  a  good  stock  for  winter  use ; 
but  when  the  fishing  fails  and  the  rabbits  disappear,  as  the  case  is  this  year,  these 
people  ai*e,  indeed,  brought  low — even  to  starvation's  door.  Flour  is  selling 
there  this  winter  at  iOs,  per  cwt  Another  trait  of  these  people  of  primitive 
habits  and  manners  is,  that,  although  occupying  these  villages  for  a  long  time, 
they  have  neither  president,  council,  nor  magistrate,  and  I  never  heard  of  any 
crime  of  any  kind  being  committed  by  any  of  them  except  once,  and  that  was 
a  case  of  manslaughter  which  arose  out  of  undue  provocation. 


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SKETCH  OF  THE  FLORA  OF  ALASKA. 


BT  J.  T.  BOTHROCK,  M.  D. 


A  complete  list  of  Alaskan  plants  with  a  detailed  account  of  their  geographi- 
cal distribution  cannot  yet  be  expected.  But  a  small  portion  of  our  newly 
acquired  possessions  has  been  at  all  explored  by  botanists ;  indeed,  if  we  except 
Sitka  and  its  immediate  surroundings,  we  may  say  no  part  has  been  thoroughly 
investigated.  Future  researches  will  not  only  add  much  to  our  knowledge  of 
the  species  known  to  exist  there,  but  will  largely  increase  that  list.  The  strip 
of  land  extending  south  from  Mount  St.  Elias  to  the  Steekine  river  would  well 
repay  exploration,  either  firom  a  commercial  or  a  scientific  point  of  view.  It  is 
^most  a  matter  of  certainty  that  this  will  be  found  to  have  a  large  number  of 
more  southern  species  extending  up  into  it. 

'  It  mf^  not  be  amiss,  in  passing,  to  glance  at  the  timber  and  prairie  lands  of 
British  Uolumbia;  lying,  as  they  now  ao,  between  our  possessions,  our  interests 
must  be  materially  affected  by  Uiem.  The  forests  of  British  Columbia  west  of 
the  Coast  range,  and  perhaps  as  far  north  as  the  Steekine  river,  are  for  the  most 
part  made  up  of  the  following  trees : 

Taking  them  in  the  order  of  Dr.  Lyall,  in  his  report  on  the  botany  of  north- 
western North  America,  we  have  first  in  size  and  commercial  importance,  Abies 
Bouglasiiy  Lindl.,  (Douglarf  spruce,)  firom  225  to  250  feet  high,  and  often  12  or 
13  feet  in  diameter.  This  tree  has  acquired  already  a  great  commercial  value 
in  the  lumbering  trade  of  the  coast.  It  is  said  by  Dr.  Lyall  to  make  good  spai^s ; 
it  has  a  fine,  clear  ''grain,''  and  is  destined  to  become  more  important  as  the 
resources  of  the  country  are  developed.  The  tall  flagstaff  in  the  royal  gardens 
at  Kew  is  made  of  a  single  trunk  of  this  tree.  It  is  iJso  found  more  in  the  inte- 
rior of  the  country,  in  the  valleys  of  the  Rocky  mountains. 

Abies  Menziesiij  Lindl.,  (Menzies'  spruce,)  a  somewhat  smaller  tree  than  the 
last-mentioned,  though  still  a  titan. 

Abies  Mertmsiana,  (Mertens'  spruce,)  firom  125  to  200  feet  high,  and  with  a 
beautifully  straight  trunk,  which,  as  Dr.  Lyall  remarks,  often  ffrows  60  or  70 
feet  high  before  giving  off  a  branch.  It  is  found  as  far  north  as  latitude  57^  on 
the  shores  of  Norfolk  soand. 

We  will  insert  here  Abies  Canadensis j  which  is  said  to  have  been  found  by  Mr. 
Tolmie  as  far  north  as  latitude  57^,  on  the  shores  of  the  Pacific,  and  by  Mertens 
in  Sitka.  This  tree,  though  of  large  size,  is  very  inferior  as  timber.  The  bark 
may  be  turned  to  account  m  tanning. 

Finns  contorta  is  found  throughout  the  valley  of  the  Frazer  on  high  grounds; 
it  grows  firom  25  to  50  feet  high  and  a  foot  in  diameter.  On  the  upper  Frazer 
this  tree  is  eminently  social,  and  one  often  finds  mile  after  mile  of  forest  made 
up  exclusively  of  this  tree.  In  the  spring  months  the  Indians  are  in  the  habit 
of  stripping  off  the  outer  bark  and  scraping  the  newly-formed  cambium  firom  the 
trunk ;  this  is  eaten  either  in  thefiresh  state  or  dried  and  pressed  into  compact  masses 

The  present  report  on  tbe  botany  of  Alaska  was  prepared  at  the  request  of  the  Smith- 
sonian InstitutioD,  bj  Dr.  J.  T.  Rothrock,  professor  of  botany  in  the  Agricultural  College  of 
Penns^lyauia.  The  original  material  committed  to  his  charge  consisted  principally  of  the 
collections  made  by  employ^  of  the  Western  Union  Telegraph  Company,  in  tlieir  explora- 
tions connected  with  the  Bussian  oTerland  telegraph  expedition,  Dr.  Rothrock  himself  among 
the  number. 

JOSEPH  HENRY, 
Seeretarif  8mith$onian  Institution, 
28  867 


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434  SKETCH  OP  THE  FLORA  OP  ALASKA. 

for  future  use.  Early  in  the  season  the  taste  is  not  unpleasant,  and  the  effect  is 
that  of  a  gentle  laxative ;  but  later,  when  the  tree  has  fairly  commenced  its  sum- 
mer work,  and  begun  to  elaborate  its  peculiar  terebinthinate  principle,  it  is  too 
strong  for  other  than  Indian  palates,  or  except  as  a  last  resort  against  starvation. 
This  *' girdling"  of  these  trees  has  resulted  in  an  extensive  destruction  of  them 
near  the  Indian  villages. 

Thuja  giganteaj  Nutt. — This  magnificent  tree  grows  sometimes  to  a  height  of 
170  feet,  and  to  a  diameter  of  10  feet  and  over.  The  timber  is  light,  easily 
worked,  and  tolerably  durable.  I  am  not  certain  that  it  is  found  north  of  the 
51st  or  52d  degree  of  latitude.  I  have  seen  boards  20  feet  long  split  from  it 
by  the  Indians.  From  it  in  part  the  celebrated  "  northern  canoes"  are  made. 
These  canoes,  "dug"  from  the  single  trunk  and  afterwards  steamed  into  shape, 
will  often  carry  four  tons.  From  the  wood  the  Indians  also  manufacture  paddles, 
dishes,  and  boxes,  some  of  them  exquisitely  neat  From  the  inner  bark  they 
twist  ropes  of  great  strength ;  mats,  hats,  and  baskets  are  also  woven  from  the 
same  material.  The  liabKity  of  the  wood  to  split  when  exposed  to  the  sun  is 
rather  a  disadvantage. 

Acer  macrophyllum  (Large-leaved  maple)  is  found  in  the  valleys  of  the  Pacific 
slopes  as  far  north  as  latitude  55^*.  This  tree  attains  a  height  of  70  feet  and  a 
diameter  of  two  or  three  feet ;  its  wood  is  perhaps  the  best  substitute  on  the 
Pacific  coast  for  the  hickory  of  the  Atlantic  slope ;  the  Indians  use  it  to  make 
snow-shoes,  spear-handles,  and  axe-handles;  from  its  inner  bark  they  weave 
baskets,  hats,  and  mats  so  closely  as  to  hold  water.  Leaving  the  headwaters  of 
the  Fmzer  and  crossing  the  mountain  range  to  the  west  in  latitude  55°  north,  I 
met  this  tree  first,  growing  in  company  with  Thuja  excdsa.  On  the  upper  waters 
of  the  Skena  river  I  foimd  the  Indians  using  it  in  preference  to  any  other  wood,  as 
fuel,  during  the  long,  cold  winter  nights;  frequently  they  have  completely  denuded 
the  hill-sides  of  it.  Lower  down  on  the  Skena  the  cottonwood  and  Thuja  mingle 
with  the  maple  in  about  equal  proportions.  The  forests  there  present  a  most 
cheering  contrast  to  the  sombre  hues  of  the  conifers  that  abound  in  the  valley 
of  the  Fitizer,  and  almost  remind  one  of  the  variegated  woods  of  the  Atlantic 
slope ;  birches,  too,  attain  there  a  height  they  do  not  reach  in  the  interior  valley 
above  mentioned.  Nowhere  have  I  seen  forests  more  beautiful  than  those  near 
Rocher  de  BouUer  on  the  lower  Skena. 

Before  concluding  this  passage  on  British  Columbia  I  will  add  a  letter  from 
Major  F.  L.  Pope,  who,  in  mid-winter,  made  a  most  trying  trip  from  Lake  Tatleh 
to  the  Pacific  via  the  headwaters  of  the  Steekine  river : 

"  The  timber  on  the  upper  Skena  for  50  miles  northwest  of  Bear  lake  is  very 
thick  and  of  the  same  kind  as  around  Lake  Tatleh,  (Pinus  contorta  and  PoptdusJ 
It  averages  about  a  foot  in  diameter.  Still  more  towards  the  head-waters  of  the 
Skena,  oi>en,  grassy  plains  begin  to  appear,  growing  more  and  more  frequent  as 
you  ^o  north;  over  these  are  interspersed  trees,  (still  of  the  same  kind,)  but 
growmg  apart  like  trees  in  a  park.  At  the  head  of  the  river,  about  4,000  feet 
above  the  sea  level,  conifers  are  scarce  and  dwarfed,  but  these  apparently  are 
still  of  the  same  species.  When  cottonwoods  are  met  with  they  are  of  good 
size.  Passing  the  summit  and  descending  the  valley  of  the  Steekine,  which 
runs  north  for  about  100  miles,  we  still  find  the  same  trees,  but  not  so  abund- 
antly. On  the  upper  Steekine  are  great  numbers  of  small  poplars  and  willows ; 
here,  too,  I  occasionally  found  some  patches  of  pine,  in  which  the  trees  were 
about  12  feet  high,  with  a  coarse,  red  bark,  crooked  limbs,  and  large  cones.  On 
the  benches  along  the  *  Great  cafion'  there  is  very  little  timber,  what  there  is 
bein^  small  pine  growing  in  patches.  After  getting  through  the  ca&on,  cotton- 
woods  grow  in  great  abundance  on  the  points  jutting  out  into  the  river;  asso- 
ciated with  them  are  alders  and  willows  without  number.  As  near  as  I  can 
remember  there  are  no  cedars  (Thuja)  until  you  approach  the  coast.  I  do  not 
recollect  seeing  any  maples,  though  there  may  have  been  some." 

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SKETCH  OP  THE  FLORA  OP  ALASKA.  435 

Querctis  Garryanaj  Doagl.,  which  is  so  abundant  near  Fort  Vancouver,  is  also 
found  on  Vancouver  island.  Hooker  states  "  the  wood  is  good  and  well  adapted 
to  ship-building."    It  grows  80  feet  high. 

Pifrm  rivularis  grows  to  be  a  small  tree,  and  the  wood  is  hard  enough  to  take 
a  good  polish ;  it  may  be  turned  to  some  use  in  the  arts  of  life ;  the  fruit  has  a 
decidedly  pleasant  flavor,  and  is  largely  used  by  the  Indians. 

The  less  elevated  prairie  lands  of  the  lower  Frazer  are  thickly  covered  with 
various  species  of  PoUy  EragrostiSj  &c.,  intermixed  with  Vicia  Americana.  Even 
as  far  north  as  Fort  St.  James  I  have  seen  the  grass  and  "  pea  vine ''  three  feet 
high ;  these  spots  afford  luxuriant  pasturage.  At  the  above-mentioned  post  of 
the  Hudson  Bay  Company,  (latitude  54°  41'  north,)  the  horses  live  nearly  the 
entire  year  without  other  forage  tlian  such  as  they  find.  Mules,  however,  are  not 
8o  successful  in  sustaining  themselves  when  the  snow  covers  the  grass,  and  require 
"looking  after."  The  swamps  are  thickly  covered  with  carices;  among  which 
Carex  utriculata  predominates  in  number  of  individuals  over  the  other  species. 
The  high  grounds  afford  the  "bunch  grass"  (Elymits)  of  the  packers;  so  nutri- 
tious is  this  that  even  when  apparently  dead  and  dry,  "stock"  will  become  fat 
on  it,  and  remain  so  under  hard  work  for  long  periods  if  this  be  plentifully  sup- 
plied. 

Of  the  main  land  from  Steekine  river  north  to  Bristol  bay  we  have  but  little 
definite  botanical  knowledge.  Sitka,  however,  has  been  well  explored,  both  by 
Mertens  and  later  by  Ferd.  Bischoff.  We  may  be  said  to  know  its  flora  pretty 
thoroughly.  Perhaps  after  the  list  of  plants  given  on  the  following  pages  I  can 
present  no  better  popular  idea  of  the  vegetation  of  this  island  than  by  quoting 
from  a  letter  of  Mertens  "  to  a  friend  in  St.  Petersburg;"  it  is  publislied  in  Hooker's 
Botanical  Miscellany,  vol.  iii :  "If  we  compare  the  lofty  forests  of  Sitka  (Sitcha 
in  letter)  with  the  wintry  coasts  of  Kamschatka,  where,  4°  more  southerly  at  St. 
Peter  and  Paul,  the  birch  only  attempts  to  rise  into  a  kind  of  tree,  we  shall  here 
find  a  confirmation  of  that  law  which  proves,  by  comparing  the  climates  of  Lis- 
bon and  Philadelphia,  Paris  and  Quebec,  England  and  Labrador,  Drontheim  and 
Iceland,  that  countries  situated  to  the  east  of  the  sea  possess  a  milder  tempera- 
ture than  those  which  are  placed  to  the  west  of  the  ocean." — (Op.  citat.,  p.  12, 
prefatory  remark  by  Adrian  von  Chamisso.)  "  It  [the  forest]  principally  consists 
of  two  kinds  of  fir ;  the  Russians  who  inhabit  Sitka  call  one  of  them  pine,  (ycly 
or  jelij)  the  other  the  larch,  (listwenjj  though  neither  of  them  bears  the  least 
similarity  to  the  trees  which  are  thus  named  in  Russia.  Both  are  referable  to 
Michaux's  genus  Abies.  The  pine,  as  it  is  called,  seems  to  me  analogous  to  the 
North  American  pine,  f  Finns  halsamea,)  Both  of  these  trees  must  be  peculiarly 
eligible  for  masts  and  building  timber  in  general,  as  they  attain  an  immense 
height;  yet  the  wood  of  the  pme  is  not  much  prized;  it  is  said  to  be  of  short 
duration  ^  that  of  the  larch,  as  it  is  called,  lasts  much  longer." — (Mertens  in  lit. 
ex.  op.  citat.,  p.  16.)  "  The  axe  scarcely  ever  echoed  in  these  woods ;  indeed, 
the  surrounding  wilderness  is  immense,  and  strikes  the  beholder  with  a  feeling 
of  horror.  For  centuries  these  trees  have  never  fallen  but  under  the  weight  of 
years ;  and  their  mouldering  remains  give  rise,  without  alteration  of  form,  to  future 
generations  of  trees  again  to  flourish  and  again  to  die !  Nevertheless,  the  abund- 
ance of  shrubs,  herbs,  and  mosses,  which  clothe  these  hoary  forests,  and  rise 
over  the  natural  graves  of  their  former  denizens,  impart  to  the  scenery  an  air  of . 
vigor  and  of  youth." — (L.  c,  p.  17.) 

After  ascending  some  distance  up  the  mountain  sides  of  the  island  he  finds 
"the  wood,  whicQ  now  appears  again  in  increased  denseness  before  us,  consists 
particularly  of  a  noblp  TJit^a,  cafled,  on  account  of  its  agreeably  scented  wood, 
duschnikf  (scent-wood.)  It  is  the  timber  most  valued  here.  The  tree,  indeed, 
occurs  frequently  lower  down  at  the  foot  of  the  mountains,  and  even  to  the  sea, 
but  so  scattered  that  it  is  necessary  to  search  for  it  among  the  more  predominant 
pine  trees  which  conceal  it  from  view  j  but  here  it  constitutes  almost  the  entire 


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436  SKETCH  OF  THE  FLORA  OF  ALASKA. 

timber,  and  the  pine  and  the  larch  are  seldom  seen — ^the  latter,  however,  not  ceas- 
ing so  soon  as  the  former." — (L.  c,  p.  19.) 

Mertens  completes  the  picture  of  the  vegetation  of  Sitka  with  reports  of  the 
species  of  aconite,  aqoilegia,  claytonia,  rubus,  saxifraga,  epilobiam,  vacciniam, 
mimnlos,  orchids,  and  sedges,  which  add  variety  and  beaaty  to  the  scene ;  some 
of  them  specifically  the  same  as  those  growing  on  the  eastern  slope  of  America 
and  in  the  United  States.  He  also  notes  a  grass  (Poa)  growing  two  or  three 
feet  high  j  "  various  ferns,  which  are,  however,  types  of  those  which  prevail  in 
Bussia,  grow  in  great  luxuriance." 

From  Chamisso  (in  Hooker's  Botanical  Miscellany,  vol.  i,  p.  317,)  we  learn 
that  on  the  peninsula  of  Alaska  (Alaska  proper)  a  few  trees  are  found;  but  on 
the  island  of  Ounalashka,  which  has  a  more  Arctic  oceanic  climate,  the  scene  is 
changed ;  for  "  a  few  miserable  firs,  originally  brought  from  Sitka  and  planted 
at  Ounalashka,  may  still  be  seen,  most  of  them  decayed,  and  the  others  seem 
scArcely  likely  to  live." 

"At  Ounalashka,  under  the  same  latitude  as  Lubeck,  the  willows  scarcely  grow 
higher  than  the  luxmiant  gi-ass  and  herbs  of  the  moist  grounds.  As  soon  as 
we  ascend  the  inferior  hills  a  completely  Alpine  vegetation  appears  j  even  on 
the  least  elevated  regions  of  the  mountains  are  some  Vaccinia^  resembling  F. 
MyrtUluSy  which  scarcely  rise  above  the  ground.  Besides  the  brilliant  verdure 
(due  to  a  moist  atmosphere)  which  here  adorns  the  grass  and  enlivens  the  rocks, 
.  the  lustre  of  the  fresh  unsullied  snow  and  of  some  social  plants  bestow  on  this 
I  dreary  country  a  rarity  and  beauty  of  hue  which  are  quite  delightful.  Lupinus 
Nootkatensis,  Mimtdm  luteus,  Epildbium  angusUfolium  and  Jat{folium,  Rhododen- 
dron Kamtschaticum,  etc.,  are  among  the  most  conspicuous.  The  fresh  green 
of  the  turf  even  reminded  us  of  the  valley  of  Ursera. 

"  The  vegetation  here  appears  to  have  nothing  further  in  common  with  that  of 
St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul  than  as  respects  its  Alpine  flora  and  the  coast  plants  of  these 
northern  shores.  Besides  such  species  as  are  likewise  found  more  north  we  have 
only  LUium  (FritiHaria)  Kamtschaticum  and  the  Uvularia  amplexifolia  f  Strep- 
topus)  common  to  both  places,  while  on  the  contrary  wo  found  more  Kamtschat- 
kan  species  of  plants  on  the  American  coast  north  of  Behring's  strait,  which  we 
missed  at  Ounalashka.  It  is  the  flora  of  the  northwest  coast  of  America  which 
descends  to  the  base  of  the  hills  of  this  island,  where  it  unites  with  the  Arctic 
flora.  As  examples  of  this  we  may  cite  Eubus  spectdbilis,  Lupinus  Nootkatensis^ 
(which  may  also  be  found,  though  dwarfish,  on  the  hills.)  Epildbium  luieum, 
Mimtdus  luteuSf  Claytonia  Undlaschkensis  and  Siinrica  may  also  be  reckoned  here. 
Sanguisorha  Canadensis^  LUhospermum  angustifoUum  belong  to  the  common 
flora  of  America.  Many  species  of  grasses  thrive  in  the  low  lands,  with  some 
UrnbeUatce,  such  as  Angelica^  Heraeleum,  etc.  A  dozen  CariceSj  scarcely  forming 
a  larger  proportion  of  the  vegetation  than  in  the  north  of  Germany,  some  Script 
and  Eriophora,  accompany  them,  with  a  few  Junci  in  the  proportion  of  about  one 
to  two.  The  Orchidacece  form  a  group  of  some  importance,  both  because  of  the 
number  of  the  species  and  the  beauty  of  the  individuals.  They  prevail  both  in 
the  valleys  and  on  the  hills,  and  we  encounter  eleven  kinds,  among  them  a  beau- 
tiful Cypripedium.  Higher  north  we  did  not  observe  a  single  species  of  the 
family.  Of  the  ferns  we  found  about  eight  species  j  nearest  the  pole  there  is  but 
one  FiliXy  and  of  this  we  saw  but  a  single  specimen.  In  Ounalaslika  there  are 
some  Lycopodia;  in  the  more  Arctic  regions  but  one.  We  found  in  the  lakes 
many  water  plants,  Potamogeton,  Sparganiunij  Banunculus  aquatilis ;  in  the 
higher  latitudes  we  observed  only  the  two  species  of  Hippuris  and  the  common 
CalUtricheP    (L.  c.  pp.  317,  318.) 

[I  can  now  enumerate  but  ten  species  of  orchids.  Some  are  also  found  north 
of  Ounalashka.  The  remark  concerning  the  ferns  needs  the  qualification  of  at 
least  one,  and  perhaps  of  two,  more  species. — J.  T.  R.J 


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8EETCH  OF  THE  FLORA  OF  ALASKA.  437 

"At  Onnalashka  the  mosses  and  lichens  begin  to  assame  that  prominent  sta- 
tion which  they  hold  in  all  the  very  cold  distncts."     (L.  c,  p.  321.) 

From  all  the  above  we  may  safely  infer  that  a  mnch  lower  summer  temperature 
prevails  at  Onnalashka  than  on  either  of  the  opposite  main  lands  under  the  same 
parallel.  The  comparative  height  of  the  snow  line  is  also  another  evidence  of 
the  same  thing.  At  Ounalashka  it  is  but  3,510  feet  above  the  sea  level,  while 
exactly  three  degrees  further  north  and  on  the  Kamtschatkan  side  it  is  5,249 
feet  alK>ve  the  ocean. 

For  most  of  the  general  results  of  botanical  exploration  north  of  Norton  sound 
we  are  indebted  to  the  Report  on  the  Botany  of  the  Herald,  by  Berthold  See- 
mann,  and  to  Dr.  J.  D.  Hooker's  paper  on  the  Distribution  of  Arctic  Plants.  As 
will  be  observed,  I  quote  freely  fix)m  both  these  authors. 

Seemann  says  of  the  truly  Arctic  re^on  about  and  north  of  Behring's  strait: 
"  The  soil  is  always  frozen  and  merely  thaws  during  the  summer  a  few  feet 
below  the  surface.  But  the  thawing  is  by  no  means  uniform.  In  peat  it  extends 
not  deeper  than  two  feet,  while  in  the  other  formations,  especisdly  in  sand  or 
gravel,  the  ground  is  free  from  frost  to  the  depth  of  nearly  a  fathom,  showing  that 
Sie  sand  is  a  better  conductor  of  heat  than  peat  or  clay.  The  roots  of  the  plants, 
even  those  of  shrubs  and  trees,  do  not  penetrate  into  the  frozen  subsoil.  On 
reaching  it  they  recoil  as  if  they  had  touched  upon  a  rock  through  which  no 
passage  could  be  forced.  It  may  be  surprising  to  behold  a  vegetation  flourish- 
ing under  such  circumstances,  existing,  it  would  seem,  independent  of  terrestrial 
heat,  but  surprise  is  changed  into  amazement  on  visiting  Kotzebue  sound,  where 
on  tops  of  icebergs  herbs  and  shrubs  are  thriving  with  a  luxuriance  only  equalled 
in  more  favored  climes, 

"  On  the  eastern  side  of  America  no  forests  are  found  above  the  mouth  of  the 
river  Egg,  about  the  60th  degree  of  north  latitude.  On  the  western  side  they 
extend  as  far  as  latitude  66°  44'  north,  or  nearly  seven  degrees  nearer  the  pole. 

"  With  a  sun  shining  throughout  the  twenty-four  hours  the  growth  of  plants 
is  rapid  in  the  extreme.  The  snow  has  hardly  disappeared  before  a  mass  of 
herbage  has  sprung  up,  and  the  same  spots  which  a  few  days  before  presented 
nothing  save  a  white  sheet  are  teeming  with  an  active  vegetation,  producing 
leaves,  flowers,  and  fruit  in  rapid  succession.'^ 

We  further  learn  from  Dr.  Seemann  that  even  during  the  long  Arctic  day  the 
plants  have  their  period  of  sleep— short,  though  plainly  marked  as  in  the  tropics. 
This  time  of  rest  is  indicated  by  the  same  drooping  of  the  leaves,  and  other 
signs  which  we  observe  in  milder  climates. 

"  The  whole  country  from  Norton  sound  to  Point  Barrow  is  one  vast  moor- 
land, whose  level  is  only  interrupted  by  a  few  promontories  and  isolated  moun- 
tains. 

"About  Norton  sound  groves  of  white  spruce  trees  and  Salix  speciosa  are  fre- 

auent;  northward  they  become  less  abundant,  till  in  latitude  66°  44'  north,  on 
le  banks  of  the  Noatak,  Pinus  [Abies]  alba  disappears.  Alnus  viridis  extends 
as  far  as  Kotzebue  sound,  where,  in  company  with  Sdlix  viUosaj  8.  Richardsoni 
and  8.  speciosa  it  forms  a  low  brushwood.  With  the  commencement  of  the 
Arctic  circle  Alnus  viridis  ceases  to  exist;  8alix  speciosa^  8,  Bichardsoniy  and 
8,  viUosa  extend  their  range  further,  but  are  only  able  for  a  short  distance  to 
keep  their  ground ;  at  Cape  Lisbume,  in  latitude  68°  /»2'  north,  they  are  in  the 
most  favorable  localities  never  higher  than  two  feet,  while  their  crooked  growth 
and  numerous  abortive  leaf-buds  indicate  their  struggle  for  existence. 

"  The  Esquimaux  eat  the  roots  of  FcHygonum  viviparum  and  collect  for  winter 
use  raspberries,  whortleberries,  and  cranberries,  which  are  frozen  so  hard  as  to 
require  an  axe  to  break  the  mass." 

A  8alix  speciosa  measured  by  the  botanists  of  the  Herald  was  found  to  be  but 
twenty  feet  high  and  five  inches  in  diameter,  yet  the  annual  rings  showed  the 
tree  had  reached  the  age  of  eighty  years.     [For  the  above  facts  in  regard  to  the 


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438  SKETCH  OF  THE  FLORA  OF  ALASKA. 

mainland  north  of  Norton  sound  I  am  indebted  to  Dr.  Seemann,  op.  ci  tat — J.  T.  R.  | 

Charaisso  writes  of  Kotzebuo  sound  that  **the  vegetation  is  much  more  luxu- 
riant than  in  St.  Lawrence  cove,"  (some  distance  further  to  the  north  on  tlio 
Siberian  side;)  "the  willows  are  taller,  the  grass  grows  stronger,  all  the  plauta 
are  more  stout  and  succulent,  while  the  greater  number  of  species  common  to 
the  American  coast  than  appear  in  St.  Lawrence  cove,  indicate  a  more  tempemto 
climate.  On  the  island  of  St.  Lawrence  the  Cineraria  palustria  grows  with  a 
^  remarkable  luxuriance  in  the  well-watered  slopes  foi*med  at  the  base  of  the  mounds 
of  ice,  while  Betula  nana  (dwarf  birch)  is  seen  even  to  the  ven'  shores.  The 
plain  country  of  this  island  is  free  from  snow  throughout  the  summer." 

It  will  be  observed  that  Mr.  Seemann  dmws  a  lino  from  the  mouth  of  the  river 
Noatak  in  a  northeasterly  direction  across  the  coimtry  almost  to  the  estnan^  of 
Mackenzie  river ;  this  he  assigns  as  the  northern  limit  of  the  woods.  This  lino 
nearly  coincides  with  the  July  isotherm  of  50°,  which  temperature  may  be 
regaixled  as  a  fair  growing  mean  for  the  species  of  that  region. 

Beyond  this  all  plant  life  is  truly  Arctic,  and  comes  within  the  scope  of  Dr. 
Hooker's  paper  on  the  Distribution  of  Arctic  Plants.  The  distinguished  author 
just  named  divides  the  Arctic  circle  around  the  globe  into  five  districts.  Goiiig 
east  from  Baffin's  bay  we  have,  first,  the  Greenland  district ;  the  second  one  lies 
between  the  western  coast  of  Arctic  Europe,  and  extends  as  far  to  the  east  as 
the  river  Obi,  and  includes  Nova  Zembla  and  Spitzbergen  j  the  third  extends 
from  the  Obi  river  to  Behring's  stmit ;  the  fourth  from  Behring's  strait  to  the 
Mackenzie  river ;  and  the  fifth  from  Mackenzie  river  to  Baffin's  bay.  Primarily 
we  are  concerned  with  but  three  of  these  divisions :  first,  the  fourth  or  Arctic 
Alaskan,  and  then  merely  en  passant  with  the  third  and  fifth  lying  on  either  side 
of  it.  From  the  same  paper  we  learn  that  the  fourth  district  has  of  flowering 
plants  364  species,  (the  term  species  being  used  by  Hooker  in  a  very  wide  sense, 
and  all  forms  which  are  not  clearly  marked  are  regarded  merely  as  boreal  varie- 
ties of  some  older  species.)  Of  these  364  (flowering)  species,  110  of  them  are 
Asiatic  and  American  forms ;  the  third  or  Arctic  Siberian  district  contains  233 
species,  and  of  them  but  44  are  peculiarly  Asiatic  and  American ;  the  fifth  or 
Arctic  eastern  American  has  379,  and  of  them  110  are  peculiarly  Asiatic  and 
American.  From  the  above  it  will  be  seen  that  the  Arctic  Alaskan  district  has 
a  flora  much  richer  both  in  specific  fku^  peculiar  specific  forms  than  the  Siberian 
district,  but  is  not  quite  so  rich  in  species  as  the  fifth  or  eastern  American  ]  the 
northern  limits  of  vegetation  will  vary  in  diflerent  longitudes.  Rather  a  rich 
vegetation  clothes  the  Arctic  Alaskan  shores,  judging  from  thQ  number  of  plants 
collected  by  Captain  Pullen.  Hemld  island,  however,  in  latitude  72®  north  and 
longitude  176®  west,  rewarded  Seemann's  search  with  but  four  species.  Eastern 
Greenland,  between  70®  and  75®  north,  gives  150  species.  The  reason  of  this 
disparity  in  numbers  is,  in  part,  found  in  the  following  passages : 

*^  The  climate  of  eastern  Arctic  Asia  is  marked  by  excessive  mean  cold ;  at 
the  Obi  the  isotherm  of  18®  cuts  the  Arctic  circle  in  its  southeast  course,  and  at 
the  eastern  extremity  of  the  province  the  isotherm  of  20®  cuts  the  same  circle, 
while  the  centre  part  of  the  district  is  all  north  of  the  isotherm  of  9®.  The 
whole  of  the  district  is  hence  far  north  of  the  isotherm  of  32®,  which  descends 
to  latitude  52®  north  in  its  middle  longitude.  The  extremes  of  temperature  are 
also  very  great ;  the  June  isotherm  of  41®  ascending  eastward  through  its  west- 
em  half  to  the  Polar  sea,  while  the  September  isotherm  of  41®  descends  nearly 
to  60®  north ;  whence  the  low  autumn  temperature  must  present  an  almost  insu- 
perable obstacle  to  the  ripening  of  seeds  within  this  segment  of  the  Arctic  circle. 

"  The  warming  influence  of  the  Atlantic  currents  being  felt  no  further  east 
than  the  Obi,  and  the  summer  desiccation  of  the  vast  Asiatic  continent,  combine 
to  render  the  climate  of  this  region  one  of  excessive  drought  as  well  as  of  cold; 
whence  it  is  in  every  way  most  unfavomble  to  vegetation  of  all  kinds." 

Of  its  233  species  42  me  monoctyledons  and  191  are  dicotyledons^  making  a 


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SKETCH  OF  THE  FLOBA  OF  ALASKA.  439 

proportion  of  1  to  4.5.  In  marked  contrast  to  the  foregoing  is  the  following  from 
the  same  author : 

'^  The  Arctic  circle  at  Kotzebne  sound  is  crossed  by  the  isotherm  of  23^,  and 
at  the  longitude  of  the  Mackenzie  by  that  of  12°  5^,  while  the  June  isotherm  of 
41**  ascends  obliquely  from  southwest  to  northeast,  frdm  the  Aleutian  islands  to 
the  mouth  of  the  Mackenzie,  and  passes  south  of  this  province ;  the  June  and 
September  isothenns  of  41®  and  32®  both  traverse  it  obliquely,  ascending  to  the 
northeast.  The  vast  extent  of  the  Pacific  ocean  and  its  wann  northerly  cur- 
rents greatly  modify  the  climate  of  west  Arctic  America,  causing  dense  fogs  to 
prevail,  especially  throughout  the  summer  months,  while  the  currents  keep  the 
ice  to  the  north  of  Behring's  strait." 

In  this  Arctic  Alaskan  district  we  have  76  monoctyledons  and  288  dicotyle- 
dons, giving  a  proportion  of  1  to  3.7.  Dr.  Hooker  finds  in  '^comparing  this 
flora  with  that  of  temperate  and  Arctic  Asia  that  no  less  than  320  species  are 
found  on  the  northwestern  shores  and  islands  of  that  continent,  or  in  Siberia, 
many  extending  to  the  Altai  and  the  Himalaya.  A  comparison  with  eastern 
Arctic  America  shows  that  281  species  are  common  to  it."  Of  the  364  species 
of  Arctic  Alaskan  plants  ^'almost  all  but  the  littoral  and  purely  Arctic  species 
are  found  in  west  temperate  North  America  or  in  the  Rocky  mountsuns,  26  in  the 
Andes  of  tropical  or  sub-tropical  America,  and  37  in  temperate  or  Antarctic 
South  America." 

The  above  paragraph  affords  an  excellent  illustration  of  the  migration  south- 
ward of  northern  plants  during  a  period  of  cold  long  since  past.  Whether  we 
clothe  this  joint  explanation  of  Messrs.  Forbes  and  Darwin  with  all  the  dignity 
of  a  theory  logically  deduced  from  other  and  well-established  facts,  or  reduce  it  to 
the  rank  of  a  mere  hypothesis,  it  still  remains  the  only  phUosqphical  explanation 
of  these  examples  of  widely-extended  distribution  along  a  given  meridian. 

Dr.  Hooker  also  directs  attention  to  the  variety  of  glumace®  in  the  Arctic 
Alaskan  flora:  *'0f  the  138  species  of  Arctic  glumacesB  only  54  are  natives  of 
west  Arctic  America." 

I  insert  here  the  following  letter  from  Mr.  H.  M.  Bannister,  who  spent  the 
winter  of  1865-'66  at  Fort  St.  Michaels,  on  Norton  Sound.  It  is  to  the  point 
and  explains  itself: 

*^  I  am  sorry  that  I  can  give  from  personal  observation  so  little  information 
concerning  the  trees  of  Russian  America.  At  St.  Michaels  there  were  no  trees, 
and  the  only  bushes  which  rose  above  the  ground  were  stunted  alders  and  wil- 
lows. At  the  head  of  Norton  sound,  however,  a  forest  of  spruce  trees  extends 
nearly  to  the  coast,  and  occasional  trees  are  seen  on  the  immediate  shore.  These 
trees  are  usually  from  20  to  45  feet  high  and  not  more  than  a  foot  in  diameter. 

'^  The  drift  logs  which  float  on  the  Kvichpak  are  sometimes  more  than  two  feet 
in  thickness,  though  the  most  will  not  average  over  a  foot  or  16  inches.  I  think 
it  probable  the  largest  trees  do  not  grow  where  they  will  be  undermined  by  the 
river  current. 

"  Mr.  Pease  reported  having  seen  trees  nearly  80  or  100  feet  high  on  the  lower 
Kvichpak.  From  1,000  to  1,500  feet  of  lumber  was  sawn  at  Fort  St.  Michaels 
during  the  winter  I  was  there.  It  made  very  fair-looking  planks  and  scantling. 
I  think  the  wood  was  softer  and  whiter  than  that  of  the  Oregon  pine.  The 
other  trees  noticed  were  poplars  and  birch ;  of  how  many  kinds  I  cannot  say. 
The  birch  is  used  by  the  natives  for  everything  that  requires  a  harder  and  tougher 
wood  than  the  spruce,  i.  e.,  sled-runners,  boat-frames,  &c.  I  have  never  seen 
birch  there  over  eight  inches  in  diameter." 

In  looking  over  the  plants  collected  by  Messrs.  Dall,  McDonald,  and  Houlo, 
at  Fort  Youkon,  I  have  been  surprised  to  see  how  large  a  number  of  them  were 
common  on  the  head-waters  of  the  Mackenzie  and  the  Pelly.  Whether  Fort 
Youkon  can  be  considered  a  point  which  in  their  wanderings  from  more  southern 
localities  they  might  reach,  I  am  not  prepared  to  say ;  possibly  the  waters  of 


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440  SKETCH  OF  TII£  FLORA  OF  ALASKA. 

the  Pelly  may  bave  borne  them  north,  and  that  of  the  Mackenzie  done  the  same 
for  its  banks.  Once  established  on  the  shores  of  the  latter  river  a  short  transit 
would  again  place  them  within  reach  of  the  waters  of  the  Porcupine,  and  this 
could  b^  them  to  and  beyond  Fort  Yonkon. 

At  the  same  point  some  plants  (few,  indeed)  have  been  found  that  might  more 
naturally  have  been  expected  to  be  coniined  to  the  Arctic  coast.  I  do  not  as  yet 
attempt  any  explanation  of  why  this  place  should  be  a  meeting-ground  for  some 
few  species  of  more  northern  and  more  southern  plants. 

In  how  far  can  our  Alaskan  possessions  raise  the  grains  and  vegetables  suf-  ^ 
ficient  to  support  an  active  population  I  Vague  rumors  have  reached  our  ears  of 
this  or  that  bardy  vegetable  raised  at  Fort  St.  Michael  or  Youkon  and  after- 
wards ^racin^  the  tables  there.  Such  gardening  comes  more  under  the  head  of 
possibuities  than  of  daily  support.  I  think  we  cannot  say  more  yet  than  that 
barley  and  oats  will  grow  at  Sitka,  and  just  possibly  at  Kodiak.  Potatoes, 
radishes,  cabbages,  cauliflowers,  peas,  onions,  carrots,  and  turnips  may  be  de- 
pended upon  as  far  north  as  Kodiak,  with  greater  or  less  certainty.  The  timber 
of  Alaska  is  certainly  valuable,  and  much  needed  on  the  Pacific  coast. 

Among  the  grasses  enumerated  in  our  list  will  be  found  a  number  of  value  as 
forage  plants.  The  forests  once  cleared  it  is  certain  some  of  the  hardier  grasses 
can  be  raised,  and  in  considerable  quantity.  Dr.  Kellogg,  in  his  report  on  the 
botany  of  the  country,  informs  us  that  CPMeum  pratensej  timothy  flourishes. 
As  he  has  not  stated  in  what  part,  we  may  perhaps  suppose  he  meant  at  Sitka, 
or,  possibly,  even  Kodiak.  Several  species  of  bromus  are  found  in  various  parts 
of  Alaska,  and  among  them  may  be  found  perhaps  a  forage  that  can  be  used  as 
a  dernier  i*esort.  Poa  annuay  or  annual  spear-^ass,  grows  at  Sitka,  and  aflbrds 
an  early  and  acceptable  pasture ;  the  moist  climate  of  Sitka  would,  doubtless, 
suit  it  well.  The  Kentucky  blue-grass  fPoapraiensisJ  is  found  as  far  north  as 
Ounalashka  and  Kotzebue  sound ;  the  well-kno^n  hardihood  of  this  grass  and 
the  readiness  with  which  it  is  eaten  by  cattle  give  it  a  value.  The  wood  meadow- 
grass  (Poa  nemoralisj  also  flourishes  at  Kotzebue  sound,  and  we  may  suppose 
would  also  at  more  southern  stations ;  it  furnishes  good,  nutritive  food,  of  which 
cattle  are  very  fond.  Water  spear-grass  f  Glyceria  aquaiicaj  has  been  sent  us  from 
Sitka,  and  if  cut  early  makes  a  hay  well  relished  by  cattle.  Blue  joint-grass 
f  Calamagrostis  Canadensis  J  grows  as  far  north  as  Kotzebue  sound,  and  may  bo 
fairly  considered  a  valuable  grass.  Its  yield  is  often  enormous ;  I  have  seen  it 
in  northern  British  Columbia  growing  three  feet  high,  and  covering  the  open 
grounds  there  to  the  exclusion  of  everything  else ;  its  luxuriance  was  perfectly 
astonisliing.  Doubtless  some  of  the  sedges  and  rushes  fJunciJ  could  be  made 
available  in  tiroes  of  scarcity. 

I  have  enumerated  within  the  limits  of  Alaska  732  species  of  plants,  includ- 
ing the  cryptogamia;  of  these  560  species  are  phsenogams,  which  represent  57 
orders.     Of  oxogens  there  are  419  species;  of  endogens,  141  species. 

Without  going  into  minute  proportions  I  find  the  following  table  gives  the 
relative  developcment  of  each  of  the  important  orders  in  comparison  with  the 
entire  pbsenogamic  flora : 


Order. 


Genus. 


Com|)08ite 1-10 

Gramineffi 1-11 

Cyperaceffi 1-14 

CruciferiB 1-17 

Saxifragaceie 1-17 

Ericaceee 1-17 

Rosacee 1-19 

RaDunculacete 1-20 

6crophalariace» 1-22 


Carex 32 

Saxifra^ 24 

Yaccmiiim • 9 


JPedicularis 10 

I  Veronica -x^. ».-     6 

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SKETCn  OF  THE  FLORA  OF  ALASKA. 


441 


Order. 


Genus. 


CaryophjUacee 1-28 

S^caceee 1-32 

GentianaceiB 1-40 

OrchidacefiB 1-40 

JoncaceiB 1-43 

L^umiDOfliB 1-43 

OnagracesB 1-47 

Poljffonacen 1-70 

Coniferse 1-70 

Umbelliferae 1-80 

Primalaces 1-80 

Borraffinaceie 1-80 

LiliaceiB 1-80 

Betalacee 1-93 

GroMulacesB 1-140 

CaprifoliacesB 1-140 

RobiacesB 1-140 

Labiate 1-187 


Salix 17 

Gentiana 10 

JoncoB • ••••     8 


The  area  of  Alaska,  as  computed  by  the  United  States  Coast  Survey,  is  570,000 
square  miles,  including  the  islands.  Chester  county,  of  the  State  of  Pennsylvania, 
has  but  738  square  miles,  yet  it  has  just  aboat  double  the  number  of  indigenous 
flowering  plants  that  Alaska  has.  This,  however,  only  implies  poverty  of 
specific  forms  and  not  necessarily  of  flora;  for  we  find  Alaska  covered  dorinff 
its  short  summer  with  a  luxuriant  growth  of  vegetation,  but  not  of  so  diversified 
a  character  as  that  of  more  favored  regions. 

The  proportion  of  ferns  is  quite  large  in  Alaska.  This  is  accounted  for,  doubt- 
less, by  the  saturated  condition  of  the  atmosphere,  combined  with  the  deep  shade 
of  its  more  southern  forests. 

I  would  here  gratefully  acknowledge  the  assistance  I  have  received  in  pre- 
paring this  paper  from  Professor  Gray  and  Dr.  George  Thurber.  To  Messrs. 
James  and  Mann  my  thanks  are  also  dao ;  their  names  appear  over  their  respective 
communications.  Messrs..  Bannister,  Dall,  and  Bischofi'  have  each  added  to  the 
plants  hitherto  known  from  Norton  bound,  Sitka,  and  the  Youkon  River  district. 

I  have  depended  chiefly  on  the  following  works:  Flora  of  North  America, 
vols.  1  and  2,  Torrey  and  Gray ;  Hooker's  Flora  Boreali  Americana ;  Ledobour's 
Flora  Rossica;  Bongard's  Vegetation  of  Sitka;  Hooker  and  Amott's  Botany  of 
Beechey's  Voyage ;  Seemann's  Report  on  the  Botany  of  the  Voyage  of  the  Her- 
ald ;  J.  D.  Hooker  on  the  Distribution  of  Arctic  Plants ;  and  Dr.  LyalPs  Report 
on  the  Botany  of  Northwestern  North  America.  In  the  main  I  have  adopted 
the  order  of  arrangement  and  the  nomenclature  of  the  Flora  Rossica.  When 
the  complete  flora  of  Alaska  is  to  be  published  it  will  be  early  enough  to  cease 
following  a  guide  so  satisfactory  as  Ledebour  is,  on  the  whole.  However,  when 
a  manifest  improvement  has  been  suggested  by  later  authorities  I  have  not  hesi- 
tated to  adopt  it. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  remark  that,  irrespective  of  further  discoveries,  the 
varied  views  of  difibrent  authorities  Jos  to  what  constitutes  a  species,  might  sen- 
sibly aflect  the  absolute  number  recorded  in  this  list.  So  far  as  the  plan  upon 
which  it  is  formed  afibrded  the  opportunity,  I  have  adopted  the  wider  view  of 
species  as  best  according  with  modem  philosophic  botanical  teaching,  and  as 
by  far  the  least  likely  to  involve  absolute  eiTor. 

The  field  which  is  here  merely  outlined  will  ofier  a  rich  harvest  to  the  botanist 
who  can  devote  to  the  subject  the  time  it  denuuids  for  thoroughly  scientific  treat- 
ment. The  proximity  of  the  two  continents  and  their  islands  would  lead  us  to 
think  Alaska  might  prove  a  good  ground  for  clearing  up  some  doubtful  points 


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442  SKETCH  OF  THE  FLORA  OF  ALASKA. 

concerning  the  mim-ations  of  plants.  The  well  known  tendency  of  Arctic  plants 
to  vary  almost  indefinitely  makes  the  subject  important  to  the  botanists  inter- 
ested in  settling  that  vexed  question,  what  is  a  species  and  what  its  formula. 

RAinjNCULACEJB. 

Thalictmm  alpinom,  L.,  Kotzebne  sound,  and  Port  Clarence. 

Anemone  alpina,  L.,  Kotzebue  sound. 

A.  patens,  L.;  Fort  Youkon,  Antoine  Honle. 

A.  parvifloi-a,  Michx.,  Kotzebue  sound. 

A.  Kichardsoni,  Hook.,  Island  of  Ounalashka,  Kotzebue  sound;  Youkon  river, 
Dall. 

A.  narcissiflora,  L.,  is  the  A.  multifida  of  Hooker  and  Amott  in  Bot.  Beeohey ; 
fide  Seemann  in  Bot.  Herald;  from  Kotzebue  sound  to  Cape  Lisbume,  and 
between  Point  Barrow  and  Mackenzie  river;  island  of  Ounalashka. 

Hepatica  triloba,  Chaix,  Sitka. 

Kanunculus  Pallasii,  Schlecht.,  Kotzebue  sound. 

R.  hyperboreus,  Rottb.,  Norton  sound  to  Wainwright  inlet 

R.  Purshii,  Richards.,  Kotzebue  sound. 

R.  Lapponieus,  L.,  Kotzebue  sound. 

R.  pygmfieus,  Wahl.,  Kotzebue  sound. 

R.  nivalis,  R.  Br.,  Kotzebue  sound. 

R.  Eschscholtzii,  Schlecht.,  Kotzebue  sound  to  Cape  Lisbume. 

R.  occidentalis,  Nutt,  (R.  recurvatus,  Bongard  in  Vegetation  of  Sitka,  but 
not  of  Poir.,)  Sitka. 

Caltha  palnstris,  L.,  var.  asarifolia,  Ounalashka. 

C.  leptosepala,  DC,  Sitka. 

(Still  a  third  species,  C.  arctica,  R.  Br.,  may  yet  be  added,  as  it  has  been  found 
on  Richard's  island,  in  the  mouth  of  the  Mackenzie  river.) 

Coptis  trifolia,  Salisb.,  Sitka. 

C.  asplenifolia,  Salisb.,  Sitka. 

Aquilegia  formosa,  Fisch.,  A.  Canadensis,  Bong.  1.  a,  Sitka. 

Delphinium  Menziesii,  DC,  Kotzebne  sound  to  Cape  Lisbume. 

Aconitum  Napellus,  L.,  var.  delphini folium,  Sitka,  Kotzebue  sound,  Chamisso 
island,  Norton  sound,  and  between  Point  Barrow  and  Mackenzie  river. 

NYMPHACEJB. 

Nuphar  luteum,  Smith,  Sitka. 

PAPAVBRACEJB. 

Papaver  alpinum,  L.;  P.  nudicaule,  Norton  sound,  H.  M.  Bannister;  Kotzebue 
sound,  and  from  Point  Barrow  to  Mackenzie  river. 

FUMABIACEA. 

Corydalis  pauciflora,  Pers.,  Norton  sound,  H.  M.  Bannister,  Island  of  St 
Lawrence,  Bot.  Herald. 

C  glauca,  Parsh.,  Point  Barrow  to  Mackenzie  river.  Captain  Pullen. 

CBUCIFERS. 

Barbarea  vulgaris,  R.  Br.,  Sitka  and  Norton  sound. 
Arabis  hirsuta,  Scop.,  Sitka  and  Ounalashka. 
A.  ambigua,  DC,  Sitka  and  Ounalashka. 

Nasturtium  palustre,  DC,  Eschscholtz  bay,  Ounalashka;  and  Youkon  rivefi 
Dall. 


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SKETCH  OF  THE  FLOBA  OF  ALASKA.  443 

Cardamine  Lenensis,  Andre,  Island  of  St.  Lawrence,  Ounalasbka  and  Sitka, 
ide  Ledebonr,  Flora  Rossica. 

C.  pratensis,  L.,  Kotzebue  soand,  and  between  Point  Barrow  and  Mackenzie 
river;  Norton  sound,  H.  M.  Bannister. 
C.  birsuta,  L.,  Oimalasbka  and  Sitka. 

C.  porpnrea^  Cham.,  Kotzebne  soond,  Wainwrigbt  inlet,  and  Island  of  Ouna- 
lasbka. 

G.  di^tata,  Ricbards.,  (possibly  only  a  foim  of  C.  pratensis ;  fide  J.  D.  Hooker 
in  "  OuUines  of  tbe  "Distribution  of  Arctic  Plants,'')  Wainwrigbt  inlet,  between 
Point  Barrow  and  Mackenzie  river ;  Island  of  St.  Lawrence. 

Alyssum  byperboreum,  L. — ^A  doubtful  native  of  Nortb  America.  Ledebour 
in  Flora  Rossica  simply  tells  us  (on  tbe  authority  of  Steller  and  Ejrascb)  that  it 
is  ''  in  ora  occidentali  Americse  borealis." 

Parrya  maciocarpa,  R.  Br.,  Kotzebue  sound,  Gape  Lisbume,  between  Point 
Barrow  and  Mackenzie  river,  and  Island  of  St.  Lawrence. 

Draba  algida,  DC.,  Island  of  St.  Lawrence. 

D.  alpina,  L.,  Kotzebue  sound. 

D.  glacialis,  Adams,  Gape  Lisbume,  Assistance  bay,  and  Garry  island. 

D.  stellata,  Jacq.,  var.  bebecarpa,  Kotzebue  sound,  Ounalasbka ;  and  fide 
Ledebour,  Flora  Rossica  in  Island  of  St.  Lawrence. 

D.  birta,  L.,  Kotzebue  sound. 

D.  incana,  L.,  Garry,  St.  Lawrence,  and  Ounalasbka  islands. 

D.  gracilis,  I^edeb.,  Ounalasbka. 

D.  borealis,  DG.,  islands  of  Ounalasbka  and  St.  Lawrence.  Perhaps  only  a 
leafy  form  of  D.  incana,  according  to  J.  D.  Hooker. 

D.  Unalascbkiana,  DG.,"an  var.  D.  borealis!"  Ledebour,  op.  citat.,  Ouna- 
lasbka. 

D.  stenoloba,  Ledeb.,  Island  of  Ounalasbka. 

D.  muricella,  Wabl. ;  D.  nivalis,  Liljebl.,  Wainwrigbt  inlet. 

D.  grandis,  Langsdorff,  in  DG.,  Systema,  vol.  ii,  p.  355 ;  var.  siliquosa,  Gocb- 
learia  grandiflora,  DG.,  Systema,  vol.  ii,  p.  368;  Gocblearia  spathnlata, 
Scblecbt.  See  Torrey  and  Gray,  Flora  of  Nortb  America,  vol.  i,  p.  110. 
Draba  grandis  is  figured  in  Del.  Icon.,  2,  tab.  47.  One  specimen  differs  from 
the  figure  mainly  in  having  longer  and  less  turgid  pods,  and  tbe  leaves  being 
rather  more  entire ;  but  it  is  without  doubt  the  same  plant.  A  foot-note  in  Lin- 
nsa,  vol.  ii,  p.  27,  throws  much  light  on  its  otherwise  rather  complicated  synon- 
ymy. This  plant  bad  not  been  found  in  Sitka  previous  to  its  recent  discovery 
there  by  Mr.  Bischoff,  the  nearest  known  approach  hitherto  being  Ounalasbka. 

Gocblearia  fenestrata,  R.  Br.,  Norton  sound  to  Point  Barrow  and  Assistance 
bay. 

G.  oblongifolia,  DG.,  Sitka,  Kotzebue  sound,  Wainwrigbt  inlet,  and  between 
Point  Barrow  and  Mackenzie  river ;  also  found  at  Norton  sound  by  Mr.  Ban- 
nister. 

G.  Anglica,  L.,  Kotzebue  sound  and  Assistance  bay. 

Tetrapoma  pynforme,  Seemann,  tab.  2,  Botany  of  Voyage  of  the  Herald.  Gol- 
lected  both  in  tbe  voyage  of  the  Herald  and  biter  by  Mr.  Bannister  at  Fort  St. 
Michaels,  at  Norton  sound.  Seemann  regards  it  as  introduced  from  Asia  by  the 
Russians.  He  is  probably  correct,  as  it  has  not  been  found  ejsewbero  in  North 
America. 

Hesperis  Pallasii,  T.  and  O.,  Kotzebue  sound  and  Gape  Lisbume. 

Sisymbrium  Sophia,  L.,  var.  sopbioides,  Kotzebue  sound,  and  between  Point 
Barrow  and  Mackenzie  river. 

Erysimum  lanceolatum,  R.  Br. ;  Arctic  coast,  PuUen. 

Eutrema  Edwardsii,  R.  Br.,  island  of  St.  LawTence. 

Aphragmus  Escbscnoltzianus,  Andrz.,Ounalashka. 

Hutchinsia  calycina,  Desv.,  Kotzebue  sound  and  Gape  Kruzenstem 


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4i4  SKETCH  OF  THE  FLORA  OF  ALASKA. 


VIOLACEiE. 

Viola  hiflora,  L.;  var.  Sitchensis,  Kegel ;  V.  CanadenBiSy  in  Bongard's  V^eta- 
tion  of  Sitka,  where  it  is  also  cited  as  Y.  Scouleri,  Dougl.  The  Sitkan  plant 
is  certainly  very  variable ;  one  form  is  without  doubt  V.  glabella,  Nntt ;  yet 
after  carefully  comparing  a  full  suite  of  specimens  I  think  Kegel  has  correctly 
assigned  it  to  V.  biflora,  L.  ^ 

v.  blanda,  t,  Kotzebue  sound ;  Botany  Beechev's  Voyage.  * 

V.  Langsdoi*ffii,  Fisch. }  Kodiak  and  Ounalashkai  Kellogg. 

DROSERACEiB. 

Drosera  rotundifolia,  L.;  Sitka. 

Pamassia  palustris,  L. ;  Norton  sound,  H.  M.  Bannister;  Fort  Yoakon»  W. 
H.  Dall. 
P.  Kotzebuei,  Cham. ;  Port  Clarence  to  Gape  Lisbume,  Bot  Herald. 

CARYOPHYLLACKfi. 

Dianthns  repens,  Willd.;  Norton  sound,  Eotzebne  sound,  Gape  Lisbmne,  and 
Youkon  River  banks. 

Silene  acaulis,  L.;  Kotzebue  sound.  Gape  Lisbume,  and  between  Point  Bar- 
row and  Mackenzie  river. 

Melandrjmm  apetalum,  Fenzl,  Kotzebue  sound  and  on  the  northern  coast ; 
noted  by  Seemann  as  being  quite  common  throughout  western  Esquimaux  land. 

Spergula  saginoides,  L.,  Sitka,  Ounalashka,  and  Kotzebue  sound. 

8.  rubra,  T.  and  G.,  Sitka. 

8.  arvensis,  L. ;  Sitka,  Ferd.  Bischoff. 

Areuaria  vema,  L^,  (var.  hirta,)  along  the  western  shore  of  northern  Alaska. 

A.  arctica,  Fenzl,  Kotzebue  sound  to  Gape  Lisbume. 

A.  macrocarpa,  Fenzl,  island  of  St.  Lawrence  and  northwest  coast. 

Honkenoya  peploides,  Ehr.,  northern  shores. 

H.  peploides,  var.  oblongifolia,  Sitka  and  Kotzebue  sound. 

Merkia  physodes,  Fisch.,  Norton  sound  to  Point  Barrow. 

Moehringia  lateriflora,  Fenzl,  Sitka  and  Ounalashka;  Fort  Youkon,  Rev.  Mo- 
Donald. 

Stellaria  media,  Smith,  Sitka  and  Ounalashka. 

S.  borealis,  Bigelow,  Sitka  and  Ounalashka. 

S.  borealis,  var.  crispa,  Sitka  and  Ounalashka. 

S.  crassifolia,  Ehr. ;  Sitka,  Mertens. 

S.  humifusa,  Rottbl.,  Sitka;  Norton  sound,  H.  M.  Bannister;  Kotzebue  soond. 

S.  longifolia,  Muhl.,  Sitka  and  Kotzebue  sound. 

S.  longipes,  Goldie ;  Kotzebue  sound  and  Youkon  river,  W.  H.  Dall. 

Cerastmm  vulgatum,  L. ;  G.  alpinum,  in  Bongard's  Vegetation  of  Sitka. 

G.  vulgatum,  L. ;  var.  grandiflorum,  Ledeb.,  in  Flora  Rossica ;  Norton  sound, 
H.  M.  Bannister. 

G.  vulgatum,  L.,  var.  Behringianum,  Ledeb.,  Flora  Rossica ;  Kotzebue  sound 
to  Cape  Lisbume. 

I  am  quite  unable  to  separate  by  clear  lines  the  numberless  forms  of  C.  vol- 
gatum.    Almost  impossible  extremes  graduate  into  each  other. 

LIKACE^. 

Linum  perenne,  L. ;  Fort  Youkpn,  Antoine  Houle. 

GERAlflACEiE. 

Geranium  erianthum,  DG.,  Sitka  and  Ounalashka. 

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SKETCH  OF  THE  FLORA  OF  ALASKA.         445 


LEOXTMIKOSJC. 

LuDinns  perennis,  L.,  Kotzebue  soond. 

L.  Nootkatensis,  Bonn,  Onnalasbka ;  Fort  Yonkon^  Antoine  Honle. 

Trifolium  repens,  L.,  Sitka ;  fide  Dr.  A.  Kellogg,  in  mannBcript  report. 

Astragalus  firigidus,  Gray,  Phaca  frigidus,  L.,  Kotzebue  Bound. 

A.  alpinus,  L.,  Kotzebue  sound  to  Point  Barrow ;  and  Fort  Youkon,  W.  H. 
DaU. 

A.  polaris,  Bentb. ;  rediscovered  by  Seemann  at  Escbscboltz  bay,  in  Kotze- 
bue sound,  during  the  voyage  of  the  Herald.  See  Hooker,  J.  D.,  on  Distribu* 
tion  of  Arctic  Plants. 

A.  bypoglottis,  L. ;  Point  Barrow  and  eastward,  PuUen ;  Fort  Youkon,  W.  H. 
Dall. 

Oxytropis  campestris,  D.  C,  including  0.  borealis,  DC,  Kotzebue  sound. 

O.  Uralensis,  L.,  Kotzebue  sound  and  west  coast  of  Alaska. 

Yicia  gigantea,  Hook.,  Y.  Americana,  Muhl. ;  Sitka,  Kellogg ;  Arctic  coast, 
Pullen. 

Lathyrus  maritimus,  Bigel.,  Sitka  and  western  C'Oast  of  Alaska. 

Hedysarum  boreale,  Nutt,  Kotzebue  sound  and  Cape  Lisbiune. 

H.  Mackenzii,  Richards.,  Youkon  river,  50  miles  westof  Fort  Youkon;  "sweet- 
ish root,  eaten  by  the  Indians, — Dall. 

ROSACBiB. 

Spirsea  betulaefolia,  Pall..  Kotzebue  sound. 
8.  Aruncus,  L.,  Sitka. 

5.  salicifolia,  L. ;  Point  Barrow  to  Mackenzie  river,  Pullen. 
8.  pectinata,  T.  and  O.,  Sitka  and  about  Behring's  strait. 

Dryas  octopetala,  L.,  Kotzebue  sound  to  Port  Clarence  and  northern  shore. 
I  cannot  do  otherwise  tban  unite  D.  integrifolia,  Vahl.,  with  this  species ;  J.  D. 
Hooker  has  already  done  so  in  his  paper  above  quoted. 

Geum  macrophyllum,  Willd.,  Sitka  and  Ounalashka. 

G.  calthifolium,  Smith,  Ounalashka  and  Sitka. 

6.  glaciale,  Adams,  Cape  Lisbume  and  Kotzebue  sound;  also  found  on 
northern  shore  west  of  Mackenzie  river. 

G.  Rossii,  Seringe  Ounalashka. 

Sanguisorba  Canadensis,  L.,  banks  of  Buckland  river,  Ounalashka,  Sitka, 
Fort  Youkon,  and  Youkon  River  banks. 

Sibbaldia  procumbens,  L.,  Ounalashka. 

Potentilla  Norvegica,  L. ;  Sitka  and  Point  Barrow  to  Mackenzie  river,  Pullen. 

P.  Pennsylvanica,  L.,  Kotzebue  sound. 

P.  Anserina,  L. ;  Sitka,  Kotzebue  sound.  Point  Barrow,  northern  coast;  Fort 
Yonkon,  Mr.  Dall. 

P.  nana,  Lehm.,  Kotzebue  sound. 

P.  emarginata,  Pursh,  Kotzebue  sound,  and  between  Point  Barrow  and  Mac- 
kenzie river. 

P.  nivea,  L.,  Kotzebue  sound  and  coast  west  of  Cape  Bathurst ;  fide  Botany 
of  the  Herald. 

P.  villosa.  Pall.,  Kotzebue  sound,  Ounalashka,  and  Sitka. 

P.  biflora,  Lehm.,  Kotzebue  sound  and  Cape  Lisbume. 

P.  frnticosa,  L.,  Kotzebue  sound  and  banks  of  Buckland  river. 

P.  palustris.  Scop.,  Sitka  and  island  of  St.  Lawrence. 

Rubus  spectabilis,  Pursh,  Sitka,  Kodiak,  and  Cape  St.  Elias. 

R.  arcticus,  L.,  Kotzebue  sound. 

R.  pedatus,  Smith,  Sitka. 

R.  Chamsemorus,  L.|  Sitka  and  northern  and  western  coast  of  Alaska. 


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446  SKETCH  OP  THE  FLOEA  OP  ALASKA. 

R.  Nutkanus,  M09. ;  Sitka,  Ferd.  Biscboff. 

Rosa  cinnamomea,  L. ;  Point  Barrow  to  Mackenzie  river,  Pullen  5  Fort  Tonkon, 
Dall. 

Pyrus  rivularis,  Dougl.,  Sitka. 

P.  Bambui^folia,  Gbain.  and  Scblecbt.,  Sitka. 

ONAGRACKS. 

Epilobium  angastifolium,  L.,  Sitka,  Ounalasbka,  nortbem  and  weaiern  dboies 
of  Alaska,  Fort  Youkon,  and  banks  of  Youkon  river. 
E.  latifoliam,  L.,  Norton  sound  to  Point  Barrow,  Sitka,  and  Oanalasbka. 
£.  luteum,  Pursb,  Sitka  and  Ounalasbka. 

£.  palustre,  L.,  Kotzebne  sound ;  fide  Ledebour,  in  Flora  Rossica. 
E.  tetragonum,  L.,  given  as  a  native  of  tbis  region. 
E.  roseam,  Scbreb.,  Sitka. 
E.  alpinum,  L.,  Sitka. 
E.  affine,  Biongard,  Sitka. 
Gircaea  alpina,  L.,  Sitka. 

Hippuris  vul^ris,  L.,  Sitka  and  Bay  of  Good  Hope. 
H.  montana,  Ledeb.,  Ounalasbka. 
H.  maritima,  Hellen.,  Kotzebue  sound  and  delta  of  river  Buckland. 

PORTULACACKB. 

Glaytonia  Virginica,  L.,  Kotzebue  sound. 
G.  sarmentosa,  G.  A.  Mever,  Gape  Lisbume  and  Kotzebue  sound. 
G.  flagellaris,  Bong.,  Sitka. 
G.  Sibirica,  L.,  Sitka  and  Gape  St.  Elias. 

G.  Gbamissonis,  Eschsoboltz,  (G.  aquatica,  Nutt  in  Flora  North  America, 
Torreyand  Gray;  fide  Ledebour,)  Ounalaiibka. 
Montia  fontana,  L.,  Sitka,  Ounalasbka,  Norton  sound,  and  Kotzebue  sound. 

CRASSULACEJB. 

Sedum  Rbodiola,  DG.,  Norton  and  Kotzebue  sounds. 

GROSSHLACRfi. 

Ribes  rubrum,  L.,  Port  Glarence  and  Kotzebue  sound  ]  Youkon  river,  Dall 

R.  Hudsonianum,  Richards. ;  Youkon  river,  Dall. 

R.  laxiflorum,  Pivsh,  Gape  St.  Elias  and  Sitka. 

R.  bracteosum,  Dou^L,  Sitka. 

R.  lacustre,  Pursh;  Point  Barrow  to  Mackenzie  river,  Pullen. 

SAXIFRAOACEA. 

Saxifraga  oppositifolia,  L.,  Ounalasbka,  Gape  Lisbume,  Kotzebue  sound,  and 
northern  coast. 

S.  broncbialis,  L.,  Kotzebue  sound,  Wainwright  inlet,  and  Ounalasbka. 

S.  nitida,  Scbreb.,  Ounalasbka ;  fide  Ledebour,  Flora  Rossica. 

S.  Escbscboltzii,  Stemb.,  Gape  Lisbume  and  Kotzebue  sound. 

B.  dagellaris,  Willd.,  Gape  Lisbume,  Kotzebue  sound,  and  Assistance  bay. 

S.  Hirculus,  L.,  Norton  sound  to  Point  Barrow,  and  on  northern  coast. 

S.  tricuspidata,  Retz,  Kotzebue  sound  and  Ounalasbka^  Fort  Youkon,  Mr. 
Dall. 

S.  serpyllifolia,  Pursh,  Cape  Lisbume,  Ounalasbka,  and  Island  of  St  Law- 
rence. 

S.  leucanthemifolia.  Lap.,  (S.  stellaris,  L.,  var.  Brunoniana,  Bongard,  V^. 
Sitka,)  Sitka  and  Gape  Prince  of  Wales. 


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S.  Davarica,  Pall.,  (Seemann  has  united  with  this  species  S.  flabellifolia,  and 
apparently  on  good  groands,)  Gape  Lisbome,  Kotzebue  soand  and  Oonalashkia. 

S.  nivalin,  L.,  Ounalashka,  Gape  Lisborne,  and  other  stations  on  the  coast. 

S.  cemaa,  L.,  Point  Barrow  to  Mackenzie  river,  Pullen. 

S.  hieracifolia,  W.  and  K.,  island  of  St.  Lawrence  and  Kotzebae  soond. 

S.  Nelsoniana,  Don,  (not  of  Hooker  and  Amott,  in  botany  of  Beechey's  Voy- 
age,) Norton  sound,  H.  M.  Bannister. 

S.  spicata,  Don,  Sledge  island  and  Gape  Prince  of  Wales. 

S.  punctata^  L.,  S.  ffistivalis,  Fischer,  Sitka,  Ounalashka,  and  Kotzebue 
sound. 

S.  arguta,  Don,  "northwest  coast.''    Where t 

S.  nudiciuilis,  Don,  between  Norton  and  Kotzebue  sounds;  fide  Ledebour, 
PI.  Ross. 

S.  heteranthera.  Hooker;  S.  Mertensiana,  Bong.,  Veg.,  Sitka |  ./k2$  Lede- 
bour, S.  sestivalis,  var.  T.  and  6.,  Sitka. 

S.  exilis,  Steph.,  bays  of  Schischmareff  and  Eschscholtz;  most  likely^  as  sug- 
gested by  J.  D.  Hooker,  only  a  weedy  state  of  S.  cemuay  L. 

S.  Sibirica,  L.,  Kotzebue  sound. 

S.  rivularis,  L.,  Kotzebue  sound. 

S.  c^espitosa,  L.,  Kotzebue  sound. 

S.  exarata,  VilL,  Ounalashka,  and  Kotzebue  sound. 

S.  sileniflora,  Stemb.,  Kotzebue  sound,  and  Ounalashka. 

S.  androsacea,  L.,  is  hardly  likely  to  be  identical  with  the  plant  said  by 
Pnrsh  to  inhabit  the  northwest  coast ;  I  do  not  therefore  include  it  in  this  list. 

Boykinia  Richardsonii,  Saxifraga  Richardsonii,  Hook. ;  S.  Nelsoniana,  Hook, 
and  Amott,  in  Botany  of  Beechey's  Voyage,  tab.  29. 

Leptarrhena  pyrifolia,  R.  Br.,  Ounalashka  and  Cape  Prince  of  Wales  t 

Chrysosplenium  alteniifolium,  L.,  Kotzebue  sound  to  Gape  Lisbume. 

Tellima  grandiflora,  Don^l.,  Sitka  and  the  islands  adjacent  the  coast. 

Tiarella  trifoliata,  L.,  Sitka  and  Alaskan  coast. 

Heuchera  glabra,  Willd.;  H.  divaricata,  Fisch.,  Sitka. 

XTMBBLLIFEItfi. 

Bupleurum  ranunculoides,  L.,  Port  Glarence  to  Gape  Lisbume;  Norton 
sound,  H.  M.  Bannister. 

Ligusticum  Scoticum,  L.,  Sitka,  Kodiak,  Kotzebue  sound,  and  Norton  sound. 

Conioselinum  Fischeri,  Wimm.  Grab.,  Sitka,  Ounalashka,  Kotzebue  sound, 
and  Arctic  coast. 

Heracleum  lanatuin,  Michx.,  Sitka. 

Osmorrhiza  nuda,  Torr. ;  0.  brevistylus,  Bongard,  Vegetation  of  Sitka,  Ouna- 
lashka, and  Sitka. 

Archangelica  officinalis,  Hoffm.,  Ounalashka  and  Kotzebue  sound;  Sitka, 
KelWg. 

A.  Gmelini,  DG.,  Sitka,  Ounalashka,  and  Kotzebue. 

ABALIACBiB. 

Panax  horridum,  Smith,  Bitka  and  Kodiak. 

Adoxa  Moschatellina,  L.,  Russian  America, ,/!(fe  Ledebour;  what  partt 

COBNACBiB. 

Gorans  Suecica,  L.,  common  on  western  coast  of  Alaska. 

C.  Unalaschkensis,  Ledebour,  Ounalashka. 

G.  Ganadensis,  L.,  Sitka. 

G.  stolonifera,  Michx. ;  Fort  Youkon,  DaU. 


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CAPBIFOLIACEiB. 

Sambucus  pabens,  Michx.^  Sitka. 

Vibumam  acerifoUam,  L. ;  Fort  Youkon,  Dall. 

V.  pauciflorum,  Pylaie ;  V.  acerifolium,  Bongard'e  Veg.  Sitka.  The  stipnli- 
form  appendages  appear  to  be  the  only  constant  difference  between  these  two 
species  in  my  specimens.  They  are  quite  vaiiable  in  length  of  stamens  and 
shape  of  corolla. 

Linnffia  borealis,  Gronov.,  Norton  and  Kotzebne  sounds,  and  Sitka  and  Ouna- 
lashka. 

BUBIACE^. 

Galium  trifidum,  L.,  Ounalashka  and  Sitka. 

G.  boreale,  L.;  G.  rubioides,  Hook,  and  Amott,  Bot.  Beechey,  fdt  Seemann, 
Eotzebue  sound,  River  Buckland,  Fort  Youkon,  and  banks  of  the  Yonkon  nver. 
G.  triflorum,  Michx.,  Sitka  and  Ounalashka. 
G.  aparine,  L.,  Sitka  and  Ounalashka. 

YALEBIANACE2B. 

Valeriana  dioica,   L.,  Norton  sound. 

V.  capitata,  Willd.,  Kotzebue  sound  to  Cape  lisbume,  Sitka;  Point  Bairow 
to  Mackenzie  riveri  Pullen. 

COMFOSITiB. 

Nardosmia  fri^da,  Hook.,  includes  N.  corymbosa,  Hook.;  Ounalashka,  Nor- 
ton sound;  and  the  northern  coast,  Pullen. 

Aster  multiflorus,  Ait.  Perhaps  we  may  include  under  this  A.  ramulosis, 
Lindl.,  and  A.  falcatus,  Lindl.  If  this  be  done,  we  have  one  polymorphio 
species,  ranging  from  Greorgia  to  Point  Barrow  and  Mackenzie  river,  and  fix>m 
Massachusetts  to  the  Bocky  mountains;  northern  coast,  Pullen. 

A.   peregrinus,  Pursh,  Ounalashka  and  Norfolk  sound. 

A.  foliaceus,  Lindl. ;  Ounalashka,  Fischer. 

A.  salsuginosns,  Richards.,  Sitka,  Ounalashka,  and  Kotzebue  sound. 

A.  alpinus,  L.,  Ounalashka,  2,000  feet  above  the  aeOjfide  Kellogg. 

A.  Sibiricus,  L. ;  including,  after  J.  D.  Hooker  and  Fries,  A.  montanus,  Rich- 
ards, and  A.  Richardsonii,  Spr. ;  Kotzebue  sound,  Ounalashka,  and  Point  Barrow, 
Pullen. 

Erigeron  uniflorum,  L.  Following  Fries,  I  include  under  this  species  E.  pul- 
chellum,  DC,  as  a  variety.  There  is  unquestionably  good  ground  lor  the  union ; 
Ounalashka  and  Cape  Lisbume. 

E.  glabellum,  Nutt.;Wainwright  inlet  to  Mackenzie  river;  var.  asperum.  Fort 
Youkon,  Dall.,  Rev.  McDonald,  and  Antoine  Houle. 

Solidago  Virga-aurea,  L.,  Ounalashka  to  Kotzebue  sound.  Capo  LisbumOi 
and  on  northern  coast;  var.  multiradiata.  Fort  Youkon,  Dall. 

S.  confertiflora,  DC,  Ounalashka  and  Cape  Mulgrave;  Kodiak,  Dr.  A.  Kel- 

Ptarmica  borealis,  DC,  Sitka. 

P.  Sibirica,  Ounalashka  and  Eschscholtz  bay. 

P.  spcciosa,  DC ;  given  by  Ledebour  on  the  authority  of  J.  G.  Gmelin  as 
a  native  of  this  region. 

Achillea  Millefolium,  L.,  Norton  sound,  Ounalashka,  Sitka,  and  Fort  Youkon. 

Leucanthemum  integrifolium,  DC,  Kotzebue  sound,  island  of  St  Lawrence, 
and  from  Point  Barrow  to  Mackenzie  river,  Pullen. 

L.  arcticum,  DC,  Norton  sound  to  Washington  inlet 

Matricaria  discoidea,  DC,  Sitka  and  Ounalashka. 


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SKETCH  OF  THE  FLORA  OF  ALASKA  449 

M.  inodora,  L.,  Kotzebne  sound.  M.  inodora  var.  eligulata  was  also  collected 
both  by  Bannister  and  Seemann  at  Norton  sound.  This  is  not  only  destitute  of 
rays,  but  is  also  stouter,  and  may,  as  Mr.  Seemann  suggests,  be  entitled  to  spe- 
cific rank. 

Tanacetum  Kotzebuense,  Bess.,  Cape  Espenberg,  fid&  Ledebour  ex  Escholtz. 

T.  Huronense,  Nutt,  Fort  Youkon,  Dall. 

Artemisia  borealis,  Pallas,  Kotzebue  sound  and  Arctic  coast,  and  what  seems 
to  be  a  variety  with  glomerate,  almost  capitate,  inflorescence,  firom  Sitka. 

A  vulgaris,  L. ;  var.  Tilesii,  Fort  St.  Michaels  and  western  and  northern  coasts. 

A.  glomerata,  Ledeb.  ?  Kotzebue  sound. 

A.  androsacea,  Seem,.  Bot.  Herald,  tab.  6 ;  A.  glomerata  of  Hooker  and 
Amott,  Bot.  Beechey,  but  not  of  Ledebour,  fide  Seemann.  This,  it  is  thought 
bv  Dr.  Hooker,  may  prove  "  an  arctic  tufted  variety  of  some  better  known 
plant.'' 

A.  globularia,  Cham.,  Ounalashka  and  island  of  St.  Lawrence. 

A.  arctica.  Less.,  Cape  Lisbume  and  Point  Hope,  and  possibly  Sitka. 

A.  Chamissonis,  Bess.  Seemann  states  that  though  A.  arctica  and  A.  Chamis- 
Bonis  are  by  some  authors  united,  they  may  at  once  be  dislinguished  by  their 
different  habits. 

A.  Absinthium,  L.  Given  by  Ledebour,  (Flora  Bossica,)  on  the  authority 
of  J.  G.  Gmelin,  as  a  doubtful  native  of  Kussian  America. 

Gnaphalium  sylvaticum,  L.,  Russian  America,  fi^  Ledebour  ex  J.  G. 
Gmelin. 

Antennaria  alpina,  Gaert.;  including  A.,  monocephala,  DC,  Kotzebue  sound,^ 
island  of  St.  Lawrence  and  Ounalashka. 

A.  dioica,  Gaert.,  islands  adjacent  to  the  American  coast,  Ledebour  ex  J*  G.. 
Gmelin. 

A.  margaritacea,  K.  Br.,  Sitka,  (Ferd.  Bischoff,)  and  Ounalashka. 

Arnica  angustifolia,  Vahl,  Kotzebue  sound  and  Fort  Youkon,  DalL 

A.  Chamissonis,  Less.,  Ounalashka. 

A.  obtusifolia,  Less.,  Ounalashka. 

A.  Uunalaschkensis,  Less.,  Ounalashka. 

A.  latifolia.  Bong.,  Sitka. 

Senecio  resedifolius.  Less.,  Gape  Lisbume  and  Kotzebue  sound. 

S.  frigidus.  Less.,  Kotzebue  sound.  Cape  Lisbume  and  island  of  St.  Lawrence.. 

S.  triangularis.  Hooker,  Sitka,  Eschscnoltz. 

S.  Pseudo-arnica,  Less.,  common  on  westem  shore  of  Alaska;,  also  on  Cha- 
misso  island. 

S.  aureus,  L.,  Fort  Youkon,  Antoine  Houle. 

S.  lugens,  Richards.  Kotzebue  sound  and  Cape  of  Good  Hope;  Fort  Youkon, 
Mr.  Dall. 

S.  palustris,  DC,  Norton  sound,  Kotzebue  sound,  Wainwright  inlet,  and  on 
the  northern  shore. 

S.  Hookeri,  T.  and  G.,  Kotzebue  sound. 

Saussurea  alpina,  L.,  Kotzebue  sound.  I  here  include  S.  monticola,  which 
Pullen  found  on  the  northern  shore  from  Point  Barrow  to  Mackenzie  river. 

S.  snbsinuata,  Ledeb.,  Kotzebue  sound,  Bot.  Herald,  tab.  7. 

Taraxacum  Dens  Leonis,  Desf.,  Kotzebue  sound  to  Point  Hope  and  northern 
coast,  Ounalashka;  var.  ceratophoram,  Ounalashka  and  Norton  sound. . 

T.  palustre,  DC.  Kotzebue  sound. 

T.  lyratum,  DC,  Ounalashka. 

Mulgedium  pulchellum,  Nutt.;  Point  Barrow  to  Mackenzie  river,  Pullen. 

Nabalns  alatus.  Hooker,  Ounalashka  and  Sitka. 

Apaigidium  boreale,  T.  and  G.,  Sitka. 

Hieracium  triste,  Willd.,  Ounalashka  and  Norfolk  sound. 


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450  SKETCH  OF  THE  FLOBA  OF  ALASKA 


CAMPANTLACE^. 

Campanula  daeyantba,  M.  a  Bieb.,  Ounalasbka  and  Cape  Prince  of  Wales. 

C.  rotundifolia,  L.,  C.  heterodoxa,  Vest.,  Sitka. 

C.  uniflora,  L.,  Kotzebue  sound,  Cape  Lisbume,  and  Oonalasbka. 

C.  lasiocarpa,  Cham.,  Kotzebue  sound  and  Ounalashka. 

ERICACEiE. 

Vaccininm  Vitis-IdsDa,  L.,  Ounalasbka,  St.  LawrenoO;  Sitka ;  from  Norton 
sound  to  Point  Barrow  and  on  the  northern  coast. 

V.  myrtilioides,  Hooker ;  Sitka,  Ferd.  Bischoffl 

V.  Myrtillus,  L.;  Sitka,  Ferd.  Bischoff. 

y.  Chainissonis,  Bong.,  Sitka  and  Ounalashka. 

V.  ovalifolium.  Smith ;  Sitka,  Ferd.  Bischoff. 

V.  parvifolinm,  Smith ;  Sitka,  Ferd.  Bischoff. 

y.  salicinum,  Cham,  and  Schlecht.,  Ounalashka. 

V.  ctespitosum,  Michx.,  Sitka. 

y .  uliginosum,  L.,  Sitka,  Ounalashka,  Kotzebue  sound,  and  the  northern  coast. 

Oxjcoccus  vulgaris,  Pnrsh,  Sitka,  Ounalashka,  and  Kotzebue  sound. 

Arctostaphylos  alpina,  Spreng.,  Ounalashka ;  Norton  sound  to  Point  Barrow ; 
also  on  the  Arctic  coast. 

A.  Uva-ursi,  Spreng.,  Ounalashka  and  Cape  Prince  of  Wales,  Aictio  coast, 
PuUen. 

Andromeda  polifolia,  L..  Sitka  and  Kotzebue  sound. 

Cassandra  calycnlata,  Don,  Kotzebue  sound. 

Cassiope  lycopodioides,  Don,  Ounalashka. 

C.  tetragona,  Don,  Island  of  St.  Lawrence,  Kotzebue  sound  to  Point  Bairow» 
and  on  the  Arctic  coast. 

C.  Mertensiana,  Don,  Sitka. 

C.  Stelleriana,  DC,  Sitka. 

Phyllodoce  Pallasiana,  Don,  Sitka  and  Ounalashka. 

Menziesia  femiginea,  Smith,  Sitka,  and  Ounalashka. 

Loiselcuria  procumbens,  Desv.,  Cape  Lisbume  and  islands  of  Ounalashka  and 
'Chamisso. 

Rhododendron  Lapponicum,  Wahl.,  Port  Clarence. 

,R.  Kamtschaticum,  Pall.,  Ounalashka. 

J^mia  glauca.  Ait.,  Sitka. 

Xedum  latifolium,  Ait.,  Sitka. 

L.  palustre,  L.,  Norton  sound  to  Point  Barrow  and  northern  coast.  This  and 
the  preceding  species  should  probably  be  united. 

Cladothamnus  pyrolaeflorus,  Bonff.,  Sitka. 

Pyrola  rotundifolia,  L.,  OunalasluLa^  Kotzebue  sound,  and  northern  coast. 

P.  minor,  L.,  Ounalashka. 

P.  secunda,  L.,  Sitka  and  Kotzebue  sound. 

Moneses  grandiflora,  Salisb.,  Sitka. 

LEKTIBULACRa. 

Pinguicula  vul^ris,  L.,  Sitka. 
P.  microceras,  Willd.,  Ounalashka. 
P*  macroceras,  Cham.,  Ounalashka. 

P.  villosa,  L.,  islands  of  Chamisso  and  Ounalashka ;  also,  Norton  sound,  H. 
M.  Bannister. 

FRIMTJLACE^. 

Primula  nivalis.  Pall.,  islands  of  Ounalashka  and  St.  Lawrence,  and  Kotze- 
bue sound. 


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SKETCH  OF  THE  FLORA  OF  ALASKA.  451 

P.  stricta,  Hornem.,  after  J.  D.  Hooker,  1.  c,  I  includo  under  this  speciea 
P.  HomeiuanniaDa  and  P.  Mistassinica,  both  of  G.  and  S.  and  of  Michx., 
Kotzebue  sound. 

Androsace  Chamaejasme,  Willd.,  Kotzebue  sound  to  Wainwright  inlet. 

A.  septentrionalis,  L.,  Kotzebue  sound  and  Chamisso  island,  Fort  Youkon, 
Antoine  Houle. 

A.  villosa  is  stated  by  Ledebour  to  have  been  found  at  Kotzebue  sound,  in 
Beechey's  Voyage.  I  see  no  record  of  it  in  Hooker  and  Amott's  list  of  plants 
collected  there.     Possibly  it  may  be  an  oversight  on  Ledebour's  part. 

Dodecatheon  Meadia,  L.,  Sitka,  Kotzebue  sound,  and  Gape  Lisbui-ne.  I  can 
find  no  valid  grounds  for  keeping  up  the  distinction  between  D.  Meadia,  D. 
integrifolium,  and  D.  frigidum.  The  last  is  probably  the  most  marked  variety 
of  the  number;  but  after  a  careful  comparison  of  the  forms  comprising  the  genus 
I  thiitk  it  safest  to  regard  them  as  varieties  of  a  widely  distributed  polymor- 
phic species. 

Glaux  maritima,  L.,  Sitka. 

Trientalis  Europaea,  L.,  Sitka,  Norton  sound ;  H.  M.  Bannister. 

GENTIANACBiE. 

G^ntian^  Amarella,  L.,  Sitka. 

G.  acuta,  Michx.,  Ounalashka. 

G.  tenella,  Rottb.,.  Kotzebue  sound. 

G.  detonsa.  Fries ;  Point  Barrow  to  Mackenzie  river,  Pullen ;  Fort  Youkon, 
Antoine  Houle. 

G.  propinqua,  Richards. ;  G.  Rurickiana,  Kotzebue  sound,  Port  Glarenoe,  and 
Norton  sound,  H.  M.  Bannister. 

G.  Aleutica,  Gham.,  Ounalashka. 

G.  prostrata,  Hsenke,  Ounalashka  and  Kotzebue  sound. 

G.  glauca.  Pall.,  Kotzebue  sound  and  Wainwright  inlet. 

G.  platypetala,  Griesb.;  Sitka,  Eschscholtz. 

G.  Douglasiana,  Bong.,  Sitka. 

Pleurogyne  rotata,  Griesb.,  Kotzebue  sound,  river  Buckland  and  Arctic 
coast. 

Swertia  perennis,  L.,  Kodiak,  Dr.  A.  Kellogg ;  S.  perennis,  L.,  var.  obtasa, 
Kodiak,  Dr.  A.  Kellogg. 

ViUarsia  Grista-galU,  Griesb.,  Sitka. 

Menyanthes  trifoliata,  L.,  Ounalashka  and  Sitka. 

POLEMONIACBJB. 

Phlox  Sibirica,  L.,  Kotzebue  sound. 

Polemonium  cseruleum,  L.,  Norton  sound  to  Point  Barrow;  islands  of  St. 
George,  Ounalashka,  and  Chamisso ;  Fort  Youkon,  Dall.  I  recognize  but  two 
species  of  this  genus  belonging  to  northern  North  America — the  one,  P.  reptans, 
L.,  which  is  well  marked,  and  the  other  P.  cffiruleum,  L.,  as  made  up  of  all  the 
others.  Nu&erous  as  the  forms  and  wide  as  the  extremes  of  the  latter  aggregate 
species  are,  they  can  easily  be  connected.  Even  P.  pulchellum,  Bunge,  which 
is  perhaps  the  best  marked  variety,  shades  off  by  insensible  gradations  into  the 
others. 

")iapenBia  Lapponica,  L.,  island  of  St.  Lawrence. 

BOBBAGINACE^. 

Mertensia  maritima,  Don,  Sitka,  Norton  sound  to  Point  Barrow  and  Gape 
Bathurst. 

M.  paniculata,  Don,  M.  pilosa,  DG.;  Kotzebue  sound;  Fort  Youkon,  Antoine 
Houle  and  Mr.  Dall. 

M.  Sibirica,  Don;  M.  denticulata,  Don,  Kotzebue  sound.  r^r\r^n]i^ 

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452  SKETCH  OP  THE  FLORA  OP  ALASKA. 

Myosotis  sylvatica,  Hoflin.,  Cape  Lisburne  and  Arctic  coast. 

Echinospermum  Redowskii,  Lehm.?  Fort  Youkon,  Rev.  McDonald. 

Eritricliium  villosum,  Bunge.  I  include  here,  ^ter  J.  D.  Hooker,  1.  c.  E, 
aretioides  A.  DC,  which  form  is  found  at  Gape  Lisburne  and  island  of  St.  Law- 
rence, Tab.  viii,  Bot.  Herald. 

E.  plebejum,  Alph.  DC,  Ounalashka. 

HTDROPHYLLACE^. 

Bonianzoffia  Unalaschkensis,  Cham.,  Ounalashka. 
B.  Sitchensis,  Cham.,  Sitka. 

SCROPHULARIACEiE. 

Pentstemon  frutescens,  Lamb.,  Ounalashka.  Not  found  since  Pallas  is  said 
to  have  discovered  it  in  E^amtschatka  and  in  the  island  of  Ounalashka. 

Mimulus  luteus,  L.,  M.  guttatus,  DC,  Cape  St.  Elias,  Ounalashka,  Kodiak, 
and  Sitka. 

Veronica  Anagallis,  L.,  Sitka. 

V.  Americana,  Schweinitz,  Sitka,  Ferd.  Bischoff. 

v.  Beccabunga.  L.,  Ounalashka. 

V.  Stelleri,  Pall.,  Ounalashka. 

V.  alpina,  L.,  Sitka  and  Ounalashka. 

V.  serpyllifolia,  L.,  Sitka  and  Ounalashka. 

Castilleja  pallida,  Kunth,  Sitka,  Kotzebue  sound,  Chamisso  island  and  Arcdo 
coast ;  Fort  Youkon,  Dall.  J.  D.  Hooker  has  included,  and  I  think  justly, 
under  this  species  0.  septentrionalis,  Lindl.  Professor  Gray  has  also  united 
them,  in  the  last  edition  of  his  Manual  of  Botany ;  also,  in  his  revision  of  the 
genus,  (see  Am.  Jour.  Sci.,  second  series,  vol.  xxxiv,  p.  44.) 

C  parviflora.  Bong.,  Sitka.  •*  This  is  apparently  the  commonest  species  and 
of  widest  range  west  of  the  Kocky  mountains,  extencMng  from  Russian  America 
to  southern  California." — Gray,  1.  c. 

Rhinanthus  Crista-galli,  L.,  Ounalashka. 

Pedicularis  verticiliata,  L.,  Sitka  and  the  islands  generally;  also,  Kotzebao 
sound. 

P.  Chamissonis,  Stev.,  Ounalashka. 

P.  pedicellata,  Bunge,  P.  nasuta.  Bong.,  in  Veg.  Sitka,  non  M.  a  Bieb.  fide 
Ledeb.  Fl.  Rossica,  Sitka. 

P.  subnuda,  Benth.,  Sitka,  Barclay. 

P.  palustris,  L.,  Arctic  America,  at  Bay  of  Good  Hope,  fide  Ledebour  in  FI. 
Ross. 

P.  euphrasioides,  Steph.,  Norton  and  Kotzebue  sounds ;  islands  of  Chamisso 
and  Kodiak. 

P.  Sudetica,  L.,  Cape  Lisburne,  Kotzebue  sound,  Arctic  coa.st  and  island  of 
St.  Lawrence.  J.  D.  Hooker  suggests  uniting  with  this  P.  Langsdorffii.  On 
his  authority  I  admit  the  reduction. 

P.  hirsuta,  L.,  including  here  P.  lanata,  Willd.,  as  done  by  Bentham,  fide  J. 
D.  Hooker;  islands  of  St.  George  and  St.  Lawrence,  Kotzebue  sound  and  Arctio 
coast. 

P.  versicolor,  Wahlenb.,  Kotzebue  sound  and  island  of  St.  Lawrence. 

P.  capitata,  Adams,  Kotzebue  sound,  Arctic  coast  and  Ounalashka. 

OBOBANCHACEiE. 

Boschniakia  glabra,  C  A.  Meyer,  Sitka  and  Kotzebue  sound. 

SELAGINACE^. 

Gyranandra  Gmolini,  Cham,  et  Schlecht.,  Ounalashka,  St.  Lawrence  island  t 
G.  Stelleri,  Cham,  et  Schlocht.,  Kofzohuft  Round,  island  of  Stjjawrencet 

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SKETCH  OF   THE  FLORA  OF   AT.AftiTA,  453 

LABIATE. 

Dracocephalum  pavifloram,  L.,  Fort  Youkon,  Antoine  Hoole. 

Bninella  vulgaris,  L.,  Sitka  and  Ounalashka. 

GalcopsisTetrahitl.;  Sitka,  Kellogg.  Introdaced,  most  likely.  It  is,  however, 
found  in  Kamtschatka,  bat  not  being  known  to  exist  elsewhere  between  these 
two  points  we  can  hardly  accoont  for  its  pre&ence  in  Sitka  by  strictly  natural 
agencies. 

PLUMBAGINACE^. 

Statice  Armeiiay  L.,  Ounalashka,  Kotzebue  sound,  and  northern  coast 

PLANTAGINACE^. 

Plantago  major,  L.,  Sitka,  banks  of  Youkon  river,  DalL 

P.  macrocarpa,  Cham,  et  Schlecht.,  Sitka  and  Ounalashka. 

P.  maritima,  L.,  Sitka  and  Ounalashka. 

P.  media,  L.,  Russian  America,  fide  J.  G.  Gmelin.    What  part  t 

POLYGONACRB. 

Oxyria  reniformis,  Hook.,  islands  of  Sitka,  Ounalashka  and  St.  Lawrence, 
Kotzebue  sound,  Cape  Lisbume  and  Arctic  coast. 

Bumex  salicifolius,  Weinm.,  Sitka. 

R.  Acetosa,  L.,  Kotzebue  sound. 

R.  domesticus,  Hartm.,  Sitka,  Ounalashka,  and  Kotzebue  sound  to  Wain- 
wright  inlet. 

Polygonum  Bistorta,  L.,  Kotzebue  sound  to  Point  Barrow  and  northern 
coast. 

P.  viviparum,  L.,  Sitka,  Ounalashka,  and  along  the  coast  generally. 

P.  polymorphum,  Ledeb.,  var.  lapathifolium,  Ledeb.,  Kotzebue  sound.  P. 
alpinum.  Hook,  et  Amott  in  Beechey's  voyage,  fide  Ledebour,  Kotzebue  sound. 
Professor  Gray  informs  me  that  one  of  the  doubtful  forms  I  have  sent  him 
from  Mr.  DalFs  Fort  Youkon  collection  is  exactly  P.  alpinum  as  found  at  Kotze- 
bue sound.  It  has  an  exserted  broadly  winged  achenium.  The  lower  leaves, 
however,  are  not  so  reduced  as  in  P.  tripterocarpum,  the  description  of  which  1 
append  in  a  foot-note.  I  have,  however,  some  older  fruit  of  it  than  he  had,  and 
am  led  to  think  it  may  yet  prove  P.  tripterocarpum. — Gray.  The  description 
of  which  I  insert  below.* 

P.  avicnlare,  L.,  Sitka. 

*  **  Polygonum  tripterocarpum,  Gray,  n.  sp.,  caule  erecto  vel  assurgente  simplici  vel 
parce  ramoso,  loneitudmaliter  striato  glabro  vel  ad  nodos  deorsumque  breviter  retrorso 
pubescente  ;  foliis  (inferioribus  ad  ochream  reductis)  patentibus  lineari-lanceolatis  acumi- 
ziatis  basi  angustatU  breviter  petiolatis  glabris  vel  subtus  ad  nervum  puberulis  margine 
ciliatis  undulatisque  inferioribus  supra  basim  tertia  parte  superioribus  imn  basi  insertis ; 
ocbreis  laxis  nervoso — striatis  rufis  glabris  vel  basi  pubescentious ;  panicula  angusta  foliata ; 
bracteis  latis  1-2  flores ;  pedicellis  exsertis  florum  sequantibus  supra  medium  articulatis 
sepalis  ovalibus  vel  obovatis  obtusis ;  staminlbus  ovarii  dimidium  lequantibus ;  acbenio 
exserto  calyce  5-4 — plo  longiore  obovato  late  trialato  stylis  3  recurvatis  coronato  stig^atibus 
capitatis ;  semine  (immaturo)  valde  stipitato.*' 

Coal  bay,  J.  Small ;  Arakamtchetchene  island,  C.  Wright.  The  specimens  from  two  or 
three  rather  remote  localities  are  8-15  inches  bigh,  erect  or  slightly  assurgent  at  the  base ; 
the  sbort  lower  joints  two  or  three  times  as  long  as  the  rather  inflated  leafless  sheaths. 
Some  of  the  specimens  are  clothed  at  and  below  the  nodes  of  the  middle  of  the  stem  with  a 
more  or  less  dense  retrorse  pubescence,  while  the  lower  and  upper  parts  are  nearly  or  quite 
smooth.  The  points,  however,  in  which  they  seem  to  differ  most  from  P.  polymorphum, 
P.  divaricatum,  and  other  alUed  species,  are  in  their  conspicuously  exserted  and  broadly 
winged  achenium  as  well  as  in  their  rather  strict,  nearly  unbranched  habit.*'  Professor 
Gray's  MSS.  (Mr.  Dall  found  the  same  species  at  Plover  ba^,  and  if  the  form  P.  polymor- 
phum var.  lapathifolium  does  not  prove  P.  tripterocarpum  it  is  likely  the  latter  may  yet  be 
found  on  the  American  side.) 


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454  SKETCH  OF  THE  FLORA  OF  ALASKA. 


EMPETBACSJB. 

Empetnim  nigrum,  L.,  Sitka,  St.  Lawrence,  Oonalaslikai  Norton  sonnd  to 
Point  Barrow  and  Arctic  coast. 

SALICACKfi.f 

Salix  myrtiUoides,  L.,  Kotzebue  sound. 

8.  Lapponum,  L.,  Kotzebue  sound. 

S.  glanca,  L.,  Gape  Espenberg  and  Gbamisso  island. 

S.  arctica,  Pall.,  Onnalasbka  and  Kotzebue  sound. 

S.  myrsinites,  L.,  island  of  St.  Lawrence,  fidt  Ledebour. 

S.  ovalifolia,  Tiautvett. ;  S.  Uva-ursi,  Seemann,  Bot.  Herald,  {fide  Ander- 
son,) Kotzebue  sound,  Gape  Espenberg,  and  Island  of  Ounalasbka. 

S.  rbamnifolia,  (Pall?)  Ounalasbka. 

S.  glacialis,  Anders.,  between  Gape  Barrow  and  Mackenzie  river,  ''  Gaptain 
PuUen." 

S.  reticulata,  L.,  Ounalasbka,  Kotzebue  sound.  Gape  Lisbume,  and  Arctic 
coast. 

S.  pblebopbylla,  Anders.,  Ounalasbka,  island  of  St.  Lawrence^  and  Kotzebne 
sound. 

S.  polaris,  Wahl.,  Wainwrigbt  inlet. 

S.  speciosa,  Hook,  et  Am.,  in  Bot.  Beecbey,  Kotzebue  sound. 

S.  Ricbardsoni,  Hook.,  Kotzebue  sound  to  Gape  Lisbume. 

S.  Barclayi,  Anders.,  Kodiak. 

S.  pbyllicoides,  Anders.,  westem  Arctic  America,  (Avatscha  bay,  Seemann.) 

S.  cordata,  Mubl.,  var.  Mackenziana,  Point  Barrow,  and  along  Arctic  coast. 
Tbis  form  Anderson  regards  as  a  bybrid  between  S.  cordata  and  S.  vagante. 

S.  Sitcbensis,  Ledeb.,  Sitka.  . 

Populus  balsamifera,  L.,  Ghilcabt,  Kellogg ;  Youkon  river,  Dall. 

ITRTICACEffi. 

IJrtica  dioica,  L.,  Sitka,  fide  Bongard. 

BBTULAC&fi. 

Betula  glandulosa,  Micbx.,  Youkon  river,  Dall. 
B.  nana,  L.,  Norton  sound,  Gbamisso  island,  and  Point  Barrow. 
B.  Ermani,  Gbam.,  Ounalasbka. 

Alnns  viridi&L  DO.,  Sitka,  Ounalasbka,  Norton  sound,  Kotzebue  sound,  and 
nortbera  coast,  Youkon  river,  Dall. 
A.  mbra.  Bong.,  Sitka. 
A.  incana,  WiUd.,  Kotzebue  sound. 

MYRICACEJB. 

Myrica  Gale,  L.,  Sitka. 

coyrFKRJt.* 


Abies  Ganadensis,  Micbx.,  Sitka. 
A.  Mertensiana,  Bong.,  Sitka. 


t  Mr.  Dall  collected,  in  the  spring  of  1867,  a  larre  number  of  willows,  but  owing  to  his 
short  stay  in  a  given  locality  was  of  course  unable  to  match  the  sexes  or  to  obtain  the 
leaves.    For  want  of  material  I  am  therefore  compelled  to  pass  them  bj. 

*  For  want  of  material  I  am  obliged  to  accept  tne  determination  of  Ledeboar*s  Flora  Ros- 
sica  in  regard  to  this  order  almost  **in  toto.**  I  have,  however,  kept  up  the  distinction 
between  A\nt9  and  F'vku*  for  manifest  xw — 


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SKETCH  OP  THE  FLOfiA  OP  ALASKA.  455 

A.  Sitcheneis,  Bong.,  Sitka. 

A.  alba,  Micbx.,  northwestern  Alaska,  wliere,  according  to  Seemann,  it  grows 
from  twenty  to  twenty-five  feet  higb. 

Finns  Oembra,  L.,  Kotzebue  sound,  fide  Bongard  and  Hooker  and  Amott, 

P.  contorta,  Dougl.,  Sitka.  I  can  bardly  tbink  tbis  is  P.  inops  of  Ait.,  as  is 
alleged  by  some  autbors. 

Tbuja  excelsa,  Bong.,  Sitka  and  soutbem  Russian  America. 

Juniperus  nana^  WUld.,  Sitka. 

SALSOLACEA. 

Teloxys  aristata,  Moquin-Tandon  j  Russian  America,  Pallas. 

Atriplex  littoralis,  L.,  Kotzebne  and  Norton  sound. 

A.  Gmelini,  C.  A.  Meyer,  Bong.,  Veg.  Sitka,  Kotzebue  sound  and  Sitka. 

Corispermum  byssopifolium,  Stev.,  Point  Barrow  to  Mackenzie  river,  Pullen. 

Blitum  capitatum,  L.,  Fort  Youkon,  Rev.  McDonald. 

TYPHACEiB. 

Sparganium  natans,  L.,  Kotzebue  sound  and  Ounalasbka. 

ABOIDB^. 

Lysicbiton  Kamtscbatcense,  Scbott ;  Draconticum  Kamtscbatcense,  L. ;  Sym- 
plocarpus  Kamtscbaticus,  Bongard;  Arctiodi*acon  Kamtscbaticum,  Gray  on 
tbo  Botany  of  Japan,  in  Memoirs  of  American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences, 
new  series,  vol.  2,  pp.  408-9;  Sitka,  BiscbofiP.  I  give  tbe  description  and 
some  remarks  on  tbe  affinities  of  tbis  plant,  by  Professor  Gray,  1.  c. 

Lysicbiton  Scbott.  "Spadix  nudus,  scapum  terminans,  cylindricus.  Flores 
hermapbroditi,  Perigynium  tetrapbyllum,  basi  ovarii  adnatum,  pbyllis  obovatis 
membranaceis snbconcavis.  Stamina,  4 ;  filamenta  plana ;  antberae  extrorsffi,  bilo- 
culares,  loculis  ovalibus  rima  longitudinal!  ex  apice  fere  ad  basim  debiscentibus. 
Ovarium  biioculare,  rarius  abortu  uniloculare ;  stylus  conicus,  stigmate  depresso 
simplici  terminatus.  Ovula  in  loculis  solitaria,  disseipmento  pauIo  supra  basim 
inserta,  borizontalia,  ortbotropa.  Pericarpia  camosa,  1-2  sperma,  in  recepata- 
culum  commune  spongiosum  coalescentia,  stylo  orasso-conico  acuto  apiculata, 
Semine  baud  visa.* — Herbse  paludosae,  boreali-Paciticse,  acaules ;  foliis  magnis 
Symplocarpi  cum  scapo  elongato  co^taneis  e  rbizomate  crasso  borizontali  ortis ; 
spatba  vaginante  supeme  in  limbum  lanceolatum  sen  ellipticum  coloratum 
explanatum. 

From  our  skunk  cabbage  tbe  new  genus  is  distinguisbed  by  tbe  elongated 
scape,  tbe  membranaceous  spatba  or  sbcatb,  the  spiciform  spadix,  tbe  membra- 
naceous periantb,  tbe  borizontal  ortbotropous  ovules,  and  probably  bv  tbe  nature 
of  tbe  fruit,  wbicb  I  bave  not  seen  mature.  I  lay  little  stress  upon  tbe  bilocular 
ovary,  because  one  of  tbe  cells  is  occasionally  abortive  or  wanting  in  tbe  Japan- 
ese plant,  and  because  tbe  ovary  of  Symplocarpus  itself  not  rarely  exbibits  ves- 
tiges of  a  second  cell.''    Gray,  1.  c. 


NAIDACE2B. 


Zostera  marina,  L.,  Ounalasbka. 
Potamogeton  natans,  L.,  Sitka. 
P.  rufescens,  Besser,  Ounalasbka. 


*  "  Semen  ventre  plonam,  dorso  convexam,  ambitu  ellipticom.    Embryo  macropodos."- 
ProdromuB  Systematia  Aroideam,  p.  420,  H.  G.  Schott 


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456  SKETCH   OF   THE   FLORA  OF   ALASKA. 


JITNCAGIKACKaS. 

Triglochin  maritimum,  L.,  Sitka. 
T*.  palustro,  L.,  Ounalaehka. 

OBCHIDACEJC. 

Gorallorbiza  MertenBiana,  lindl.,  Sitka. 

C.  innata,  R.  Br.,  Kotzebue  sound  and  Oonalasbka. 

Microstylis  diphyllos,  Lindl,  Ounalashka. 

Calypso  borealis,  Salisb.,  Sitka ;  Ferd.  Biscboff. 

Orchis  latifolia,  L.,  Ounalashka. 

Platanthera  obtusata,  Lindl.,  Kotzebue  sound. 

P.  Schischmareffiana,  Lindl.,  Ounalashka. 

P.  Koenigii,  Lindl.,  Ounalashka. 

P.  dilatata,  Lindl.,  Sitka  and  Ounalashka. 

Peristylus  Chorisianus,  Lindl.,  Ounalashka. 

P.  bracteatus,  Lindl.,  Ounalashka. 

Listera  cordata,  R.  Br.,  Sitka  and  Ounalashka. 

L.  Eschscholtziana,  Cham.,  Ounalashka. 

Spiranthes  Romanzoffiana,  Cham.,  Ounalashka. 

Cypripedium  guttatum,  Swartz,  Ounalashka. 

IKIDACEiE. 

Sisyrinchium  Bermudiana,  L.,  var.  anceps.,  Sitka. 
Lis  Sibirica^  L.,  Norton  and  Kotzebue  sounds. 

SMTLACKS. 

Streptopus  amplexifolius,  DC,  Sitka  and  Ounalashka. 

S.  roseus,  Michx.,  Sitka. 

Smilacina  bifolia,  Ker.,  Sitka.  The  large-leaved  form  appears  most  common 
by  far,  if  we  may  judge  fix)m  the  proportion  of  it  in  the  collections  made  at 
Sitka. 

LILIACEJB. 

Lloydia  serotina,  Reichenb.,St.  Lawrence  and  Ounalashka  islands,  Cape  lis- 
bume  and  Kotzebue  sound. 

Fritillaria  Kamtschatcensis,  Fisch.,  Sitka,  and  Ounalashka,  and  Cape  Prince 
of  Wales. 

Allium  Schoenoprasum,  L.,  Port  Clarence,  Norton  and  Kotzebue  sounds, 
and  rapids  of  Youkon  river,  Dall. 

Zygadenus  glaucus,  Nutt.,  Kotzebue  sound ;  Port  Clarence,  Arctic  coast,  and 
Fort  Youkon,  Dall. 

Veratrum  Eschscholtzii,  Gray,  Sitka. 

Tofieldia  coccinea,  Richards.,  Kotzebue  sound,  Chamisso  island,  and  Oi^ 
Lisburne. 

T.  glutinosa,  Pursh,  Sitka. 

JUNCACILE. 

Luzula  pilosa,  Willd.,  Sitka  and  Kotzebue  sound. 

L.  spadicea,  DC,  Sitka,  Ounalashka,  and  Kotzebue  sound. 

L.  arcuata,  Wahl.,  Kotzebue  sound,  islands  of  St.  Lawrence  and  Ounalashka. 

L.  campestris,,  DC.,  Ounalashkr  ^  Kotzebue  sound. 

L.  spicata,  DC.,  island  of  St.  J  "otzebue  sound. 


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SKETCH  OP  THE  FLORA  OF  AXASKA,  457 

Joncus  BalticuB,  Dethard,  Cape  Espenberg,  Norton  sound,  and  Ounalashka. 

J.  arcticus,  Willd.,  Sitka. 

J.  enBifolius,  Wickstrom,  Ounalashka. 

J.  falcatus,  E.  Meyer,  Ounalashka  and  Sitka. 

J.  castanens,  Smith,  Sitka,  Ounalashka,  and  Kotzebue  sound. 

J.  biglumis,  L.,  Kotzebue  sound. 

J.  Drummondi,  Ledeb.,  Ounalashka. 

J.  paradoxus,  Meyer,  is  given  by  Ledebour  as  a  doubtful  native  of  Sitka. 

CYPBRACEiE. 

Scirpus  cffispitosus,  L.,  Ounalashka  and  Sitka. 

S.  sylvaticus,  L.,  Sitka. 

Eriophorum  vaginatum,  L.,  Sitka. 

E.*Scheuchzeri,  Hoppe,  Kotzebue  sound,  and  Sitka,  ./icfe  Mertens. 

E.  Charoissonis,  C.  A.  Meyer,  Sitka  and  Ounalashka. 

E.  callitrix,  Cham.,  Island  of  St.  Lawrence. 

E.  latifolium,  L.,  including  E.  polystachyum,  E.  angustifolium,  and  E.  gra- 
cile,  Sitka,  Norton  sound  to  Point  Barrow  and  the  Arctic  coast.  "  The  suky 
hair  of  the  cotton  grasses  is  used  by  the  Esquimaux  as  a  substitute  for  tinder,'' 
Seemann. 

Rhynchospora  alba,  Vahl.,  Sitka. 

Elyna  spicata,  Schrad.,  Arctic  coast,  PuUen. 

Carex  leiocarpa,  C.  A.  Meyer,  Sitka  and  Ounalashka. 

C.  micropoda,  C.  A.  Meyer,  Ounalashka. 

C.  circinata,  C.  A.  Meyer,  Sitka  and  Ounalashka. 

C.  nigricans,  C.  A.  Meyer,  Sitka  and  Ounalashka. 

C.  pauciflora,  Lightf.,  Sitka. 

C.  elongata,  L.,  Sitka, 

C.  leporina,  L.,  Ounalashka. 

C.  lagopina,  WahL,  Kotzebue  sound. 

C.  Norvegica,  Willd.,  Sitka  and  Kotzebue  sound 

C.  caneseens,  L.,  Sitka. 

G.  steUulata,  Good.,  Sitka  and  Ounalashka. 

C.  remota,  L.,  Sitka. 

C.  Buxbaumii,  WahL,  Sitka. 

C.  Mertensii,  Prescott,  Ounalashka  and  Sitka. 

C.  atrata,  L.,  Kotzebue  sound. 

C.  Gmelini,  Hook.,  Sitka,  Ounalashka,  and  Kotzebue  sound. 

C.  livida,  WahL,  Sitka. 

C.  capillaris,  L. ;  Ounalashka,  Eschscholtz. 

C.  rariflora,  Smith,  Ounalashka ;  and  Bay  of  Schischmareff,  Eschscholtz. 

C.  rotundata,  WahL,  Kotzebue  sound.  * 

C.  macrochaeta,  C.  A.  Meyer,  Ounalashka  and  Sitka. 

C.  melanocarpa,  Cham.,  Island  of  St.  Lawrence. 

C.  stylosa,  C.  A.  Meyer,  Sitka  and  Ounalashka. 

C.  limosa,  L.,  Sitka. 

C.  saxatilis,  WahL,  Kotzebue  sound  and  Norton  sound. 

C.  MBspitosa,  L.,  Sitka  and  Kotzebue  sound. 

C.  stricta,  Good.,  Kotzebue  sound. 
I     C.  aquatilis,  WahL,  Ounalashka  and  Kotzebue  sound. 

C.  cryptocarpa,  C.  A.  Meyer,  Sitka,  Ounalashka,  and  Kotzebue  sound. 

C.  acuta,  L.,  Sitka. 

C.  vesicaria,  L.,  Sitka  and  Kotzebue  sound. 

0.  fiiliginosa,  Stemb.,  Kotzebue  and  Norton  sound.* 

*  Not  having  access  to  Boott's  ereat  work  oo  Garex  I  have  followed  Ledebour  as  the 
latest  available  authority.    Most  likely  some  modification  of  this  list  will  yet  be  needed. 


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458  SKETCH  OP  THE  FLOKA  OF  ALASKA. 

GBAMINBJB, 

Hordeum  pratense,  L.,  Sitka  and  Onnalasbka. 
H.  jubatum,  L. ;  Fort  Youkon,  Antoine  Hoole. 
ElymuB  SibiricuB,  L.,  Sitka. 
E.  arenarius,  L.,  Norton  sound  to  Point  Bairow. 

E.  mollis,  Trin.,  Sitka,  Norton  and  Kotzebae  sounds. 
Triticum  repens,  L.,  Kotzebuo  sound. 

Festuca  ovina,  L.,  Kotzebuo  sound. 

F.  rubra,  L.,  Sitka  and  Kotzebue  sound;  united  by  Messrs.  Hooker  and  Gray 
Nvith  F.  ovina. 

F.  subulata,  Bong.,  Sitka. 
Bromus  ciliatus,  £.,  Kotzebue  sound. 
B.  subulatus,  Ledeb.,  Ounalashka. 
B.  Aleutensis,  Trin.,  Ounalasbka. 

B.  Sitchensis,  Bong.,  Sitka. 

Poa  stenantha,  Trin.,  Ounalasbka,  Sitka,  and  in  America  ArctiGa  ad  Fretnm 
Senjawin,  Ledebour  Flora  Rossica,  vol.  iv,  p.  372.t 

P.  flavicans,  Ledeb.,  Ounalasbka. 

P.  arctica,  R.  Br.,  Kotzebue  sound,  Ounalasbka,  and  Sitka. 

P.  cenisia,  All.,  Ounalasbka,  Cape  lisbume,  and  Kotzebue  sound.  I  here 
include  P.  abbreviata,  Br. 

P.  rotundata,  Trin.,  Ounalasbka. 

P.  nemoralis,  L.,  Kotzebue  sound. 

P.  annua,  L.,  Sitka. 

P.  pratensis,  L.,  Kotzebue  sound  and  Ounalashka. 

Colpodium  fiilvum,  Ledeb.,  Kotzebue  sound. 

Dupontia  psilosantba,  Rapr.,  Kotzebue  sound. 

Catabrosa  aquatica,  Beauv.,  Sitka;  fide  Ledebour 

C.  algida.  Fries,  Kotzebue  sound. 
Atropis  maritima,  Ledeb.,  Sitka. 

A.  angustata,  Ledeb.,  Kotzebue  sound. 

Glyceria  aquatica,  Smith,  Sitka. 

6.  glumai-is,  Ledeb.,  islands  of  St.  Lawrence  and  Sitka,  peninsula  of  AlnaTrfi^ 
and  Kotzebue  sound. 

Hierochloa  borealis,  R.  and  Scbult.,  Ounalasbka  and  Kotzebue  sound. 

H.  alpina,  R.  and  Scbult.,  Ounalasbka,  Kotzebue  sound,  and  Arctic  coast. 

Trisetum  subspicatum,  Trin.,  Ounalasbka  and  Kotzebue  sound;  and  from 
Point  Ban'ow  to  Mackenzie  river,  Pullen. 

T.  sesquiflorum,  Trin.,  Ounalasbka. 

T.  cemuum,  Trin.,  Sitka. 

Aira  csespitosa,  Trin.,  Ounalasbka,  and  main  land. 

A.  csespitosa,  Trin.,  var.  Bottnica ;  Sitka,  Biscboff  and  Kellogg.  In  looking 
o\  er  the  specimens  of  A.  cfespitosa  in  Herb.,  Gray,  I  find  one  from  the  Sandwich 
islands  and  another  from  Fort  Vancouver,  both  of  which  appear  identical  with 
our  forms  from  Sitka.  Tbey  having  been  authentically  named  by  Colonel  Munro 
as  Aira  c^spitosa,  var.  Bottnica,  I  have  labelled  the  Shkau  specimens  in  accord- 
ance with  his  determination.  Trinius,  in  Icones  Graminum,  in  the  text  fronting 
his  A.  flexuosa,  var.  Bottnica,  speaks  of  an  Aira  very  similar  to  A.  Bottnica 

f  Not  being  able  to  find  fretnm  Seujawin  in  Arctic  American  maps,  I  applied  to  Prof. 
8.  F.  Baird  for  a  solution  of  the  difficulty .  He  informs  me  it  is  on  the  Asiatic  side,  latitudo 
64^  45'  north,  lon^tude  172^  35'  west,  between  Kayne  island  and  the  Asiatic  shore.  Misled 
by  Ledebour  placing  the  strait  on  the  American  siJe,  I  concluded  it  must  be  the  Seguam  pass 
in  the  Aleutian  island  chain.  However,  as  Professor  Baird  is  positive,  we  may  regard  the 
locality  as  settled.  Dr.  J.  D.  Hooker  seems  to  have  experienced  a  similar  difficulty  in 
regard  to  the  same  locality. ' 


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SKETCH  OP  THE  FLORA  OP  ALASKA.  459 

being  found  at  Sitka  by  Mertens.  Bongard  is  silent  on  the  subject  in  "  Vegeta- 
tion of  Sitka,"  though  I  find  in  Herb.,  Gray,  a  specimen  similar  to  the  Sitkan 
ones  marked  (but  from  Ounalashka)  as  A.  caespitosa,  var.  longiflora.  Trinius, 
L  c,  vol.  iii,  writes  of  the  same  plant  from  Sitka,  "cfieterum  hac  varietate  tran- 
situs  quidam  sistitur  ab  A.  caespitosa  ad  flexuosam  f  which  statement  seems  pro- 
bable enough. 

A.  arctica,  Trin,,  Kotzebue  sound,  Ounalashka,  Sitka,  and  interior  of  the 
country. 

A.  atropurpurea,  Schoele,  Sitka,  Ounalashka,  and  from  Point  Barrow  to  Mac- 
kenzie river. 

Calamagrostis  Aleutica,  Trin.,  Ounalashka  and  Sitka. 

C.  purpurascens,  R.  Br.,  Fort  Youkon.  Rev.  McDonald,  Gray  and  Torrey 
regard  this  as  a  form  of  C.  sylvatica,  DC. 

C.  strigosa,  Wahl.,  Sitka.     Munro  unites  with  this  C.  Aleutica,  Bong. 

C.  ne^ecta,  Gsertner,  Kotzebue  soundt 

C.  Lapponica,  Trin.,  Ounalashka. 

C.  Canadensis,  Beauv.,  Kotzebue  sound. 

C.  Langsdorffii,  Trin.,  Kotzebue  sound,  Eschscholtz. 

Arctagrostis  latifolia,  Ledeb.,  Kotzebue  sound  and  Arctic  coast. 

Cinna  latifolia,  Ledeb.,  Sitka. 

Agrostis  eequivalvis,  Trin.,  Sitka  and  Ounalashka. 

A.  exarata,  Trin.,  Ounalashka,  Sitka,  and  Kodiak. 

A.  geminata,  Trin.,  Ounalashka. 

A.  bxiflora,  R.  Br. ;  Ounalashka,  Mertens. 

Phleum  pratense,  L.,  Alaska,  where  it  thrives  well,  according  to  Kellogg ; 
but  in  what  part  of  Alaska  ? 

F.  alpinum,  L.,  Sitka  and  Ounalashka,  Kotzebue  sound,  island  of  St.  Law- 
rence, (and  Arctic  coast  ?) 

Alopecurus  alpinus,  Sm.,  island  of  St.  Lawrence,  Kotzebue  sound,  (and  Arctic 
coast?) 

EQUISBTACEJ5.      • 

Equisetum  arvense,  L.,  Sitka  and  Ounalashka. 
E.  sylvaticum,  L.,  Kotzebue  sound. 

LYCOPODIACB^. 

Lycopodium  Selago,  L.,  Sitka,  Ounalashka,  and  Kotzebue  sound. 

L.  annotinum,  L.,  Sitka,  Ounalashka,  and  Kotzebue  sound. 

L.  Sitchense,  Ruprecht,  Sitka. 

L.  compianatum,  Sitka;  fide  Ledebour,  Flora  Rossica. 

L.  alpinum,  L.,  Ounalashka. 

L.  dendroideum,  Michx.,  Sitka ;  fide  Ledebour,  Flora  Rossica. 

L.  clavatum,  L.,  Sitka  and  Ounalashka. 

SelagineUa  spinosa,  Beauv.,  Ounalashka,  Eschscholtz. 

FILICES. 

Ophioglossum  vulgatum,  L.,  Ounalashka,  Eschscholtz. 
Botrychium  Lunana,  Swartz ;  Ounalashka,  Chamisso, 

B.  rutaceum,  Willd. ;  Ounalashka,  Chamisso  and  Eschscholtz. 
Polypodium  vulgare,  L.,  Sitka  and  Ounalashka. 

P.  Phegopteris,  L. ;  Ounalashka,  Mertens. 

P.  Dryopteris,  L.,  Ounalashka  and  Kodiak. 

Aspidium  Lonchitis,  Swartz  ]  Ounalashka,  Chamisso  and  Eschscholtz. 

A.  aculeatum,  Swartz,  Sitka. 


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460         SKETCH  OF  THE  FLORA  OF  ALASKA. 

A.  spinnlosura,  Swortz,  Sitka,  Kotzebue  sound,  and  OunalaAlika. 
A.  fragmns,  Swartz,  Sitka,  Kotzebue  and  Norton  sounds. 
Cystopteris  fra^ijilis,  Bemh.,  Ounalashka  and  Kotzebue  sound. 
Aisplenium  Felix-fcBmina,  Bernh.,  Ounalashka,  and  Sitka.     Kodiak? 
Blechnum  Spicant,  Roth.,  Sitka;  (Lomaria  Spicant,  Desv.) 
Pteris  aqnilina,  L.,  Sitka. 

P.  argentea,  S.  G.  Gmelin,  ^America-Rossica,  Steller  ex  Pallas.) 
Allosonis  Sitchensis,  Ruprecht,  Sitka.     (Mihi  ignota,  Ledebour.) 

A.  foveolatus,  Ruprecht,  Ounalashka  and  Kodmk. 
Adiantum  pedatum,  L.,  var.,  Ounalashka. 

ANOPHYTES. 

[DETERNIlfEO  AND  COICriLKD  BT  THOMAS  P.  JAMKS.] 
M0SCI. 

Sphagnum  cymbifolium,  Ehrh.;  Sitka,  Bischoff. 
S.  teres,  Wahl.;  Nulato,  W.  H.  Dall. 
S.  cuspidatum,  var.  recurvum,  Beauv.,  Sitka. 
S.  acutifolium,  Ehrh.,  Sitka  and  Alaska. 
S.  fimbriatum,  Wilson;  Kotzebue  sound,  B.  Seemann. 
S.  fimbriatum,  var.  ramis  denso  compactis,  foliis  brevioribus  subelliptids ; 
Norton  sound. 

Weisia  serrulata,  Funk,  Nulato. 

Dicranum  crispum,  Hedw.,  Kotzebue  sound. 

D.  polycarpum,  Ehrh.,  Alaska. 

D.  heteromallum,  Hedw.,  Alaska. 

D.  congestum,  Brid.,  Sitka. 

D.  scoparium,  Hedw.,  Kotzebue  sound  and  Alaska. 

D.  elongatum,  Schwseg.,  Kotzebue  sound. 

D.  palustre,  Brid.,  var.  foliis  planis  nee  undnlatis,  Sitka  and  Nulato. 

D.  majus,  Smith,  Sitka. 

D.  Schraderi,  Schwaeg.,  Kotzebue  sound. 

Barbula  Miilleri,  Br.  and  Sch.;  Alaska,  Kellogg. 

Ceratodon  purpureus,  Brid.,  Kotzebue  sound,  Sitka,  and  Nulato. 

Distichium  capillaceum,  Br.  and  Sch.,  Kotzebue  sound  and  Nulato. 

Tetraphis  pellucida,  Hedw.,  Sitka. 

Ulota  Barclay!,  Mitten ;  Sitka,  Barclay. 

Racomitrium  aciculare,  Brid.,  Sitka. 

R.  fasciciilare,  Brid.,  Alaska. 

R.  canescens,  var.  ericoides,  Brid.,  Sitka. 

R.  lanuginosum,  Br.  and  Sch.,  Kotzebue  sound. 

Tayloria  serrata,  Br.  and  Sch.,  Sitka. 

Tetraplodon  mnioides,  Hedw.,  Kotzebue  sound  and  Sitka. 

Splacnnum  sphsericum,  Hedw.,  Norton  sound. 

S.  vasculosum,  Linn.,  Sitka. 

T.  urceolatus,  Br.  and  Sch.,  Kotzebue  sound. 

Encalypta  rhabdocarpa,  Schwaeff.,  Nulato. 

Funaria  hygrometrica,  Hedw.,  Iktigalik. 

Bartramia  Menziesii,  Hook.»  Western  Russian  America. 

Conostomum  boreale,  Swartz,  Kotzebue  sound. 

Bryum  polymorphum,  Br.  and  Sch.,  Sitka. 

B.  nutans,  Schrcb.,  Kotzebue  sound,  Sitka  and  Iktigalik. 
B.  crudum,  Schreb.,  Iktigalik. 

B.  p\Tiformc,  Hedw.,  Iktigalik. 
B.  lacustre,  Brid.,  Kotzebue  sound. 


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SKETCH  OF  THE  FLOBA  OF  ALASKA.  461 

B.  incllDatum,  Br.  and  Sch.,  Kotzebue  sound. 

B.  capillare,  Hedw.,  Sitka. 

B.  argenteum,  Linn.,  Iktigalik. 

Mnium  punctatum,  Hedw.,  Sitka. 

M.  rostratum,  SchwaBg.,  Kotzebue  sound. 

M.  affine,  var.  Zelatum,  Br.  and  Scb.,  Sitka. 

M.  Menziesii,  Hook.,  Sitka. 

Aulacomnion  turgidum,  Schwseg.,  Kotzebue  sound. 

A.  palustre,  Scliwaeg.,  Kotzebue  sound,  Sitka  and  Nulato. 

Pogonatum  capillare,  Micbx.  and  Brid.,  Kotzebue  sound  and  Sitka,  Alaska. 

P.  alpinum,  Linn.,  var.  foliis  capsulis  longioribus,  Kotzebue  sound  and  Sitka.* 

P.  alpinum,  var.  fiircatum,  Brid.,  Scbischiraareff  bay,  (Cbamisso.) 

P.  alpinum,  var.  campanulatum,  Brid.,  Ounalashka,  (Cbamisso.) 

P.  atrovirens.  Mitten,  Sitka,  (Barclay.) 

P.  contortum,  Menz.,  nortb western  coast  of  Russian  America,  (Menzies.) 

P.  dentatum,  Menz.,  northwestern  coast  of  Russian  America. 

Polytricbum  gracile,  Menz.,  Kotzebue  sound. 

P.  formosum,  Hedw.,  Alaska,  (Kellogg.) 

P.  cavifolium,  Wilson  in  Bot.  Herald,  (Socman,)  Kotzebue  sound. 

P.  piliferum,  Scbreb.,  Alaska. 

P.  juniperinum,  Willd.,  Kotzebue  sound  and  Nulato. 

P.  juniperinum,  var.  strictum,  Br.  and  Sch.,  Kotzebue  sound  and  Sitka. 

P.  juniperinum,  var.  foliis  distantibus,  angustioribus  patulis,  Kotzebue  sound^ 
Bitka,  and  Nulato. 

P.  commune,  Linn.,  Sitka. 

Antitricbia  curtipendula,  Brid.,  Sitka. 

A.  Califomica,  Lesqx.,  Alaska. 

Neckera  Douglassii,  Hook.,  Steekine,  Alaska. 

N.  Menziesii,  Hook.,  Alaska. 

Alsia  Califomica,  Lesqx.,  Alaska. 

Hypnum  triquetrum,  Linn.,  Nulato  and  Alaska. 

H.  loreum,  Linn.,  Sitka  and  Alaska. 

H.  squarrosum,  Linn.,  Sitka. 

H.  crispifolium,  Hook.,  Northwestern  Russian  America,  (Menzies.) 
•  H.  laxifolium.  Hook.,  Northwestern  Russian  America. 

H.  splendens,  Hedw.,  Nulato  and  Alaska. 

H.  strigosum,  Hoffm,  Nulato. 

H.  undulatum,  Linn.,  Sitka. 

H.  lutescens,  Huds.,  Kotzebue  sound  and  Alaska. 

H.  myosuroides,  var.  stoloniferum.  Hook.,  Northwestern  Russian  America, 
Sitka,  and  Alaska. 

*  Mr.  W.  H.  Dall,  in  1865-'66,  collected  a  number  of  mosses  in  Eastern  Siberia,  on  the 
western  side  of  Bebrin^*  straits,  and  opposite  to  Norton  sound,  among  which  was  a  new 
species  of  Pogonatum,  which  no  doubt  will  be  detected  in  Alaska,  when  explored.  The 
species  being  interesting,  it  is  deemed  appropriate  to  introduce  it  by  the  following  description : 

Pogonatum  lamellosnm,  sp.  nov.,  dioicum,  caule  simplici  vel  ramoso,  foliis  solidis  rigidis 
incurvis  cauli  appressis ;  e  basi  pellucida  latiore  amplexicaole,  concavis  lanceolato-acumina- 
tis  margine  Integra  aut  denticulata,  lamellis  numerosis  marginesubitotumidis,  foliipaginam 
e  basi  ad  apicem  totam  occupante :  penchstialibus  e  basi  longioribus  vagioantibus  erectis 
an<>asto-lanceolati8,  tenui  costatis;  perigonalibus  extemis  angusto-lauceolatis,  extemis  ) 
obcordato-apiculatis ;  capsula  in  pedicelto  flexuosa  unciali,  globosa  vel  ovato-cylindrica 
obliqua  aut  cemua,  operculo  e  basi  depresso-convexo  rostellato  incurve  conico,  peristomii 
dentibus  aqualibus ;  calyptra  non  visa. 

This  beautiful  Pogonatum  is  more  slender  than  P.  urnigerum^  the  lamillae  of  the  leaves 
occupy  the  entire  upper  surface  irom  the  sheathing  base  to  the  apex ;  the  leaves  most  readily 
separate  from  the  translucent  clasping  base;  the  margins  of  the  leaves  are  mostly  entire, 
occasionally  more  or  less  denticulate  at  the  apex.  The  capsule  is  globosely  oval  in  form 
and  curved,  the  operculum  appears  to  be  shortly  rostrate. 


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462  SKETCH  OF  THE  FLORA  OF  ALASKA. 

H.  Rutbenicam,  Weinra.,  Sitka. 

H.  Scbreberi,  Willd.,  Sitkd. 

H.  Stokesii,  Turner,  Alaska. 

H.  uncinatum,  Hedw.,  Kotzebue  Bonnd. 

H.  uncinatum,  var.  majus,  Wilson,  twice  as  large  as  tbe  ordinaiy  form,  Kot- 
zebue sound  and  Alaska. 

H.  revolvens,  Swartz,  Kotzebue  sound. 

H.  circinale,  Hook.,  Kotzebue  sound,  Nulato,  and  Alaska. 

H.  rugosum,  Hedw.,  Kotzebue  sound. 

H.  illecebrum,  Schwffig.,  var.  caulis  divisionibus  subdendroidus  foliis  subinto- 
gerrimis,  Alaska. 

H.  rivulare,  Br.  and  Scb.,  var.  foliis  minus  aoutis,  Kotzebue  sound. 

H.  salebrosum  t  Hoiitn.,  Kotzebue  sound* 

H.  nitens,  Schreb.,  Kotzebue  sound. 

H.  denticulatum,  Linn.,  Sitka. 

H.  serpens,  Linn.,  Alaska. 

HEPATIC^. 

Marcbantia  polymorpba,  Linn.,  Alaska. 
Fegatella  conica  Gorda,  Sitka  and  Iktigalik. 
Fimbraria  tenella,  Noes  f    Alaska. 
Jungermannia  albicans,  Linn.,  Alaska. 
J.  trichopbylla,  Linn.,  Alaska. 
Scapania  numerosa,  Nees,  Alaska. 

LICHENES. 

[LIST  COMPILED  BT  H.  MAHN.] 

Spbaeropboron  fi-agile,  Pers. 

S.  coralloides,  Pers. 

Bseomyces  icmadophilus,  Nyl.,.Biatora  icmadophylla,  Auct. 

Cladonia  gracilis,  Hofim.,  Sitka  and  Kotzebue  sound. 

C.  pyxidata,  Ach.,  Kotzebue  sound. 

C.  deformis,  Hoffm.,  Kotzebue  sound. 

G.  imcialis,  Hoffm.,  Sitka  and  Kotzebue  sound. 

G.  rangiferina,  Hoffin.,  all  Bussian  America. 

G.  sylvatica,  Ach.,  all  Russian  America. 

Pilophoron  robustum,  Nyl.,  islands  of  Behring's  straits. 

P.  aciculare.  Tuck.,  (Sect,  of  Stereocaulon,)  Russian  America. 

Stereocaulon  paschale,  Laur.,  Kotzebue  sound. 

S.  tomentosum  ?  Fries,  Kotzebue  sound  and  other  localities.  Absence  of 
Ifuit  renders  the  determination.  doubtfuL 

Thamnolia  vermiculare,  common. 

Alectoria  ochroleuca,  Fries,  Kotzebue  sound;  on  the  ground  the  normal  fonn : 
also,  var.  sarmentoso  pendant  from  trees. 

A.  divergens,  Nyl.,  various  localities. 

Cetraria  Islandica,  Ach.,  common. 

Platysma  cucullatum,  Hoffm.,  common. 

P.  septentrionale,  Nyl.,  Kotzebue  sound. 

P.  glaucum,  Nyl.,  Kotzebue  sound. 

Nephroma  arcticnm.  Fries,  Kotzebue  sound. 

Peltigera  venosa,  Hoffm.,  Kotzebue  sound. 

P.  canina,  Hofim.,  Kotzebue  sound. 

P.  polydactyla,  Hoffm.,  Kotzebue  sound,  Sitka,  &c. 

P.  apthosa,  Hoffm.,  Kotzebue  sound,  Sitka,  &c. 


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SKETCH  OF  THE  FLORA  OF  ALASKA*  463 

Siicta  pulmonacea,  Ach.,  Kotzebue  soand,  Sitka,  &o. 
S.  scrobiculata,  Ach.,  Kotzebue  sonnd. 
Parmelia  perforata,  Ach.,  Kotzebue  sound. 
P.  perlata,  Ach.,  Kotzebue  sound. 
P.  saxatilis,  Ach.,  Kotzebue  sound. 
P.  tiliacea,  Ach.,  Kotzebue  sound. 
Physcia  parietina,  D.  N.,  Kotzebue  sound. 
P.  stellans,  Fries. 
P.  obscura,  Fries,  Kotzebue  sound. 

Lecanora  pallescens,  var.  Upsalensis,  Fries,  Kotzebue  sound. 
L.  tartarica,  var.  firigida,  Acn.,  Kotzebue  sound. 
Placodium  elegans,  Fries. 
Psoroma  hypnorum,  DC* 

The  list  ot  Fungi  and  AlgtB  I  have  taken  from  Mr.  Seemann's  Report  on 
the  Botany  of  Western  Esquimaux  Land. 

FUNGI. 

Dothidea  betulina,  var.  BetnlsB  nanse.  Fries,  Kotzebue  sound. 
Erineum  roseum,  Schultz. 

Alqm  (Auctore  W.  H,  Harvey  ^ 

Fucus  vesiculosus,  L.,  plentiful  in  Kotzebue  sound. 
Alaria  esculenta,  Grev.,  Arctic  coast. 
Chorda  Filum,  Stack. 
Dictyosiphon  foeniculaceus,  Grev. 
Ghsetopteris  plumosa,  Kutz. 

Odonthalia  dentata,  var.  angusta,  Harv.,  Arctic  coast 
Hhodoroela  Larix,  Ag. 
Delesseria  sinuosa,  Ag.,  Arctic  ocean. 

Phyllophora  Brodisei,  J.  Ag.,  Arctic  coast,  (single  specimen  of  broad-leaved 
variety.) 

Ahnfeldtia  (Gymnogongrus)  plicata,  J.  Ag.,  Arctic  coast. 
Nostoc  vemicosura  f    Fresh  water  pools  at  Port  Clarence. 

*  All  the  lichens  here  entuoerated,  ezceptiDg  the  species  PilophoroD,  are  of  wide  northern 
distribution,  which  the  localities  here  indicated  exhibit  nothings  of.  Many  other  boreal 
species  will  reward  search,  and  from  some  indications  seen,  we  may  expect  the  lichens  of 
the  southern  part  of  Bussian  America  to  show  some  special  affinities  to  the  interesting  lichen 
flora  of  Callfomia.  H.  M. 


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METEOROLOGY. 

THE  HVRBlCAlf E  U  THE  ISLAXD  OF  ST.  THOMAS,  OCTOBER  »,  1867. 

[  Translated  from  **  The  DUrio  de  la  Marina,''  Hab'ana,  January  5,  1668.] 

Public  attention  has  been  so  much  attracted  to  the  hurricane  which  occasioned, 
October  29-30  last,  such  deplorable  devastations  in  the  islands  of  Porto  Rico, 
St.  Thomas,  and  other  AntiUes,  that  the  following  essay,  embodying  the  reflec- 
tions of  an  intelligent  member  of  the  Spanish  marine  on  the  law  of  these  dis- 
turbances, and  especially  on  the  course  pursued  by  the  storm  in  question,  will 
be  read,  we  doubt  not,  with  general  interest : 

"  The  late  tempest,  like  other  events  of  this  kind,  but  to  an  extent  rarely 
witnessed,  has  marked  its  path  with  incalculable  disasters  both  on  land  and  sea ; 
especially  the  last,  where  the  irresistible  fiiry  of  the  wind  and  waves  seemed  to 
threaten  everything  which  they  encountered  with  annihilation.  God,  however, 
in  his  iniinite  goodness,  has  given  man  intelligence,  and '  placed  in  his  hands 
the  means  of  contending  with  difficulties  and  overcoming  them ;  inspiring  him 
with  faith,  the  virtue  which  begets  and  sustains  hope. 

"  The  theory  respecting  the  law  of  storms  proves  to  us  that  however  fearful 
these  phenomena  may  be  for  navigators,  they  become  much  less  formidable 
when  science  has  once  taught  us  the  nature  of  our  elemental  foe,  and  conse- 
quently the  moans  of  avoiding  its  destructive  violence,  in  as  far  at  least  as  is 
humanly  possible.  Towards  the  end  of  the  16th  century,  a  knowledge  already 
existed  of  the  circular  form  of  these  tornadoes ;  but,  as  happens  with  many 
things  of  importance  which  sleep  in  oblivion  and  again  reappear  as  novelties, 
the  knowledge  of  the  above  fact  bore  no  fruits,  until  Mr.  W.  C.  Redfield,  of  New 
York,  from  1831  to  1835,  brought  to  light,  by  force  of  investigation,  the  defi- 
nite law  of  the  movement  of  rotation  of  hurricanes,  as  well  as  that  of  their 
translation,  with  other  circumstances  attending  them,  conformable  in  all  points 
to  the  observations  "of  other  authors  of  accredited  reputation. 

"  The  storm  of  the  29th  of  October,  which  inundated  Tortola,  devastated  St. 
Thomas,  ravaged  many  parts  of  Porto  Rico,  and  made  itself  felt  in  the  capital 
of  St.  Domingo  and  the  adjacent  villages,  affords  one  datum  more  to  be  col- 
lated with  others  for  continuing  the  study  of  the  movement  of  hunicanes.  It 
results  from  the  notices  we  have  been  able  to  collect,  though  these  are  not  so 
precise  as  to  enable  us  to  judge  with  entire  cei-tainty,  that  the  hurricane  in  ques- 
tion took  its  rise  in  50**  to  5^  west  longitude,  and  18**  to  20**  north  latitude,  a 
space  comprised  in  the  region  of  their  usual  origin.  The  mail  steamer  Principe 
Alfonso  encountered  it  in  her  course  two  days  before  reaching  this  port,  and  her 
skilful  commander  avoided  it  by  suitably  taieking  ship  until  he  thought  that  he 
might  pursue  his  voyage  without  risk,  thus  arriving  safely  in  the  rear  of  the 
hurricane  without  experiencing  any  great  inconvenience.  Sr.  Lastm  assured 
me  that  he  had  steered  in  conformity  with  the  prescribed  rules  as  soon  as  he 
suspected  that  he  was  in  the  neighborhood  of  a  tornado. 

"  Knowing  very  nearly  the  point  of  its  formation,  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
course  of  the  tornado  was  about  W.  J  SW.  until  having  passed  St.  Thomas  it 
took  a  direction  W.  5^  N.,  advancing  at  the  rate  of  13  to  15  miles  au  hour, 
the  vortex  or  focus  passing  by  the  centre  of  the  island  of  Porto  Rico,  as  would 
appear  from  the  fact  of  Naguabo,  Humacao,  and  Caguas^  with  certain  other 
places,  having  been  most  severely  visited.  The  calm  which  was  experienced 
in  Cayey,  at  the  veering  of  the  wind,  is  a  convincing  proof  that  the  centre  of 
the  storm  passed  at  that  point,  for  it  is  a  characteristic  circumstance  of  such 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


METEOBOLOQT.  465 

meteors  that  they  rotate  around  an  area  of  calm  of  variable  extension.  The 
central  calm  in  question  might  be  from  three  to  four  miles  in  diameter,  judging 
from  the  interval  between  the  subsidence  of  the  wind  from  the  north  and  the 
commencing  violence  of  that  from  the  west ;  of  which  precise  moment  the  gal- 
lant and  sagacious  commander  of  the  steamship  Va$co  Nunez  de  Balboa  knew 
how  to  avail  himself  in  order  to  pass  from  the  shore  to  that  vessel,  at  the  riek 
of  perishing  if  this  centre  of  calm  had  been  of  two  minutes  less  duration. 
The  diameter  of  the  hurricane  I  take  to  have  been  from  40  to  50  miles,  and 
that  of  its  greatest  force  some  20,  since  in  this  port  and  that  of  Arroyo  it  was 
felt  with  less  intensity  than  at  other  points  more  inland  and  distant  from  those 
places  15  to  20  miles.  That  the  disturbance  is  of  a  circular  form,  or  of  a  cur- 
vature approaching  that  figure,  is  once  more  shown  by  the  circumstance  of  the 
wind's  blowing  at  the  same  time  in  two  distinct  points,  which  may  be  considered 
as  diametrically  opposed  in  regard  to  the  centre  or  focus  of  opposite  rhombs  ; 
for  example,  at  the  same  hour  when,  at  Porto  Eico,  the  direction  was  from  NE. 
to  E.NE.,  at  Arroyo  it  was  from  W.  to  SW.,  at  Salinas  from  W.  to  S.,  and  at 
Nagnabo  to  the  S. 

'^  We  have  at  present  no  notices  of  the  passage  of  the  hurricane  beyond  the 
western  part  of  St.  Domingo,  which  leads  us  to  think  that  it  terminated  in  that 
island  or  pursued  a  course  more  to  the  north,  leaving  the  south  of  Cuba  for- 
tunately unvisited,  and  arriving  at  the  coasts  of  Florida ;  a  route  which  these 
storms  generally  follow  as  far  as  the  eastern  part  of  the  New  World,  where  they 
subside. 

''  Barometers  fell,  at  St.  Thomas  to  28.20 ;  in  this  port  (at  the  Captainship) 
to  29.60 ;  on  board  the  schooner  Andalujga  to  29.60  ;  at  Arroyo  to  29.40.  We 
have  not  been  able  to  verify  the  state  of  the  atmosphere  at  other  points  of  this 
island  ;  the  instruments,  it  would  seem,  not  having  acted  with  the  promptness 
usually  observed,  and  the  descent  having  only  commenced  when  the  tempest 
was  near  at  hand ;  which  may  have  happened  from  their  having  been,  for  some 
days,  lower  than  ordinary  under  normal  circumstances,  and  from  the  influence 
of  the  north  winds  which  had  been  prevailing  before  the  hurricane,  so  that  the 
latter  exerted  not  a  mediate,  but  an  immediate  influence.  As  regards  exten- 
sion, I  consider  this  hurricane  to  have  been  one  of  the  narrowest  kind,  as  in 
general  such  disturbances  have  a  larger  diameter  by  some  miles  and  embrace  a 
proportionably  wider  zone. 


OBSIBYAnOXS  BieABDlNG  THE  EABTHQUAKES  WHICH  OCCUBBED  IH  ST. 
THOMAS  AND  NEIGHBOBIKG  ISLANDS,  COMMBlfCIirG  NOT.  18,  1867. 

By  George  A.  Latimer. 

The  earthquakes  which  began  on  18th  November,  1867,  and  have  since  been  fre- 
quent, seem  to  have  had  their  origin  by  the  bursting  out  of  a  submarine  volcano 
in  the  sea  somewhere  about  or  between  the  Danish  islands  of  St  Thomas  and 
St.  Croix.     The  reasons  for  this  opinion  are : 

1.  The  great  wave  which  soon  followed  the  first  heavy  shocks  was  seen  for 
some  time  rolling  on  towards  St.  Thomas  and  Porto  Eioo,  from  the  south  to 
the  north,  while  at  the  same  moment  another  similar  wave  (perhaps  even  larger 
than  the  first)  rolled  on  towards  St.  Croix,  from  the  north  to  the  south ;  thus 
showing  that  the  volcanic  eruption  which  caused  them  had  occurred  in  the  sea 
somewhere  between  those  two  islands,  and  that  the  force  sent  the  water  in  both 
directions. 

2.  It  is  historical  that  some  75  years  ago  the  small  island  of  Saba,  (LiUle 
Saba,  as  it  is  called,)  just  west  of  the  harbor  of  St.  Thomas,  was  an  active 
volcano,  and  on  the  18th  and  19th  November  last  emitted  smoke  ^  thus  showing 
the  volcanic  action  was  not  distant. 

30  867 

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466  METEOROLOGY. 

3.  Previous  to  November  18,  1867,  earthquakes  had  not  been  felt  in  St. 
Croix ;  on  that  day  they  were,  and  subsequently  they  have  been  simultaneously 
with  the  shocks  felt  in  St.  Thomas  j  showing  thereby  that  a  communication  had 
and  has  been  opened  between  the  two  islands.  The  shocks  extended  to  Porto 
Bico,  and  were  felt  throughout  most  of  it;  but  the  force  of,  and  damage  done 
by  them  to  buildings,  sugar  estate  works,  and  chimneys,  was  chiefly  at  the  east 
end,  the  north  side  as  far  down  as  Arecibo,  and  the  south  side  as  far  down 
as  Ponce.  Below  those  places,  neither  on  the  north  nor  the  south  side  was  any 
damage  done  to  the  buildings.  The  greater  rolling  wave  passed  into  the  harbor 
and  over  the  beaches  at  the  east  end,  and  down  the  south  side  of  the  island, 
(Porto  Rico,)  but  it  did  not  extend  to  the  north  side  or  west  end. 


AK  OPIKIOX  ON  THE  MARITIME  DISASTERS  OF  THE  ANTILLES. 

Under  the  above  title,  D.  Aristides  Rojas  has  published,  in  the  FederaHista 
of  Caracas,  the  interesting  remarks  which  ensue,  chiefly  for  the  service  of  those 
among  us  who  are  occupied  with  analogous  studies : 

"  Having  had  inquiries  addressed  to  me  respecting  the  catastrophe  which  is 
reported  to  have  taken  place  in  the  island  of  St.  Thomas,  18th  of  the  present 
month,  I  hastily  reduced  to  writing  the  following  propositions,  which  have  since 
appeared  in  the  FedcrcHista  of  Thursday,  November  28. 

"  1.  A  series  of  concussions  of  the  earth  during  four  consecutive  days  may 
have  produced  displacements  at  profound  depths,  and  to  this  would  be  attri- 
butable the  inundation  of  the  lower  part  of  the  island  and  the  iiTuptiou  of  the 
ocean  j  in  this  case  the  phenomenon  was  merely  local  and  the  hiuricano  of  the 
13th  must  have  contributed  in  great  part  to  produce  it. 

'*  2.  It  may  have  had  its  origin  in  remote  regions ;  and,  in  that  case,  as  well 
the  concussions  of  the  earth  as  the  irruptions  of  the  ocean  would  have  extended 
over  the  adjacent  coasts  of  Porto  Rico  and  St.  Domingo  to  the  west,  and  the 
Virgin  islands  and  lesser  Antilles  to  the  east,  occasioning  ravages  in  all  those 
places.  Supposing  the  concussions  of  the  earth  fnd  the  subtermnean  noises  to 
have  been  continuous,  (as  the  captain  of  the  Cacique  represents  was  the  case  in 
San  Pedro  de  Martinica,)  should  the  phenomenon  be  attributed  to  local  causes, 
or  to  seismic  causes  operating  at  a  distance  t  Were  the  series  of  concussions 
which  have  been  felt  of  late  in  the  regions  of  Ecuador,  New  Granada,  and 
Venezuela  connected  with  the  catastrophe  of  St.  Thomas  t 

"  Founding  my  opinion  on  the  movements  which  have  occniTcd  in  various 
sections  of  the  continent,  I  have  come  to  the  conclusion  that  the  event  in  St. 
Thomas  was  not  local,  but,  on  the  contrary,  that  it  bore  a  relation  to  general 
causes  which  had  been  in  operation  beforehand  and  under  vast  surfaces  of  the 
American  continent.  The  notices  just  received  tend  to  confirm  this  view  of  the 
phenomenon.  As  our  readers  know,  it  was  on  the  18th  that  the  series  of  earth- 
quakes which  desolated  St.  Thomas  began,  and  that  they  continued  till  the  22d. 
The  same  day  concussions  occurred  in  Guadaloupe  and  repeated  shocks  com- 
menced in  Porto  Rico,  continuing  until  the  24th,  and  driving  the  population  of 
the  capital,  in  afiright,  from  their  tottering  houses  and  fortresses.  On  the  IStb, 
also,  the  ocean  invaded  the  capital  of  St.  Thomas,  devastating  all  the  lower 
part,  while  in  Guadaloupe  and  Martinique,  to  the  east,  the  water  retired  15 
metres  in  the  former  island  and  little  less  in  the  second.  On  the  19th  the  island 
of  Margarita,  east  of  Caracas,  was  repeatedly  shaken,  vast  waves  dashed  upon 
the  coast,  attaining  in  some  places  six  fathoms  in  height.  Caupano,  on  tlio 
main  land,  had  a  portion  of  its  pier  demolished. 

"  So  far  the  notices  received  j  but  from  these  it  may  be  inferred,  I  think, 
without  the  least  risk  of  error,  that  concussions  must  have  been  experienced  in 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


METEOROLOGY.  467 

the  regions  lying  east  of  Venezuela,  attended  by  the  same  marine  phenomena. 
As  regards  the  Antilles,  1  donbt  not  tliat  the  convulsion  which  ravaged  St. 
Thomas  must  have  visited  Porto  llico,  St.  Domingo,  and  some  of  the  lessfT 
Antilles.  If  the  oscillations  in  Porto  Rico  were,  as  I  presume,  east  and  west, 
they  will  have  held  on  in  the  direction  of  the  Cordilleras  of  the  Antilles,  and, 
in  that  case,  the  concussions,  instead  of  being  limited  to  St.  Thomas  and  Porto 
Rico,  will  have  extended  to  the  whole  archipelago. 

"  How,  now,  is  this  phenomenon  to  bo  explained  ?  I  stand  in  need  of  data 
and  details  on  the  direction  of  the  movements,  as  well  at  St.  Thomas  and  Porto 
Rico  as  at  the  remaining  islands ;  but,  confiding  in  the  above  data  and  a  study 
of  this  branch  of  geology,  I  venture  to  assume  that,  beneath  the  American  con- 
tinent, there  had  been  formed  a  seismic  tempest,  (when  I  say  tempest,  I  mean  a 
series  of  movements  within  the  cnist  of  the  earth,)  which,  after  manifesting 
itself  b}5  repeated  shocks  in  Ecuador,  New  Granada,  and  Venezuela,  was  dis- 
charged over  the  whole  Antillan  continent.  Let  us  recapitulate  the  facts,  taking 
as  a  point  of  departure  the  strong  concussion  of  Guayaquil : 

"  September  11.  Earthquake  in  Guayaquil  and  volcanic  detonations  on  the 
preceding  days. 

"  15.  Strong  concussions  in  the  Venezuelan  Andes  (Canache  and  other  places) 
at  2  p.  m. 

"  20.  Repeated  commotions  in  the  central  Cordillera  of  New  Granada,  on 
this  day  as  well  as  those  which  preceded  and  followed  it. 

"  22.  Slight  concussion  at  Caracas,  about  12  at  night.     Direction  SW. 

"  28.  Strong  shocks  in  the  Venezuelan  Andes  between  7  and  8  at  night. 

"  October  10.  Strong  concnssions  in  the  Venezuelan  Andes  at  5  a.  m.  A 
slight  shock  at  Caracas  at  2  p.  m.  the  same  day,  attended  with  reports. 

'^  24.  Strong  concussion  at  Petare  (little  felt  at  Caracas)  at  6  minutes  before 
2  p.m. 

"  26.  Slight  concussion  at  Caracas  at  10  p.  m. 

^^  November  2.  Idem  at  Caracas  at  5  minutes  to  4  a.  m.,  and  again  on  the 
10th  at  10.50  p.  m.  and  another  some  minutes  afterwards.  Again  on  the  15th 
at  4.50  p.  m. 

"  The  southeast  direction  of  the  slight  concussions  which  were  felt  in  Caracas 
a  few  months  ago  show  that  the  movement  came  from  the  Andes,  and  in  sup- 
port of  this  opinion  I  would  remind  my  readers  of  the  strong  shocks  which 
were  felt  in  April  in  the  city  of  Merida,  and  which  continued  uniformly  to  tho 
west,  attaining  Maracaibo,  while  to  the  north  they  reached  Caracas  intermit- 
tently, together  with  the  neighboring  towns. 

"  The  direction  which  this  seismic  tempest  has  pursued  and  still  pursues  is 
indicated  by  an  orbit  which,  starting  from  the  Chilian  and  Peruvian  Andes, 
proceeds  to  Ecuador,  passes  to  tho  east  of  the  Andes  of  Granada,  traverses 
Venezuela  by  tho  bay  of  Barcelona,  and  advances  to  the  east  of  Porto  Rico, 
between  that  island  and  St.  Thomas.  The  tempest  is  discharging  itself,  at  the 
present  moment,  on  the  great  and  lesser  Antilles,  and  its  shock  in  that  region 
is  in  turn  acting  upon  the  eastern  part  of  Venezuela,  producing  the  earthquakes 
of  Margarita  and  Carupano  and  the  elevation  of  their  seas." 


AGCOriTT  OF  AN  ERUPTIOK  OF  A  YOLCANO  IX  NICARAGUA,  XOY.  14,  1867. 

By  a.  B.  Dickinson,  United  States  Minister,  Nicaragua. 

On  the  14th  of  November  last,  a  new  volcano  broke  out  in  Nicaragua,  about 
eight  leagues  to  the  east  of  the  city  of  Leon,  on  a  crowded  line  of  volcanoes 
running  through  the  State,  parallel  with  the  Pacific  coast. 

It  commenced  about  1  o'clock  in  the  morning,  with  a  succession  of  explosions 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


468  METEOROLOGY. 

which  were  very  distinctly  felt  and  heard  at  Leon.  These  explosions  opened  a 
fissure  through  the  earth's  crust,  about  half  a  mile  in  length,  running  firom  the  old 
fissure  in  a  southwest  direction,  about  midway  between  the  extinct  volcanoes  ot 
Los  Pilas  and  Orotai  which  are  two  of  the  numerous  cones  studding  the  ancient 
fissure. 

Before  daylight  on  the  morning  of  the  14th,  fire  was  seen  issuing  from  the 
new  volcano  in  various  places.  The  explosions  continued  irregularly  during 
the  whole  time  that  the  volcano  was  in  a  state  of  eniption,  sometimes  in  rapid 
succession  and  at  other  times  at  intervals  of  half  an  hour.  Low,  rumbhng 
sounds  were  heard  almost  incessantly.  In  the  course  of  a  few  days  two  craters 
were  opened  on  the  new  fissure,  about  1,000  feet  apart,  the  one  at  the  south- 
western extremity  discharging  perpendicularly,  and  the  other  shooting  out  towards 
the  northeast  at  an  angle  of  45  degrees.  The  flames  from  these  two  craters 
steadily  increased  in  height  and  size,  while  jets  of  flame  and  slighter  discharges 
were  emitted  from  two  or  three  other  side  fissures. 

On  the  morning  of  November  22d,  I  went  out  to  the  new  volcano  for  the  purpose 
of  observing  it  more  closely,  though  I  had  seen  and  heard  it  very  plainly  each 
day  and  night  from  Leon.  The  l^t  view  which  I  obtained  of  it  on  that  occa- 
sion was  before  daylight,  from  a  mountfun  summit,  about  one  mile  to  the  north- 
west of  the  fissure  and  at  right  angles  with  it.  The  main  crater,  at  the  right, 
was  actively  at  work,  throwing  out  flames  and  half-melted  cinders  through  a  cir- 
calar  orifice  about  60  feet  in  diameter,  which  was  constantlv  filled  to  its  utmost 
capacity  with  the  ascending  masses.  A  regular  cone,  built  up  entirely  by  the 
falling  cinders  to  the  height  of  about  200  feet,  had  already  formed  around  the 
crater.  The  rim  of  the  cone  was  white  with  heat  and  the  outnde  red  hot  half 
way  down,  while  the  remainder  of  its  black  groundwork  was  glittering  with 
innumerable  glowing  sparks.  It  was  puffing  quite  regularly  about  once  a 
second,  with  a  strong,  constant  blast,  which  kept  up  a  column  of  flame,  filled 
with  flying  cinders,  to  the  height  of  about  500  feet  above  the  mouth  of  the 
orifice.  Irregular  explosions  occurred  at  intervals,  varying  from  10  to  30  min- 
utes, increasing  the  force  and  volume  of  the  discharges,  and  sending  them  far 
up  into  the  rolling  clouds  above.  The  cinders  went  up  in  half-fused,  blazing 
masses,  from  one  to  three  feet  in  diameter,  and  came  down  upon  the  cone  har- 
dened, striking  with  a  clinking,  metallic  sound.  After  daylight  the  red  appear- 
ance of  the  cone  changed  to  a  bluish  black.  The  left  hand  crater  was  shooting 
out  oblique  discharges  of  flame  and  cinders  of  a  similar  character,  at  an  angle 
of  45  degrees  from  the  other,  and  evidently  communicated  with  it  about  1,000 
feet  below  the  surface— the  two  craters  being  that  distance  apart,  and  both  dis- 
charging simultaneously.  This  half-horizontal  crater  was  about  20  feet  in 
diameter. 

The  afternoon  of  the  27th,  after  a  series  of  explosions  which  seemed  to  shake 
the  earth  to  its  centre,  the  volcano  commenced  discharging  vast  quantities  of 
black  sand  and  heavier  rocks.  The  column  of  flame  at  night  was  considerably 
increased  in  height,  and  bright,  meteor-like  spots  were  seen  ascending  in  the 
flames  to  the  height  of  not  less  than  3,000  feet.  These  were  large,  spherical 
stones,  four  and  five  feet  in  diameter.  The  next  morning  the  house-tops  and 
streets  of  Leon  were  covered  with  fine  black  sand  from  the  volcano,  and  a  vast 
luminous  cloud  of  raining  sand  overspread  the  whole  surroundiufi^  country.  This 
rain  of  sand  continued  until  the  morning  of  the  30th,  when  the  volcano  died 
away,  apparently  smothered  by  its  accumulated  eruptions.  The  sand  now  covers 
the  whole  surrounding  country,  from  the  volcano  to  the  Pacific,  a  distance  of 
more  than  50  miles  nom  it.  At  Leon  it  is  from  an  eighth  to  a  quarter  of  an 
nch  in  depth.  As  we  approach  the  volcano  it  gradually  grows  deeper  and 
coarser.  For  a  mile  around  the  crater  it  lies  in  particles  from  three-eighths  to 
one-half  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  about  a  foot  in  depth,  and  the  i>articles  grad- 
ually increase  in  size  until  they  become  small,  broken  rocks. 


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METEOROLOGY.  469 

ArDQnd  the  base  of  the  cone,  round,  heavy  rocks  lie  thickly  scattered,  from 
four  to  five  feet  in  diameter,  but  much  the  larger  portion  of  them  have  broken 
into  fragments.  The  cone  itself  is  200  feet  high,  with  a  crater  in  the  top  of 
200  feet  in  diameter  and  about  the  same  in  depth.  The  inside  oi  the  crater,  the 
same  as  the  outside,  is  covered  with  hard,  broken  rocks,  generally  less  than  a 
foot  in  diameter.  A  long  ridge  of  black  scoria  leads  out  from  the  branch  crater 
in  a  northeasterly  direction.  The  slaggy,  lava-like  scoria  which  first  issued  from 
the  main  crater  is  now  principally  covered  up  with  the  hard  plutonic  rocks  which 
came  out  from  profound  depths  with  the  last  discharges.  The  forest,  for  leagues 
around,  is  scarred  and  maimed  with  the  sharp  cutting  storms  of  sand,  and  near 
the  volcano  the  trees  lie,  cut  into  numerous  fragments,  half  buried  beneath  the 
sand  and  rocks. 

The  volcano  was  an  active  and  interesting  sight  for  16  days,  and  now  in  its 
repose  affords  an  ample  and  instructive  field  for  the  geologist.  Indeed,  no 
country  in  the  world  presents  a  more  interesting  study  than  the  plain  of  Leon. 
Twenty  volcanic  cones  are  seen  rising  from  it  at  a  single  view.  Its  soil  is  inex- 
haustible in  fertility,  as  finely  pulvenzed  and  as  evenly  distributed  as  that  of 
the  valley  of  the  Nile  or  the  Mississippi,  not  however  by  water,  but  by  fire.  It 
has  literally  rained  down  from  the  volcanoes,  richly  freighted  with  fertilizing 
materials. 

Humboldt  regretted,  before  his  death,  that  men  of  science  had  not  more  fully 
investigated  this  remarkable  region  of  country,  and  it  is  sincerely  to  be  hoped 
that  it  may  not  much  longer  remain  neglected  by  them. 

The  recent  faXL  of  sand  has  been  followed  by  a  shower  of  nun,  and  though 
but  a  few  days  have  since  elapsed,  com,  cotton,  and  grass  have  grown  more 
rapidly  under  its  fertilizing  influence  than  I  have  ever  seen  plants  grow  before. 
Some  weeds  and  plants  it  kills;  others  it  starts  forth  with  renewed  life  and  vigor. 

I  send  herewith  a  specimen  of  the  sand,  gathered  at  Leon  before  the  rain, 
hoping  that  it  may  be  analyzed. 

It  may  be  proper  in  this  connection  to  call  attention  to  the  recent  destructive 
storms,  earthquakes  and  eruptions  which  occurred  on  and  around  the  island  of 
8t.  Thomas  during  the  same  period  of  time  which  I  have  been  describing,  and 
which  undoubtedly  sprang  from  the  same  general  cause,  as  those  earthquakes 
were  distinctly  felt  at  Leon. 

SBCOND  COHHUNICATION. 

I  have  the  pleasure  to  acknowledge  the  receipt  of  a  letter  frx>m  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution,  containing  a  number  of  questions  in  regard  to  the  recent  vol- 
cano in  Nicaragua,  which  I  will  endeavor  to  answer  as  accurately  as  possible. 

The  latitude  of  the  volcano  is  12**  30^  north,  the  longitude  86**  45^  west  from 
Greenwich,  according  to  the  government  map  of  Nicaragua.  Its  distance  frx)m 
the  Pacific  ocean  is  40  miles. 

The  strong  east  wind  prevailing  here  at  this  seaaon  of  the  year,  and  particu- 
larly during  the  late  volcanic  eruption,  brought  the  sand  mostly  to  the  west- 
ward, but  as  fine  sand  was  also  earned  in  lesser  quantities  many  leagues  to  the 
eastward,  it  probably  also  partially  entered  the  upper  and  counter  current  of  air. 
It  is  known  to  have  extended  100  miles  to  the  westward,  covering  a  belt  about 
100  miles  in  width.  At  the  commencement  of  the  rain  of  sand  the  wind  car- 
ried it  in  a  northwest  direction ;  but  for  the  last  24  hours  of  the  sand  storm  the 
wind  carried  it  to  the  southwest. 

Over  an  area  of  about  100  miles  in  diameter  the  sand  averages  at  least  one- 
eighth  of  an  inch  in  thickness. 

•  The  rainy  season  usually  commences  here  about  the  middle  of  May  and  ends 
the  middle  of  November;  the  remainder  of  the  year  being  the  dry  season.  The 
rainy  season  is  without  wind,  but  during  the  dry  season  high  winds  sweep  over 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


470  METEOBOLOGY. 

the  country  to  the  westward.  This  wind  usually  commences  about  the  Ist  of 
December,  but  this  last  year  it  commenced  about  twp  weeks  earlier,  which  was 
about  the  time  the  volcano  broke  out.  The  rainy  season  closed  also  the  Ist  of 
November  last.  The  usual  appearance  of  the  sun  and  sky  in  November  is 
remarkably  bright,  spotted  over  with  white,  fleecy  clouds.  But  during  the  latter 
part  of  the  volcanic  eruptitm,  and  for  two  weeks  after  its  close,  the  atmosphere 
was  gieatly  disturbed,  and  for  several  days  in  suc|Bession  scarcely  a  patch  of 
clear  sky  was  visible ;  dark  gray  clouds  were  constantly  whirling  in  heavy 
masses  to  the  westward,  alarming  the  inhabitants  with  their  sombre  and  threat- 
ening appearance.  The  explosions  and  the  crackling  roar  of  the  volcano  were 
heard  for  a  distance  of  over  100  miles,  to  the  west,  northwest  and  southwest. 

On  the  evening  of  November  22,  while  the  volcano  was  in  an  active  state,  I 
started  from  Leon  a  little  after  midnight,  to  make  a  visit  to  the  volcano  before 
daylight,  and  on  that  occasion,  at  2  o'clock  in  the  morning,  about  10  miles  to 
the  west  of  the  volcano,  I  encountered,  very  much  to  my  surprise,  a  heavy 
shower  of  rain,  accompanied  by  thunder  and  lightning.  The  thunder,  however, 
was  not  easily  distinguished  from  the  roar  of  the  volcano. 

My  attention  was  then  particularly  called  to  the  fact  that  the  storm  came  out 
of  the  dense  black  cloud  which  ascended  in  a  vast  column  from  the  crater,  and 
overhung  the  surrounding  country  for  several  leagues  in  extent.  It  was  bright 
starlight  when  I  started  from  Leon,  and  no  other  cloud  was  visible.  I  could 
also  still  see  the  clear,  stai*-lit  horizon  on  every  side  of  me,  except  that  of  the 
black  cloud  from  the  crater.  Daring  this  evidently  volcanic  shower  I  was  first 
struck  with  the  peculiar,  offensive  odor  of  the  volcano,  which  I  afterwards  became 
familiar  with.  After  approachinff  nearer  to  the  volcano,  and  far  enough  to  the 
eastward  to  see  through  the  cloud,  I  saw  that  the  horizon  was  also  cloudless  in 
that  direction.  I  passed  the  limits  of  the  shower  to  the  north  and  west,  and 
also  to  the  east.  The  shower  was  confined  entirely  to  the  west  side  of  the  vol- 
cano, extending  fifteen  miles  to  the  westward,  and  covering  a  belt  about  10 
miles  in  width,  which  showed  from  standing  water  and  muddy  ground  that  this 
was  by  no  means  the  first  shower. 

I  have  since  ascertained  from  natives  of  the  country  that  during  the  eruption 
showers  in  that  vicinity  were  almost  daily,  and  that  on  one  occasion  it  rained 
hot  water.  But  a  single  shower,  however,  reached '  as  far  as  Leon.  Brilliant 
flashes  of  red  and  white  were  constantly  darting  from  the  crater  into  the  cloud 
above,  and  the  lightning  struck  out  in  every  direction  from  the  jet  of  eruption 
where  it  came  in  contact  with  the  cloud. 

With  regard  to  the  earthquakes  I  am  unable  to  answer  your  questions  satis- 
factorily. It  was  distinctly  felt  here,  and  several  others  have  also  occurred 
since  that  time,  but  they  have  all  been  so  slight  and  little  noticed  that  the  direc- 
tion or  extent  of  the  earth-wave  has  not  been  observed.  It  is  reported  to  me, 
also,  that  shocks  of  earthquake  have  been  quite  frequent  of  late  in  San'Salvarlor. 

Permit  me  to  thank  you  for  your  account  of  the  examination  of  the  volcanic 
sand  which  I  had  the  pleasure  to  receive  by  last  mail. 

[The  following  is  an  account  of  the  examination  of  the  specimens  by  Profes- 
sor George  J.  Brush,  of  Yale  College. — J.  H.] 

The  volcanic  sand  appears  to  consist  mainly,  if  not  entirely,  of  three  minerals: 
1st.  An  olive-green  mineral,  in  angular  fragments,  which  is  evidently  c/rry5o/ife, 
(olivine).  2d.  A  colorless,  transparent  mineral,  also  in  angular  fragments,  is 
probably  &  feldspar,  but  what  particular  species  I  am  unable  to  say.  3d.  A 
grayish  black  to  black  substance,  in  many  cases  with  the  edges  rounded  from 
semi-fusion ;  appears  to  be  an  iron  migite,  (or  hornblende.)  It  is  magnetic,  as  is 
the  case  with  the  fused  iron  angites.  These  minerals  are  constantly  found  in 
the  ejections  from  volcanoes  and  are  constants  of  many  lavas. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


MBTBOROLOQT. 


471 


CLOUD-BURSTS. 

Communicated  by  Whxiam  J.  Young,  op  Boise  City,  Idaho  Territory. 

Yon  are  probably  aware  that  in  tbe  Great  Basin,  between  tbe  Rocky  and 
Sierra  Neva^la  range  of  mountains,  but  little  rain  falls  during  the  summer 
months.  I  wish  to  call  attention  to  a  singular  phenomenon  that  is  observed  in 
that  region  during  the  dry  season. 

An  old  mountaineer  and  prospecter  told  me  that  one  night  in  the  summer  of 
1862,  he,  with  several  others,  camped  in  a  caQon  near  Black  Rock.  Some  time 
during  the  night  he  was  awakened  by  a  roaring  as  of  a  storm  in  the  mountains ;  ' 
yet  the  night  was  clear — ^no  cloud  was  in  si^ht.  But  soon  the  water  came  rush- 
ing in  torrents  down  the  canon,  and  drove  the  party  to  higher  ground.  He  said 
such  floods  were  not  uncommon  in  that  region,  and  were  occasioned  by  water- 
spouts. 

J.  n.  Neale,  esq.,  a  very  intelligent  merchant,  who  has  spent  the  last  two 
years  in  that  region,  says : 

"In  August,  1864, 1  was  travelling  from  Humboldt  mines  to  Reese  river. 
The  whole  country  was  dry  and  parched,  as  is  usual  at  that  season  of  the  year, 
and  the  weather  was  even  warmer  than  common.  About  2  o'clock  p.  m.  I  saw 
what  appeared  to  be  a  whurlwind.  It  appeared  to  be  about  25  miles  distant, 
and  the  spiral  column  extended  from  the  earth  to  a  very  dense  cloud,  which  was 
nearly  as  nigh  as  the  scattered  mountains  in  that  vicinity.  Soon  this  column 
seemed  to  break,  the  upper  third  of  it  being  detached  from  the  rest  and  bent 
over  to  the  eastward.  I  then  perceived  that  this  spiral  column  was  not  of  dust, 
as  I  had  ai  fii-st  supposed,  but  was  water.  The  next  day  I  crossed  a  canon 
leading  from  the  place  where  the  phenomenon  had  occurred.  Water  was  still 
nmning  in  it,  and  there  was  evidence  of  a  recent  flood." 

,  Inquiring  further,  I  consulted  the  Hon.  William  R.  Harrison,  a  gentleman  of 
» scientific  attainments  who  had  spent  several  years  in  the  Humboldt  mountains. 
He  told  me  th%t  such  phenomena  were  of  not  unfrequent  occurrence  in  the  Hum- 
boldt mountain^  and  were  called  "  cloud-bursts."  He  had  witnessed  several  of 
them — ^had  once  been  in  the  edge  of  one,  and  once  had  stood  on  the  top  of  a 
mountain  and  witiessed  the  terrific  scene  in  the  canon  beneath  him.  He  says : 
"  The  first  sign  of  them  is  the  sudden  gathering  of  a  small,  dense,  black 
cloud  on  the  mountain  side,  about  one-third  of  the  way  from  the  top,  and  gen- 
erally at  the  head  of  a  caiion.  Soon  this  cloud  seems  to  dash  Itself  to  the  earth, 
taking  a  circular  moti»n.  It  appeared  as  if  an  inverted  whirlwind  was  drawing 
from  the  cloud  immente  quantities  of  water,  which  is  dashed  in  floods  against 
the  mountain  side." 

By  these  floods,  he  sfid,  he  had  known  trees  uprooted,  and  rocks,  tons  in 
weight,  carried  by  the  toixjnt  the  eighth  of  a  mile.  On  one  occasion  the  water 
in  the  canon  leading  from  he  "cloud-burst"  was  30  feet  deep.  The  area  that 
receives  this  immense  body  <f  water  fn)m  the  cloud  is  not  generally  more  than 
one  hundred  yards  in  diametCi  and  sometimes  is  much  less.  Star  City  (Hum- 
boldt mines)  was  once  damaget.by  such  a  flootL  I  have  heard  (on  this  my 
information  is  not  direct)  that  in 1 862  several  persons  lost  their  lives  by  one  of 
these  "cloud-bursts,"  somewhere  in  the  Washoe  region.  These  storms  are 
entirely  difierent  from  anything  I  e^er  heard  of  occurring  in  any  other  part  of 
the  world.  They  occur  where  the  sty  is  elsewhere  clear  and  cloudless.  Frera 
the  first  gathering  of  the  cloud  until  i»e  storm  has  passed  and  the  sky  is  again 
cloudless  is  seldom  more  than  an  hob^  and  does  not  generally  exceed  forty 
minutes. 

The  cause  of  these  phenomena  may  btfamiliar  to  scientific  men,  but  to  the 
uninitiated  it  is  a  mystery  how  such  quant.ies  of  water  can  be  so  suddenly  col- 
lected from  the  burning  air  of  these  desert  Jains. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


472  METEOROLOQT. 

Professor  Espy  collected  a  namber  of  cases  in  Pennsylvania  and  other  parts 
of  the  eastern  States,  of  examples  of  this  remark -Nble  phenomenon.  The  only 
explanation  which  appears  to  be  sufficient  to  account  for  it,  and  particularly  the 
amount  of  water  which  falls,  is  that  of  a  water-spout  or  rotatory  motion  of  the 
air,  produced  by  the  disturbance  of  the  ordinary  stable  condition  of  the  atmo- 
sphere by  the  abnormal  heating  of  the  stratum  next  the  earth,  and  the  subse- 
quent bursting  of  this  upward,  in  the  form  of  an  ascending  vortex,  carrying  with 
it  all  the  vapor  which  the  air  may  contain  from  a  surrounding  space  of  several 
miles. 

The  quantity  of  water  which  falls  will  depend  upon  the  amount  of  vapor  in 
the  atmosphere  which  has  been  drawn  into  the  vortex.  It  should  be  recollected 
that  although  the  air  may  be  very  dry  at  a  high  temperature,  yet  it  may  con- 
tain a  much  greater  quantity  of  water  in  the  form  of  vapor  than  a  damper 
atmosphere  at  a  lower  temperature.  Thus,  at  TO**  of  temperature  the  wr,  when 
perfectly  saturated,  contains  about  eight  grains  of  vapor  to  the  cubic  foot ;  at 
90°  it  is  capable  of  containing  about  15  grains.  From  this  it  appears  that  the 
capacity  for  vapor  increases  very  rapidly  with  the  temperature  j  in  the  case 
above  cited  an  increase  of  20**  of  temperature  nearly  doubles  the  capacity  for 
moisture,  and  consequently  prodncos  a  character  of  extreme  dryness. 

Although,  at  the  same  time,  the  air  may  contain  a  very  large  amount  of  vapor 
which,  condensed  by  a  diminution  of  temperature  due  to  its  increased  elevation, 
or  perhaps  by  a  colder  stratum  immediately  above,  may  be  precipitited  on  a 
single  sooty  and  thus  give  rise  to  the  extraordinary  effects  above  described. 


iCOOriTT  Of  A  METEOBITV. 

By  Abner  Woodworth,  Coukcil  Grove,  Kaksas,  March  1866. 

On  the  7th  of  March,  1843, 1  left  Paral,  a  town  situated  on  the  river  Allende 
Mexico,  8tate  of  Chihuahua,  and,  travelling  some  26  miles,  course  15°  east  of 
south,  passed  a  lump  of  solid  malleable  iron,  shape  or  figure  /esembling  two 
inverted  saucers,  one-third  or  more  buried  in  the  ground,  sipposed  to  weigh 
five  or  six  thousand  pounds.  It  is  softer  than  bar  iron.  Ihe  blacksmith  at 
Rio  Florido  cuts  off  pieces  with  his  cold  chisel  for  horseshoe  It  lies  upon  a 
level  plain,  20  miles  from  any  mountain. 


ACOOVirT  OF  A  METEORITE. 

By  Robert  Socson. 

Shortly  before  arriving  at  El  Valle,  on  the  road  fom  Eio  Florido,  we  encoun- 
ter first  streaks  of  iron — ^grateful  to  the  lips  and  Hinds,  cracked  and  sore  with 
the  lime  through  which  we  have  for  some  time  »)©en  travelling,  (going  north- 
ward.) The  hill-sides,  where  bare,  now  show  f  reddish  color;  and  vegetation 
is  not  so  luxuriant  as  heretofore. 

About  half-way  between  El  Valle  and  Pa^al?  on  a  bend  of  the  Rio  Florido, 
at  a  place  called  Concepcion,  is  a  most  splf^did  specimen  of  meteoric  iron.  It 
is  four  feet  above  ground,  and  almost  purc^n  quality.  It  is  from  two  to  three 
feet  one  way,  by,  probably,  two  to  five  ^et  the  other,  very  regular  in  shape, 
and,  where  worn  by  the  rubbing  of  han^>  &c.,  of  passers  by,  is  bright,  and,  to 
all  appearance,  is  nearly  pure  metal,  f^^  steel  hatchet  cuts  into  it  easily,  but 
with  our  means  at  hand  we  found  if  impossible  to  detach  any  part  of  it.  It 
stood  at  the  comer  of  the  house,  appp^^tly  to  guard  it  firom  collisions  of  wagons 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


METEOBOLOOT.  473 

and  the  liko.  The  majordomo  said  this  meteorite  had,  as  he  had  heard,  fallen 
from  the  heavens,  and  had  been  brought  from  a  distance,  from  a  place  where 
other  specimens  also  existed.  Sach  we  found  to  be  the  prevailing  account  of 
this  mass  among  the  people  of  the  place. 

I  would  state  that  from  La  Goncepcion  to  the  Hio  Grande  there  is  an  excel- 
lent road  leading  through  Saltillo  and  Monte^y,  and,  save  in  respect  to  its 
weight,  there  womd  be  no  difficulty  in  conveying  this  meteorite.  I  tliink,  also, 
that,  being  cautiously  approached,  the  Mexicans  would  sell  it  for  a  reasonable 
sum.  The  common  carts  of  the  country,  with  solid  wooden  wheels,  could  well 
convey  it. 

1  extract  the  foregoinff  partly  from  my  own  memoranda  and  partly  from  mem- 
oranda of  John  W.  Audubon,  esquire,  now  deceased,  who  examined  the  speci- 
men with  me. 

At  Parral  are  large  works  for  reducing  the  silver  ores,  which  are  in  great  quan- 
tity in  its  neighborhood. 

[It  would  appear,  from  all  the  accounts  we  have  had  from  this  region,  that  a 

shower  of  immense  meteorites  had  occurred  there  at  some  remote  period. — J.  H.] 


TBI  METEOBOLOGI  OF  CABACAS,  YEX EZVELA,  SOVTB  AMEBICA. 
By  Q.  a.  Ernst. 

The  town  of  Caracas  is  situated  in  a  small  valley  of  the  northern  coast  chain 
of  Venezuela,  in  latitude  10**  SC  SC^  north,  and  in  longitude  66**  54'  51"  west 
of  Greenwich. 

Its  altitude  above  the  level  of  the  Caribbean  sea,  at  Laguayra,  was  determined 
August  23,  1866,  from  the  following  observations  : 

At  lower  station,  (wharf  at  Laguayra,)  barometer  veO"*'",  attached  thermometer 
26**.0  C,  thermometer  in  open  air  26*^.7  C;  latitude  of  Laguayra  10"*  36'  15^' 
north ;  at  upper  station,  (rlaza  Bolivar,)  barometer  686.2*"",  attached  ther- 
mometer 21*'.7  C,  thermometer  in  open  air  21*^.7  C.  Converting  the  above  data 
into  English  measure,  we  have 

Inch. 
fi  =29.031*  t  =80.06  F.  r  =78.8  F. 

fi^=27.025  ^^=71.06  t^=71.06 

and  by  means  of  Baily's  tables,  (see  Manual  of  Scientific  Enquiry,  London,  1859, 
p.  168,)  we  find  the  difierence  of  elevation  2923.5  English  fret. 

As  far  as  I  know  there  is  no  one  at  present  engaged  in  this  place  in  meteoro- 
logical observations.  Dr.  Alexander  Ibarra  kept  a  journal  for  several  years, 
but  it  is  now  discontinued.  With  proper  instruments,  it  would  give  me  pleasure 
to  register  the  meteorological  facts.  My  instruments  were  unfortunately  bi-oken 
in  an  ascent  to  the  Silla  de  Caracas,  and  I  have  not  yet  been  able  to  replace 
them  with  new  and  better  ones. 

I  copy  from  the  "  Annuario  de  Observaciones  de  la  Officina  Central  del  Colegio 
de  Ingenieros  de  Venezuela  para  el  a&o  de  1862,"  the  following  meteorological 
table  for  1860,  constructed  from  the  observations  of  Dr.  Ibarra.  The  original 
record  of  the  temperature  is  given  in  degrees  of  the  Centigrade  scale,  and  of  the 
atmospheric  pressure  in  units  of  the  French  scale ;  both  were  reduced  to  English 
units,  which  are  commonly  used  in  the  United  States.  For  the  reduction  of  the 
barometric  observations  I  would  again  refer  to  Appendix  A. 

*  See  Appendix  A. 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


474 


METEOBOLOQT. 


Month. 


Mean  tem- 
perature. 


Mean  at- 
mos.  pres. 


Humidity, 
Saussure's 


Amount  of 
rain.* 


January  ... 
February  .. 

March 

April , 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September 

October 

November. 
December.. 


69.28 
68.36 
69.44 
75.01 
73.88 
72.41 
72.32 
72.62 
75.50 
72.10 
70.19 
70.37 


Inches. 
26.960 
26.971 
26.954 
26.964 
26.984 
26.975 
26.980 
26.964 
26.956 
26.946 
26.938 
26.959 


71.64 
66.00 
72.70 
73.10 
68.00 
68.65 
72.80 
75.90 
76.40 
76.90 
76.50 
73.85 


Inches. 
0.158 
0.000 
0.670 
3.  .349 
0.473 
3.6B4 
4.4.52 
4.373 
8.116 
5.595 
3.791 
0.083 


*  la  French  ioches. 

The  correct  mean  annual  temperaturet  is  therefore  Vl**.?!,  and  the  mean 
annual  barometric  pressure  26*°.963 ;  the  average  degree  of  humidity  72®.70,  and 
the  total  amount  of  rain  in  1860,  34.724  inches.  The  following  diagrams  show 
the  annual  march  of  the  temperature  and  barometric  pressure,  as  observed  in 
1860: 

Monthly  mean  temperature  at  Caracas  in  1860. 


Monthly  mean  barometer  pressure  at  Caracas  in  1860. 


t  See  Aj- 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


METEOROLOGY. 


475 


Determination  qfthe  height  o/tJie  SiUa  de  Caracas^  at  noon  March  26,  1867,- 

At  lower  station  (wliarf  at  Laguayra) : 

Barometer  759'""'.32,  or  29.904  English  inches. 

Attached  thermometer  24°.2  C,  or  75^.56  Fah. 

Thei-mometer  in  open  air  24°.2  C,  or  75°.56  Fah. 
At  upper  station,  (top  of  the  Silla  de  Caracas,)  in  latitude  10**  31'  15^'  north : 

Barouieter  557'"°».5,  or  21.956  English  inches. 

Attached  barometer  13°.8  C,  or  54°.84  Fah. 

Thermometer  in  open  air  13°.8  C,  or  54°.84  Fah. 
Hence  by  Baily's  tables,  elevation  of  the  Silla  de  Caracas  8,658  English  feet, 
or  5734.5  feet  above  CaracAa. 


APPENDIX  A. 

[From  the  Reader,  Dec  10,  1864,  p.  740.] 

It  appears  to  be  the  ordinary  practice  of  instrument  makers,  when  constroct- 
ing  a  barometer  with  the  English  and  French  scales,  to  turn  to  the  tables  for 
the  conversion  of  inches  into  millimetres,  or  vice  versa,  and  to  assume  that  the 
equivalents  there  found  are  to  bo  implicitly  adopted.  I  am  far  from  blaming 
them  for  this  assumption,  but  merely  wish  to  show  that  it  should  in  future  cease 
to  be  acted  upon.  An  examination  into  the  data  on  which  these  tables  are  con- 
stnicted  shows  that  they  merely  profess  to  give  the  equivalent  of  English  inches 
at  the  standard  temperature  qf  tJw  yard  (62  F.)  in  millimetres  at  the  stmidard 
temperature  of  the  metre  (0®  C,  or  32®  F.)  Hence  the  reading  of  the  metrical 
scale  of  a  barometer  corresponding  to  any  given  number  of  inches  should  be  the 
tabular  equivalent  less  a  correction  for  the  expansion  of  the  scale  between  the 
respective  standard  temperatures  (0®  C,  62®  F.,)  or  for  a  range  of  30®  F.  (16°.67 
C.)  It  will  be  at  once  apparent  that,  at  the  same  pressure,  the  amount  of  this 
correction  will  be  constant,  whatever  be  the  temperature  common  to  the  two  scales. 

An  example  will  render  my  meaning  clearer.  Let  the  barometric  reading  on 
the  English  scale  be  31  inches,  the  equivalent  of  which  in  the  tables  is  787.37 
millimetres,  based  on  the  assumption  that  the  temperatures  of  the  scales  are  respect- 
ively 62®  and  32®  F.  If  the  attached  thermometer  indicates  62°  it  is  clear  that 
the  requisite  condition  is  not  realized  in  the  case  of  the  metric  scale,  which  must 
therefore  be  corrected.  Let  A  be  the  linear  expansion  of  brass  for  1®  C.  = 
0.000018782  J  B  the  metrical  reading  =  787.39'""»,  and  t  the  temperature  =  62® 
F.,  or  76®.67  C. ;  then 

ABt  =  0.000018782  times  787.39  times  16.67  =  0.247™=»,  the  amount  to 
be  deducted  from  the  reading  of  the  metrical  scale  equivalent  to  31  inches,  as 
given  in  the  table,  in  order  to  reduce  it  to  the  same  temperature  as  the  English 
scale. 

Unless  this  be  done  a  discrepancy  must  always  become  apparent  in  the 
reduced  readings  of  the  two  scales.  For  instance,  in  the  case  of  a  mountain 
barometer,  by  one  of  our  leading  makers,  and  now  in  my  possession,  I  find 
761.99°*°*  are  made  to  correspond  (following  the  authority  of  the  tables)  to  30 
inches.  If  the  temperature  of  the  attached  thennometer  be  62®  F.,  the  respect- 
ive readings  reduced  to  the  freezing  point  become  30  —  0.090  =  29.910  inches 
at  the  standard  temperature,  (62®  F.,)  761.99  —  2.05  =  759.94°*"  at  the  stand- 
ard temperature  0®  C,  (32®  F.)  Turning  to  the  tables  for  the  comparison  of  the 
scales,  we  find  that  29.910^  at  62®  F.  are  equivalent  to  759.70"*°*  at  0®  C, 
instead  of  759.94  as  above.  If  the  barometer  was  properly  constructed  we 
ought  to  have  now  761.75°*°*,  as  corresponding  to  30  inches,  and  the  figures 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


476 


METEOROLOGY. 


reduced  to  the  freezing  point  would  be  30  —  0.090  4-  29.910  standard  incbes, 
761.75  —  2.0ft  =  759.70  standard  mmy  a  result  wbieb  corresponds  with  the 
figures  of  the  tables. 

For  particular  purposes  the  case  may  be  put  briefly  as  follows:  At  tbe 
respective  standard  temperatures  1  inch  =  25.39954"""*  or  25.4""™  nearly.  At 
62°  F.,  and  therefore  at  any  other  temperature  common  to  the  two  scales,  1  inch 
=  25.4  (1  —  30a)"*"",  where  a  equals  the  coefficient  of  dilatation  of  brass  for  1* 
F.  =  0.0000104344,  1  inch  =  25.4"°»  —  0.008  =  25.392°".  Thereforo,  at 
the  standard  temperatures  30  inches  =  25.4™""  x  30  =  762™™  as  in  the  tables. 
At  a  common  temperature  30  inches  =  762.0™™  —  0.008  X  30  =  761.760™™.  In 
practice  this  is  sufficiently  near,  but  if  greater  accuracy  be  requii-ed,  the  follow- 
mg  figures  may  be  adopted  as  the  respective  equivalents  of  an  inch  and  a  milli- 
metre at  all  common  temperatures :  1  inch  =  25.3916™™  and  1™™=  0.0393831 
inches.    The  following  tables  are  constructed  on  this  basis : 


TABLE  I. 

Jnehe$. 

MiUimetres. 

Tnehes. 

Millimetres, 

Inches. 

Millimetres 

Inches. 

MiUimetres. 

32  = 

=  812.5312 

27  c 

=  685.5732 

10  = 

=  253.9160 

5  = 

=  126.9580 

31 

787.J396 

26 

660. 1816 

9 

228.5244 

4 

101.5664 

30 

761  7480 

25 

634.7900 

8 

203.1328 

3 

76. 1748 

29 

736.3564 

20 

507.8320 

7 

177  7412 

2 

60.7832 

28 

710.9648 

15 

380.8740 
TABI 

6 
.EU. 

152.3496 

1 

25.3916 

mm. 

lmehe$. 

mm. 

Inches. 

mm* 

Inches. 

mm. 

Inches. 

800. 

=  31.50648 

100: 

=  3.93831 

30: 

=  1. 181493 

5  : 

=  0. 1969155 

700 

27.56817 

90 

.3.544479 

20 

0.787662 

4 

0. 1575324 

000 

23.62986 

80 

3.150648 

10 

0.393831 

3 

0.1181493 

600 

19.69155 

70 

2.7568J7 

9 

0.3544479 

2 

0.0787662 

400 

15.75324 

60 

2.362986 

8 

0.3150648 

1 

0.0393831 

300 

11.81493 

50 

1.969155 

7 

0.2756817 

200 

7.87662 

40 

1.575324 

6 

0.2362986 

The  tables  to  which  I  have  throughout  referred  are  those  published  by  the 
Smithsonian  Institution,  Washington,  among  their  Miscellaneous  Collections 
and  under  the  able  editorship  of  Professor  A.  Guyot.  (Second  edition,  Wash- 
ington,  1858.) 

P.  F.  TUCKETT, 


APPENDIX  B. 

The  common  method  of  calculating  the  annual  means  of  the  temperature  and 
atmospheric  pressure  firom  the  monthly  means  is  not  quite  exact.  I  presented  a 
paper  on  this  subject  to  the  Silesian  Society  for  the  Progress  of  the  Country, 
('*  Schlesische  Gesellschaft  fiir  vaterlandische  Kultur,")  of  which  I  beg  leave  to 
give  here  an  abstract. 

The  monthly  means  being  the  quotient  of  the  sum  of  the  daily  means  bv  the 
number  of  days  in  the  month,  it  is  clear  that  we  obtain  that  sum  by  multiplying 
the  given  monthly  mean  by  the  corresponding  number  of  days.  This  being 
done  with  all  the  months  composing  the  yeai*,  the  sum  of  these  twelve  products 
will  be  equal  to  the  total  sum  of  all  the  daily  means  in  the  year,  which  divided 
by  365  (or  by  366  in  a  leap  year)  gives  the  true  annual  mean.  The  difference 
of  the  true  mean  and  the  common  mean  increases  with  the  divergencies  of  the 
monthly  means. 

The  ordinary  mean  temperature  of  Caracas  would  be,  taking  the  numbers 
given  in  the  foregoing  table,  71^.707,  while  the  true  mean  is  71^.711 ;  the  ordi- 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


METEOROLOGT.  477 

nary  mean  barometric  pre8sm«  from  the  same  somroe  is  26^.962517,  the  trne 
mean  26^.962515;  the  first  shows  a  difference  of  +0^004,  the  second  of 
0.000002  inches. 

It  is  easy  to  prove  that  this  difference  (J)  for  a  common  year  is  represented 
by  the  following  equation  : 

4380J  =  7  (iWi+in3+iW5+iW7+wi8+Wio+Wi3)— 29  «%— 5  (m^+m^+niB+fnii) 
and  for  a  leap  yean 

732  J  =  (lWi+IW3+W5+IW7+Wts  +  Wio+tni8)— (lW4+W6+ni9+Wlii)— 3lW8 

where  nhnHnh,  etc,  are  the  monthly  means  corresponding  to  the  first,  second^ 

third,  etc.,  month. 

Taking  again  the  case  of  Caracas  as  an  example,  we  find  a  differenee  for  the 

2  82 
thermometric  means  of  j^  =:  0®.0038  as  stated  above,  and  for  the  barometxio 

0.0016 
jneans  of -^g^—  =  0.0000022  as  before. 


AH  ACCOFKT  OF  A  CICIOXE,  JANUARY  6  AXD  7, 1867,  EITCOVKTERBD  EI  TRI 
UNITED  STATES  STEAMER  MONOCACI,  WHILE  ON  HER  PASSAGE  FROM 
SIMON'S  BAT  TO  MAURITIUS,  IN  THE  INDIAN  OCEAN. 

Bt  Nicholas  Pike,  Un*ited  States  Consul,  Port  Louis. 

The  United  States  steamer  Monocacy,  bound  from  Simon's  bay.  South  Africa^ 
towards  Mauritius,  met,  during  the  passage  to  the  last-mentioned  port,  one  of 
those  dreaded  tornadoes  or  hurricanes  that  swept  over  the  vast  expanse  of  the 
South  Indian  ocean.  Being  myself  on  board  of  the  Monocacy,  and  deeply  inter- 
ested in  the  science  of  the  laws  of  storms,  I  succeeded,  by  careful  observations 
of  barometer  and  thermometer,  by  noticing  the  changes  of  wind  and  tempera- 
ture, and  the  rising  and  setting  of  the  storm  wave,  to  ascertain  pretty  correctly 
the  centre  of  the  hurricane,  and  deduce  all  the  aforesaid  changes  of  wind  and 
weather  to  the  rules  laid  down  by  Messrs.  Piddington  and  Kedfield,  in  their 
admirable  treatise  on  the  law  of  storms;  the  officers  of  the  vessel  kindly  supply- 
ing me  with  a  copy  of  the  log,  which,  if  even  not  very  correct,  greatly  aided 
me  in  tracing  the  cyclone  home  to  its  vortex. 

As  my  object  in  writing  this  is  not  a  description  of  the  storm,  but  especially 
facts  and  dates,  and  arranging  such  in  tables  to  prove  the  correctness  of  the 
theory  of  cyclones,  I  shall  previously  insert  a  short  description  of  the  tempest. 
The  whole  of  our  passage,  since  leaving  Simon's  bay,  had  been  a  succession  of 
bad  weather,  and  the  few  sunny  days  which  we  in  realitv  had  were  both  to 
officers  and  men  a  veritable  blessing;  sails  were  repaired,  hammocks  and  bed- 
ding aired,  clothes  dried  and  mended,  and  the  decks,  for  the  first  time  quite  dry, 
resounded  in  every  direction  with  the  joyous  laughter  of  the  crew,  carelessly  for- 
fi^tting  the  past  troubles,  living  only  for  the  present,  regardless  for  the  future. 
!0ut  their  joy  was  of  short  duration.  On  the  evening  of  the  6th  of  January,  the 
sky  became  gloomy,  dark  threatening  clouds  passed  swiftly  to  the  northward, 
the  sea  rose  fast,  and  the  vessel  commenced  to  roll  heavily ;  bedding  and  clothes 
were  quickly  taken  below,  and  everything  secured  for  the  bad  weather  again. 
The  night,  from  January  6  to  7,  fully  justified  our  anticipations;  heavy  blasts  of 
wind,  rain,  and  lightning,  the  rolling  of  the  vessel,  the  cracking  of  her  timbers,  and 
the  thundering  noise  of  a  wave  breaking  under  the  vessel's  counter,  made,  I  may 
safely  say,  even  the  oldest  seamen  on  board  uncomfortable,  especially  as  the 
vessel  being  new,  and  her  sea-worthiness  to  all,  even  to  the  captain,  unknown,  we 
had  not  that  confidence  in  her  which  her  gallant  behavior  afterwards  during  the 

uigitized  by  VjOOQ IC 


478  METEOROLOGY. 

following  gale  inspired  us  all ;  sails  were  reduced,  or  partly  so,  by  the  aid  of 
the  storm,  the  flapping  of  the  canvas,  torn  to  ribbons  by  the  rage  of  the  tempest, 
the  loud  thunder,  the  occasional  flashes  of  lightning,  the  rising  of  a  tremendous 
wave,  showing  first  its  white  foaming  crest  far  off  on  the  horizon,  and  then 
drawing  nearer  and  nearer,  till  you  might  almost  fancy  it  would  instantly  engulf 
us,  but  our  gallant  craft  rose  nobly  to  the  crest  of  the  surge.  All  this  was  a 
spectacle  wild  and  fearful  to  behold,  but  in  its  very  wildness  grand  and  sublime. 
Then,  I  may  say,  the  metal  of  our  crew  was  tried,  and  the  true  Bailors,  both 
among  oflScers  and  men,  were  found ;  but  alas !  how  few,  out  of  that  great 
number!  They  worked  hard,  sending  down  masts  and  yards,  repairing  or  bend- 
ing the  storm-sails,  or  standing  at  the  pumps,  knee-deep  in  water,  that  washed 
unceasingly  over  the  decks.  Daylight  showed  us  at  last  the  extent  of  the  dam- 
ages the  vessel  had  sustained ;  the  paddle-boxes,  the  roundhouses  were  smashed 
in  and  washed  away,  the  rail  forward  was  stove  in,  and  the  heavy  one-inch  iron 
plates  were  bent  double,  the  ring-bolts  to  which  the  heavy  pivot  guns  were 
secured  started  from  the  deck,  and  the  guns  threatened  with  each  roll  to  break 
adrift  from  their  lashings ;  a  temporary  lull  in  the  gale  gave  us  time  to  secure 
them^  and  repair  dama^fes  a  little.  Everybody  hoped  for  good  weather,  as  the 
heavy  rain  which  fell  during  four  or  five  hours  beat  the  sea  down  considerably, 
but  on  the  evening  of  the  7th  the  storm  commenced  again.  A  red  lurid  light 
spread  all  over  the  sky,  and  shortly  after  the  setting  of  the  sun  the  ocean  l)ecame 
furious  once  more.  A  tremendous  sea  breaking  over  the  starboard  bow  swept 
everything  before  it,  tearing  away  the  gratings  of  the  hatches,  breaking  the 
after  sky-lights,  and  rushing  down  into  the  ward-room  and  cabin,  floating  and 
drenching  everything  and  everybody.  The  tiller  ropes  having  been  carried 
away,  the  ship,  paying  off  before  the  wind,  became  unmanageable ;  the  guys  of 
the  smoke-stack  having  broken,  it  was  feared  that  the  heavy  mass  of  iron  would 
descend  upon  us,  smashing  everything;  the  ship  then  coming  to  again  fiUeii  her 
decks  with  water,  and  leaning  over  to  port,  remained  so  lon^  in  that  position 
that  even  the  stoutest  heart  quailed,  and  anxiously  counted  tlie  seconds  till  at 
last  the  ship  rose  gallantly  again  on  the  crest  of  the  next  wave  j  luckily  the  sea 
having  stove  in  the  lower  ports,  the  immense  quantity  of  water  found  a  ready 
egress  from  her  docks,  and  the  vessel,  lightened  of  her  weight,  rolled  less  heavily; 
new  wheel-ro{)es  were  rove,  and  the  storm  having  spent  its  fury  abated  greatly. 
In  the  morning  a  heavy  shower  of  rain  smoothed  down  the  sea  considerably, 
and  a  little  before  six  o'clock  the  sun  rose  red  and  gloriously  in  the  east,  in  a 
fair  and  cloudless  sky.  The  danger  j)assed,  the  heavy  puffing  and  snorting  of 
the  powerful  engine  showed  that  the  good  ship  was  once  more  speeding  onward, 
gracefully  throwing  the  splashing,  glittering  spray  from  her  bow  back  into  tho 
conquered  ocean. 

Taking  a  scientific  view  of  huricanes  and  cyclones,  and  the  management  of 
vessels  therein,  it  is  clear  that  there  are  three  ways  of  managing  a  ship  in  or  at 
the  approach  of  a  cyclone :  First,  in  order  to  avoid  the  same,  (in  case  there  is 
plenty  of  sea  room,)  the  vessel  should  be  hove  to  on  the  proper  tack.  Second, 
if  a  ship  is  caught  inside  of  a  stoim  disk,  the  only  chances  to  be  adopted  are, 
running  before  the  wind,  or  heaving  the  ship  to,  and  the  latter,  when  on  account 
of  the  high  or  cross  seas  the  safety  of  the  ship  is  endangered,  the  only  course 
left  is  to  run  before  the  wind  in  a  tangent  duection  toward  the  inner  storm  disk, 
and  then  gradually  to  edge  off  to  the  outer  limits  of  the  cyclone ;  and  lastly,  by 
running  on  the  outside  of  the  wind's  circle,  and  even  profit  by  it.  But  tho  ques- 
tion is,  how  to  know  the  approach  of  a  cyclone,  how  to  find  the  proper  bearings 
of  its  centre.  Considering  then  every  cyclone  as  a  great  whirlwind,  the  direc- 
tion of  every  wind  as  a  rotary,  of  which  tho  outer  part  is  a  common  close-reefed 
topsail  breeze,  such  as  seamen  do  not  care  for,  and  by  which  no  seaworthy  ship 
is  injured,  but  the  violence  of  the  wind  increases  with  great  rapidity  as  the  centre 
is  approached,  till  close  or  in  it,  when  it  becomes  of  a  destructive  fury,  and  even 


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METEOROLOGY.  479 

if  this  centre  should  have  a  diameter  of  50  or  60  miles,  round  which  the  storm  ia 
revolving,  our  first  care  must  be  to  ascertain  how  this  point  or  centre  bears  from 
us,  in  order  to  guide  our  future  manoBuvres.  Now,  as  the  Monocacy  on  the  5th 
of  January  was,  according  to  her  log,  in  latitude  32**  15'  south,  and  longitude 
47**  45'  east,  the  wind  marked  as  E.SE.,  the  centre  of  every  common  wind  would 
lay,  according  to  proved  and  established  rules  of  storms,  to  the  E.  by  N.  or 
E.NE.  In  the  remarks  on  January  5th  it  is  said,  clouds  accumulating,  cloudy 
and  damp,  moderate  breeze  from  SE.  by  E.,  sent  up  foretopmast ;  from  4  to  6, 
squally  and  damp,  heavy  swell  from  SE.  by  E.,  light  winds;  6  p.  m.,  a  drizzling 
rain,  but  with  all  these  clouds  and  dampness  we  find  the  state  of  the  barometer 
as  shown  in  the  diagram,  the  lowest  stand  being  30.1 ;  in  the  diagram  stating 
the  position  of  the  ship  and  centre  bearings,  the  storm  disk  with  its  hourly  chang- 
ing tangent  angles  is  named  a  moderate  gale ;  the  outside  circle  of  a  hurricane, 
accompanied  with  a  sun-ounding  atmosphere  slightly  disturbed ;  the  greatest  signs 
of  an  approaching  cyclone  are  the  oscillations  in  barometer  and  sympiesomcter, 
more  especially  a  high  barometer  with  gloomy  threatening  weather ;  in  the  track 
of  the  trades  and  monsoons  this  is  almost  always  a  sure  sign  of  an  approaching 
tempest. 

Looking  at  the  table  we  must  naturally  be  surprised  to  see  that,  regardless  of 
all  these  signs,  the  vessel  was  still  kept  on  her  course,  that  is  to  say  between 
E.NE.  and  NE.  by  E.  The  question  naturally  arises,  can  the  bm'omcter  assist  us 
in  forming  an  approximative  estimation  of  the  ship's  distance  from  the  centre? 
And  on  first  consideration,  it  is  evident  that  there  arc  very  great  differences  in 
the  fall  and  rise  of  a  barometer  and  sympiesomcter,  in  various  storms,  though 
they  may  be  all  true  cyclones.  Consequently  the  variations  of  these  instruments 
may  very  often  mislead  us ;  but  the  shortness  of  the  time  in  which  these  changes 
happened,  the  number  of  barometers  which  underwent  the  same  changes,  was 
enough  to  make  even  the  most  careless  seaman  comprehend  the  danger  and  the 
close  approximation  of  the  destructive  centre.  But  looking  again  at  the  barom- 
eter and  sympiesomcter  stand  of  January  5th,  we  find  that  it  ought  to  have  been 
considered,  first,  the  previous  height  of  the  barometer;  second,  the  exact  time  for 
a  given  fall  or  rise;  and  third,  the  change  of  the  obsei'ver's  position,  especially 
when  running  or  steaming.  The  diagram  here  then  shows  the  height  and  the 
hourly  change  of  a  barometer  and  sympiesomcter,  and  the  distance  from  tho 
centre  is  worked  out  according  to  Mr.  Piddington's  rule.  Certainly  these  calcula- 
tions are  only  to  be  made  approximatively,  but  coming  so  near  to  tho  truth  that 
we  may  consider  the  result  to  be  the  true  centre.  Now,  as  in  tho  Southern 
Indian  ocean,  the  rate  of  travelling  of  a  hurricane  may  be  stated  to  be  little 
more  than  nine  or  ten  miles  per  hour,  and  especially  in  the  meridian  between 
Mauritius  and  Madagascar,  the  rate  generally  does  not  exceed  eight  miles  per 
hour,  it  is  evident  that  with  even  the  little  progress  the  Monocacy  made  against 
a  head  wind  and  sea,  the  coiurse  to  the  northward  and  eastward  brought  her 
without  question  nearer  to  the  focus.  The  weather  during  the  following  days 
showed  no  material  alteration ;  the  same  dai*k  cloudy  sky,  the  same  height  of 
barometer,  slightly  varying  as  by  the  ship's  progress  we  neared  the  centre. 
The  table  shows  the  indications  of  barometer  and  sympiesomcter  for  the  6th, 
7th,  and  8th,  in  her  log-book.  I  find  the  oscillations  of  one  bai-ometer  and  the 
vibrations  of  an  aneroid  bai'ometer  very  strongly  marked;  both  are  common 
signs  during  a  cyclone.  On  January  7th,  states  the  log,  the  water  changed  its 
appearance  to  a  dark  brown  color,  the  sea  was  running  furiously,  and  in  various 
directions ;  the  vessel  was  at  that  time  under  stonn  mainsail,  double-reefed  fore 
trysail,  and  stonn  fore  topsail,  the  topsail  yard  and  fore  yard  on  deck,  and  fore 
and  main  topmasts  housed;  everything  was  secured  about  her  decks,  and  the 
vessel  kept  under  just  enough  steam  to  hold  her  own,  but  still  heading  to  tho 
northward  and  eastward.  During  the  night  from  the  7th  to  the  8th  the  storm 
had  reached  its  climax }  it  blew  the  storm  staysail  out  of  the  bolt  ropes,  and  the 


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480  METEOROLOGY. 

Bhip  having  lost  her  starboard  bulwarks,  shipped  a  tremendons  quantity  of  water, 
which  flooded  her  decks;  this  and  the  tiller  carrying  away,  herlielm  shifted 
thereby  over  to  starboard,  and  made  the  vessel  pay  off  before  the  wind ;  with 
the  greatest  difficulty  a  new  tiller  was  shipped,  and  the  vessel  again  was  kept 
up  to  the  eastward.  In  the  storm  chart  it  will  be  seen  that  the  vessel,  during 
this  night,  was  nearest  to  the  vortex.  On  the  following  day,  the  8th,  the  storm 
having  passed  the  vessel,  no  material  danger  threatened  us  longer ;  the  barom- 
eter still  kept  unusually  high,  and  the  whole  day  the  sky  wore  an  unusually 
bright  appearance ;  the  air  likewise  was  charged  with  a  great  amount  of  elec- 
tricity ;  incessant  thunder  and  lightning  were  the  consequenves.  In  the  afternoon 
it  was  calm,  but  the  sea  still  ran  high,  which  made  the  vessel  labor  heavily  j 
barometer  at  30.14,  the  thennometer  74.5  Fahrenheit.  At  6  p.  m.  a  heavy  nun 
smoothed  the  sea  down,  and  the  vessel,  after  having  undergone  the  necessary 
repairs,  steamed  towards  her  destination. 

But  before  I  conclude  this  description  I  can  hardly  omit  a  word  about  the 
origin  of  cyclones.  It  appears  to  me  that  a  simply  fattened  spiral  stream  of 
electric  fluid  generates  above,  and  expanding  in  a  broad  disk,  may  amply  account 
for  the  commencement  of  a  cyclone.  By  its  descending  to  the  surface  of  the 
earth,  and  that  likewise  its  onward  motion,  in  such  a  direction  as  the  law  of 
force  and  gravity  drives  it,  may  simply  account  for  its  continuance,  and  the 
oppression  and  exhaustion  of  its  force  for  its  termination.  The  unequal  motion 
is  naturally  the  consequence  of  one  side  of  the  disk  being  more  flattened,  and 
causing  the  cyclone  to  advance  more  rapidly ;  the  descent  or  settling  down  of  the 
cyclones  has  in  numerous  cases  been  proved ;  the  appearance  of  the  vortexes  of 
violent  tornadoes  within  the  body  of  great  storms  is  not  unfrequent  or  new. 

A  curious  phenomenon  was  the  brightness  of  the  sky  at  sunset  on  the  7th  of 
January.  The  whole  horizon  became  suddenly  suffused  with  a  bright  scarlet 
color;  I  do  not  remember  ever  it  happening  before,  and  even  the  veiy  zenith  and 
all  the  horizon  round  was  affected  by  it.  All  these  signs  combined  were  strong 
proofs  of  a  cyclone,  and  the  management  of  the  ship  should  have  been  acted  upon 
accordingly.  Commanders  and  officers  of  men-of-war  should  strictly  consider 
the  competence  of  junior  officers  before  intrusting  them  with  :\  watch,  whether  or 
not  they  are  able  to  take  charge  of  one,  as  coura^  and  daring  have  during  the 
late  war  elevated  many  a  person  to  a  position  which  is  far  above  his  experience. 
Courage  and  daring  are  in  war  two  main  virtues,  and  most  desirable,  but  expe- 
rience and  cool  judgment  in  peaceful  times,  and  during  the  raging  of  a  tempest, 
are  the  most  wished-for  qualities  in  an  officer^  whether  in  the  merchant  service 
or  navy. 

But  still,  looking  calmly  on  the  past  dangers,  I  cannot  omit  to  render,  next  to 
God,  to  the  commander  and  to  some  of  the  officers  and  crew  of  the  Monocacy 
my  thanks  for  a  safe  delivery  out  of  one  of  those  terrible  cyclones  that  occur  in 
the  South  Indian  ocean. 


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METEOROLOGT. 


481 


Table  showing  (he  lumrly  change  of  wind,  the  course  steered,  the  height  of 
barometer,  thermometer  and  sympiesometer^  and  temperature  of  water  during 
the  cyd^me* 


1 

Wind. 

Ckmne. 

Barometer. 

Thermom- 
eter. 

Sympfesom- 
etcr. 

Tempera- 
tnre. 

Remarks. 

1 

8E.byE 

SE.f  B 

East 

3a2 
30.1 
30.1 
30.3 
30.1 

3ai 

30.1 

30.14 

30.15 

3a  17 

30.17 

30.15 

30.15 

3a  14 

3a  14 

3a  13 

30.6 

3a  15 

30.15 

3a  15 

30.15 

30.80 

30.21 

30.21 

72.5 
72.6 
72.6 
72.5 
72.5 
72.5 
72.5 
75.0 
75.3 
75.0 
75.0 
75.0 
75.0 
75.0 
75.0 
75.0 
75.3 
75.1 
75.1 
75.2 
76.2 
76.  a 
76.2 
76.2 

a026 
a  027 

au27 
a  (128 

a  027 

a  196 
a  020 
a  018 
a  016 
a  016 
a  016 
a  015 
a  015 
a  015 
•  a  015 
a  012 
a  10 
a  08 
ao6 
aos 
aoe 
ao7 
a  07 
ao7 

74.3 

74.3 

74.  S 

74.8 

74.8 

74.8 

74.2 

74,3 

74.3 

74.3 

74.1 

74.3 

74.3 

74.3 

74.3 

74.5 

74.5 

74.5 

74.5 

74.12 

74.12 

74.12 

74.12 

75.0 

2 

Eatt 

Cloudy. 
Do 

3 

SE.}E 

East 

4 

SE 

East 

Rain. 

5 

8E.i8 

8E.i  8 

B.iN •- 

Do. 

6 

E.iN 

Do. 

7 

8E.byS 

8B.by8 

8SE.IE 

8SE.4E 

8SB.}e 

8SE 

E.by  N 

aondy. 
Do 

8 

B.by  N ".... 

9 

E.by  N 

Do. 

10 

E.*N 

Do. 

11 

E.4  N 

Do. 

12 

b.In 

Do. 

I 

S.by  E 

E.     N 

Do. 

2 

8.by  E 

E.by  N 

Rainy. 
Do. 

n 

S.by  B 

B.by  N 

4 

South 

B.by  N 

Do. 

5 

South 

East 

Do. 

6 

Soath 

East 

8tron«  gale. 
Do. 

7 

8.i  W 

Bast 

8 

S.i  W 

East 

Do. 

9 

S.by  W 

East 

Do. 

10 

S.by  W 

East 

Do. 

11    ( 
19 

8.  by  W 

East 

Do. 

aby  W 

East 

Do. 

Th««  greatest  height  of  barometer 30.21 

The  lowest  stand  of  barometer 30.1 

The  lowest  stand  of  sympiesometer a07 


80ME  OBSEBYATIONS  ON  THE  GREAT  HVBRICAXE  OF  OCTOBER  29,  1867,  AT 
TORTOLA,  (OR  PETER'S  ISLAND,)  ST.  THOMAS,  AND  PART  OF  PORTO  RICO. 

By  George  A.  Latimer. 

What  is  nsnally  called  the  great  hurricane  of  29th  October,  1867,  should,  it 
seems  to  me,  rather  be  called  a  tornado,  or  a  number  of  tornadoes,  almost  joined 
and  moving  nearly  together,  for  the  following  reasons :  Hurricanes  extend  far 
and  are  wide ;  this  occurrence  on  the  29th  October  was  short  in  extent  and 
narrow.  It  appears  to  have  begun  at  Tortola,  (Peter's  island,)  at  9  a.  m.,  with 
wind  at  northeast,  and  lasted  until  1.20  p.  m.,  wind  going  all  round  the  compass, 
the  hardest  being  from  northwest. 

At  St.  Thomas  it  be^an  at  10  a.  m.,  with  wind  from  northeast,  and  a  heavy 
rain ;  at  11.15  a.  m.  ca£n  until  12.15  p.  m.,  when  wind  came  furious  from  west, 
and  blew  until  2  p.  m. ;  then  a  dead  calm  until  2.30  p.  m.,  when  the  wind  cam© 
with  fuiy  from  the  east,  accompanied  by  a  heavy  rain  and  a  white  atmosphere. 
This,  the  second  and  most  terrific  part,  lasted  until  4.15  p.  m.,  when  it  fell  calm, 
and  the  night  following  was  clear,  with  a  bright  sky.  While  the  wind  was 
blowing  so  hard  from  the  east,  the  barometer  fell  14  lines,  and  remained  so  for 
30  minutes. 

At  east  end  of  Porto  Rico,  say  Fajardo,  Naguabo,  and  Humacao,  it  began  at 
11  am.,  ^vith  wind  from  northeast,  shifting  to  southeast  and  south  until  1.15  p. 
m.,  then  calm  until  2  p.  m.,  when  the  wind  came  from  northwest,  and  at  4  p.  ra. 
it  entirely  ceased,  and  the  evening  and  night  following  were  calm.  During  the 
violence  of  the  wind,  (but  the  hour  is  not  given,)  the  sea  rose  in  Fajardo  and 
Humacao  about  four  feet,  overflowing  the  beaches  and  all  the  store  yards  for  a 
xisty  great  distance. 


31  8  67 


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Google 


482  METEOROLOGY. 

At  Loiza  (going  down  the  north  side)  it  began  at  4  p.  m.,  with  wind  at  north, 
shifting  to  northeast,  and  lasted  until  10  p.  m.,  when  the  wind  abated,  but  it 
rained  neavily  all  the  night. 

At  the  city  of  St.  John's,  (going  down  the  north  side,)  it  commenced  at  4  p. 
m.,  with  wind  from  north,  and  lasted  until  10  p.  m.  Here  it  was  not  severe,  and 
no  damage  done  ;  neither  was  there  any  done  further  down  the  north  side  of  the 
island,  but  there  was  a  heavy  rain,  causing  floods  in  the  rivers,  &c. 

At  Arroyo,  on  the  south  side,  it  began  at  4  p.  m.,  with  wind  firom  east,  barom- 
eter 29.09 ;  at  7  p.  m.  barometer  at  29.15,  and  wind  changed  to  south,  and  blew 
very  hard  until  9.30  p.  m.,  when  it  was  all  over ;  and  it  does  not  appear  to  have 
gone  further  down  the  south  side  of  Porto  Ricx). 

Thus,  the  course  of  it  seems  to  have  been  striking: 

1.  Tortola,  (or  Peter's  island,)  at  9  a.  m.,  wind  firom  northeast ; 

2.  St.  Thomas,  30  miles  to  leeward,  at  10  a.  m.,  wind  northeast  j 

3.  Porto  Rico,  east  end,  28  miles  to  leeward,  at  11  a.  m.,  wind  northeast; 
north  side,  Loisa,  20  miles  to  leeward,  at  5  p.  m.,  wind  north ;  city  of  St.  John's* 
20  miles  to  leeward,  at  4  p.,  m.,  wind  north ;  south  side,  Arroyo,  64  miles  to  lee- 
ward, at  4  p.  m.,  wind  east,  and  not  going  further  westward  than  St.  John's  on 
the  north  and  Arroyo  on  the  south  side ;  so  that  it  cut  across  Porto  Rico  firom 
north-northeast  to  south-southwest  in  about  one-third  of  its  length,  making  ^reat 
destruction  in  the  trees  on  the  mountains  and  in  the  tops  of  those  on  the  juains 
and  low  hills,  as  is  to  be  seen  and  traced  throughout  its  whole  course ;  and  as 
the  lower  two-thu*ds  of  the  island  were  not  injured  by  the  winds,  only  by  heavy 
rains,  it  shows  the  tornado  passed  off  to  south-southwest,  or  disappeared  upwards. 
That  it  did  not  extend  further  to  the  eastward  is  proved  by  the  arrival  of  vesseln 
at  St.  Thomas  the  next  day  without  their  having  felt  it  j  whereas,  had  it  been  a 
hurricane,  fi-om  their  position  they  should  have  felt  it.  So,  also,  a  vessel  bound 
into  Arroyo,  and  another  from  Arroyo  to  Humacao,  seeing  the  weather  look 
threatening,  stood  to  the  south,  and  only  had  a  strong  northeast  wbd  all  night, 

foing  into  their  respective  ports  of  destination  the  next  morning,  to  find  there 
ad  been  a  tornado  passing  over  both  places. 


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PRIZE  QUESTIONS. 


QUESTIONS  PROPOSED  FOR  COMPETITION  BY  THE  ROYAL  DANISH  SOCI 
ETY  OP  SCIENCES,  1867. 

Class  op  Natural  History  aijd  Mathematics. — Question  qf  natural 
history, — Although  the  lichens  have  been  the  object,  in  late  years,  of  very  pro- 
found researches,  (especially  on  the  part  of  MM.  Tulasne,  Nylander,  Th.  Fries, 
and  Speerschneider,)  there  are  still  many  points  of  great  interest  in  their  life  and 
development,  respecting  which  our  knowledge  remains  very  incomplete. 

Although  M.  Tnlasne  had  demonstrated  in  1852  that  all  the  lichens  are  fur-* 
nished  with  a  special  organ,  (sperma^orie  with  the  spermatise,)  and  his  researches 
render  it  more  than  probable  tnat  this  or^n  must  serve  for  fecundation  and  cor- 
respond to  the  male  reproductive  organ,  tnere  has,  thus  far,  been  no  observation 
made,  nor  experiment,  which  might  establish  conclusively  that  the  organ  in 
question  fulfils  that  function.  We  have,  moreover,  recent  observations  (of 
MM.  Hicks  and  Bary)  which  prove  that  there  are  certain  species  of  colimacese 
which  stand  in  generic  relation  to  plants  which  have  been  heretofore  considered 
as  types  of  algse,  (Nostochace®,  Chroocoocacese ;)  but  the  true  nature  of  that 
relation  is  still  completely  unknown.  It  results,  lastly,  from  recent  researches, 
that  there  ^are  reproductive  organs  (apotheciae)  without  a  thallus,  which  appear 
to  subsist  as  parasites  on  the  thallus  of  other  species.  They  have  been  classed 
as  distinct  species  or  genera  in  a  family  apart,  (the  pseudolichens,)  or  considered 
as  champignons  or  special  organs  of  the  plants  on  which  they  live.  The  true 
nature  of  these  organisms  or  organs  is  therefore  still  very  enigmatical.  The 
society  proposes  its  gold  medal  as  a  recompense  for  the  solution,  in  a  satisfactory 
manner,  of  one  or  more  of  these  three  pomts. 

Question  qfmaihemaHcs. — ^The  potential  may  be  reduced  to  a  more  general 

form,  wiien  the  variable,  jct,  in  the  function  J^^,is  considered  as  a  function  of 

t  — —,t  being  a  new  variable  and  a  a  constant.  As  the  potential  thus  gen- 
eralized may  receive  applications  nmch  more  c  ^tended,  the  society  desures  that, 
besides  a  redtal  of  the  principal  propositions  heri^tofore  known  in  relation  to  this 
function,  an  investigation  of  the  same  function  should  be  submitted  to  it  under 
the  form  above  indicated. 

Class  op  History  and  Philosophy. — Question  qf  history  andphHohgp, — 
How  have  the  classical  Latin  authors  been  appreciated  and  how  far  have  they 
tfoen  made  use  of  by  the  grammarians  of  the  time  of  the  empire  and  by  their 
schools  ?  What  influence  was  exerted  by  this  appreciation  and  this  use  on  the 
preservation  or  disappearance  of  literature,  and  how  much  of  the  literature  of 
antiquity  may  be  estimated  to  have  remained  in  circulation  or  to  have  been 
accessible,  about  500  years  after  Jesus  Christ  f 

The  answers  to  these  questions  may  be  written  in  Latin,  French,  English, 
German,  Swedish,  or  Danish.  The  memoirs  should  not  bear  the  name  of  the 
author,  but  a  motto,  and  be  accompanied  by  a  sealed  note  distinguished  by  the 
same  motto  and  enclosing  the  name,  profesdon,  and  address,  of  the  author.  The 
members  of  die  society  who  reside  in  Denmark  will  take  no  part  in  the  compe- 
tition. The  recompense  accorded  for  a  satisfactory  reply  to  one  of  the  proposed 
questions,  will  be  the  ffold  medal  of  the  society,  of  the  value  of  50  Danish  ducats. 
The  replies  must  be  addressed,  before  the  end  of  October,  1868,  to  the  secretary 
of  the  society,  Professor  J.  Japetus  Sm.  Steenstrup. 


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484  PBIZE   QUESTIONS. 

PONTIFICAL  ACADEMY  OF  THE  NUOVI  LTNCEI.-PROGRAMME  FOR  THE 
CARPI  PRIZE.— ROME,  JUNE  12,  1868. 

The  academy,  with  the  view  of  conferring  the  annual  prize  founded  by  the 
generous  testamentary  provision  of  its  late  associate  doctor,  Pierre  Carpi,  proposes 
the  development  of  the  following  theme : 

To  compare  with  one  another  the  tides  of  the  principal  ports  qfaU  the  ItaUan 
coasts f  and  to  appreciate  and  explain  their  differences. 

Explanation. — Galileo  had  occupied  himself  with  the  flow  and  ebb  of  the 
sea.*  But  in  his  time,  that  is  to  say  in  1616,  neither  the  true  doctrine  of  univer- 
sal attraction  nor  the  bigher  analysis  was  known;  it  was  not  possible,  therefore, 
to  indicate  the  principal  causes  of  the  phenomenon  in  question.  Notwithstanding 
this,  that  illustrious  Liticean  sought,t  two  and  a  half  centuries  ago,  to  investigate 
the  probable  reasons  which  cause  the  flow  and  ebb  of  the  sea  to  be  more  sensi- 
ble in  the  Adriatic,  and  especially  at  Venice,  than  on  the  coasts  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean. It  thus  appears  that  our  subject  was,  in  part,  considered  by  the  glorious 
reformer  of  the  doctrines  of  Aristotle. 

In  its  discussion  the  proposed  theme  should  be  well  developed,  yet  all  that 
does  not  strictly  pertain  to  the  question  should  be  avoided,  without,  however, 
going  so  far  as  to  suppress  anything  which  may  contribute  to  give  clearness  and 
force  to  the  demonstrations.  It  will  be  of  great  service  to  the  author  to  be 
acquainted  with  the  researches  respecting  the  tides  already  executed  by  physical 
geographers,  such,  for  instance,  as  Humboldt,  Whewell,  Lubbock,  Berghaus, 
Germar,  Thomson,  Maury,  Dession,  Chezallon,  &c.,  and  also  by  the  modem 
geometers,  Laplace,  Delaunay,  and  others. 

The  author  should  have  recourse  to  sources,  either  official  or  entirely  worthy 
of  credit,  for  the  observations  which  have  been  made  on  the  cotemporaneousness 
of  tides,  on  their  differences  in  point  of  time,  and  should  indicate  whence  he  has 
collected  those  observations.  He  should  also  state  the  intervals  which  separate 
high  tide  from  the  lunar  culmination,  and  likewise  its  maximum,  minimum,  and 
mean  ordinary  or  extraordinary  height,  at  the  syzygies  and  at  the  equinoxes, 
under  the  influence  of  certain  winds  and  on  occasion  of  considerable  changes  of 
atmospheric  pressure,  &c.  All  the  physical  or  geographical  circumstances  which 
modify  the  usual  course  of  the  tides  should  be  generally  stated,  and  explana- 
tions famished.  Above  all  it  is  requisite  to  indicate  the  causes  of  the  differences 
observed  between  the  tides  of  the  principal  ports  of  all  the  coasts  of  Italy. 
Finally,  it  is  recommended  that  the  argument  should  be  developed  also  in  its 
relations  to  mathematical  analysis,  taking  as  a  guide  chiefly  what  has  been  pub- 
lished on  this  subject  by  the  illustrious  Laplace  in  his  M^nique  celeste.  But 
if  the  author  flnds  that  our  theme  does  not,  from  its  nature,  permit  the  applica- 
tion of  analysis,  he  should  clearly  set  forth  the  difficcQties  which  oppose  them- 
selves to  the  attempt. 

Although  in  strictness  the  theme  simply  demands  a  scientific  study  and  explana- 
tion of  the  tides  in  the  principal  ports  of  Italy,  by  reason  that  these  offer  a 
greater  interest,  yet  the  academy  will  receive  with  thankfulness,  observations 
and  researches  on  the  tides  at  every  other  point  of  the  Italian  coasts,  whether  in 
the  islands  or  on  the  continent. 

Conditions. — 1.  The  memoirs  on  the  proposed  theme  should  be  drawn  up 
either  in  Italian,  Latin,  or  French;  no  other  language  is  admissible.  2.  Each 
memoir  will  be  preceded  by  an  epigraph,  which  shall  be  repeated  on  the  outside 
of  a  sealed  envelope,  containing  the  name  and  address  of  the  author.  3.  Only 
tlie  envelope  corresponding  to  the  memoir  which  shall  obtain  the  prize  will  be 

*A  manuscript  treatise  on  this  phyBico<^eoffniphical  phenomena  may  be  found  in  the  library 
of  the  Vatican ;  it  contains  a  highly  interesting  autographic  frontispiece  of  Galileo. 

t  Le  opere  di  QaUleo  Qalilei;  t  P,  Florence,  1842^^  p.  498,  and  t.  IP,  Florence,  1843,  p. 
400. 


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PKIZE   QUMTI0N8.  485 

opened.  4.  If  the  antbors  who  shall  have  obtained  an  honorable  mention  desire 
that  the  academy  should  publish  their  names,  they  must  make  a  request  to  that 
effect  within  the  four  months  following  the  day  on  which  the  prize  shall  have 
been  decreed ;  at  the  end  of  that  term  the  envelopes  will  be  burned  without 
being  unsealed.  5.  With  the  exception  of  its  thirty  members  in  ordinary,  the 
academy  invites  the  competition  of  all  persons,  whatsoever  their  nationality. 
6.  Each  memoir,  with  its  corresponding  envelope,  must  be  sent,  free  of  postage, 
to  the  academy  before  the  last  day  of  October,  1869,  the  date  at  which  the  com- 
petition closes.  7.  The  prize  will  bo  awarded  by  the  academy  in  the  month  of 
January,  1870,  and  will  consist  of  a  gold  medal  of  the  value  of  a  thousand 
livres.  8.  The  successful  memoir  will  bo  published  whole,  or  in  extracts,  in  the 
acts  of  the  academy,  and  the  author  will  roceive  fifty  copies. 

B.  VIALE  PRELA,  President. 

P.  VOIiPICELLI,  Secretary. 


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ABBREVIATIONS  USED  IN  ENGLAND  IN  1867. 


Compiled  by  W.  de  la  Bub. 


A. — ^Associate. 

A.  B. — ^Artium  Baccalaoreus.    Bachelor  of  Arts. 

Abp. — ^Archbishup. 

A.  C. — ^Anno  Christi.    In  the  year  qf  Christ 

A.  D. — Anno  Domini.    In  the  year  cfour  Lard, 

A.  I.  C.  E.,  pr  A.  Inst.  C.  E. — Associate  of  the  Institution  of  Civil  EngineeiBL 

A.  M- — Anno  Mnndi.    In  the  year  qf  the  world, 

A.  M. — ^Artium  Ma^ster.    Master  of  Arts, 

A.  M. — ^Ante  Meridiem.    Forenoon, 

A.  R.  A. — ^Associate  of  the  Royal  Academy. 

A.  R.  S.  A. — ^Associate  of  the  Royal  Scottish  Academy. 
Bart.,  or  Bt. — ^Baronet. 

B.  A. — Bachelor  of  Arts. 
B.  C— Before  Christ. 

B.  C.  L.— Bachelor  of  Civil  Law. 
B.  D. — Bachelor  of  Divinity. 
B.  L. — Bachelor  of  Law. 
Bp. — Bishop. 

B.  Sc. — Bachelor  of  Science. 

C,  or  Cent. — Centum.    A  hundred;  or  Chap. — Chapter. 
Cam.,  or  Cantab. — Cambridge. 

C.  B. — Companion  of  the  Bath. 

C.  E. — Civil  Engineer. 

Coll.  Reg.  Chir. — Royal  College  of  Surgeons. 

Coll.  Reg.  Med. — Royal  College  of  Physicians. 

C.  P.  S.— Custos  Privati  Sigilli.    Keeper  qfthe  Privy  Seal 
Cr. — Creditor. 

0.  S.— Custos  Sigilli.    Keeper  qfthe  Seal. 

C  wt. — Hundredweight. 

D. — Five  hundred. 

d. — ^Denarius.    A  penny. 

D.  C.  L.— Doctor  of  CivU  Law. 
D.  D. — ^Doctor  of  Divinity. 

D.  G.— Dei  Gratia     By  the  Grace  qf  God. 
Do. — ^Ditto.    The  same. 
Dr. — Doctor,  or  Debtor. 
D.  Sc. — ^Doctor  of  Science. 

D.  V. — ^Deo  volente.     Crod  willing. 
D  wt. — Pennyweight . 

E.  C.  P.— Evangelii  Christi  Praedicator.    Preacher  qfihe  Gospdqf  Christ 
6.  g. — Exempli  gratia.    For  example. 

Eq.,  or  Eques. — Knight. 

Esq. — ^Esquire. 

Ex. — ^Example. 

Ex.,  or  Exr. — ^Executor. 


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ABBREVUTIONB  USED  IN   ENGLAND.  487 

F.  C.  P.— Fellow  of  the  College  of  Preceptors. 

F.  0.  P.  S.— Fellow  of  the  Camhridge  PhUosophical  Society. 

F.  C.  8.— Fellow  of  the  Chemical  Society. 

F.  D.— Fidei  Defensor.    Defender  qf  the  Faith. 

F.  G.  S. — Fellow  of  the  Geological  Society. 

F.  H.  S. — Fellow  of  the  Horticultural  Society. 

F.  I.  A. — ^Fellow  of  the  Institute  of  Actuaries. 

F.  L.  S. — Fellow  of  the  Linnsean  Society. 

F.  R.  A.  S.,  or  F.  R.  Astron.  S. — Fellow  of  the  Royal  Astronomical  Society. 

F.  R.  B.  S.— Fellow  of  the  Royal  Botanic  Society. 

F.  R.  C.  S.— Fellow  of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons, 

F.  R.  I.  B.  A.— Fellow  of  the  Royal  Institute  of  British  Architects. 

F.  R.  S.— Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society. 

F.  R.  S.  E.— Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh. 

F.  R.  C.  P— Fellow  of  the  Royal  College  of  Physicians. 

F.  R.  G.  S.— Fellow  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society. 

F.  S.  A. — Fellow  of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries.  ^ 

F.  S.  S.— Fellow  of  the  Statistical  Society. 

F.  Z.  S.— Fellow  of  the  Zoological  Society. 

G.  C.  B.— Knight  Grand  Cross  of  the  Bath. 

H.  E.  I.  C.  S  — ^The  Honorable  the  East  India  Company's  Service. 

Hon. — ^Honorary,  Honorable. 

Hon.  Mem. — Honorary  Member. 

H.  M.  S. — Her  Maiesty's  ship. 

H.  M-  S.  S. — Her  Majesty's  steam  ship. 

H.  R.  H. — His  or  Her  Royal  Highness. 

lb.,  or  Ibid. — Ibidem.    In  the  same  place. 

Id. — Idem.    The  same. 

i.e. — Id  est    That  is, 

I.  C.  S. — Indian  Civil  Service. 

I.  H.  S. — lesus  Hominum  Salvator.    Jesits,  the  Saviour  qf  mankind. 

I.  H.  +  S. — In  hac  cruce  salus.     Sc^ety  in  this  Cross. 

I.  P.  D. — In  prsesentill  Dominorum.    In  presence  qf  the  Lords. 

J.  P. — Justice  of  the  Peace. 

K.  B.— Knight  of  the  Bath. 

K.  C. — Knight  of  the  Crescent. 

K.  C.  B. — Knight  Commander  of  the  Bath. 

K.  C.  G. — Knight  Commander  of  the  Guelphs  [of  Hanover.] 

K.  G.— Knight  of  the  Garter. 

K.  G.  C— Knight  Grand  Cross. 

K.  H. — Knight  [of  the  order  of  the  Guelphs]  of  Hanover. 

K.  P.— Knight  of  St  Patrick. 

K.  T.— Knight  of  the  Thistle. 

Kt,  or  Knt. — Knight. 

L.,  or  Lib. — ^Libra,  a  pound;  or  Liber,  a  hook. 

L.  C  J. — Lord  Chief  Justice. 

L.  D.— Lady  Day. 

Ldp. — ^Lordship. 

LL.  B. — Legum  Baccalaureus.    Bachdor  qfLaws. 

LL.  D. — Lc^um  Doctor.    Doctor  qf  Laws. 

L.  S. — Locus  sigilli.    The  place  qfthe  seed. 

M. — Mille.    A  thousand. 

M.  A. — ^Master  of  Arts. 

M.  B.,  (Latin,)  or  B.  M.,  (English.)— Bachelor  of  Medicine. 

M.  B.  M.  S. — Member  of  the  British  Meteorological  Society. 

M.  C. — Member  of  Congress. 


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488  ABBREVIATIONS  USED  IN   ENGLAND. 

M.  D. — MedicinaB  Doctor.    Doctor  of  Medicine, 
Mem.  CoiT.  or  Corresp. — Corresponding  Member. 

M.  I.  0.  E.,  or  M.  Inst.  0.  E. — ^Member  of  the  Institation  of  Civil  Engineers. 
M.  L.  A. — Member  of  the  Legislative  Assembly. 
M.  L.  G. — Member  of  the  Legislative  Council. 
M.  P. — Member  of  Parliament. 

M.  R.  A.  S.,  or  M.  B.  Asiat.  S. — Member  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society. 
M.  B.  I  A  —Member  of  the  Royal  Irish  Academy. 
M.  B.  S.  L. — Member  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Literature. 
M.  S  — Memori©  Sacrum.    Sacred  to  the  memory. 
M  S. — Manuscript.    MSS. — Manuscripts. 
Mus.  D  — Doctor  of  Music. 
M.  W.  S. — Member  of  the  Wernerian  Society. 
N.  B. — Nota  bene.    Mark  iodL 
M.  R.  I. — ^Member  of  the  Royal  Institution. 

Nem.  con.,  or  Nem.  diss. — Nemine  contradicente,  or  Nemine  dissentiente. 
Without  oppositUm,  unanimously. 
No. — ^Number. 
N.  P.— Notery  PubHc 
N.  S.— New  Style. 
Oxon. — Oxford. 
Oz. — Ounce. 
P.,  or  Pres. — President. 
Pari. — ^Parliament. 
P.  C. — Privy  Councillor. 
Ph.  D. — Doctor  of  Philosophy. 
P.  M. — Post  meridem.    Afternoon. 
P.  S.— Postscript. 
Q.  C. — Queen's  Counsel, 
q.  d. — Quasi  dicat.    As  if  he  should  say. 
q.  d. — Quasi  dictum.    As  if  it  tcere  said. 

Q.  E.  D. — Quod  erat  demonstrandum.     Which  teas  to  he  demonstroML 
Q.  E.  F. — Quod  erat  faciendum.     Which  was  to  be  done. 
Q.  S. — Quantum  sufficit.    A  sufficient  quantity. 
Q.  V. — Quod  vide.     Which  see. 
Rp. — Recipe.    Take. 
R.  I.  A. — Royal  Irish  Academy. 
R.  A. — Royal  Academician. 
R.  A. — Royal  Artillery. 
R.  E. — Royal  En^eers. 
R.  H.  A. — Royal  Hibernian  Academy. 
Reg.  Prof. — Re^us  Professor. 
Rev. — ^Reverend. 
R.  M. — Royal  Marines. 
R.  N.— Royal  Navy 
Rt.  Hon. — Right  Honorable. 
Rt.  Wpful.— Right  Worshipful. 
Sc,  or  Soc. — Fellow. 
S.  D.  C. — Solicitor  of  the  Supreme  Court. 

S.  T.  P  — Sacro-Sanctae  Theologiae  Professor.    JPrqfessor  qf  DtfrnUty. 
Ult. — Ultimo.    Last  month. 
T.  D.— Theologiae  Doctor.    Doctor  cf  Theology. 
Trust.  Brit.  Mus. — Trustee  of  the  British  Museum. 
V.  D.  M. — ^Verbi  Dei  Minister.    Minister  cf  God^s  word. 
V.  P.— Vice-President. 
W.  S.— Writer  to  the  Signet. 


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CONTENTS. 


REPORT  OP  THE  8ECRETART. 

Besolntions  of  CongpreM  ordering  report  to  be  printed. 2 

Letter  of  the  Secretary  to  Congress 3 

Letter  of  the  Chancellor  and  Secretary,  sabmitting  Report  for  1867 4 

Officers  and  Regents  of  the  Institution 5 

Members  ex-^ffido  and  honorary  members  of  the  Institution 6 

Progranmieof  Organization 7 

Rkport  op  the  Secretary,  Prof.  Henry,  for  1867 13 

Remarks  on  character  of  Smithsen  bequest 13 

Transferof  Smithson  fund 14 

Action  of  Congress  relative  to  the  Institution 15 

Adoption  of  systems  of  organisation  for  the  Institution 15 

Local  operations ». 16 

Active  operations 16 

Interests  of  city  of  Washington 17 

Corcoran  Gallery  of  Art 17 

Relief  desired  from  support  of  a  national  museum 18 

Public  museums 18 

Increase  of  Smithson  fund 20 

Reoonstruction  of  the  building 20 

Aid  from  Congress  required 21 

Publications  of  the  Institution  during  1867 21 

Rules  of  distribution  of.  publications 2o 

School  architecture 24 

Reportfor  1866,  account  of 24 

Meteorological  operations  during  1867 26 

Medical  department  of  the  army 27 

Department  of  Agriculture 27 

Cleaveland*s  meteorological  observations  at  Brunswick,  Me 28 

Hildreth's  meteorological  observations  at  Marietta,  O 32 

Ethnology 34 

Exchanges 37 

Freight  facilities  by  steamships  and  raiboads 39 

Books  on  education  sent  to  France 40 

Explorations  and  collections 41 

Investigations 52 

National  Museum 55 

National  Library 56 

Societies  sending  publications  to  the  Institution 59 

Donations  to  the  library I....  60 

Death  of  Prof.  Bache 62 

Report  of  the  Assistant  Secretary,  Prof.  Baird,  for  1867 1..  64 

A.  Statistics  of  Smithsonian  exchanges 64 

B.  Packages  received  for  foreign  distribution 64 

C.  Packages  received  for  home  distribution 67 

D.  Circular  relative  to  exchanges  of  government  documents 71 


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490  CONTENTS. 

Beport  of  the  Assistant  Secreiwry— Continued. 

£.  Entries  in  moseom  record  books,  1865-'66-*67 72 

F.  Distribution  of  duplicate  specimens 72 

G.  Additions  to  the  collections  in  1867 72 

List  np  Meteorological  Stations  and  Observers 79 

Meteorological  Material  received  during  1867 89 

Report  op  the  Executive  Committee 98 

Report  op  the  Building  Committee 102 

R|port  op  the  Architect 105 

Journal  op  Proceedings  op  the  Board  op  Regents 108 

Report  of  Prof.  Aji^assiz  on  use  of  the  large  hall 109 

Memoiial  to  Congress 114 

Extracts  from  General  Correspondence 116 

American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences 116 

George  H.  Knight 116 

E.  C.  Bolles,  Portland  Society  of  Natural  History 116 

Josiah  Goodwin,  Bath  Society  for  Agriculture,  Arts,  Ac 117 

Dr.  Brehm,  Zoological  Gardens,  Hamburg 118 

Chicago  Academy  of  Sciences 118 

W.  B.  Taylor 119 

Count  deLulk,  St.  Petersburg  Academy  of  Sciences 120 

H.  Zisgenbals * 121 

W.  Alfred  Lloyd 121,122 

Museum  of  Natural  History,  Greece 124 

Prof.  Laboulaye 124 

Dr.  Lindhagen,  Academy  of  Sciences,  Stockholm 125 

John  Gould * 125 

S.  P.  Maybecry 125 

L.  Pratt,  University  of  Costa  Rica 126 

Biographical  Notice  op  Charles  Coppin  Jewett,  by  R.  A.  Guild 128 

Biographical  Notice  of  William  Henry  Harvet,  by  Asa  Gray 131 

GENERAL  APPENDIX. 

Memoir  of  Legrndre,  by  M.  Elid  de  Beaumont 137 

Memoir  op  Peltier,  by  F.  A.  Peltier 158 

Appendix  to  memoir  of  Peltier 173 

Royal  Institution  op  Great  Britain,  History  op,  by  Ed.  Mailly 203 

Michael  Faraday,  his  Life  and  Works,  by  Prof.  De  la  Rive 287 

The  Jussieus  and  the  Natural  Method,  by  M.  Flourens i 246 

Natural  History  op  Organized  Bodies,  by  M.  Marey 277 

On  the  Electrical  Currents  op  the  Earth,  by  Charles  Mattencci 305 

Considerations  on  Electricity 313 

Electricity — Account  of  lightning  discharge : 

General  G.W.Dodge 318 

General  O.  M.  Poe 319 

Professor  John  C.  Ciesson 319 

Henry  Haas 310 

H.  J.Kron 319 

B.  F.  Mudge 320 

New  Haven  Journal -' 320 

Dr.  Samuel  D.  Martin 320 

G.Wright 321 

Charles  C.  Boemer 321 

W.  S.  GUman 322 

Queries  about  Expression  por  Anthropological  Inquiry,  by  Charles  Darwin .  324 


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CCMTTENTS.  491 

Oh  the  Variocs  If odbs  or  Flight  oi  rclatioh  to  Aerokautics,  bj  Dr.  J. 

B.  Pettigpew 325 

Mah  as  the  Cotemporaet  or  the  Mammoth  akd  the  Reun>EER  ix  Mu>dle 

Europe 335 

Photo-Chemistry,  bjlL  Jamm 363 

DoRPATAKD  POCLKOVA,  bj  CleTeUnd  Abbe 370 

On  Traces  op  the  Earlt  Mehtal  Coxditioii  or  Mah,  by  Edward  B.  Taylor.  391 

ETHXOLoer: 

Indian  remaina.  Bed  nwtt  aettleiiient,  Hudson's  Bay  territory,  by  D.  Gunn. ..  399 

Ancient  mound  near  ChatUDOoga,  Tenn.,  by  M.  C.  Bead.... 401 

Ancient  burial  mound  in  Tndiana,  by  William  Pidgeoii 403 

Ancient  remains  in  Cokmdo,  by  E.  L.  Berthond 403 

Monnds  in  Mississippi,  by  Samuel  A.  Agnew 404 

Cave  in  Calaveras  county,  CalifOTnia,  byJ.  D.  Whitney 406 

Ethnological  department  of  the  French  Exposition,  1867 407 

Notes  on  Indian  history,  by  Dr.  F.  Y.  Hayden 411 

Description  of  a  human  skull  from  Bock  Bluffy  111.,  by  Dr.  J.  A.  Meigs 412 

Introduction  to  the  study  of  the  Coptic  bngoage,  by  M.  Kabis 415 

Notes  on  the  Tonto  Apaches,  by  Captam  Charles  Smart 417 

Explorations  »  Cextral  America,  by  Dr.  C.  H.  Berendt 420 

Notes  op  an  Eggino  Ejcpedition  to  Shoal  Lake,  Lake  Winnipeg,  by  Don- 
ald Gunn 427 

Sketch  op  the  Flora  or  Alaska,  by  Dr.  J.  T.  Bothrock 433 

Meteorology: 

Hurricane  in  the  island  of  St.  Thomas 464 

Earthquakes  in  St  Thomas,  by  George  A.  Latimer 465 

Bfaritime  disasters  of  the  Antilles 466 

Eruption  of  a  volcano  in  Nicaragua,  by  A.  B.  Dickinson 467 

Cloud-bursts,  by  William  J.  Young 471 

Meteorite  in  Mexico,  by  A.  Woodworth 472 

Meteorite  in  Mexico,  by  Bobert  Simson 472 

Meteorology  of  Caracas,  South  America,  by  G.  A.  Ernst  ..•• 473 

Cyclone  in  the  Indian  Ocean,  by  N.Pike 477 

Prize  Questions: 

Boyal  Danish  Society  of  Sciences,  1867 481 

Pontifical  Academy  of  the  Nuovi  Lincei,  1868 482 

Abbretiations  used  in  England,  1867,  by  W.  Dela  Bue 484 

LIST  OF  ILLUSTBATIONS. 

Experiment  of  Peltier,  on  contact  of  two  metals 183 

Experiments  of  Marey : 

Mechanism  of  respiration,  Fig.  1 293 

Mechanism  of  respiration.  Tig,  2 294 

Mechanism  of  respiration,  Fig.  3 295 

Mechanism  of  respiration.  Fig.  4 296 

Mechanism  of  respiration,  fig.  5 298 

Skull  from  Bock  Bluff,  Illinois  river 412 

Monthly  mean  temperature  at  Caracas  in  1860 474 

Monthly  mean  barometer  at  Caracas  in  1860 •• 474 


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INDEX 


AbbravimtioiiB  used  in  England  in  18G7 484 

Abbe,  Cleveland,  acconnt  of  Dorpat  and  Ponlkova  obsery atories , 370 

Acknowledgments  for  donations  to  library 60 

for  donations  to  collections >. 72 

for  free  freigbts 39,112 

to  publishers  for  school  books 41 

for  iUostrations  of  school  architecture 24 

Active  operations 16,109 

Adams  Express  Company.    Acknowledgments  to 39 

Aeronautics.    Modes  of  flight  in  relation  to 325 

Agassis,  Prof.L.    Acts  of,  as  regent 108,109,112 

Views  of  policy  of  Institution 110 

Beport  on  museum  and  use  of  new  hall 109 

Agents  of  the  Institution 39,64 

Ag^ew,  Samuel  A.    Account  of  mounds 404 

Agriculture.     Department  of :   Monthly  Bulletin 27 

Museum  of 19 

Alaska.    Flora  of ib 

Information  respecting 43 

Algse.    Harvey's  researches 132 

Allen,  E.  M.    Collections  by 46 

Allen,  Dr.H.    Batsof  North  America 22 

Allen,  Z.    Account  of  lightning  discharge 321 

Alexander,  Chas.  A.    Translations  by .  .26, 137, 173, 203, 227, 246, 277, 305, 313, 335, 363, 464 

Amei  ican  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences.    Thanks  for  exchanges 116 

Analysis.    Marey*s  lectures  on 277,284 

Anthropological  queries 324 

Apaches.    Notes  on,  by  C.  Smart 417 

Aquarium  animals.    Method  of  tiiinsportatlon 121 

Archeological  collections  and  researches 35,335 

Archsology.    See  Man  and  Mammoth 335 

Architect.    Estimate  for  completion  of  new  hall 113 

Report  of 105 

Architecture  of  school  edifices 24 

Arctic  observatioos,  by  Dr.  1. 1.  Hayes.. .^ 22 

Art  gallery,  founded  by  W.  W.  Corcoran 17 

Astor,  William  B.    Election  as  regent 108 

Astronomy.    See  Abbe 370 

Bache,  Prof.  A .  D.    Discussion  of  magnetic  and  meteorological  observations  of 21 

Memoir  of 62 

Notice  of  death  of 62 

Bailey,  Mr.    Explorations 45 

Baird,  Prof.  S.  F.    Account  of  Alaska - 43 

Investigations  relative  to  birds 53 

Organization  of  explorations 41 

Statistics  from  report  of 64 

Balance,  torsion.     Peltier's 179 


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494  INDEX. 

Balloons 325,331 

Bank,  First  "National.    Depositary  of  funds 101 

Bannister,  Henrj.    Account  of  Alaska 43 

Barometer.    Use  of  tables  for 475 

Bath  and  West  of  England  Society  for  Agricaltore,  Arts,  d^c    Letter  from 1 17 

Bats  of  North  America.    H.  Allen 22 

Beadle,Dr.E.  R.    Shells 62 

Beaamont,  Elie  de.    Memoir  of  Legendre 137 

Bentham,  George.    Remarks  on  explorations  ^ 50 

Berendt,  Dr.  C.  H.    Explorations  in  Central  America  by 48,420 

Berthoad,  E.  L.    Aeooont  of  moands 403 

Bigelow,  Hon.  John.    Books  requested  by,  for  Labonlaye 40 

Binney,  W.  G.    Shells  of  North  America 22 

Biographical  sketch  of  Charles  Coffin  Jewett 128 

of  William  Henry  Harvey 131 

Biog^phy.    SeeMemoirs 

Biology.    Marey*s  lectures  on 277,299 

Bischoff,  Ferd.    Account  of  Alaska 43 

Explorations 42,120 

Bishop,  Mr.    Explorations 46 

Bland,  Thomas.     Shells 52 

Boemer,  Chas.  C.    Account  of  lightning  discharge 321 

BoUes,  E.  C.    Letterirom IIG 

Bossange,  Gustave,  agent  fbr  exchanges 39,64 

Boston  Society  of  Natural  History.    Explorations 48 

Botany.    See  Mark's  lectures 277 

of  Alaska,  by  Dr.  Rotfarock 433 

Natural  method  of  classification 246,275 

Botteri,  Mr.    Explorations 4^ 

Brande,  W.  T.    Memoir  of 221 

Brass,  W.    Explorations 44 

Brehm,  Dr.    Letterfrom 118 

Brewer,  Dr.  T.  M,    Oology 62,53 

Bronze  age 37 

Brooks,  Mr.    School  architecture 24 

Brunswick,  Me.    Meteorc^ogy  of 23,28 

Brush,  Prof.  G.  J.    Report  on  Tolcanic  specimens 470 

Acknowledgments  to 55 

Biyant,  Dr.  Henry.    Lahore  and  death  of 46 

Bidlding.    Reconstruction  of 20 

Rq>ort of  Committee... 102 

Workmen  employed  in  reconstruction  of 107 

Bulkely,  Colonel.    Explorations 42 

Burton,  A.  A.    Collections  by 50 

Butcher,  Dr.  H.  B.    Explorations  by 45 

California  and  Mexico  Steamship  Company.    Acknowledgments  to 39, 112 

Canal,  Washington.    Committee  of  Regents  appointed  relatire  to 113 

Roport  of  committee  on 113 

Canfield,  Dr.  P.  A.    Collections  from 44 

Caracas.    Meteorology  of 473 

Carpenter,  P.  P.    Sh^le 52,54 

Cassin,  Jno.    Birds 58 

Central  America.    Explorations  in 420 

Cbace,  Prof.  G.  L    Aoknowledgoient  to 55 


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INDEX.  495 

p*g«. 

Chase,  Chief  Justice  S.  P.    Acts  of,  as  ohuicellor 4,109,112,113,115 

Chemistry.    See  memoir  of  Peltier 158 

See  Jamin 363 

SeeMarej's  lectures 277,284 

See  memoir  of  Faradaj 227 

SeeEoyal  Institution 203 

Clucago  Academy  of  Sciences.    Explorations 42 

Thanks  to  Institution  -1 118 

Chinook  jaiiB^on 22 

Circular  relative  to  exchanges  of  ^oremment  documents 71 

Classification  of  plants  and  animals 246 

CleaTeland,  Parker.    Meteorology  of  Brunswick,  Maine 23,28 

Cloud-bursts.    By  W.J.  Young 471 

Remarks  on,  by  Prof.  Henry 472 

Cluss,  Adolfl    Beport  of  architect 105 

Estimate  of 113 

Coleoptera.    Dr.  J.  L.  LeConte 22 

Collections.    List  of  additions  to,  inl867 72 

Memorial  to  Congress  for  appropriation  for 114 

Colleges  sending  meteorological  obsenrations 88 

Committee,  estimates  of,  relative  to  large  hall 113 

Committees  of  Regents 6,108,109,112,113,115 

Committee.    Report  of  Building 102 

Report  of  Executive < 98 

Report  of,  on  use  of  large  hall 109 

on  Canal,  report 113 

on  appropriation  necessary  for  new  hall  and  care  of  museum 112 

Compensation  of  officers,  referred  to  Executive  Committee 115 

Congress.    Act  of,  to  increase  permanent  capital 20 

Action  relative  to  exchange  of  documents 109 

Action  relative  to  the  Smithson  bequest 15 

Appointment  of  regents 108 

Appropriation  for  care  of  collections 100 

Committee  appointed  to  prepare  memorial  for 113 

Memorial  to,  for  appropriations 114 

Resolutions  to  print  annual  report 2 

Coni«d,T.  A.    Check Ustof  fossils 22 

Contributors  to  collections 51 

Ubraiy 60 

meteorological  material 89 

Cooper,. Dr.  J.  G.    Collections  by 44 

Cooper,  Juan.    Collections  by 48 

Cope,  E.  D.    Reptiles 52 

Coptic  language.    Introduction  to  study  of 415 

CorbiculadiB.    Temple  Prime 22 

Corcoran,  W.  W.    Gallery  of  art  founded  by 17 

Correspondence.    Accountof 115 

Extracts  firom 116 

Correspondents.    Number  of. 59 

Costa  Rican  exchanges 126 

Coues,  Dr.  Elliott.    Alcidie 52 

Collections  by 45 

Counting.    Artof 116,119,391 

Craig,  Dr  B.  F.    Acknowledgment  to i>5 


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496  INDEX, 

PsffOl 

Craig,  Dr.  B.  F.    Meteorological  iDstraments 27 

Cressoo,  John  C.    Account  of  lightning  discharge 319 

Qretaceoos  reptiles  of  United  States.    By  Dr.  Jos.  Leidjr 22 

Crocker,  Dr.    Collections  hy 45 

Canard  Steamship  Company.    Acknowledgments  to 39,112 

Cyano-polarimetry,  Peltier's  researched 183 

Cyclone,  account  of,  in  Indian  ocean 477 

Dall,  W.  H.    Explorations 42 

Dalton,  John.    Memoir  of 218 

Darwin,  Charles.     Queries  about  expression 324 

Davidson,  Geo.  B.    Explorations 43 

Davidson,  Thos.    Fossils 52 

Davis,  Hon.  Garret.    Acts  of,  as  regent 108,112 

Davy,  Humphrey.    Memoir  of 208 

Dean,  C.  W.    Effect  of  electricity  on  telegraph 322 

DeLacerda,  A.    Collections  by 50 

Delafield,  General  Richard.    Acts  of,  as  regent 108, 109, 112, 113 

Annual  accounts  presented  by 109 

Reportof  Executive  Committee..... 101,112 

Report  of  Building  Committee 102,112 

Report  of  Committee  on  Canal 113 

De  la  Rive.    Memoir  of  Faraday,  by i , . .      227 

De  la  Rue,  W.    Abbreviations  used  in  England 484 

Desiderata  of  Hamburg  zoological  gardens 118,121,123 

Dickinson,  A.  B.    Volcano  in  Nicaragua 467 

Diptera,  Loew,  and  Osten  Sacken 22 

Distribution  of  publicationn 23 

reports 24 

specimens 53,72,111,112 

Dodge,  General  G.W.    Account  of  lightning  discharge 318 

Donations  to  collections  in  1867 72 

Donations  to  library 60,61 

Dorpat  and  Poulkova.    Account  of  observatories,  by  C.  Abbe 370 

Dow,  Captain  J.  M.    Collections  by 49 

Acknowledgments  to 49 

Downing*s  services  Improving  grounds 17 

Draper,  Prof.  Heniy,  on  silvered  glass  telescope 21 

Earthquakes  in  West  Indies 465 

Education,  books  on,  presented  to  Laboulaye 40,124 

Edwards,  Milne.    Eulogy  on  Peltier 169 

Edwards,  W.  H.    Lepidoptera 62 

Eggs.    Expedition  for,  to  Shoal  Lake... 427 

Egleston,  T.     Catalogue  of  minerals 22 

Minerals 52,54 

Egypt.    Scientific  institute  in 59,113 

Egyptian  Institute.    Paper  from,  on  Coptic  language 415 

Electrical  currents  of  the  earth,  by  C.  Matteucd 305 

Electricity,  considerations  on 3J3 

facts  relative  to 318 

memoir  of  Peltier 158, 178,182 

Memoir  of  Faraday 227 

Royal  Institution 203 

Electrometer,  Peltier's 180 

Eloctro-motive  force  of  different  metals .- 314 


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INDEX.  497 

Page. 

Elliott,  D.  G.,  birds 52 

Endres,  Mr.,  collections  by .* 48 

Entomological  Society,  Philadelphia,  insects 53 

Ernst,  G.  A.,  meteorology  of  Caracas 473 

Estimates  for  finishing  new  hall 113 

for  care  of  mnsenm 113 

of  receipts  and  expenditures,  1868 101 

Ethnology,  accoant  of  collections  in  French  Exposition 407 

collections  relative  to 34 

inst'mcticns  for  research • 22 

man  and  mammoth 335 

early  mental  condition  of  man 391 

remains.  Red  river  settlement 399 

remains,  Chattanooga,  Tennessee 401 

remains,  Yincennes,  Indiana 403 

remains,  Golden  City,  Colorado 403 

remains,  Stateof  Mississippi 404 

remains,  Calaveras  county,  California 406 

Schlagintwait's  collection,  prices  of. 121 

Exchangee.    Account  of ^.  37,109 

Bath  Society,  thanks  for 118 

Number  of  societies  making 59 

of  government  publications 39,71 

Regulations  relative  to 38 

Resolution  of  American  Academy  relative  to 116 

Statistics  of,  during  1867 - 64 

EzecntiTe  committee.    Annual  report  of 98 

Increase  of  salary  of  secretary  recommended  by 115 

Subject  of  salaries  referred  to 115 

Report  of  on  canal 113 

Vacancy  in,  filled  by  Board  of  Regents 108 

Expeditions  of  the  government 76 

Expenditures  and  receipts  of  the  Institution 98,103 

Explorations  and  collections.    General  account 41 

in  Central  America  by  Dr.  Bexendt 420 

of  government,  list  of 76 

of  Shoal  lake,  by  D.Gunn 427 

Expression.   Queries  about 324 

Faraday,  Michael.    Memoirof 2*22,227 

Ferrel,  WilliauK    Investigations  relative  to  tides 54 

Finances  of  the  Institution 19,98 

Flett,  J.  &A.    Explorations 44 

Flighii    Modes  of  in  relation  to  seronautics 325 

Flora  of  Alaska,  by  Dr.  J.T.Rothrdck 433 

Flourens,  M.    On  the  natural  method 246 

Flugel,  Felix.    Agent  for  exchanges 39,64 

Force,  Peter.    Purchase  of  library  of. 57 

Foreman,  Dr.  E.    Ethnological  specimens  arranged  by 54 

Fossils,  check  list.   T.  A.Conrad 22 

F.  B.  Meek 22 

Fox,  Hon.  G.V.   Valuable  donation  from 55,60 

Freight  facilities.     Acknowledgments  for 39,112 

French  Exposition.    Ethnological  collections 407 

Galvanometers 305 

32  867 

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498  INDEX. 

Page. 

Garfield,  Hon.  J.  A.    Appointment  as  Regent 108 

Acta  of  as  Regent 108,109,112,113 

Garnett,  Thomas.    Memoir  of 206 

Gaudet,  C.P.    Explorations 44 

General  Transatlantic  Steamship  Company.    Acknowledgments  to 39, 112 

Geometry.    See  memoir  of  Legendre 137 

Gerard,  Frederic.    Eulogy  on  Peltier 169 

Gibbs,  George.    Acknowledgment  to .55 

Chinook  jargon 22 

Ethnological  instructions 22 

Indian  vocabularies 54 

Gilbert,  W.B.    Explorations... 49 

Gilman,  W.  8.    Effect  of  electricity  on  telegraph 322 

Goodwin,  Josiab.    Letter  from 117 

Gould,  John.    Hummingbirds 52 

Letter  from 125 

Government  exchanges  of  documents 40,71 

Gray,  Frof.Asa.    Acknowledgment  to 55 

Biographical  notice  of  Prof.  W.  H.  Harvey 131 

Grayson,  Colonel.    Explorations 43,48 

Greece.    Museum  of  University  of.    Letter  from 124 

Green,  James.    Meteorological  instruments 27 

Guild,  Reuben  A.    Biographical  notice  of  Prof.  C.  C.  Jewett 128 

Gunn,  Donald.    Egging  expedition 427 

Explorations 44 

Indian  remains;  Red  river  settlement 399 

Guyot's  tables  for  barometers 476 

Haas,  Henry.    Account  of  lightning  discharge 319 

Hague,  Henry.    Collections  by - 48 

Haliday,  Mr.    Acknowledgment  to 43 

Hamburg,  American  Steamship  Company.    Acknowledgments  to 39, 112 

Hamburg  Zoological  Gardens.    Letter  from 118,121,122 

Hardiman,  Mr,    Collections  by 49 

Harkness,  Prof.  W.    Acknowledgment  to 55 

Hamden  Express  Company.    Acknowledgments  to 39 

Hart,  John  S.     School  architecture 24 

Harvey,  Wm.  Henry.    Biographical  notice  of,  by  Asa  Gray 131 

Hayden,  Dr.  F.  V.    Notes  on  Indians 411 

PalfBontology  of  the  upper  Missouri  river 21 

Hayes,  Dr.  Isaac  I.    Arctic  observations 22 

Hehitzopoulos.    Letter  from 124 

Heisen,  A.  W.     Exploration 44 

Heldreich,  Th.  de.    Letter  from 124 

Henry,  Prof.  Joseph.    Acts  of  as  Secretary 108,109,112,113 

Account  of  exchanges 109 

Letter  to  Congress 3 

Annual  Report  for  18C7 13 

Proposed  index  to  scientific  papers 56 

Investigations  relative  to  sound 54 

Memoir  of  Prof.  Bache * 62 

Circular  relative  to  exchange  of  government  documents 71 

Portland  Society  of  Natural  History 117 

Books  presented  to  Laboulaye 125 

Movement  in  strata  of  the  earth 126 


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INDEX.  499 


Heniji  Prof.  Joseph.    Jewett*8  plan  of  libraiy  realized 129 

Biography  of  Wm.  Henry  Harvey 131 

Object  of  (^neral  appendix 136 

Memoir  of  Peltier 158 

Circuits  of  electricity 309 

Discharges  of  lightning 320,321,322 

Electricity  and  the  telegraph 323 

Ancient  skulls 407 

Botany  of  Alaska 433 

Volcanic  specimens 470 

Cloud-bursts 472 

Meteorites 473 

Hildreth,  8.  P.    Meteorology  of  Marietta,  Ohio 23,32 

Hilgard,  E.  W.    Explorations 46 

Hillier,  George.    Acknowledgments  to 39 

History  of  observatories  at  Dorpat  and  Poulkova 370 

Royal  Institution  of  Great  Britain 203 

History.    Prize  questions 481 

Hochstetter,  Dr.    Acknowledgment  to 60 

Howard,  Capt.  W.  A.    Explorations 43 

Hubbard,  8.    Acknowledgments  to 39 

Hudson's  Bay  Company.    Explorations  by  officers 44 

Hudson,  W.  H.    Explorations  by 50 

Hurricane  in  island  of  St.  Thomas,  October  29,  1867 464 

Hydrobiinffi.    W.  Stimpson 22 

Index  of  scientific  papers.... 58 

Indian  history.    Notes  on ^.  411 

Indian  remains.    Seeethnology 399 

Indian  vocabularies.     Work  on <* ^ 54 

Indians.    Notes  on  Apache 417  ' 

Inman  Steamship  Company.    Acknowledgments  to 39,112 

Investigations  for  the  Institution 52 

Investments 19,98 

Iron  age 37 

Jamin,  M.    On  Photo-chemistry 363 

Jewett,  Charles  Coffin.    Biographical  notice  of,  by  R.  A.  Guild 128 

Jones,  Strachan.    Explorations 44 

Jussieu,  Adrian  de.    Memoir  of ., 271 

Antoinede.    Memoir  of 248 

Bernard  de.    Memoir  of. 253 

Laurentde.    Memoirof 266 

Jussieusand  the  natural  method 246 

Kabis,  M.    Introduction  to  study  of  Coptic  language 415 

Ealusowski,  Mr.    Translations  by 61 

Kennicott,  Robert.    Explorations 42 

King,  Clarence.    Explorations 45 

Kluge,  Dr.    Collections  by...-. 49 

Knight,  Geo.  H.    Letterfrom 116 

Kron,  H.J.    Account  of  lightning  discharge 319 

Laboulaye,  Prof.E.    Letterfrom 124 

School  books,  presented  to 40 

Land  Office.    Museum 19 

Latimer,  Goo.  A.    On  earthquakes  in  West  Indies 465 

Lawrence,  Geo.  N.    Birds 49,52 

Lea,  Isaac    Shells 52 


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500  INDEX. 

Le  CoDte,  Dr.  Jno.  L.    Coleoptera 29 

Legendre.    Memoir  of,  by  £lie  de  Beaumont 137 

Lebmann,  F.    Collections  by 48 

Leidy,  Prof.  Jos.    Cretaceous  reptiles  of  United  States 22 

Fossils ^ 62 

Letters 3,116,318,399,411,464 

Libraries.    Jewett*8  services  to 128 

Library.    Character  of IID 

Namber  of  books,  &c.,  added  in  1867 60 

Reasons  for  transfer  of  to  Congress 56 

Value  of  transfer  to  Congress 115 

Light,    Researches  on,  see  Faraday 240 

Lightning.    Effects  of 318,319,320,321,322 

Lindhagen,  Dr.  G.    Lotterfrom 125 

Llnnieus  and  Jussieu  correspondence , 253 

List  of  expeditions  and  other  sources  from  which  specimens  in  goyemment  museum 

were  derived 76 

of  meteorological  stations  and  observers 79 

of  works  published  by  the  Institution 22 

Lloyd,  W.  Alfred.    Letter  from 121,122 

Lockhart,  James.    Explorations 44 

Loew,  H.    Monograph  of  Diptera 22 

Lulk,  Count  de.    Letter  from 120 

Maclean,  Rev.  Dr.  John.    Election  as  Regent 108 

Acts  of,  as  Regent 108,113,115 

Magnetic  observations  of  Prof.  A.D.Bache 21 

Magnetism,  see  Faraday 227 

Mailly,  Ed.    History  of  Royal  Institution  of  Great  Britain 203 

Mammoth.    Cotemporary  with  man 335 

Man.    Cotemporary  of  themaumioth 335 

Early  mental  condition  of 391 

March,  W.  T.    Explorations 46 

Marey,  M.    On  natural  history  of  organized  bodies 277 

Marietta,  O.    Meteorology  of,  Hildreth 23,32 

Marsh,  Hen.  G.  P.    Acknowledgments  to 39 

Martin,  Samuel  D.    Account  of  lightning  disduurge 320 

Mathematics.    Prize  questions 481 

See  Memoir  of  Legendre 137 

See  Taylor,  E.B 391 

See  Taylor,  W.B 119 

Matteucci,  Charles.    Electrical  currents  of  the  earth 305 

Mayberry,  8.P.    Letter  from 125 

McDonald,  R.    Explorations • 44 

McDougall,  J.    Explorations w...  44 

McFarlane,  Robert    Explorations 44 

Medical  department.    Museum *. 19 

Meek,  F.  B.    Check  list  of  fossils 22 

Fossils 62 

PalfiBontology  of  upper  Missouri 21 

Meig8,Dr.J.Aitken.    Description  of  skull 412 

Members,  exqfficio,  of  the  Institution 6 

Memoir  of  C.C.Jewett 128 

W.H.  Harvey y 131 

Legendre 137 


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INDEX.  501 

P«g«. 

Memoir  of  Peltier 158 

Benjamin  Thompson,  or  "  Count  Bumford" 203 

Thomas  Gamctt 206 

Humphrey  Davy 208 

Thomas  Young 211 

JohnDalton 218 

Sydney  Smith 220 

W.T.Brande 221 

ILFaraday 222,227 

JohnTyndall 223 

Antoine  de  Jussieu 248 

Bernard  de  Jussieu 253 

Laurent  de  Jussieu 266 

Adrian  de  Jussieu 271 

Memorial  to  Congress  asking  appropriations  for  collections  and  finishing  large  hall  ••  114 

Mental  condition  of  man 391 

Metals.    Table  of  comparative  electro-motive  force  of 314 

Meteorites.    Account  of- 472 

Meteorological  material  received  in  1867 89 

observations  of  Professor  A.  D.  Bache 21 

registers  received  during  1867 • 97 

stations  and  observers .' 79 

Meteorology.    Operations  relative  to 26 

Hurricane  in  St.  Thomas,  October  29,  1867 464 

Earthquakes  in  St.  Thomas,  November  18, 1867 465 

Maritime  disasters  of  the  Antilles 466 

Volcano  in  Nicaragua 467 

Cloud-bursts  in  Bocky  mountains 471 

Meteorites 472 

of  Caracas,  South  America 473 

Use  of  barometrical  tables 475 

Method  of  calculating  means 476 

Account  of  a  cyclone,  January  6,  1867,  in  the  Indian  ocean 477 

List  of  Smithsonian  observers.... 27 

of  Marietta,  Ohio,  S.  P.  Hildreth 23,32 

of  Marietta,  Ohio,  Joseph  Wood 23 

of  Brunswick,  Maine,  P.  Cleaveland 23,28 

Telegraphic  reports 28 

Memoir  of  Peltier 158,193 

Besearches  of  Peltier,  tables,  dtc 198 

Marey*s  lectures 277,283 

Microscopic  researches.    Memoir  of  Peltier 173 

Milan.    Boyallnstitute  of,  agent  for  exchange 39 

Minerals.    Catalogue  of,  T.  Egleston 22 

Minor,  Dr.    Collections  by 45 

Morgan,  L.  H.    Skulls 52 

Mndge,  Allan.    Collections  by 45 

Mudge,  B.  F.    Account  of  lightning  discharge 320 

Muller,  Fred.,  agent  for  exchanges 39 

Museum.    Appropriations  required 56 

Donations  to 72 

Entries  in  record  books,  1865,1866,  and  1867 72 

National 18,55,72,76,101,115 

Of  natural  history  of  National  University  of  Greece,  letter  from 124 


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502  INDEX. 

Museums.    Bequisitesof IS 

National  Academy  of  Sciences 54,109 

National  Library 56 

1  National  Museum 18,56,72,76,101,115 

Natural  history  of  organized  bodies  by  M.  Marey 277 

prize  questions - 481 

Newcomb,  Professor  S.    Acknowledgment  to 55 

Investigations  of  planet  Neptune 54 

New  Haven  Journal.    Account  of  lightning  discharge 320 

North  German  Lloyd  Steamship  Company.    Acknowledgments  to 39,112 

Numeration.    Art  of 391 

Report  on  new  system 119 

Proposed  new  system 116 

Nystrom,  J.  W.    Weights  and  measures 119 

Observatories  at  Dorpat  andPoulkova 370 

Officersofthelnstitution,  May,  1868 5 

Oregon.    Trade  language  of 22 

Organization.  Plans  of. 7,15 

Orton,  Prof.  James.    Explorations 49 

Osborne,  J.  A.    Effect  of  electricity  on  telegraph 322 

Osten  Sacken,  Baron  B.    Diptera 22,52 

Pacific  MmI  Steamship  Company.    Acknowledgements  to 39,42,112 

Pacific  Steam  Navigation  Company.    Acknowledgements  to 39, 112 

Palseontology  of  the  upper  Missouri.    Meek  and  Hayden 21 

Palmer,  Dr.  E.    Collections  by 45 

Panama  Railroad  Company.    Acknowledgements  to 39,112 

Parker,  Hon.  Peter.    Election  as  Regent 108 

Acts  of,  as  Regent 108^109,112,113 

Elected  member  of  Executive  Committee 108 

Action  proposed  relative  to  canal 113 

Report  of  executive  committee 101 

Patterson,  Hon.  J.  W.    Resolutions  of,  relative  to  Prof.  Bache 62 

Peltier,  Jean  Charles  Athanase.    Memoir  of,  by  his  son,  F.  A.  Peltier •    158 

Pettigrew,  Dr.  James  Bell,  on  eeronautics 325 

Philbrick,  J.  D.    School  architecture ! 24 

Phillippi,  Prof.  A.  K.    Collections  by 50 

Philosophy.    Prize  questions 481 

See  Royal  Institution 203 

Photo-chemistry.    By  M.  Jamin • 363 

Photography,  celestial.    By  Prof.  H.  Draper 2J 

See  Jamin 363 

Physics.    SeeMarey*s  lectures 277,284 

See  memoir  of  Peltier 158 

See  Royal  InsUtution 203 

See  Faraday 227 

Physiology.    SeeMarey^s  lectures 277 

Pickard,  J.  L.    School  architecture 24 

Pidgeon,  William.    Account  of  mounds 403 

Pike,  Nicholas.    Account  of  cyclone 477 

Plants.     Classification  of 246,275 

of  Alaska.    Sketch  of 433 

Poe,  Gen.  O.  M.    Account  of  lightning  discharge 319 

Investigations 54 


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INDEX.  603 

Pftgft. 

Poland,  Hon.  LnkeP.    Appomtment  as  Regent 108 

Acts  of,  as  Regent 108,109,113 

Polarimeter.    Peltier's 189 

Policy  of  the  Institation.    Prof.  Henry's  views  of 13 

Prof.  Agassiz's  views  of 110 

Pontifical  Academy  of  the  Nuovi  Lincei.    Prize  questions 482 

Portland  Society  of  Natural  History.    Letter  from 116 

Pratt,  Lucien.    Letter  from 126 

Prime,  Temple.     Corbiculadse 22 

Printing  of  report  ordered  by  Congress 2 

Programme  of  organization 7 

Pmyn,  Hon.  J.  V.L.    Appointment  as  Regent 108 

Acts  of,  as  Regent 108,109,112,113 

Publications.    Account  of,  during  1867 21 

Rules  for  distribution  of 23 

Queries  about  expression,  by  Charles  Darwin 324 

Questions.    Prize 481 

Randall,  S.S.    School  architecture 24 

Randall,  T.  A.    Specimens  from 51 

Rangabe,  Mr.    Exchanges  with  Greece 124 

Rain-fall  of  American  continent 26 

in  Europe,    'lables  of 199 

Rain-gauge.    Form  recommended 27 

Ran,  Charles.    Acknowledgement  to 55 

Read,  M.  C.    Account  of  mounds 401 

Reakirt,  Tryon.    Lepidoptera 52 

Receipts  and  expenditures  of  the  Institution ^ 98 

Regents  of  the  Institution.    List  of 5 

Election  and  appointment  of 108 

Journal  of  proceedings  of 108 

See  resolutions 

Reindeer  and  mammoth  cotemporary  with  man 335 

Report,  annual,  for  1866.    Account  of 24 

of  Architect 105 

of  Building  committee ---  102 

of  Executive  committee 98 

of  committee  on  large  ball. a 109 

of  Secretary,  Prof.  Henry 13 

accepted  and  sent  to  Congress 115 

ordered  to  be  printed  by  CongreiiJ 2 

Resolutions  of  Congress  electing  Regents 106 

to  print  the  Report 2 

of  American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences  relative  to  oxchan^ 116 

Resolutions  of  the  Board  of  Regents : 

on  account  of  death  of  Prof.  A.  D.  Bache. 62 

Secretary  to  prepare  eulogy  of  Prof.  Bache 62 

filling  vacancy  in  Executive  committee 108 

accepting  report  of  Prof.  Agassiz  on  large  hali 109 

ordering  report  of  Professor  Agassiz  to  be  printed 109 

distribution  of  specimens  and  returns  to  be  required 112 

expenses  of  distribution  and  collection 112 

great  hall  to  be  devoted  to  scientific  collections 112 

appointing  committee  to  report  cost  of  museum  and  fitting  up  great  hall.  1 12 

approving  report  of  Executive  committee 112 

approving  report  of  Building  committee 11^ 


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504  INDEX. 

BeBolutions  of  the  Board  of  Regents : 

thanks  to  transportation  compcmies  for  favors 113 

instmcting  Execative  committee  to  act  in  regard  to  the  Washington 

canal 113 

directing  a  memorial  to  Congress  asking  appropriations 113 

approving  action  of  Chancellor  and  Secretary  as  to  memorial 115 

accepting  annual  report  of  the  Secretary 115 

annual  report  to  be  transmitted  to  Congress 115 

referring  subject  of  compensation  of  officers  to  the  Executive  committee.  115 

Beswell.    Bemarkable  discharge  of  lightning  at 318 

Ridgway,  Robert.    Explorations 45 

Riotte,  C.N.    Collections  by 49 

Rochester  University.    Explorations 49 

Rojas,  D.  Aristidf's,  on  marit'me  disasters  of  the  Antilles 466 

Ross,  B.  R.    Explorations 44 

Rothrock,  Dr.  J.  T.    Flora  of  Alaska 433 

Plants 52 

Royal  Danish  Society.    Prize  questions 481 

Royal  Institution  of  Great  Britain.    History  of,  by  E.  Mailly 203 

Royal  Society  of  Loudon.    Classified  index  of  scientific  papers 68 

Memoir  of  Prof.  Bache 63 

Rules  of  distribution  of  publication 23 

of  reports 24 

Rumford,  Count.    Memoir  of 203 

Rush,  Hon.  Richard.    Smithson  fund  procured  by 14 

Russia.    Observatories  in 370 

Rye  Beach,  New  Hampshire.    Approach  of  sea  on  land  at 125 

Salaries.    Subject  of,  referred  to  Executive  committee 115 

Salazar,  Governor.    Explorations 48 

Salt  island  in  Gulf  of  Mexico.    Exploration  of. 46 

Salviu,  Osbert.    Collections  by 49 

San  Jos6,  University  of  Costa  Rica.    Letter  from - 126 

Sartorius,  Dr.    Explorations 48 

Sauter,  Edw.    Acknowledgment  to 60 

Sea.    Approach  of  on  land 125 

Secretary,  salary  of.    Increase  proposed 115 

Schaeffer,  Prof.  G.  C.    Acknowledgment  to 55 

Schlagintwait.    Collection  of  ethnographic  heads 121 

School  architecture.    Reporton 24 

School-books  presented  by  publishers  to  Prof.  Laboolaye 41 

Schott,  Arthur.    Collections  by 48 

Schott,  C.A.    Meteorological  investigations 23,28,54 

Science.    Distinctions  of : 14 

Sclater,  Dr.  P.  L.    Birds 52 

Scudder,  S.  H.    Orthoptera 52 

Shell  banks.    See  man  and  mammoth ^ 335,348 

Shell  heaps.    Collections  from 35 

Shells  of  North  America.    W.G.Binney 22 

Shippen,  Edw.    School  architecture 24 

Sibbiston,  Jas.    Explorations 44 

Sigel,  Dr.W.H.    Sparrows  from 51 

Simson,  Robert.    Account  of  meteorite 472 

Skulls.    Description  of 407,412 

Smart,  Captain  Cbas.    Notes  on  Tonto  Apaches 417 

Smithson.    Bequest  of  and  present  condition 96 


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INDEX.  505 

Smithson.    Character  of  bequest  of 13 

fund,  increase  of 100 

Will  of 7 

Smitb,  Sydney.    Memoirof 220 

Sparrows.    Presented  by  Zoological  Garden,  Hamburg 51, 121, 122 

SpofTord,  A.  R.    Librarian  of  Congress 57 

Stanton,  Colonel  Pbineas.    Death  of 49 

Sdmpeon,  Dr.  Wm.    Hydrobiinae 22 

Marine  invertebrata 52 

Stockholm  Academy  of  Sciences.    Letter  from 125 

Stocks.    Sale  of 99,100 

Stone.    Ago 35 

Su  Petersburg  Academy  of  Sciences.    Letter  from 120 

Sumichrast,  Prof.     Explorations 48 

Surgeon  General.    Meteorological  system 27 

Swaim,  Jas.    Acknowledgments  to 39 

Swan,  J.  G.    Explorations * 44 

Swett,  Jno.    School  architecture 24 

Taylor,  Edw.  Burnet.    Early  mental  condition  of  man 391 

Taylor,  W.  B.    Acknowledgment  to 55 

Report  on  system  of  numeration 119 

Telescope.    Silvered  glass,  by  Prof.  Henry  Draper 21 

Telegraph.    Effect  of  electricity  on 322 

Temperature.    Condition  of,  January  9,  1868 323 

Table  of  mean,  in  winter 198 

Tables  to  be  prepared 27 

Thompson,  Benjamin.    Memoir  of 203 

Tides.     Prize  question.. 482 

Tonto  Ajmches.    Notes  on 417 

Torrcy,  Dr.  Jno.    Plants 52 

Trausactions  of  learned  societies.    Index  of 58 

Transportation.    Facilities  granted 39 

Trumbull,  Hon.  Lyman.    Acts  of,  as  Regent     108,112,113 

Tyndall,  John.    Memoir  of 223 

Uhler,  P.  R.    Homiptera 52 

Vau  Bokkelen,  J.  L.    School  architecture 24 

Van  Patten,  Dr.    Collections  by 48 

Virginia.    Interest  not  paid 100 

Volcano  in  Nicaragua 467 

Voltaic  pile.    Peltier's  researches 182 

Von  Frantzius,  Dr.    Collections  by 48,49 

Wade,  B.  F.    Acts  of,  as  Regent -. 108,109,112,113 

Wallach,  Richard.    Acts  of,  as  Regent 108,109,112,113,115 

Report  of  Executive  committee 101 

Report  of  Building  committee 102 

Washington.    Interests  of  city  of 17 

Weights  and  measures.    New  system  proposed 116 

Report  on  new  system 119 

Wells  Sl  Fargo  Express  Company.    Acknowledgments  to 39 

Wernigk,  Dr.  C.     Collections  by 45 

Wesley,  Wm.    Agent  for  exchanges 39 

Western  Union  Telegraph  Company.    Explorations 41 

White,  Captain  T.  W.    Explorations 43 

Whitney,  J.  D.    Account  of  cave  and  skuUs  in  California 406 


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ii  .*  -^  -  '.^r^srm. 


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606  INDEX. 

H 

Wilkes.     ExploriDg  expedition 

Williams  college.     Explorations 

Win|*9  of  insects  and  birds. 328, J 

Wood,  jr.,  Dr.  H.  C.    Myriapoda 

Wood,  Jos.    Meteorology  of  Marietta,  Ohio 23^ 

Wood,  M.  L.    Translation  by ] 

Woodward,  Dr.  J.  J.    Acknowledgments  to 

Woodworth,  Abner.    Account  of  meteorites 4 

Woolsey,  Theodore  D.    Election  of,  as  Regent I 

Wright,  Chauncey.    Letter  from 1 

Wright.  G.    Account  of  lightning  discharge 3 

Wyman,  Jeffries.    Report  on  ancient  skulls 4 

Skulls 

Younglove,  Mr.    Collections  by 

Young,  Thomas.    Memoir  of 

Lecture  of 

Young,  Wm.  J.    Account  of  cloud-bursts 

Zeledon,  Jo86.    Collections  by 

Zisgenbals,  H.    Letter  from 

Zoological  gardens,  Hamburg.    Letter  from 118,121, 

Sparrows  firom 

Zoology.    See  Marciy's  lectuies 


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"^  it,^ 


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/^ 


MAR  3  - 1968 


I 

cicT  "18  19T7 


H0V,2^g«    '«0 


Stanford  Unlrerslty  Library 

]Vd¥  1     199^^^'  California 

APR    9  198B 

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please  return  it  as  soon  as  possible,  but 
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