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Voluire XI5.
Nunil3er 1.

NOVEMBER. 1920

Pep Copy, 15 Cents
Per Year, $1.50

CONTENTS

BUILDING AND OPERATING A CIDER VINEGAR
PLANT

By John Joseph Schommer.

APPLICATION OF PROTECTIVE RELAYS TO
CENTRAL STATION PRACTICE

By Clinton Everett Stryker.

SALESMANSHIP

By Harry Clay Coffeen.

SPECIAL TESTING EQUIPMENT—MECHANICAL
ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

By George F. Gebhardt.

A NEW FACTORY

By P. G. Odgers.

THE TREND OF MODERN INTERCOLLEGIATE
ATHLETICS

By John Joseph Schommer.

EDITORIALS 50

ENGINEERING SOCIETIES 54

COLLEGE NOTES 61

ALUMNI NOTES . . . : 64

BOOK NOTES 66

31
41

II MMOLS INSTITUTE OF TEC^^NQLOGY

PAUL V. GALVIN LIBRARY
35 WEST 33RD STREET
CHICAGO, IL 60616 j.

Armour
^UBtxtnU of ®?rt|ttologg

CHICAGO

THE COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING OFFERS COURSES IN

Mechaiiical Engineering
Electrical Engineering
Civil E7igi7ieering
Chemical Engineering
Fire Protection E^igineeriitg
A rchitecture, and Industrial A r^ts

These Courses are each four years in length and
lead to the degree of Bachelor of Science

COMPLETELY EQUIPPED SHOPS
and LABORATORIES

®l|f SInatttwt? lulbttns

WILL BE SENT ON APPLICATION

ow Large is an Atom?

ATOMS are so infinitesimal that to be seen under
. the most powerful microscope one hundred
million must be grouped. The atom used to be the
smallest indivisible unit of matter. When the X-Rays
and radium were discovered physicists found that they
were dealing with smaller things than atoms — with par-
ticles they call "electrons."'

Atoms are built up of electrons, just as the solar
system is built up of sun and planets. Magnify the
hydrogen atom, says Sir Oliver Lodge, to the size of a
cathedral, and an electron, in comparison, will be no
bigger than a bird-shot.

Not much substantial progress can be made in chemical and
electrical industries unless the action of electrons is studied. For
that reason the chemists and physicists in the Research Labora-
tories of the General Electric Company are as much concerned
with the very constitution of matter as they are with the develop-
ment of new inventions. They use the X-Ray tube as if it were
a machine-gun; for by its means electrons are shot at targets in
new ways so as to reveal more about the structure of matter.

As the result of such experiments, the X-Ray tube has been
greatly improved, and the vacuum tube, now so indispensable in
radio communication, has been developed into a kind of trigger
device for guiding electrons by radio waves. -

Years may thus be spent in what seems to be merely a purely
"theoretical" investigation. Yet nothing is so practical as a
good theory. The whole structure of modern mechanical engi-
neering is reared on Newton's laws of gravitation and motion —
theories stated in the form of immutable propositions. "*

In the past the theories that resulted from purely scientific re-
search usually came from the university laboratories, whereupon
the industries applied them. The Research Laboratories of the
General Electric Company conceive it as part of their task to ex-
plore the unknown in the same spirit, even though there may be
no immediate commercial goal in view. Sooner or later the
world profits by such research in pure science. Wireless com-
munication, for example, was accomplished largely as the result
of Herz's brilliant series of purely scientific experiments demon-
strating the existence of wireless waves

GeneralAElectric

Company

General Office

Schenectady, N. Y.

When writing to Advertisers, please mention THE ARMOUR E3NOINEER

THE ARMOUR
ENGINEER

The Quarterly Technical PubUcation

OF THE

Armour Institute of Technology
chicago, illinois

Volume XII Number 1

November, 1920

John P. Sanger

and

Fletcher E. Hayden

A. ^

(A^^v

r T he Armour Engineer

VOLUME XII. NOVEMBER, 1920 NO. 1.

BUILDING AND OPERATING A CIDER VINEGAR

PLANT.

By John Joseph Schommer.

In the spring of 1917 I was asked to design and equip a plant
for M. Stefifen & Company, Chicago, Illinois, for the purpose
of manufacturing cider vinegar. The plant had to be ready for
manufacturing by autumn.

This resolved itself into the problem of securing the following :
Chicago site,

Site at the source of supply of apples,
Materials of construction,
Manufacturing equipment.

^ Labor.

,. ^ The high cost of construction, the scarcity of labor, and the

V i length of time required to build new buildings, disposed very

\^ quickly of my idea for a new plant-

K The Chicago site had to be on a railroad line to facilitate

^Y cheap shipment of apples and cider stock from points outside

. \ of Chicago and, of course, finished goods from Chicago to other

^ \ cities. It had also to be within easy hauling distance of the
'\ "down town" wholesale grocery houses.

[\ Good buildings on railroad tracks were at a high premium and

anything suitable involved too great a sacrifice of capital. Build-
ings badly needing repair and on railroad tracks near the central
portion of the city were diligently searched for. Finally a one
and a half story building of seventeen thousand square feet on
Kinksbury Street, located on the St. Paul railroad track, was
leased for a period of five years. The building was in bad condi-
tion. The following were necessary in order to place the property

^mt

2 THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [November, 1920

in a manufacturing condition:
New sky lights,
Patching of brick walls,
Patching of wood walls,
Patching of roof,

Repairing of shipping platforms outside of building,
Division of inside into office space, shipping space, manu-
facturing, and storing parts.
Concrete piers for holding up large storage tanks,
Concrete washing tank ten by six by four feet deep,
And storage space for at least three cars of apples (one
car of apples averages about 35,000 pounds).

Bids were asked for and the contract was let for $13,500.

A steam boiler was purchased second hand from a dismantled
building on Pine Grove Ave. Its cost was $600.00. Its rated
capacity was seventy pounds gauge. To install it and build a
chimney cost $900,000 additional. The boiler furnished sufficient
steam to run pumps, heat the plant, office, and necessary water
for cleaning barrels, bottles, and tanks. The remodeled Chicago
plant ready for the installation of equipment cost $15,000.00.

The procuring of equipment for quick delivery from the deal-
erg of vinegar equipment v/as impossible. Six months to a year
was the usual stock phrase used in promising machinery, tanks,
generators, etc. The impending prohibition enforcement sug-
gested that much material might be purchased from breweries
forced out of business. A number of breweries were visited by
me and much was bought at prices ridiculously low.

The following was purchased and installed at about one-fourth
of the original estimate for new materials and was in splendid
condition :

Each

3 — 25,000 gals, storage tanks installed $460.00

4 — 15,000 " " " " 260.00

2 — 7,000 " " " " 150.00

9 — 3,000 " " " " 50.00

These tanks were of white wood, Washington fir, and cypress.
The cypress is the best. The above was purchased from the
Schoenhofen Brewing Company.

Vol. XII, No. 1] SCHOMMER: VINEGAR PLANT ' 3

Three screw presses made by Boomer & Borchert Manufac-
turing Company were bought for $400.00. These were pur-
chased from hard cider plants going out of business in Illinois
and Michigan.

Four pumps were bought from the Blackmar Pump Company,
Chicago. These pumps are acetic acid proof and are bronxe hned.
They are portable affairs, motor driven, and are placed on trucks
so they may be hauled to any part of the plant.

Several hundred feet of hose of about three inches diameter
was purchased. This is used for portable piping. It is used to
pump sweet juice and vinegar from fermentors to storage tanks
and generator room. Wood logging is often used for this pur-
pose, but it is not as convenient as the portable hose. Vinegar
pumped through iron pipes turns black because of the tannic acid
in vinegars.

Thirty-one vinegar generators were built of white wood and
Washington fir. Tanks from breweries were dismantled and the
wood utilized for this purpose. The generators are four feet
in diameter by nine feet high and two inches thick. They cost
$43.00 each installed.

Five hundred feet of spruce logging four inches by four inches
in ten foot lengths with one inch and one and one-half inch
orifices, were bought from R. W. Bartelmann of Chicago, at
twenty cents per running foot. This logging is installed per-
manently. Into it runs the vinegar and fermented juice from
the supply tanks to feed the generators. Also the logging is used
to conduct the finished vinegar from the generators to the finished
product tank sunk into the ground below the generators. Coup-
lings for the logging were bought from the Bushnell Pump Com-
pany, Bushnell, Illinois, at fifty cents each.

For each generator seventy bushels of beech wood shavings
were purchased from the RedHch Manufacturing Company,
Chicago, Illinois, at forty-five cents per bushel. Corn cobs and
rattan, when available, may also be used and are cheaper.

Three sets of knives for grinding the apples and run by motor
were purchased from the Hydraulic Press Company, Mount
Gilliad, Ohio, at $18.00 per set. A grindstone for sharpening
the knives was also purchased.

A small bottle filling machine, a bottle machine washer, a small

4 THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [November, 1920

air pump used for mixing the vinegar cut with water to reduce to
proper strengths desired, barrel conveyor to convey barrels of
vinegar up from filling room to shipping platform, some piping
and hose were bought from the Fleischmann Yeast Company at
a very low figure.

A small amount of laboratory equipment was installed for
chemical tests on vinegars and sweet cider stock. The apparatus
consists of a small still to estimate the alcohol in fermented apple
juices, also "sugar stems," glassware, burettes, etc.

The entire equipment with labor necessary to build benches,
ladders, platforms, and arrange little odds and ends about the
plant cost $11,000.00. Thus the total cost of putting property
on Kingsbury Street in running order to manufacture one thou-
sand gallons of cider vinegar per day was $26,000.00.

While the Chicago factory was being remodeled and equipped,
a diligent search was being made for sites in Michigan. Two
sites were finally bought, one at Fennville and another at Co-
loma. Both of these towns are in the center of splendid apple
growing communities and have records of never having had a
total failure of an apple crop.

Old buildings and ground were purchased. The locations are
on the Pere Marquette Railroad. The repairing and equipping
was done in a fashion similar to that in building the Chicago
plant. Second hand tanks and machiner}^ were bought and in-
stalled.

The Fennville plant located at Fennville, Michigan, on the
Pere Marquette Railroad was provided with four hydraulic
presses, and a storage capacity of two hundred thousand gallons
of juice. Pumps, boiler, pulleys, etc., were in the building.
Eleven thousand dollars was necessary to purchase the factor}^
site, and equipment and to put this station in a position to manu-
facture. Only apple cider is made here and the juice is shipped
sweet to Chicago, or is stored and sent as needed partially fer-
mented, either to Coloma or Chicago to be made into vinegar.

The Coloma factory is located at Coloma, Michigan, on the
Pere Marquette Railroad. The equipment was installed.
This consisted of tanks with four hundred thousand gallons
storage capacity, pumps, mixing tanks, fermentors, boiler, pul-
leys, platforms, fifty-one generators, cooperage shop, and two

Vol. XII, No. 1] SCHOMMER: VINEGAR PLANT 5

hydraulic presses. The total cost of equipment, ground, and
building was fourteen thousand dollars.

To operate the Chicago plant, the cost is as follows:

Vinegar maker $40.cmd per week

Vinegar maker, helper 20.00

One Cooper 30.oo |' "^

One shipping clerk 40.00

Two helpers, each $24.00 48.00

One office manager 50.00

One stenographer 20.00

One city salesman 50.00

In busy seasons when large orders for bottled goods are to be
filled, additional labor is hired.

The duties of the vinegar maker are to keep the generators
running, to make the various "cuts" from higher strength to
lower strength, and to test the alcoholic liquor, and the finished
vinegar to see that full strength of vinegar obtainable is received
from the alcoholic liquor.

The cooper's duty consists in repairing second hand barrels
All vinegar is sold in used wine or whiskey barrels. These from
time to time need new heads, staves, iron hoops, or plugs to
prevent leaking.

The shipping clerk handles the shop orders and fills, or super-
intends the filling of barrels and bottles of the various strength
vinegars which run from 40 grain strength to 55 grain. (10
grains is equivalent to i^ acetic acid strength.)

The helpers are used about the plant to aid wherever needed.
The office man keeps books and attends to out-of-city trade.
He is aided by the stenographer.

The city salesman attends to the city contract work and also
aids in the office work by following up orders and keeping the
trade supplied on general conditions of the vinegar market.

The Fennville plant is managed by a superintendent the year
round at thirty dollars per week. His real work lasts about
four months of the year — in the autumn. The remainder of
the time is spent in making repairs and preparing for the next
season's run of apples. He has one assistant at twenty dollars
per week. During the rush time m the autumn he will hire from
five to ten men and boys at fifteen dollars to twenty dollars per
week.

6 THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [November, 1920

The Coloma plant is managed by a superintendent at sixty
dollars per week. He is a vinegar maker, attends to buying
millions of pounds of apples, and in fact is responsible for every-
thing about the plant. He has two steady assistants the year
round besides a cooper and an engineer. In the busy season he
will hire ten to fifteen men, boys, and women at ten dollars to
twenty-five dollars per week. The pay of labor always depends, of
course, upon its scarcity and the kind-of work to be done.

The progress of the apple through the Chicago plant to vinegar
is as follows : The apples are shoveled from the railroad cars
down into the storage bin. From here the fruit is shoveled into
the concrete washing bin where the apples are washed with
running water. Any metallic substances settle to the bottom and
careful watch is kept to prevent anything hard from going up the
incline into the slicing knives. From the washing bin llic apples
go, via an incline belt composed of an iron chain and blocks of
wood, to a set of motor driven knives. Here the apples are
thinly rasped. The sliced apples fall into a hopper with a mov-
able spout and are fed onto a press where a "cheese" is made up.
When one press is squeezing out the juice, another press is fed
to make up another cheese."

The sweet cider juice is squeezed out into a small tank, sunk
into the ground below the press. From this receiving tank the
juice is pumped into storage tanks or into fermentors. li the
juice is sold as sweet, one-tenth of one per cent of sodium ben-
zoate is added, and the juice barreled and sent out.

From the fermentors the alcoholic juice is pumped into stor-
age tanks carefully painted on the outside with an asphalt paint
and covered on the inside wuth parafifin to aid in preventing
evaporation. Thd tanks are kept covered and in a cool place.

From the storage tanks the alcoholic juice is pumped into the
receiving tank in the vinegar room. From here the generators
are fed with the alcoholic liquor. From the generators the fin-
ished vinegar runs into a big tank sunk into the ground. From
this receiving tank the vinegar is pumped into the big storage
tanks from which it is drawn for barrel or bottle shipment.

Occasionally vinegar is filtered to give it brilliancy. This
stock is used for fancy bottled goods. The filtering was formerly
done through bone black, but now it is done through paper pulp

Vol. XII, No. 1] SCHOMMER: VINEGAR PLANT 7

by pumping the vinegar up through the pulp as is done in
breweries.

The cutting; knives for rasping the apples are of steel and are
sixteen inches long, about one inch wide, and three-sixteenths
inch thick. They have teeth and look like a saw. Ten, of these
knives are set in slots in a drum. The teeth protrude above the
periphery of the drum about one-sixteenth inch. The drum is
motor driven and in revolving crowds the apple between the
knives and the side of the box in which the drum is set. The
effect is a rasping one. These knives may be purchased from the
Hydraulic Press Company, Mt. Gilliad, Ohio.

The presses used for squeezing out the juice from apples are
of two types, the screw type and the hydraulic. The former
may be purchased from Boomer & Borchert, Syracuse, New
York; the latter from the Hydraulic Press Company, Mt. Gil-
liad, Ohio. The screw types in the Chicago plant are motor
driven. The hydraulic presses in Michigan are run by steam.
They may also be run by motor. The screw type operates similar
to the ordinary hand screw press. A platform operating on long
screws is let down on a "cheese," which is made up on a small
car run on tracks. The box of the car is fifty-four inches square
and four inches high. When the "cheese" is made up on the car,
it is pushed underneath the press and the platform let down on
the car. An indicator is so calibrated that when enough pressure
has been apphed to procure all juice available, it swings down
and registers this fact. This operation takes, roughly, about one
hour. With this type of press a six hundred pound cheese, and
about forty-two to fifty gallons of juice may be pressed per hour.
In a ten hour day four hundred to five hundred gallons of juice
per press may be squeezed out.

The hydraulic press operates with a piston-like motion. A
broad base is pushed up. The "cheese" is lifted against the top
and a pressure of four thousand pounds per square inch is
applied. The hydraulic press will produce from fifteen hundred
to two thousand galllons per ten hour day. It is easier to operate
and takes up much less room. This type of press costs about
twice as much as the screw type, but is far more economical to
use. This type of press may be purchased from the Hydraulic
Press Company, Mount Gilliad, Ohio.

8 THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [November, 1920

The "cheese" is made up by leading the rasped apples from the
hopper immediately under the knives by aid of a chute to the car.
A large sheet of canvas is laid over the box of the car. The
rasped apples are let in, and a layer of about four inches is made.
Then the ends of the canvas are folded over the top of the rasped
apples. On the top of the folded ends of canvass a thin lattice
work of wood is laid. Then another large sheet of canvas is
laid over the lattice work of wood. Another four inches of
apples is run on, and the canvas ends are folded over, and another
frame is put on top. The "cheese" is then built up until it is about
four feet high. Then the car is run under the press. While the
press is operating on one "cheese," another "cheese" is built up.

The "first-pressings" is the name given to the cider juice ex-
pressed from the "cheese" after about an hour's pressure. This
amounts to about seven gallons per one hundred pounds of
apples. This juicd is the richest in all the ingredients that make
up sweet cider. The richness of the juice of course depends on
many things : i. e., the quality of the fruit from the standpoint of
decay, ripeness, and variety.

The "second-pressings" is the name given the juice expressed
from the pomace after the "first-pressing." The method of pro-
cedure producing the best results is to take the pomace after
"first-pressings" and allow it to partially ferment in warm water at
about 85° F. for! four or five days. But this is against the food
regulations of most states. This is, however, the procedure in
Germany. In Michigan the law states pomace for "second-press-
ing" must be repressed within twenty-one days; also water must
not be added and the pomace must be kept under cover.

The pomace is built up in "cheeses" and squeezed in a similar
fashion to the "first-pressings." From; one to three gallons of
juice per one hundred pounds of apples are received. The
"second-pressings" of course are not as rich as the "first-press-
ings." The pomace is the apple residue left after expressing "first
or second pressings." When only "first-pressings' are expressed
from the apples, the pomace may be sold for jelly filler. When the
"second-i)ressings" are expressed from pomace, the dried pomace
is used for fuel in the boiler.

Pomace should be repressed for "second-pressings" within

Vol. XII, No. 1] SCHOMMER: VINEGAR PLANT 0

four days after "first-pressing." Much depends on weather con-
ditions. The colder the weather the longer the pomace may lie.
If the weather is warm the pomace will sour and prevent the sub-
sequent juice from properly fermenting to alcoholic stock for
vinegar.

Sweet juice is bought from the farmers, from apple canners,
(this stock is usually made from skin and cores), and repress stock
from sweet cider manufacturers. This outside juice should
always be analyzed for the following : Acidity, alcohol, sugar,
solids, soluble and insoluble PoOg, alkalinity of ash, optical rota-
tion, sugar and non-sugar solids. A price is then offered. This
kind of business usually does not pay unless the quantity amounts
to a tank car or more. A tank car holds from seven thousand
to ten thousand gallons of juice.

The juice is pumped -into fermentors that hold from six thou-
sand to ten thousand gallons. The yeasts always present in the
juice are usually allowed to do the fermenting. Sometimes a
brewery yeast bought from breweries or a selected pure culture
yeast is added to the sweet stock. The sugars are then converted
into alcohol and carbon dioxide according to the formula
QHj.O^+yeast gives 2CH.OH+2CO..

One hundred parts of sugar give 51. 11 parts of alcohol and
48.S9 parts of carbonic acid. This is the theoretical yield, but
actually only about 92% of the theoretical yield of alcohol is
obtained.

The sucrose present in the juice is not directly fermentable.
By means of an enzime that exists in some yeasts the sucrose
is inverted to dextrose and levulose. These sugars are then con-
verted into alcohol and carbon dioxide.

From time to time some of the juice is tested with a brix
hydrometer to observe the progress of fermentation. When the
juice is fermented to O on the sugar-stem, all the sugars are
fermented.

The fermented juice is a variable product. Depending on the
temperature, the race of yeast predominating in the fermenta-
tion, the variety, soundness, and the ripeness of the apples used
for sweet juice, varying amounts of the following are obtained:
alcohol, glycerine, succinic acid, lactic acid and butyric acid; de-

THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [November, 1920

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Vol. XII, No. 1] SCHOMMER: VINEGAR PLANT 11

pending on the variety of apple, section of the country where ap-
ple is grown, and degree of ripeness, varying amounts of soluble
and insoluble PoOj, KoO, XaoO, and CaO are obtained in the
juice with varying amounts of sugar and non-sugar solids.

The temperature best for the fermentation varies with the race
of yeast predominant in the fermentation. The products of fer-
mentation vary with temperature and type of yeast predominant
in the fermentation. In practice too little attention is paid to the
fermentation, because under the great stress of rush work with
limited space to handle millions of pounds of apples, the only
thought is to finish the stock and send it moving to completion
as rapidly as possible.

Temperature control with a pure yeast is the best way to handle
the cider stock. With wild yeasts and moulds fermenting the
sweet stock, considerable sugars are destroyed with loss of
alcoholic yield. Some moulds destroy as high as 12% of the
sugar in fermenting.

The most suitable temperature for fermentation is 18° to 24° C.

(65° to 75° F-)-
To ferment to O the sugars in six thousand to ten thousand

gallons of juice takes about a week's time.

TABLE SHOWING DIFFERENCE BETWEEN JUICES FROM
RIPE AND GREEN APPLES.

Invert

Total

Variety

Ripeness

Sugar

Sucrose

Sugar

Ash

Ben Davis .

Ripe

7-11%

4.1:%

11-26%

0.28%

Ben Davis .

. . . .Green

6.56%

0.68%

7-24%

0.32%

ANALYSIS OF SOME FERMENTED JUICES OF MIXED
APPLES JUST BEFORE GENERATING TO VINEGAR.

Rotation 400 mm.

Tube

Ventzke Scale

Solids

Acidity

Alcohol

Ash

Degrees left.

L96%

0.46%

7.23%

0.22%

2.46

2.91%

0.62%

6.64^

0.28%

2.24

1.91%

0.58%

4.65%

0-24%

4.10

3.32%

1.20%

9.81%

0.34^,

1.94

12 THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [November, 1920

After fermentation the generator converts the alcohohc hquid
into vinegar. It is an arrangement to allow air to pass up
through material held in a container through which the alcoholic
liquor passes down in fine drops.

The generator usually is nine feet high and four feet wide
with staves about two and one-half inches thick. It is made of
white wood or of oak. Six inches from the bottom on the
ifiside a perforated false bottom is placed. Inch holes are drilled
through this about three and one-half inches apart. Twelve
inches abo\e the false bottom of the generator, four holes
are drilled in from the outside slanting down to the inside. These
holes are about three-quarters of an inch in diameter. They are
the vents which regulate the air supply going up the cask by aid
of plugs. They are placed equally apart around the tank. The
oxygen of the air oxidizes the alcohol of the juice to acetic acid.

About a foot down from the top of the cask is fitted what is
called a ''dumper." This dumping arrangement consists of a long
axis with a scoop on each side. The alcoholic liquor coming
throug[h the vent in the top of the cask feeds into one of the
scoops on one side of the axis. W'hen heavy enough with liquid
the scoop tips and ixjurs out its contents over a perforated disk.
The holes in this disk of wood are about one-eighth inch in diam-
eter and placed from two to three inches apart. This disk is for
the purpose of spreading the liquid. When one side of the axis
dumps its liquid, the axis rotates and brings into position the
other scoop which is then filled and operates in a similar fashion
as described.

Between the false bottom and the ]KM-forated disk on top, im-
mediately under the dumper, are placed beechwood shavings,
corn cobs, or rattan. These give the surface to the liquid and
spread it out into thin drops The rattan is stamped down in the
generator while the corn cobs and beechwood shavings are placed
in loosely.

In cider vinegar making, the greatest care must be exercised
in the management of the generators. Much money may be lost
by not receiving the full strength vinegar from the alcohol
in the juice. Alcohol is lost in e\aporation and destroyed by
\'inegar fungus. The generator should be carefully cleaned out
about every three weeks and new filling put in. Every two or
three days the top perforated disk should be cleaned of "mother"

Vol. XII, No. IJ SCHOMMER: VINEGAR PLANT 13

(fungus growth) and if necessary the top layer of cobs or beech-
wood shavings removed when covered with "mother." The
"mother"' forms a thick film and air cannot pass through the gen-
erator.

The generators are placed in rows and sufficient space should
be betw^een each one to enable a person to walk around it. They
are connected on top and bottom with wooden logging. The top
logging runs over the entire row. Over each generator a faucet
connected to the logging feeds the "dumper" through a small
hole. If generators are incapacitated, the faucets over them may
be turned ofif without interfering with the others that are in good
working order. From the bottom of each generator a faucet leads
to a pipe of wood or logging, and this logging conveys the par-
tially finished or finished product into a receiving tank sunk in the
ground. The generator room should have all the fresh air pos-
sible and no direct sunlight.

I will assume the most difficult case in the making of cider
vinegar, i. e., starting with fresh generators, with fresh shavings
or corn cobs. '! he filling in the generators is flooded with strong
cider vinegar and soaked. From forty to sixty grain vinegar is
used for this. The vinegar retains a great many vinegar bacteria
and these lodge in the shavings or filling. These bacteria of a
number of different species propagate and act when the temp-
erature is correct, as a catalytic agent in the conversion of alcohol
to acetic acid by oxidation with air.

After soaking for several hours the vintgar is run out in a
steady stream, and as fast as it runs out, it is fed in at the top
from the filling tank. This is continued for about a week or until
the time when the generators become warm. The generators are
now ready for alcoholic liquor. The strength of vinegar that may
be made is restricted, due to the effect of strong alcohol and
strong vinegar on the bacteria. A ten per cent alcohohc liquor
will kill them. But long before that strength is secured their
activity is checked.

If forty grainy vinegar has been used to "heat up" the genera-
tors, then this vinegar is diluted in the "mixing tank" with the
alcoholic liquor until the mixture shows a twenty-two grain
-.trength of acetic acid. Then this mixture is fed by gravity to
the generators in small steady streams through the faucets above

THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [November, 1920

</)

rrs

■•^1

f^ s <

-^ o c

O ^

^ ^ oi

rVJ ^ ^ -^ r-H

-- c: 00

:::* «

;i; Li:

25 ^

Vol. XII, No. 1] SCHOMMER: VINEGAR PLANT 15

each generator. The finished product from the bottom of each
generator flows into the receiving tank. From here it is again
pumped into a mixing tank and the "mix" diluted to twenty-two
grain acetic strength with alcoholic hquor. This is continued
until the generators are about 90° to 93° F. in temperature. They
are then ready for their maximum production. Twenty-two
grain vinegar with 2^ alcoholic strength should now give, on going
through the generators once, forty-two grains acetic strength of
vinegar. They are now ready to make any strength cider vinegar
that may be made from the alcoholic cider stock.

If forty grnin vinegar stock is to be made, then the "mix" in
the mixing tank is held at twenty-two grains. If fifty grain stock
is to be made, then the "mix" is held at thirty-two grains. I'his is
done in this manner, because the alcoholic liquor in its progress
through a generator will increase in acidity, when conditions are
proper, from fifteen lo eighteen grains. This is a safe working
condition. If more acidity is produced, the generator is very
likely to "go bad," and then the entire "filhng" will have to be
replenished.

When fermented cider stock tests fifteen proof alcohol, it
should produce sixty grain vinegar. But evaporation, generator
trouble (feeding generators too fast or too slow), and the almost
unavoidable growth of mal-organism may cut this as low as
thirty grain. Therefore, it is necessary to have a skilled cider
vinegar maker in constant attendance.

A temperature from 90° to 95° F. appears to be the most suitable
for best working conditions. This may be observed either by in-
serting a thermometer in the generator or taking the temperature
of the vinegar coming out. If the temperature runs 15° to 20° F.
over 95" F., the generator may "burn out," i. e., the bacteria
may be destroyed. Then the generator must be refilled and grad-
ually brought up to working conditions, i. e., "heated up." The
temperature is regulated by plugging the air vents or by feeding
the alcoholic liquid fast or slow. The faster the "feed" the higher
the temperature rises, and the more air is required. The flow of the
"feed" to each generator is controlled as follows : The "mix" is led
from the mixing tank by wood logging running over all the gen-
erators. Over each generator a wood faucet fastened in the
logging controls the flow. This flow is so regulated that each

16 THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [November, 1920

generator produces about one and one-half gallons of cider vine-
gar of forty-five grain strength per hour. The height of the vine-
gar in the receiving tank is measured from time to time with a
yard stick. This gives the number of gallons in the tank. The in-
crease may thus be noted from time to time. The number of
working generators being known, the control flow faucets over
each generator are fixed to maintain the one and one-half gallons
per generator per hour. If the cider vinegar is to be stored, a
small amount of alcohol should be left in it. This appears to keep
it. If it is all converted, mal-organisms and oxidation may decom-
pose the acetic acid to carbon dioxide and water.

SOME ANALYSIS OF PURE CIDER VINEGAR.

Rotation 400 mm.

Acetic

Alkalinity P.,0.

Insol. Tube \'eutzke

Solids

acid

of ash Per 100 cc.

P.O. Scale to left.

1.98

-1.56

29 11

' g' 0.4

2.35 5.15 31 12 8 1.5

3.10 6.10 33 16 15 2.9

The apples usually bought for cider purposes are the poor
colored, the knarled, the specked, the undersized, the windfalls,
and others unfit for table use and canneries. They are bought
by the hundred pounds from the farmers. Sometimes the Chi-
cago plant procures from South Water Street commission men
over-ripe apples or fro.st bitten ones.

A NEW USE FOR RE-ENFORCED CONCRETE.

Another use for re-enforced concrete is in coniiection with the
foundation for electrical generators. Hitherto metal castings,
weighing several tons, have been used for the purjjose. In addi-
lion to the great saving in cost which would result from the
substitution of concrete for steel, the delavs experienced in pro-
curing such parts from the manufacturers would be saved, as the
foundations could be manufactured on the site.

APPLICATION OF PROTECTIVE RELAYS TO
CENTRAL STATION PRACTICE.

By Cliton E. Stryker, '17.

The principal objects to be attained by the use of protective
relays are: the insurance of continuous service, and the protec-
tion of apparatus. These ends are obtained by the use of a great
variety of apparatus and many different systems of connections.
This particular article treats of the application of these services to
but one central station company and should not be assumed to
cover the entire field. However, as this central station is one of
the largest in existence and covers a wide variety of service, its
methods may be assumed to be illustrative of general practice.
Relays and other protective devices are used on the following
classes of apparatus :

Generators (steam driven),

High tension lines or feeders,

Railway synchronous converters,

Railway D. C. feeders (600 volt),

Edison synchronous converters,

Edison D. C. feeders (3 wire — 115 and 230 volt),

Motor generator sets (frequency changers).

Station transformers,

Industrial transformer banks,

A-. C. high tension distribution circuits,

Special applications.

Generators (steam driven).

Practically all central station generators are alternators, so that
this type only is considered. The protection needed on genera-
tors is as follows-

Overload,

Internal short circuit,

Over-speed.
The most approved practice at present does not include pro-
tection against overload, as it is assumed that the operator pays
sufficient attention to his machines to prevent any considerable
overloading. The fluctuations in load on a large system are rela-

THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [November, 1920

tively slow and can be taken care of by manual operation. Short-
circuits on lines are taken care of by line relays and the only
contingency which would affect the alternators would be a short
circuit on the station bus, which is a very rare occurrence. An-
other point of importance is the fact that modern high reactance
alternators are largely self-protective in that their short circuit
current is not great enough to destroy the windings. The objec-
tion to the use of o\erload relays is the fact that they are likely
to operate in the event of a line failure near the station, before
the line is cleared by its relays. This would cause a complete
interruption to service instead of the interruption of only the line
aflFected.

Fig. 1. Generator Protective Relays.

The alternators are protected against internal short circuit by
mstantaneous balanced relays which are connected as in Fig. i.
These relays function in the event of an unbalance in the current
in any given phase and trip all generator switches, the field
switch, and the steam valve. In machines equipped with motor
driven blowers, these are also stopped. In other words the
machine is completely shut down. As can be seen, the only
action which would cause an unbalance in the currents would be
a short circuit or ground on a winding, which would cause the
current to flow into that winding through both the phase lead
and the neutral lead.

Vol. XII, No. 1] STRYKER: PROTECTIVE RELAYS 19

The over-speed trip operates when the speed reaches a value
of about 115% of normal speed and only trips the emergency
steam valve. It is not necessary to shut down the electrical end
of the machine, as there is practically no chance of the system
frequency rising enough to cause any damage.
High tension lines or feeders.

The protection of direct stub-end hnes or feeders is a very
simple matter, involving only the use of time limit overload
relays. Unfortunately, however, the stub-end line is a rarity in
the modern central station system. Practically the entire high-
tension system is made up of a series of loops forming a network,
which makes the protection of these lines a complicated and
difficult matter. Considerations of economy of copper and facil-
ity of operation dictate that a network be used, so that it is
imperative that relay systems be devised which will protect such
a network.

It might be stated that the problem of network protection is
far from being solved at the present time, but that improvements
are being made rapidly and it is hoped that network protection
will soon cease to be the chief worry of the central station relay
engineer.

The usual procedure in applying relays to a network is to
divide it into a number of loops and work out the protection of
each loop. A typical loop is shown in Fig. 2. The principal types
of relays used in this work are :
Time limit overload,

Unidirectional overload (Reverse power).
Instantaneous differential balanced.

The time limit overload relay (Westinghouse Type C O)
functions when the current exceeds the setting value for a pre-
determined length of time. It has inverse time characteristics
in that the greater the current the quicker the relay will close.
This relay closes irrespective of the direction of current flow.
The unidirectional overload relay (Westinghouse Type C R) has
all the above characteristics except that it operates only when
the current flows in a certain direction and will not operate when
the current flows in the opposite direction, regardless of the
value of the current.

The differential balanced relay is a specially devised apparatus

THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [November, 1920

<3£.hlCRAT(f^G ^T^nor^

7 20 A

i.y sec.

©t
CPiL. C(r?c<^»r BheaKih

® CR P^etuaY

Fig. 2. Typical Line Loop.

Vol. XII, No. 1] STRYKER: PROTECTIVE RELAYS

for the protection of service by cutting out defective lines in-
stantaneously. It functions only in the event that current feeds
into both ends of a line, which will only occur if a short or
ground develops. It does not protect the line itself in any way
so that it is usually used in conjunction with other types of relays.
The connections of a set of differential balanced relays are
shown by Fig. 3. The relay proper consists of two windings

Bus

B>/s

Fig. 3. Balanced Differential Relay.

(A & B) so connected that under any normal condition the
fluxes produced by the two windings are in opposition and are
neutralized, thus preventing the relay from closing. By reference
to the diagram it will be seen that, with a balanced load, no cur-
rent will flow in the relay circuit inasmuch as the resultant of
the currents from the line transformers is zero. In the event
of an unbalanced load, say a load on one phase only, currents will
flow in the relay circuit as shown by the arrows and the flux in
the relays will be zero. In this connection, an unbalanced load
is considered as one in which there is a current in the neutral
conductor. In a system operating without a neutral conductor,
such a lack of balance could be caused only by a fault on one
phase of a line, which would permit a flow of current thru the
ground to the neutral of the generator grounded in the station.
As an example, a fault on a line beyond the one equipped with
the differential balanced relays would cause such a current, but
this would not operate the relays on the line considered. If we

22 THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [November, 1920

now assume a fault at x it is apparent that the current will flow
into the cable from both ends. This will cause a reversal of the
current in the coil A of one of the relays and will also cause the
current in the B coils to decrease in value. On account of this
fact the flux produced by the A windings will not be neutralized
and the relay will close. Ordinarily one relay will function be-
fore the other, but this will still further unbalance the current
and will hasten the operation of the other relay.

The loop shown in Fig. 2 is protected in the following manner :
l"he entire loop is protected from o\ erload by the overload relays
at^ the generating station. These relays have a high time setting
so that a fault in the loop will be cleared by the other relays
before they will operate. However, a long continued overload
will close them. A fault on line A will be cleared by the opera-
tion of the C R relay on the sub-station end of this line, and the
C O relay at the generating station. It should be noticed that the
C R relay on this line has a lower time setting than any of the
others operating on current flow in the same direction. This
insures that the correct relay will operate and that one nearer the
other end of the loop will not operate first and disconnect lines
which are not faulty.

Lines B, D, and E are equipped with C R relays at both ends
with their time settings so chosen that they will not operate in
the event of a fault on any line beyond the one on which they
are installed. Line C is equipped with differential balanced relays
and cuts out instantaneously in the event of a fault on the line
itself. One line near the center of the loop is usually equipped'
with this type of relay. Line F is equipped in the same manner
as line A.

The above concrete example gives a general idea as to the
manner of protecting line loops. From the discussion it might
appear that it would be best if all lines were equipped with
dift'erential balanced relays. Perhaps this is true, but due con-
.sideration should be given to the fact that these relays require
that two pilot wires be run the entire length of the line, which
makes their installation expensive and therefore undesirable on
the score of economy.

In general, the overload relays on lines at the generating sta-
tions are set at about ^SO% of full load line current. The time

Vol. XII, No. 1] STRYKER: PROTECTIVE RELAYS

settings of the relays take into account the fact that oil circuit
breakers require a perceptible length of time to open, the average
value of this time for a modern oil circuit breaker (G. E, K 12)
being 0.2 second. Lines or feeders which run from station to
station are practically always controlled by three-phase circuit
breakers, so that the operation of a relay opens all phases of
the line.

It can safely be said that more trouble has been had with line
protective relays than with any other form of protective ap-
paratus. Many difficulties have developed after the installation

Fig. 4. Inverse Time Limit Overload Relay.
(G. E. Co. Type H, Form G.)

of apparatus and have been removed only with great expense.
As an example, several earlier designs of balanced relays proved
to be absolute failures on account of inductive and capacity effects
of the line currents on the pilot wires. Even the apparatus here
described is not perfect. The differential balanced relay will not
function in the event of a fault on^ a line which is perfectly bal-
anced on all phases. A relay system has been devised which
will function correctlr on any and all faults but it requires three
pilot wires and six relays on each line and is therefore too ex-
pensive to be considered except for special cases. Operating
experience has shown that with high time settings on the C O
relays at the generating stations, a fault on the line directly out
of the station may cause a disastrous system disturbance before

24 THE ARMOUR ENGINEER | November, 1920

the relay operates. To obviate this condition, instantaneous relays
with extremely high current settings have been installed in some
cases in addition to the other equipment, which will operate in
the event of a fault on the line directly out of the station. These
relays are set so high that the impedance to a fault on any line
beyond the first substation will limit the current to such a value
that the relay will not close.

Railway Synchronous Converters.

Synchronous converters in railway service are subject to sud-
den and wide variations in load and must be protected accord-
ingly. The standard railway D. C. voltage is 600, which mean?
that arcing and flashing troubles are likely to be serious. Con-
verters are equipped with circuit breakers on both the A. C. and
D. C. ends, and relays can be applied accordingly.

Ordinary overloads on railway converters are taken care of
by the overload trip on the D. C. circuit breaker, which is set for
125^ load. This takes care of sudden swings and allows the
machine to continue running from the A. C. supply. Service can
therefore be restored ven,- quickly, which would not be the case
if the A. C. circuit breaker opened and shut down the machine.
Machine failure is taken care of by the overload relays in the
A. C. circuit which are set to operate instantaneously on 350^
load. Standard bellows type (G. E. Type P) relays are used for
this work.

As railway machines are subject to flashovers, special relays
are provided to take care of this contingency. The converter
frames are insulated from ground except that they are connected
to ground through the fiashover relay coil. Therefore, all ground
current passes through this relay. Most flashovers develop be-
tween the commutator and machine frame, which causes current
to flow through this relay. The relay will then close and will
open both the .-\. C. and D. C. circuit breakers, thus cutting the
machine ofif completely.

The other ])rotective de\ice used on railway converters is the
overspeed trip. As is well known, an inverted synchronous con-
verter feeding a highly reactive load will operate with a greatly
weakened field and may easily reach dangerous speeds. If a fault
occurs on a transmission line feeding a converter which is con-
nected to a D. C. system also supplied by other converters this

Vol. XII, No. 1] STRYKER: PROTECTIVE RELAYS 25

exact situation is likely to occur, with disastrous results. Con-
verters are therefore equipped with overspeed devices which open
the D. C. circuit breakers in the event of the machine reaching
115^ of synchronous speed. Railway converters are also equip-
ped with low voltao^e releases on the D. C. circuit breaker, which
will open this breaker in the event that the D. C. bus voltage
drops to a low value.

Railways D. C. Feeders (600 volts).

The railway D. C. feeders are protected by overload circuit
breakers which will open in the event of an overload or short
circuit on the trolley section supplied by the feeder. In the
system under discussion the railway D. C. distribution system is
cut into short sections, which are not interconnected, so that the
difficulties incident to a network are not encountered.

Edison Synchronous Converters.

The Edison three-wire 115-230 volt D. C. system is also sup-
plied by synchronous converters but as this service is essentially
a constant load proposition, the method of protection is different
than that applied to railway converters. In addition to this, most
Edison systems are very intricate networks, which change the
situation as to the protection required. It has been found that it
is very undesirable to have instantaneous overload relays on
machines in this service, as the possibility of service interruption
is too great. For this reason, the only overload protection on
Edison system converters is furnished by time limit relays on the
A. C. side of the machine. These relays are set to operate on
330% of full load current in 2 seconds. They will operate m-
stantaneously on a current in excess of 440^ full load value.

Inasmuch as these machines are operated in parallel on a net-
work which also carries floating storage batteries, it is necessary
to provide reverse current protection. The reverse current relays
operate in the event of D. C. feeding back into the converter and
open the D. C. circuit breakers. Overspeed protection is the
same as on railway machines. It is essential that both D. C.
circuit breakers open simultaneously as these are three-wire
machines, and if only one breaker opened, current would still
flow through the other side of the machine and the neutral. This
condition would perhaps be worse than if both circuit breakers
remained closed.

THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [November, 1920

Edison D. C. Feeders (3 wire — 115 and 230 volt).

The feeders on the Edison system are tied into a network
which is extremely comphcated. It was found, early in the
operation of such a system, that ahnost any method of protec-
tion would be a failure. For this reason, the present practice is
to tie these feeders direct to the busses, no fuses or circuit break-

WATTMETER
CONTACTS CON-_
TROLLING CON-
TACTOR SWITCH

DISK OF WATT-
METER [lEMENT

DAMPING
MA6NE:T5

TORQUE

COMPENSATOR

CURRENT AD-
JUSTING PLATE

TIME INDEX ^^
LEVER AND SCALE

DISK Of EXCESS

CURRENT

ELEMENT

DAMPING
MAGNETS

MAINFRAME OF
[-WATTMETER
ELEMENT

TIME CURVE

CONTACTOR

SWITCH

CONTACTS

EXCESS

CURRENT
(-^CONTACTS IN
SERIES WITH
WATTMETER
CONTACTS

MAIN FRAME Of
EXCESS
CURRENT
ELEMENT

Fig. 5.

ers being used. In case a cable grounds, the only manner in
which it could be cleared would be for it to bum off, which
usually happens without any serious disturbance to the system.
It should also be noted that failures on these cables are extremely
rare.

Motor Generator Sets (Frequency Changes).

Motor generator sets or frequency changers are used to con-
vert 25 cycle energy to 60 cycle or vise versa. They are used
mostly as emergency machines in the case of a shortage of power
on either system. The two units in these machines are protected

Vol. XII, No. 1] STRYKER: PROTECTIVE RELAYS 27

separately by overload relays. As these machines are used prin-
cipally to change from 25 cycle to 60 cycle, the 60 cycle generator
relays are set for lower current values than the 25 cycle motor
relays. Typical setting values are 200^ load on the generator and
220^ load on the motor, both values being based on two second
operation.

Station Transformers.

Three phase transformers are used to transform 60 cycle
power from the transmission voltage (12000) to the high tension
distribution circuit voltage (4000). These transformers were
originally protected by overload relays on the primary and sec-
ondary arranged to operate the same as those on motor gener-
ator sets. It was later found to be desirable to eliminate these
overload relays and use instead differential relays which would
operate only in case current fed into the transformer in both
primary and secondary. These relays of course do not protect
the transfomiers but only insure continuity of service by clear-
ing defective apparatus from the system.

A serious difficulty was discovered in the application of this
type of relay because of the fact that a failure on a secondary
bus would not be cleared until all lines feeding the station
opened. This was overcome by the addition of time limit over-
load relays on the primary of the transformers with very high
settings. These were intended to operate only when the current
rose to short-circuit value.
Industrial Transformer Banks.

The present tendency in supplying large customers is to furnish
them energy from transformer banks connected directly to the
transmission system. These banks present a somewhat special
problem as they are usually operated without an attendant. It is
therefore desirable to limit the operation of protective devices
to extreme emergencies. These banks always supply no, 220, or
440 volt power direct to the customer's switchboard, which is
equipped with the usual circuit breakers. These circuit breakers
are accessible to the customer's employees and are therefore set
to open in the event of overloads, etc., on the customer's prom.-
ises. The oil circuit breakers on the primary of the transformers
are ordinarily in a locked room and therefore their opening may
mean that service will be interrupted for a considerable length of

28 THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [November, 1920

time. Accordingly, the primary relays are set to operate on 6oo%
full load current, which could only flow in the event of a trans-
former failure or failure of the secondary circuit breakers.

A. C. H'ujb Tension Distribution Circuits.

These circuits are all stub-ended and feed from the station
4000 volt bus. The requircnients in this case are completely
covered by the use of time limit overload relays set to open
instantaneously on 300^ of full load current. The distribution
transformers connected to these circuits are ])rotected by stand-
ard pole-type cutouts.

Special Applications.

There are many special api)lications of protective devices in the
modern central station system. Among these may be mentioned :
no voltage alarm relays to notify the operator in case a bus goes
dead, reverse phase relays to protect motors, no current relays
for the same purpose, and watt relays to open feeders when a
certain amount of power has passed.

The foregoing discussion should indicate that the modern ten-
dency is to protect the service rather than the apparatus. As
reliability is one of the principal advantages of central station
service it is of paramount importance that continuity of service
be maintained, even at the cost of damaging apparatus.

The problems of protection have grown in proportion to the
size of the central station systems and are today of great magni-
tude. \\'hen it is remembered that there are systems in operation
with a connected load of 500.000 kilowatts and that the short-
circuit energ}- of such a system may be many times this value, it
will be realized what measure of protection is needed if apparatus
is not to be destroved and r.enice rendered iiureliable.

SALESMANSHIP.

By Harry Clay Coffeen.

Life Lisurance Specialist, with Chicago Agency of
Northwestern Mutual Life Ins. Co.

Salesmanship is the process by which a sale is consummated.
A sale is made any time a person, who owns or controls a thing
or an idea, brings another to think nearly enough the same about
it, to become its possessor and to pay the price asked as equivalent.

We are given to thinking of only a small group of engineers as
salesmen, when the facts are, that every succesful one among
tliem is a salesman. Not only are they salesmen of machines, but
of ideas, and no original suggestion or new plan is put into opera-
tion, except thiough selling it to those who need it.

Certainly no one ever went to work for another in the most
indifferent capacity, without selling his services to his future
employer. Thus no matter what wonders you are able to produce
in ideas or goods, if you cannot sell them broadly to those to
whom they will prove helpful^ the world will miss what should
rightly be your contribution to its progress.

There are volumes written on this subject of salesmanship,
particularly of late, on the apphcation of the principles of
psychology to its effective practice. The purpose of this article
is to interest you sufficiently to start you reading on the subject.
Having started, the wealth of interest and information will keep
you studying toward the desired results.

The background of salesmanship of goods is confidence, train-
ing, and experience.

There must be confidence in the goods, based on detailed infor-
mation of them, confidence in the organization producing the
goods, and confidence in yourself, as to your ability and prepara-
tion to present to a buyer a comprehensive view of these goods
and what they will do ; all this produces confidence in the buyer
himself, which is fundamental to a satisfied and lasting relation-
ship of client to salesman.

There must be training in the detailed knowledge of goods and
of their manufacture, in the understanding of the field in which
they are to be sold, and in the comprehension of the principles
of applied psychology, which will bring the minds of the buyer
and salesman together. This leads among other things, to eco-
nomical use of time and thought in attaining results.

There must be experience in actual selling. One must know as

30 THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [November, 1920

the result of his own work tliat certain suggestions will lead to
attention, so he may be heard; tliat others will lead to interest-
provoking tjuestions which will lead to understanding, and that
answering objections effectively will create desire. Finally he
must know of his oun motion how desire must be molded into
action.

Salesmanship is founded on scientific principles, hut is an art,
in that it must be "practiced to make perfect."

The goal of salesmanship is service. Temporary success may
lie based on a fad, or on a weakness, but permanent rewards
come from meeting a real need.

The above suggested principles are particularly applicable to
my own business, that of "selling'' policies of life insurance to
indi\idual buyers.

()!ie must have confidence in the institution itself, must believe
in the almost universal need for its service and that it fills that
need, even to being the greatest economic stabilizer the business
world has e\er known. He must believe in the soundness of his
company back of the policy and that the experts in each depart-
ment practice scientifically sound principles, from selection of
risks and collection of the funds, through safe and profitable
investment, to honest distribution to beneficiaries served.

In order to have and hold the desirable degree of confidence
in one's own ability to broadly serve his clientele, he must be a
thorough student of this subject. He must not only understand
in detail the foundation, the meaning and the effect of each clause
in policy contracts of all kinds, but he must appreciate people's
needs based on changing business economics, in which latter he
must keep up to date.

Finally after full preparation and thoroughly selling one's self,
the greatest necessity is actual practice in getting one's ideas into
the minds of others. To an attentive and earnest student of one's
own jjrogress, his continuallv changing methods are a source of
constant and pleasurable interest.

One of the most helpful first books on this general subject is
"The Selhng Process." by Norval A. Hawkins of Detroit. If
you are the least interested you ought to see it in the library and
if you intend to engage in actual selling you ought to own a copy
of the book. Reading some such text will broaden your views
and it may lead you to conclude that selling will prove a profitable
and satisfying occupation for you.

SPECIAL TESTING EQUIPMENT— MECHANICAL
ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT.

By G. F. Gebhardt.

Scientific Research in the Mechanical Engineering Department
of the Armour Institute of Technology has been conducted chiefly
in connection with Senior theses for the degree of Bachelor of
Science in Mechanical Engineering. Notwithstanding the limited
time available for this class of work and the inexperience of the
student investigators, very creditable results have been obtained.
No attempt will be made to enumerate the various problems inves-
tigated in this connection, but a brief description of some of the
more important and novel testing equipment, most of it con-
structed by the students, may be of interest.

Automobile-Tire Shock-Absorption Machine: Two general
types of machines have been developed for comparing the shock-
absorption properties of automobile tires — the "service" and the
"laboratory." The former consists essentially of a modified
seismograph mounted on the automobile chassis for recording the
vibrations under road conditions, and the latter a specially de-
signed "bumping" machine for recording the displacement of the
axle when the tire rides over an artificial obstruction.

The tire to be tested is mounted on a suitable automobile wheel
and axle and when rotated by means of a motor drives a pulley
attached to an absorption dynamomoter. A small block attached
to the periphery of the pulley constitutes the obstruction. The
wheel is loaded by means of dead weights attached to a spring-
mounted beam near the bottom of the machine. The end of the
spring is flexibly connected to a ball bearing housing encir-
cling the driving shaft. The housing is constrained by ball
bearing guides to move in a vertical direction only, and its dis-
placement is recorded on a revolving chart through the agency
of a pantagraph. With this device it is possible to test tires for
shock-absorption under exactly parallel conditions, as regards
dead load, speed, power and height of obstruction.

Horsepower Meter: One of the most ingenious and useful of
the various testing outfits in the gas engine laboratory is the
horsepower meter shown diagrammatically in Fig. i. This ap-
paratus enables the driver of a chassis to determine the traction

THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [November, 1920

effort and the horsepower delivered to the rear wheels at any
instant without the need of calculation. The chassis is backed up
on the test platform so that tlie rear wheels engage with corre-
sponding pulleys of an absorrition dynamometer and the frame of
the vehicle is attached to Mn indicating traction dynamometer.
The dri\er then needs t)nly to drive the machine at various speeds,
and the traction effort and horsepower developed at the rear
wheels are automaticallv indicated bv the mechanism of the meter.

TACHOMETER

riexib/e Shaft io
Dynamometer

Referring to Fig. i, rotation of the rear tires is transmitted
to the two large-diameter wheels of the dynamometer. The brake
load on the dynamometer arm is transmitted through a copper
tube, from an oil filled chamber on a platform scale, to an oil
reservoir as indicated. The oil pressure, through the agency of
a mercury column, actuates a balanced float, the movement of
which is transmitted to an endless roll of paper. The displace-
ment of the paper roll is a direct measure of the torque since
the brake arm is of constant length. The brake is of the Alden

Vol. XII, No. 1] GEBHHARDT: TESTING EQUIPMENT 33

Fig. 2. Belt Testing Machine.

dynamometer type, and the load required to absorb the power is
controlled hydraulically from any convenient point.

The speed of the dynamometer is transmitted through flexible
shafting to a special tachometer so arranged that the index needle
moves axially across the paper drum. The intersection of the
tachometer index with that of the torque index gives the horse-
power directly. Thus a glance at the meter proper gives the

34 THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [November, 1920

load on the scale in pounds, the torque in foot-pounds, the speed
of the dynamometer in revolutions per minute, and the horsepower
developed at the rear wheels. The scale beam offers a check on
the float mechanism, and a small set screw in the body of the oil
chamber permits adjustments to be made for any temperature
variation therein.

Belt Testing Machine: The unusual feature of this device lies
in the method of speed measurement. The horsepower input and
output, total tension and srretch are obtained by the usual lab-
oratory appliances, though attention should be called to the use
of an electric cradle dynamometer for measuring power input,
and the liberal use of ball bearings for eliminating sliding friction.
The speed of the driving and the driven pulley, slips and creeps
of the belt are measured photographically. Two continuous
speed counters, connected by flexible shafting to the driving
pulley and driven pulley respectively, are mounted together with
a split-second watch under a long focus camera. By means of a
number of nitrogen filled lamps sufficient illumination is effected
to photograph the counters and watch in one twenty-fifth of a
second. By comparing the photograph taken at the beginning of
the run with that at the end, the total number of revolutions for
each counter and the elapsed time to one-fifth of a second may be
readily obtained. The counters and watch operate continuously,
so that no contact mechanism, releases, or clutches are necessar\'
when beginning or completing a run. A difference of one revo-
lution in 30,000 per unit of time is obtained with the same degree
of accuracy as one in fifty.

Thermal Conductometer : This is a particularly accurate in-
strument designed for measuring the heat flow through materials
such as are generally used in cold storage construction. Among
such materials may be mentioned cork board, mineral wool, lath,
rock cork, etc. The instrument may be used to measure heat
flow through any material that can be prepared in fiat slabs or
plates. It consists essentially of three flat plates, each approxi-
mately 18 inches square. One is provided with a winding of re-
sistance ribbon distributed uniformly over the surface, through
which a current of electricity may be passed to heat the plate.
The other plates are made iioUow and are kept cool bv circulat-
ing water through them.

Vol. XII, No. 1] GEBHHARDT: TESTING EQUIPMENT

When the instrument is in use, the hot plate is set uj in a verti-
cal position with a cold plate on each side. Two samples of the
material to be tested are prepared and placed one on each side
of the hot plate between Lhe latter and one of the cold plates.
Thus the heat generated in the hot plate passes through the test
material on both sides and into the water-cooled cold plates.

Fig. 3. Thermal Conductometer.

From the resistance of the winding on the hot plate and the
current used the hear input is readily calculated. The tempera-
ture difference between the liot plate and the cold plate is meas-
ured by copper-constant thermocouples connected to a portable
galvanometer. Thus since the rate at which heat is given off per
unit surface on the hot plaie is known, and also the temperature
difference between the hot plate and the cold plate, the heat
passing through the material per degree of temperature dif-
ference is easily determined.

Oil Friction Machine : Iii basic principle this device is similar
to the "Thurston Railroad Oil Tester" but differs considerably
in detail. It is capable of measuring friction loads as high as 700

THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [November, 1920

Fig. 4. Oil Friction Machine.

lbs. per sq. inch of bearing surface. The boxes surrounding
are jacketed so that any uniform temperature ranging from - — 20
deg. F. to 400 deg. F. may be maintained. For the lower tempera-
tures refrigerated brine is circulated through the jackets and
for the higher ranges high pressure steam is used. With this
device it is not necessary to establish therm)al equilibrium between
bearing friction and heat dissipation from the machine, as is the
case with un jacketed oil friction machines. Total pressure, si)eed,
and temperature may be varied independently.

Ball Bearing Friction Machine: This machine (Fig. 5) differs
from that ordinarily designated for this purpose in that both
radial and end load friction may be determined simultaneously
or separately. The variou.- levers exerting pressure on the bear-
ings are so proportioned tliat one set of weights suffices for all

Vol. XII, No. 1] GEBHHARDT: TESTING EQUIPMENT 37

Fig. 5. Ball Bearing Friction Machine.

conditions of loading. The device consists essentially of four
ball bearing cages (two rigid and secured to the frame and two
floating but constrained against rotation) fitted with bearings
and riding on a special heat-treated shaft. The radial load is
applied to the bottom of the two center cages, and since all bear-
ings are equal distances apart, this radial load is uniformly dis-
tributed over each bearing The end loads are applied through
the agency of suitable levers to the bearing cages in such a man-
ner that all end thrusts are obviated except those incident to the
bearings themselves. The shaft is free to move axially, and the
power absorbed in overc-ming friction is measured by means
of a sensitive electric cradle dynamometer. The entire con-
struction is such that only the friction of the bearings is meas-
ured by the dynamometer.

Boiler Control Board : In the boiler room the instrument
board is of interest. It is plainly visible to the fiieman when

THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [November, 1920

operating the boiler and contains only indicating instruments, as
the recording elements are located in the engine room. This
board enables the firemen to note the flow of steam, flow of feed
water, flue temperature, si cam pressure, draft pressure drops
through fuel bed, furnace, and boiler, and the percentage of CO2
in the flue gases at any instant. In this respect it differs in no
way from a number of test boards in general practice. The dis-

Fig. 6. Boiler Control Board.

tinguishing features lie in the addition of a control valve, adjacent
to the draft gages, for opening and closing the boiler damper,
and a fuel counter. By turning the handle of the control valve
the opening of the damper may be regulated to suit conditions,
and the effect is at once visible on the draft gauges. An indicat-
ing needle, in plain view of the firemen but not mounted on the
board, shows the amount the damper is open. Since the coal
burned is a washed nut of uniform size, the height of the coal
gate and the speed of the chain are direct functions of the
weight of coal burned. Thus an ordinary electric counter, actu-

Vol. XII, No. 1] GEBHHARDT: TESTING EQUIPMENT

Fig. 7. Impact Machine.

?.ted by the driving gear of the chain grate and calibrated for the
given size of fuel and gate opening, records the weight of coal
fired. Numerous, tests shovv a maximum error of only 2 per
cent between the counter leadings and the fuel as actually
weighed. A special lachometer has just been constructed which

40 ■ THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [November, 1920

will show the rate of combustion, pounds of coal per hour and
per square foot of grate area per hour at any instant. They will
be mounted on the board and will take the place of the present
counter.

Impact Machine : This is one of the few machines of large size
in the country. The top is a simple steel casting weighing 9000
lbs. and having a maximum drop of 20 feet. It is lifted by an
electromagnet actuated by a 10 horsepower motor. This device
is used primarily for determining influence of impact on heavy
railway appliances, such as draft gears, springs, knuckles and the
like.

A. S. M. E. ORGANIZES MATERIALS HANDLING

SECTION

Four hundred members of the American Society of Mechani-
cal Engineers have orgaiuzed themselves into a "Professional
Section on Material Handlmg," and will provide primarily a
common channel of intercourse between all the technical and in-
dustrial organizations co-operating in the solution of engineering
problems connected with the handling and distribution of mate-
rials and products.

This section will aim to be a bureau of information — com-
plete in its scope, specific in its knowledge of the physical and
economic conditions, and unbiased in its conclusions.

A NEW FACTORY.

By P. G. Odgers.

The outlook for the future of American industry is indeed
promising due to the fact that the pohcy adopted by a large
number of industrial leaders has in recent years been shaped so
as to include a "square deal" for the employees, and the best that
architecture can provide in the way. of buildings and grounds,
designed and constructed to suit each particular business, and to
reduce to a minimum the cost of production and liandling of
goods.

Among these is the plant -A Bunte Brothers, now under course
of construction on one of the principal thoroughfares of the
west side of Chicago. Th'.' site is an ideal one for a business
such as will be housed here. It covers an entire block, while the
principal street, the one on which the buildmg faces, is a magni-
ficent boulevard of exceptional width. The parkways flanking
the boulevard contain beautiful trees, an asset which in some
localities takes many years to acquire.

The plant consists of the main building, occupying an area of
75000 square feet, with provision for ample extension in the future.
Directly to the rear is a power house containing the last word in
equipment. The power house is adjacent to the main division of
a large railroad, and switch tracks from the main building and
the power house connect wich this railroad.

The building, plans of wlrch were prepared by Messrs. Rich-
ard E. Schmidt. Garden, and Martin, architects, and Mr. T. W.
McNeill, mechanical engin'jcr, is so designed that all the re-
quirements for this particular business have in every way been
satisfied, and the future development of the plant can proceed at
any time without interference or disarrangement to the present
project.

The main building in plan is T shaped, the stem of the T
being at right angles to the principal street, and includes four
stories and basement, with a square tower over the front portion
of the central wing, extend'iig five stories above the roof of the
main building.

The main building is fireproof throughout and of skeleton
construction, the structural parts being of reinforced concrete.
In the construction of the floors the S. M. I. system of flat slabs

THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [November, 1920

was used, and with a spac.ig of interior columns of 20 ft. 6 in.
center to center, it gives to the working space a maximum clear
story height as well as the greatest possible unobstructed area.
The exterior design bears a dignified appearance of pleasing
proportion and lines. The keynote of the facades art the pro-
jecting brick piers which epciose the structural columns.

This scheme carries a utilitarian purpose in that i* leaves the
interior wall surfaces flush, with r>o columns projecting into space
which can be used to advantage. In this particular instance it
allow's of the use of a numoer of horizontal conveyor- extending
cJong the exterior walls, with no space lost betweer conveyors
and wall surfaces.

The exteriors include the use of pressed brick of rich texture
and trim, and belt course: of limestone. These two materials
are so arranged that no concrete is exposed on the exterior with
the exception of a small base around the shipping platforms at
the rear of the building. In general the window openings extenc^
the full distance between tlse brick piers and in height nearly to
the ceiling line. The opeiungs are provided with pivoted steel
sash, giving a maximum a'nount of light and ventilation to the
interior.

The main entrance, whicli faces the boulevard, together with
the projecting bays at each side of the tower, is worthy of special

Vol. XII, No. 1]

ODGERS: NEW FACTORY

comment. The entrance is flanked by two large brick pylons ex-
lending nearly the fu/i height of the building and surmounted by
large stone carved eagles of exceptional character. 1 hese are in
turn recalled on each tide by pylons of smaller dimensions topped
by carved stone panels, which support carved eagles similar in
character to one on the pain pylon.

A very brief description ol the disposition of the various floors
will explain the method of manufacture and arrangf.ment of the
several departments.

The basement contains locker rooms and rest rooms for per-
sons employed in the general oft'ices located on the first floor.
These units are located in u'c front portion of the pnncipal wing
of the building. Directly to the rear of these units are located the
lunch rooms, there being .-eparate lunch rooms for male and
female employees. Adjacent to this department are the kitchens,
equipped for serving a su'-stantial luncheon to the .employees.
The balance of the central wing contains the employment depart-
ment, together with the medical and first aid units. They sur-
round a spacious lobby which provides ample access and egress
to and from the various departments on the floor above. The
remaining portion of the l^asement contains storage space and is
accessible from the adjac^it switch track: thus good- can easily
be received from cars and trucks.

44 THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [November, 1920

The first floor as stated above, contains the general offices.
This space surr.)un(ls a large central lobby, a portion of which
will prcnide a s[)ace for the display of merhcandise. Directly to
the rear of the general offices is located the main stock room,
which ser\-es both the city and countr\- shi])ping rooms. The
department for city jol)bers is also located on this floor at the
rear of the building. Idiis department is complete in itself, hav-
ing its own bookkeepers, display space, shii)ping room, etc.

The upper floors are given over entirely to manufacturing.
The process is what is ternicd the gravity methcd. The goods
started at the top floor are sent from one department to another
always in a downward direction until completed, when they are
ready for the stock room 're immediate delivery. The various
departments are so related as to reduce to a minimum the travel
and handling of the goods which in merchandise of this char-
.'icter is of utmost importance.

The tower contains \arious storeroms and space not yet as-
signed for a particular purpose. The top floor of the tower con-
tains elevator pent houses, cic. with a large house t'luk and two
large sprinkler tanks of S'*-'''00 gallons capacity each.

The power and heat fo"' ib.e plant are provide:^, in the power
house, the present generators having a capacity o*^ 2000 H.P.
with provision for two future units. Adjacent to the power
house and connected thereto is a deep well supplying pure water
to the whole plant. Fuel and ashes are handled mechanically and
there is a complete ;-ysteni of underground tunnels for pipes,
wires, etc., that extend from the power house to the main build-
ing, and also to a garage already completed and located across
one of the side streets from the main building.

In conclusion, it is safe to say that one will tra\el long and far
before one observes a ]ilant where the reciuirements of the particu-
lar business ha\c been so successfully dealt with. \\'hen fully
completed it will be a permanent monument to the wi>dom of the
owners and a place of conientment to the employees wdio are
housed in it.

THE TREND OF MODERN INTERCOLLEGIATE
ATHLETICS.

By Joseph Schommer.

When asked to write an article pertaining to athletics at Armour
not long ago, the instructions were to write in the usual strain,
which involved spirit, loyally, and the desire to win, in order that
it might awaken students to go out for the "Tech Teams."

The following article deviates from the beaten paths generally
adopted. Statistics are tabulated and it is hoped all who chance
to read this article may ch.'unpion the cause of physical develop-
ment. The facts are self evident and are beyond dispute.

PHYSICAL DEFECTS AS SHOWN BY DRAFT FIGURES
I. Material for Reference.

Reference material for slulents who wish to study tlie question
of physical defects in men J-afted for service in the world's war
may be obtained from the following:

1. First report of the Provost Marshal General.

2. Second report of the Provost Marshal General.

3. Report of the Surgecn General of the U. S. Army to the
Secretary of War, 1919.

4. Bulletin number 11, March 1919, War Department, Office
of the Surgeon General.

5. The war with Germany — by Col. Leonard P. Ayres, chief
of the Statistics Branch of the General Staff.

6. Defects Found in Drafted Men, Printed for the use of the
Senate Committee on Military Affairs. Most of these books
may be obtained free by writing for them.

The following items are taken from the foregoing books. The
vv'riter has attempted to sek ct the basic facts from these publica-
tions and to list them for tiie Use of Physical Educators.

TL Preliminary Statistics.

1. At the outbreak of :1 e war the total male population of
the country was about 54,000,000.

2. Before the war ended 26,000,000 males were either regis-
tered under the selective service act or were serving in the army
or navy without being registered.

3. There were about 200.000 commissioned officers in service.
Of these 5,791 were regulars.

46 THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [November, 1920

4. Four iniHion, eight hundred thousand men skived in the
armed forces of the nation during the war. Four million were
in the Army.

5. The average soldier \*ho went to France nceived six
months training in this country.

6. The death rate from disease in the Mexican War was no
per year for each i.ooo men ; in the Civil War. 65 ; in the Spanish
War, 26; in the A. F. F.. [9 per thousand.

7. Of each 100 cases c>f venereal disease recorded in the
United States, 96 were contracted before entering the army and
only 4 afterward.

in. General Statistics.

1. In round numbers, 29.59% of the men cxan,ined by the
draft boards were partly or k)tally disqualified.

2. The Army surgeons rrjected 5.32% for all niiliiary service
ac the mobilization camps.

3. It is safe to say that ,s3% of the men examined had defects
serious enough to interfere with the [)erformance of their full
military duties.

4. In some states over 50% of the men of milltaiy age were
defective.

5. About two-thirds of liie recruits sent to camp were found
to be without noteworthy ;'hysical defects.

6. Flat foot is the great e.t defect noted ; it was found in nearly
one-fifth of the men examined.

7. Defective ]>hysical development was found in the Xew Eng-
land States in exceptionally high proportion.

8. Simple goiter was strikingly common in the territory adja-
cent to the Great Lakes.

9. Men from the cities showed about ^,0% more defective
vision than men from rural districts.

10. Hernia was found somewhat more commonly in recruits
from cities than from rural districts.

11. Flat foot is marked!^' more common in recruits from the
cities than in recruits from the rural districts.

12. There was a pre[>o.Tderance of city-reared young men
who were rejected for under-weight.

13. The office in charge of the sanitary division of the sur-
geon-general's oft'ice estimates that the average gain in weight
*n ti->e first year of militarv life was from 15 to 20 pounds.

Vol. XII, No. 1] ATHLETICS 47

14. Out of 2,753,922 exuinined, there were found 468 defect-
ive men per thousand examined. This means that nearly half of
the men examined showed a defect worthy of notation.

15. Fully half of the defects found are not of such a nature
as to interfere seriously with the man performing services of a
high order in civil life.

16. The occupations play a role in the distribution of defects.
Bad postures at school, especially in the badly nourished and
rickety children, account lor much of the curvature of the spine,
and walking on pavements in tight shoes accounts for many of
the bad feet of city folk. Much school and clerical work tend to
induce myopia in those so aisposed. Straining the body by heavy
work induces hernia. Agrictilturing is associated with good eyes
and straight backs. The commutor group represents the physi-
cally fittest of the population of the eastern section of the
country.

17. 100,000 countty bo\'^ would furnish for the military ser-
vice 4,790 more soldiers than would an equal number of city boys.

18. 100,000 whites wouM furnish 1,240 more soldiers than
would an equal number of colored.

19. 100,000 native-bom would furnish 3,500 more soldiers
than would a like number or foreign-born.

TV. Chart of Defectives.

I. Explanation. In the first column the total diseases per
thousand is listed. That is, if one man had three defects serious
enough in character to be noted, each defect is noted. In the
second column, the number of defective men per thousand is
listed. If a man had two or more defects, they are counted as
one. The third column lists the total rejection per thousand by
states, while the fourth column lists the number of defective men
who were accepted for service. The fifth column li^ts the number
of men per thousand who were defective because of physical
development. That is, they were under size, ove*" size, small
chested, etc. The last two columns list the number per thousand
who were venereal or had eye defects respectively.

THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [November, 1920

CHART OF DEFECTIVE.S.

Total

Diseases Total Total

of defects defective reject-

I'or U.S. men by ious by

States by states states states

Rhode Island ...802.03 640.48 424.42

\erniont 763.76 6^3.19 353.93

Airginia 734.08 604.21 245.57

Oregon 721.95 579.:9 219.79

Maine 705.63 568.61 346.00

California 689.55 583.89 265.01

Colorado 679.40 544.97 213.50

Florida 675.87 54160 199.84

Washington ....665'. 99 549.4i 262.78

Massachusetts . .648.03 535.80 267.26

Wyoming 635.36 514.32 128.05

West Virginia ..620.04 507.38 177.60

Maryland 619.45' 526.20 244.25

New Hampshire. 617.49 505.28 203.05

Utah 613.99 505.82 219.27

Pennsylvania ...603.48 500.00 209.31

Connecticut . . . .600.84 507.89 226.61

New York 594.23 502.70 240.40

Missouri 589.35 489.00 206.90

Wisconsin 582.12 465.03 200.38

Idaho 5v0.55 479.26 179.63

Nevada 566.22 476.00 186.03

Michigan 560.57 467.20 233.12

Illinois 552.81 471.25 202.48

Delaware 550.15 475.18 198.00

No. Carolina ...545'.91 453.8:^ 213.40

Tennessee 542.90 442.-I0 245.60

New Mexico ....542.47 45.J.22 206.61

Georgia 540.40 455.78 225.14

Montana 532.44 465.70 162.67

New Jersey ....525.26 4.'2.30 208.93

Louisiana 522.96 438.90 239.05

No. Dakota 520.57 438.G0 167.01

Mississippi 517.90 425.21 199.78

So. Carolina ....511.99 422.60 222.49

Oklahoma 508.68 432.70 184.93

Iowa 506.92 425.78 204.08

Minnesota 502.54 420.50 189.69

Indiana 501.20 41699 183.47

Alabama 500.12 427.70 179.60

Ohio 497.45 421.10 187.88

Arizona 467.51 410.01 153.29

Texas 466.66 402.40 175.90

Arkansas 460.75 384.20 163.90

Kentucky 454.63 382.10 207.26

Nebraska 446.72 386.99 134.64

So. Dakota 442.75 373.:Y) 187.59

Kan.sas 422..39 354.35' 147.29

Total Defective

Def . men J

I'hysieal

Total

for class ]

Develop-

Ven-

Eye

A, B or C

ment

ereal

Defects

342.52

112.51

27.56

72.70

365.77

63.33

13.03

66.19

445.22

33.05

72.21

36.60

428.50

27.18

22.28

39.81

305.54

73.10

23.74

66.08

394.45

45'.91

27.58

42.78

405.84

34.81

24.60

34.90

390.34

44.11

163.32

33.25

361.42

29.31

28.93

39.22

334.73

64.58

23.58

69.75

414.30

19.44

23.37

30.14

381.90

^7.15

52.67

36.81

367.08

43.43

66.73

53.36

347.13

59.16

18.49

50.39

339.15

32.46

iq.38

34.74

358.50

Z2.77

36.48

42.61

331.03

39.32

26.55

70.86

325.68

36.20

29.77

62.74

336.49

34.75

65.24

38.85

312.83

28.85

20.28

41.47

339.30

21.86

22.45

33.14

328.09

32.51

32.96

Z7.2,7

280.79

22.52

44.54

40.36

325.64

28.65

12.69

43.18

Z2(>.n

57.76

77.21

29.87

272,27

33.41

60.56

31.58

251.94

52.51

65.16

39.85

303.00

34.80

67.43

39.49

276.55

48.79

13r'.64

33.43

324.78

15.86

34.49

33.73

295.19

35.10

34.99

43.11

244.51 -

37.2^

123.40

35.57

315.93

12.88

;8.64

34.77

25'8.76

24.74

1.32.46

32.25

232.85

42.79

^_ 3 1.32

23.84

291.80

23.31

85.15

33.11

266.16

30.11

29.87

33.68

277.91

22.48

24.20

33.29

275.85

29.27

47.07

35.77

281.45

29.57

114.67

25.82

277.87

25.46

41.34

33.52

290.17

15.19

48.20

20.25

266.79

28.74

112.08

31.39

244.11

26.16

105.28

32.47

208.04

42.62

39.53

36.36

283.80

15.67

30.97

28.59

221.21

16.89

15.60

34.95

232.04

160.69

30.07

28.79

Vol. XII, No. 1] ATHLETICS 49

After thoughtful study oi ihe above statistics tLeie is but one
conclusion to arrive at in studying the system for physical devel-
opment as tolerated at most colleges.

The benefits are for a few.

The student body but for a small number is neglected.

No system for training men physically is any good but that one
which forces every student in some sort of athletic participation.
This is being recognized :'n some institutions and systems of
intermural sports and mass athletics are being aiopied. These
systems provide for the participation of every studfnt in some
branch of athletic games.

However, where educational institutions attempted mass ath-
letics and intermural sports without the system of competition
with other colleges in such branches as baseball, track, basketball,
football, etc., the plan was a failure. A stimulus seemed to be
lacking. The desire to win a college letter is alwavs strong and
where intermural sports aru competitive athletics were partici-
pated in together, the entire student body was always interested.

Some of the big eastern and western universities have
adopted mass competition and international sports with competi-
tive athletics, with such success, that in the next ten years sweep-
ing changes will be seen everywhere in college athletics. Instead of
a few. every student will enjoy the advantages of competitive
games and with skilled men be cured of stoop shoulders, flat feet,
'^urvature of the spine, etc.. m a corrective gymnasium course.

The Armour Engineer

The Quartei'ly Technical Publication of the

Armour Institute of Technology

VOLUME XII. NOVEMBER, 1920 NO. 1

PUBLISHING STAFF FOR THE YEAR 1920-1921
John P. Sanger, Editor Spencer N. Havlick, Mng. Editor

Fletcher E. Hayden, Bus. Mgr. Eniil F. Winter, Assoc. Bus. Mgr.

Board of Associate Editors.

H. M. Raymond, Dean of the Engineering Studies.

L. C. Monin, Dean of the Cultural Studies.

G. F. Gebhardt, Professor of Mechanical Engineering.

E. H. Freeman, Professor of Electrical Engineering.

A. E. Phillips, Professor of Civil Engineering.

H. McCormack, Professor of Chemical Engineering.

E. S. Campbell, Professor of Architectural Design.

Published four times a year, in November, January, March and
May. Publication Office : Federal and 33rd Streets, Chicago.

TERMS OF SUBSCRIPTION.
The Armour Engineer, four issues, postage prepaid, $1.50 per annum.

The Technical Press is invited to reproduce articles,
or portions of same, provided proper credit is given.

ENGINEERING PERSONALITY.

"It was not his remarkable power of diagnosis,' said the
speaker, referring to a famous physician, "nor was it his intimate
knowledge of the technicalities of his profession that made his
reputation. It was the fact that somehow, whenever he entered
a sick room, his very presence seemed to restore peace and calm.
The personality of the mai: entered every comer, and disorder
fled at his approach."

A physician and an engineer are similar in these respects:
both are professional men ; both must have detailed knowledge
of their field; and both must be able to convince their clients of
their ability.

Vol. XII, No. 1] EDITORIALS 51

Does the engineer, in his dealings with his associates, possess
that same personal power as the physician above? When he
enters a directors' meeting to present a practical theory,, does he
spread a confidence in his ability by his personal bearing? Do
men say as he enters the room, "There is a man who surely
knows" ?

Such a power is sometimes known as personal magnetism, and
it cannot be gained by either reading or study. It is an art, rather
ihan a science, and can be perfected only by constant practice
and by that daily growth v-.hich comes as a result of analyzing
past mistakes to improve present actions. It combines an inti-
mate knowledge of human nature with an appreciation of the
"eternal fitness of things." and is one of the most valuable things
that any man, engineer or otherwise, can possess

Like an art, however, personality can be aided and developed
by an intelHgent study of the factors involved. Some of these
are breadth of view, distinf.iion, learning, influence, and dignity.
The engineer who wishes ''o develop this side of h!s education,
can do well to familiarize himself with books on logic, psychol-
ogy, self-analysis, salesmanship, and public speaking. He should
take advantage of every opportunity of mixing with his fellow
men. especially with those (Ader than himself. They have often
experienced both failure and achievement in life, and are in a
position to give much valuable advice.

"The entire object of true education is to make people not
merely do the right things, — but enjoy the right things — not mere-
ly mdustrious, but to love industry — not merely learned, but to
love knowledge — not merely pure, but to love purity — not merely
justice, but to hunger and thirst after justice." — Ruskin.

52 THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [November, 1920

THE THINKER.
By Oerton Braley.

Back of the beating hammer

By which the steel is wrought,
Back of the \a orkshop's clamor,

The seeker may find the Thought,
The Thought tJiat is ever master

Of iron and '^team and steel,
That rises ai3ove disaster

And crushes it under heel.

The drudge may fret and tinker

Or labor with lusty blows,
But back of liim stands the Thinker,

The clear-eyed man who knows ;
For into each plow or sabre,

Each piece and part and wh.ole.
Must go the brains of labor

Which- give llie work a soul.

Back of the juotors humming,

Back of the belts that sing.
Back of the liammers drumming,

Back of the cranes that swing.
There is the e}e that scans them

^^'atching tiirough stress and strain,
There is the Mind that plans them,

Back of the brawn — the Brain.

Might of the roaring boiler,

Force of the engine's thrust,
Strength of the sweating toiler,

Greatly in these we trust,
But back of incm stands the Schemer,

The Thinker who drives things thrGugJi,
Back of the Job — the Dreamer.

\\^ho's making the Dream come true !

Vol. XII, No. IJ EDITORIALS 53

SPARKS FROM DR. GUNSAULUS' LECTURES.

"We know that wisdom is not easily found. It is hidden
beneath the literature of the ages, and we must mine for it."

"An alloy lasts longer thai: the pure metal. The poetry or fire
is the alloying material in p^ose which has made it list thru the
ages."

"These are people who are the ver\' incarnation of piety. They
stand ever so vertically, but they cannot bend. They break like
pipe-stems."

"I'm along in life. I've got nothing but the dump. I've been
mining forty years for truth, but an entirely new process can
relieve as much gold again fiom my ore. The wisdom of the
hour is ready for the new process. Use it."

"I don't mean common sense, which is the most uncommon
thing in the world.''

"The larger the circle of hglit in which you stand in the center,
the larger the outlying circle of darkness."

"Don't believe it because it's in the book, but respect the book
because it's there. It is in the book because it's true."

"Civilization is togetherness. It is the associati<'r; that you
can rely on as one."

THE ARMOUR INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY BRANCH

OF THE
AMERICAN SOCIETY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS.

Charles T. Walter President

John P. Sanger J ^ice-President

Robert W'. Van Valzah Treasurer

William A. Heitner Secretary

The first meeting of the Mechanical Engineering Society of
the Armour Institute of Technology was held in Machinery Hall
on October 8, 1920.

After the election of the officers for the year, steps were taken
to help the Junior Branch of the A. S. M. E. organize.

It was decided that the organization give the customary
"Annual Smoker" as soon as possible, for the purpose of bringing
together all of the mechanical students of the College and helping
them to become acquainted with those of the Faculty, who always
lend a helping hand to the r'-echanical students.

The second meeting was held on October 21, 1920. This was
the first "big" meeting and was a very great success.

Prof. Gebhardt gave an .-ic'dress in which he outlined the object
of the society, which is to enable men to talk before an audience,
using gocxl English, and to overcome self-consciousness. He
further stated that an orgar.ization, called the Federated Ameri-
can Engineering Society, 's being formed with the purpose of
establislhng a code of ethics for the engineer which will prevent
an engineer from doing any work, whicli is not in exery respect
in accordance with the best practice.

Vol. XII, No. 1] ENGINEERING SOCIETIES

Prof. Gebhardt also brought to our attention the importance
of the engineers entering into public life in order to help bring
to him the recognition which is due him, but which., to the present
date, the engineer has been too modest to demand.

President Walter then called on Mr. Wm. A. Henner to give
a talk. Mr. Heitner's subject was "The Starting Up of the Ball
and Wood Engine of the Main Power Plant of the Institute and
Changing Over on the Switch Board." The object of this talk
was to outline and explain the different operations, so that the
mechanical students could become more familiar with starting up
a unit. He attempted to pave the way so that, when the different
members actually perform these operations as a mechanical lab-
oratory experiment, they would more readily understand the
leasons for the various steps taken.

The following schedule of meetings was adopted :

Oct. 21, 1920 — Th'.rsday 10:30 — 11.

1920 — \\\>Qnesday 10:30 — ii

Nov. 3,

1920 — '^

Nov. 17,

1920 — •

Dec. I,

1920—

*Dec. 15,

1920 —

Jan. 12,

1921 —

Jan. 26,

1921 —

Feb. 9,

1921 —

Feb. 23,

1921 —

Mar. 9,

1921 —

Mar. 23,

1921 —

Apr. 6,

1921 —

Apr. 20,

1921—

*May 4,

1921 —

May 18,

1921 —

10:30 — II
II :30 — 12
10:30 — II
10:30 — II
II :30 — 12
10:30 — II
II :3a — 12
10:30 — II
II :30 — 12
10:30 — II
II :30 — T2
10:30 — II
II :30 — J2

30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30

(*) Meeting of all mechanical students of the Institute.

WM. A. HEITNER,

Secretary.

56 THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [November, 1920

ARMOUR BRANCH OF THE
WESTERN SOCIETY OF ENGINEERS

President R. M. Singer

Vice-President G. C. Kumbera

Secretary Vacant

Treasurer G. W. Peterson

The first meeting of the Annour Branch of the Western Society
of Engineers, this year, was held in Room D in the Mission
Building, Oct. 5, 1920, P. M. The regular business was dispensed
with and was followed b}' a few pointed remarks by Profs.
Phillips and Penn.

The next meeting took jiace in Room B, Missi. n Building,
Oct. 22, 1920, P. M. At th'.. meeting the resignation of our Sec-
retary, W. K. Lyon, was read and accepted. We were very sorry
to lose so good a man. It \vi!l be difficult to find a man to fill this
important office.

After the meeting the members were entertained by an illus-
trated lecture on "The Aesthetics of Bridge Design," given by
Prof. M. B. Wells of the Ci\il Department. The subject matter
was very interesting and skillfully handled.

Up to the present time we have made a number of interesting
and instructive inspection trips. The follc^wing places were vis-
ited:

Michigan Ave. Bridge,
Franklin-Orleans St. Bridge,
Wells St. Bridge,

Three W^ater and Sewage Pumping Stations
Sag Canal at Blue I.^iand,
A fifteen P'oot Intercepting Sewer,
City Bridges, Breakn'ater and Cribs,
Lockport and Joliet Power Plant,

Controlling Works of the Sanitary District at Lockport.
The outlook of the Armour Branch of the Western Society
oi Engineers for the coming year is very bright.

Vol. XII, No. 1] ENGINEERING SOCIETIES 57

A. I. E E.

The first meeting for 1920-1921 of the Armour Branch of the
American Institute of Electrical Engineers was held on Tuesday,
Oct. 26, 1920. Forty seniors, juniors and sophomores were pres-
ent and elected \X. W. Pearce as temporary chairman.

Professor Freeman started the meeting with a ten minute
speech on the value of the A. I. E.E. to students of electrical
engineering. Prof. Snow followed with an informal talk in
which he strongly recommended that the local branch meetings
be made opportunities for men to train themselves in speaking
on both prepared and imprr^mptu talks, besides being places for
the transfer of technical knowledge or, shall we say, information.
Mr. Malwitz supported Prof. Snow's recommendations, and in
addition, outlined the practical value of membership in the na-
tional organization, with particular reference to the articles
appearing in the proceedings, as published by the. national organ-
ization.

After the election of officers for the coming year, the subject
of programs for the future meetings was further discussed. Tt
was decided that talks by the student members thembclves could
be of more value than a few longer addresses by graduate
members.

The chairman was given r.uthority to appoint a number of men
to speak at each meeting on assigned or chosen topics as the
requirements were felt; eaci man to speak ten or fifteen minutes,
and each paper to be follcwed by an open discussion.

The officers elected for tne year are :

Chairman — R. C. Malwitz.

Secretary — T. L. Albee

Treasurer— W. W. Pearce.

After an unsuccessful attempt to set a time for the next meet-
ing that would be agreeable to all, the matter was left to the dis-
cretion of the chairman, an 1 the meeting adjourned

58 THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [November, 1920

ARMOUR CHEMICAL ENGINEERING SOCIETY

The first meeting of the \rniour Chemical Engineering Society
was held October 6, 1920, and the following officers were in-
stalled :

President Winter

J^'ice-Prcsidcnf McCafifery

Secretary Savoye

Treasurer Albeck

Among the activities of the following year, the society has
planned a series of lectures along chemical lines. These lectures
will be given when possible at four o'clock on Tuesdays.

The full list of lectures tc be given, and the dates thereof, will
be published in another issue.

THE ARMOUR ARCHITECTURAL SOCIETY

The class of 192 1 has liad a rather unfortunate college career
because its four years extended thru the war and reconstruction
period. Xow, in its fourth year, it seems that conditions are
such that its members may again indulge in activities that gladden
the heart without being out of harmony with the times.

The society which probably felt most keenly the restrictions of
the relentless "Mars," was the Armour Architectural Society.
This year they expect to go back to pre-war activities and pre-war
pep. The freshman class is unusually large, which means that
the sophomores will have ample opportunity to pass on at the
initiation with interest, those things which are fitting and proper
at such an aiTair. At the close of the ordeal the new members
of the society as well as the old. will make merry over a repast
furnished by the refectory, while discussing the plans and
aspirations of the club. Promment speakers will unfold to the
asjiiring architects the secrets of their profession, and last, but
not least, the evening will be shortened bv the Architects' own
Jazz Band. The members will then disband and go home to
dream of becoming second Louis SuUivans or Bertram Goodhues.
THECDORUS M. HOFMEESTER,

Massier.

Vol. XII, No. 1] ENGINEERING SOCIETIES 59

ARMOUR RADIO ASSOCIATION

The first meeting of the Armour Radio Association was held
on Sept. 29, 1920, for the purpose of electing officers for the
coming year. A total of sixteen radio enthusiasts responded to
this first "Q. S. T." The officers of the association, elected at
this first meeting, are :

President E. A. Goodnow

Vice-President V. L. Cooley

Chief Operator H. L. Hultgren

Secretary R. S. Kenrick

The purpose of the association was clearly set forth in a short
talk given by Professor Wilcox, for the benefit of the new mem-
bers. The primary purpose of the Association is the stimulation
of interest in all radio matters among not only station operators,
but also among others who nay be interested. Professor Wilcox
also called attention to the mutual benefits to be derived by the
members of the association through free discussion of any per-
plexing problem confronting any member.

The special experimental federal radio station license (call
letters 9YL) just recently received from the local radio inspector,
was exhibited at this first meeting. This lengthy dc'cument per-
mits, under certain specified conditions, the operation of a trans-
mitting station by a duly licensed operator over a lim.ited range
of wave-lengths.

The second meeting of the association held on October 13,
1920, was devoted largely to radio code practice. Chief Operator
Hultgren officiated at the key, in characteristic commercial fash-
ion, for the benefit of the members who wished to take advantage
of the valuable opportunity/ offered.

The third and last meeting of the Armour Radio Association
was held October 2"/, 1920, in the Physics lecture rorm. Mr. A.
R. Mehrhof gave an illustrated talk on the Institute station,
designed and built last year under the guidance of Mr, H. D.
Stevers, our past president. The station is located on the second
floor of the Physics Laboratory (Chapin Hall) and is equipped
with two antennaes. One is a long wave receiving aerial, consist-
ing of a single wire about one hundred feet long, running diagonal-
ly northeast from the station, and the second is a short two hund-

60 THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [November, 1920

red meter transniitting aerial, designed for use with the spark
transmitter. 1'he directive cliaracteristics of the long wave receiv-
ing aerial make it \ery efficient for !<»ng \va\e European reception.
Equally satisfactory results are obtained, however, in a westerly
direction, the Philippine Is.dnds being heard from on one occa-
sion, as Mr. Mehrhof testified. Circuit diagrams of both the
transmitting and receiving set were projected upon t:\e screen for
the benefit of everyone inle^ested in the operation of the school
station. In addition tc the excellent results obtained in undamped
wave reception the speaker pointed out several instances of ex-
ceptional results obtained m six hundred meter spark reception.

A very interesting talk on the amplification constant of vacuum
tubes was given by ^Ir. G. IT. Kelley. He illustrated his subject
with a laboratory demonstration of the determination of this
constant for two types of vacuum tubes used in radio work. He
discussed both the dyn.ami': and static method of determining this
constant, and clearly shovsed how any radio amateur can deter-
mine this important vacuum tube constant with appara'ius already
at his disposal.

A tentative program for procedure for coming meetings has
been adopted, with the end in view of accomplishing as much as
possible in the limited time a\ ailable. A large number of members
of the Armour Radio Association are taking the elective course
in "Radio Communication.' nfifered by Professor Wilcox. When-
ever any interesting development or experiment of gcieral inter-
est is encountered in the radio laboratory work of the course,
it is reproduced at an association, meeting for the benefit of those
bers not taking the course. A chance for free dij^cussion is
offered so thaf any part of ihe experiment \\hich is not as clear as
it might be, can be explained by other members familia*" with
the theory of the experinienl.

RALPH KENRICK,
Secretary

Illlllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllltlilllji

I COLLEGE NOTES |

riiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiitiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii
PHI LAMBDA UPSILOX.

By authority of the Executive Council, there was installed, in
May, 1920, at the Armour Institute of Technology, a chapter of
the national honorary fraternity of Phi Lambda Upsilon,

Phi Lambda Upsilon was founded at the Universit}- of IlHnois
as a local honor societ}*, w'thin the chemical department. While
the honorar}' idea was paru mount from the first, the original
chapter combined with this certain social phases, ani included in
its organization some of the attributes of the Greek Letter Socie-
ties whose aims are primarily social; such as grips, pass words,
secret mottos. After a nuiriber of years of flourishing existence
al; Illinois, during which it had achieved a well established posi-
tion, expansion into a societ}'' of national scope v/as initiated with
the establishment of the Bera Chapter at the University of Wis-
consin (1906). At Wisconsin the chapter was at first mainly
graduate. This first step trward national development was fol-
lowed by rather rapid extvihsion, chapters being installed suc-
cessively at Columbia, Michigan, University of Washington, Min-
nesota, Ohio State, Iowa State, Stanford, Universit\ of Denver,
California, Pennsylvania State, Purdue, University^ of Pittsburgh,
and Armour.

Accompanying numerical growth were changes in details of
organization. Great latitude in organization and government is
permitted individual chapters by the national body, the old time
"myster}^ stuff" has been almost abandoned, and the society as a
whole stands in the field of chemistry as does the Sigma Xi in
the broad field of Science, for the encouragement of high stand-
ards of scholarship and for the recognition of those students of
chemistry who attain high academic standing through their com-
bined ability and effort.

There are now four classes of membership in Phi Lambda
Upsilon, namely : Active, alumni, associate and honorar}^

Honorar}^ members, to quote the constitution of the society',
"shall be men of national reputation." Quoting further from the
same source, "associate members shall be men o^ recognized
ability in their respective blanches of chemistry, and connected

62 THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [November, 1920

with an institution of lea'"n ng in a capacity other than that of
student, either graduate or undergraduate." Active membership
consists of graduate and undergraduate students duly elected
and may include associate members. The constitution of the
society provides that membership be confined to men.

It is hoped and believed that the newly organized chapter will
maintain the excellent traditions of the society as a whole and
that it may be a factor for good in our chemical department.

The seniors are greatly enjoying a ctjurse on the "Masfcr-
pieccs of Englisli Literature" given this semester two hours per
week by President Gunsauius. It is a lecture course, comprising
readings, comments, and informal discussions of a number of
selections in prose and poetry. The topics considered thus far
have been The Book of Job. Homer's lijiics, Shakespeare's Ham-
let, Richard the III, and Tie Tempest.

At a recent assembly, tlie student body and faculty of the
Institute had the pleasure of a short talk from j\Ir. Philip D.
Armour, our new trustee. Mr. Armour expressed his gratifi-
cation at recei\ing the ne\r pr-sition, and stated that in the future
he would lend h-^ every aid towards the furthering of the new
Institute. As students we nish ]\Ir. Armour all success, and hope
that he will visit us often.

The Armour Glee Club at its first meetmg of the year, chose
Dr. Daniel C. Protheroe, Director of Central Churcli Choir and
composer of many notable selections, as its leader for the year.
Dr. Protheroe has held s^\eial rehearsals, and states that accord-
ing to all indications, the Institute should hav. a better Glee Club
than ever before.

Dean Raymond recentl\- attended the ceremonies at the Uni-
versity of Michigan in connection with the installation of the new
president, Dr Marion L. Ikirton.

Vol. XII, No. 1] COLLEGE NOTES 63

ADDITIOXS TO THE FACULTY.

Arthur Hozce Carpenter, M. A., Assistant Professor of Metal-
lurgy, obtained his degree at the Uni\ersity of Ohio at Athens,
in 1914. He also spent 1\' o years at Northwestern University.
Prof. Carpenter's experience in the metallurgical field should
make him a valuable man at the Institute. He has been engaged
as metallurgist by many of the leading smelting companies in the
country and left a position as Research Metallurgist for the
American Canadian Smelling Co. to come to the Institute. Prof.
Carpenter is a member of the American Institute of Alining and
Metallurgical Engineers.

Clinton Everett Stryker, B.S. in E.E., Assistant Professor of
Electrical Engineering, graduated from Armour Institute in 1917.
Prof. Stryker is a member of the American Institute of Elec-
trical Engineers, and of Eta Kappa Xu. honorary electrical fra-
ternit}'.

Roe L. Stevens, B.S. in C. E., Assistant Professor of Civil En-
gineering, received his degree at Armour Institute in 1908. Prof.
Stevens is a member of the American Society of Civil Engineers.

John Edward Kelly, M.D., Consulting Physician, graduated
from the Medical Department of Northwestern University in
1905. Dr. Kelly is a member of the Chicago Medicai Society, of
the Illinois State Medical Association, and of the American Med-
ical Association. He has been a practicing physician and surgeon
since 1905, and is now AttCjiding Surgeon at the Mercy Hospital.

Harold S. White, B.S. in M.E., Instructor in Automobile Engi-
neering, graduated from Armour Institute in 19 17. Mr. White
is a member of the Society of Automotive Engineers and of Tau
Beta Pi, honorary engineering fraternity. He has done much
research w'ork along his line natli the government dur^'ng the war.

Will White Colvert, A.B., x\.M., Instructor in Physics, comes
from Cumberland University, w^here he graduated in 191 7.

W^altcr J . Bentlcy, B.S. in C.E., Instructor in General Oiem-
istry, graduated from Armour Institute in 1920. Mr. Bentley is
a member of Phi Lambda Upsilon, honorary chemic'l fraternit}^

Xathan Lesser, B.S. in E.E., Instructor in Elementary Machine
Drawing, graduated from the University of California in 191 5.
Mr. Lesser is a member of the Western Society of Engineers.

Helen R. Curtis, Assistant Librarian, comes to the Institute
from the Chicago Public Library, where she was Junior Library
Assistant. Miss Curtis is a member of the Chicago Librarv Club.

ALUMNI NOTES

THE 1920 SPRING ALUMNI MEETING AN -DINNER.

The Spring Alumni Meeting for 1920 was held on May 22 at
the Cit\' Club, and was attended by about one hundred and fifty
alumni. Dr. (iunsaulus addressed the meeting and spoke of the
new Institute, and he was followed by Dean Raymond, Dean
Monin. Mr. R. M. Henderson, and Prof. AVilcox.

At the business meeting, which followed, the following nipn
were elected officers for the year 1920-21 :

W. D. Mathews, '99, President.

Herbert Cieck '11, Vice-President.

L. E. Davies '19, Corresponding Secretary.

W. Oberfelder, Corresponding Secretary.

E. A. Freeman, Treasurer.

W. A. Kellner, Master of Ceremonies.

The members of the Board of Managers are Sidney James, F.
C. Dierking. and C. A. Knuepfer to 1923 ; R. M. Henderson, W.
J. Baer, and B. S. Carr to 1922 ; J. C Penn, R. Harris, and G. N-
.Siebenaler to 192 1.

NEW ADDRESSES.

Clarence Muehlberger, '20, is instructing in chemi.'^try at the
Universtiy of Wisconsin, while working for his advanced degree.

Arthur H. Anderson, '02, formerly Assistant Professor of Ex-
perimental Engineering at Aimour, has recently accepted a posi-
tion as instructor of steara and gas engineering at ihe Univer-
.sity of Wisconsin.

Stanley Evans, '18, after his recent marriage to Miss Marion
Possum of Milwaukee, ha^ settled in Minneapoli? as insurance
engineer for the Hartford I- ire lusurance Co

Leroy H. Badger, '07, foimerly connected with the A. T. &
S. F. R. R., is now a mechanical engineer with the DeRemer
Blatchford Co., Chicago.

Vol. XII, No. 1] COLLEGE NOTES 65

Ronald Baker Qark, 'l2, is now with the Allied Machinery
Co., de France, and is located in Paris.

Ralph M. Crow, '13, has moved from the Office of State Super-
vising Architect, Chicago, to the Division of Architecture, Capitol
Building, Springfield, 111.

William E. Dady, '19, is architect for the Wisconsin Steel Co.,
at their Chicago office.

Alan Hetherington, 'iS, has left the Chicago Edifon Co., in
favor of a position as electrical draftsman with the New York
Edison Co.

Charles E. Eustice, '01, is superintendent of the Galena Mfg.
Co., of Galena, 111.

Frederick Heuchling, '07, is business manager for the North-
western Trust and Savings Co., Chicago.

Morris Wisner Lee, '99, is vice-president of the Frank D.
Chase Co, Inc., Industrial Engineers, of Chicago.

Omar Grant O'Grady, '\y, has gone to Natol, Rio Grande de
Norte, Brazil, as resident engineer of the Serido Highway.

Robert Perkins, '17, and a Mr. McWayne have gone into part-
nership as architects. Their headquarters are located at Sioux
Falls, South Dakota.

Orson R. Prescott, '04, has left the Ameircan Coal and Prod-
ucts Co., and now is located with American Coke and Chemical
Co., Chicago, as engineer.

Tom Hall, '20, after a short period with Morris & Co., packers,
has accepted a position as Assistant Editor of "Power Plant En-
gineering."

Emil Schiffers, '15, is domg general contracting work in San
Antonio, Texas.

James L. Shane, '14, hab been promoted to the position of
superintendent of construction in the engineering department of
the Western Electric Co.

BOOK NOTES

The Armour Institute oi Technology 'Libra.vy has received the
following new books whicii will be of interest to the various
departments :

MECHANICAL DEPARTAIENT.
Androe, Stephen O. Tlie Petroleum Handbook.

A condensed book of reference conve3nng the histor}% the pro-
curing, the preparation for the market, and the marketing, of
natural gas, gasoline, and shale oil.

Eason, Alec B. Flozv and Measurement of Air ar.d Gases.

The author investigates the friction of gases and the coefficient
of friction in pipes, the question of suitable meters for gas and
air and the working of pncamatic tubes. He discus^^es the foun-
Jations upon which graphs and formulae aic based.

Favary, Ethelbert. Motor Vehicle Engineering.

This work aims to present in a simple, concise wav, using the
simplest of mathematics, the information needed by the automo-
bile designer and engineer, as well as the draftsman, technical
graduate, mechanic, and others interested in motor vehicle en-
gineering.

Hagar, Dorsey, Practical Oil Geology.

A clear practical handbook on the occurrence and geology of
oil, based on American methods.

Ninde. W. E. Design and Construction of Heat Engines.

This unusually well-arranged book explains the principles and
construction of the steam-engine, steam turbine and internal com-
bustion engine. A separate chapter is then devoted to each of
the parts.

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING.

Caeifornia Railroad Com mission. Inductive Interference Be-
tween Electric Power and Communication Circuits.
This volume, comprising nearly 1200 pages, contains reports on
^lectric induction, electric railway interference, harmonic analysis,
general inductive interference, magnetization of iron, and trans-
former harmonics.

Vol. XII, No. 1] BOOK NOTES 67

Ferguson, O. J. Electric Lighting.

The author states in his n.^cface, that "Next to the human need
for food, shelter, and clothiiig, comes the need for ar:ificial Hght.
The meeting of this requirement, upon a large scale, becomes an
engineering proposition."
James, H. D. Controllers for Electric Motors.

The principles of operar'un and the. practical applications of
controlling devices are treated in this book. General types, rather
than special makes, are described.
Pierce, G. W. Electric Oscillations and Electric Waves.

An advanced mathematical treatise on electric oscillations and
electric waves, with special application to radio telegraphy.
Their application to optics a^^d telegraphy are also considered.
Steinmetz, C. p. Theory and Calculation of Transient Electric
Phenomena and Oscillations.

In view of the serious importance of transient phenomena in
huge generators, transmission systems, and high frequency ap-
paratus, this mathematical treatment of the subject will find imme-
diate use among advanced students.

CIVIL ENGINEERING.
Bishop, Carledon T. Structural Drafting and the Design of
Details.
The author, who was formerly chief draftsman with one of the
largest bridge companies, and is now a professor at Yale Univer-
sity, shows a thorough practical and theoretical knowledge of his
subject.

Corrugated Bar Company, Buffalo. Useful Data on Rein-
forced Buildings for the Designer and Estimator.
The aim of this book is to give all the data needed by the busy
engineer or estimator in meeting the every-day problems in con-
crete building design.

Finch, J. K. Topographic ''Japs and Sketch Mapping.

In recent years the development of the automobile and the
camping habit has led to a more extensive use of maps. This
fact, taken with the demand for instruction in map reading and
sketch mapping brought about by the great war, has increased the
interest in this subject.

68 THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [November, 1920

Manufacturers' Aircraft Association. Aircraft Year Book,
1920.

An attractive annual coniaining aeronautical maps, a list of the
world's aces, important events in the history of fl>ing and bal-
looning, aerial mail, technical development of airplanes, and other
interesting information.
Mead, D. W. Hydrology.

The work, based on the author's course in the University of
Wisconsin, treats of rainfall, floods, geolog^% ground waters, run-
off, stream discharge and other meteorological and geological
conditions to be taken into consideration in planning hydraulic
engineering tmdertakings.

CHEMIC/v,L ENGINEERING.
Alderson, Victor C. Oil Shale Industry.

The author of this book was formerly a member of our own
faculty and is now president of the Colorado School of Mines.
He claims that "the successful retorting of oil from shale and the
establishment of the oil shale industry on a permanent and prof-
itable basis is the great problem of this decade."
HoYT, Samuel L. Metallography.

The general principles ar-j discussed, and there are chapters on
the physical and mechanical properties of metals and alloys.
ScHOELLER, W. R. AND PowELL, A. R. The Analvsis of Min-
erals and Ores of the Rarer Elements.

The authors of this book on the properties and separation
methods of the rarer elements show a very practical acquaintance
with their subject.

Seidell, Atherton. Solubilities of Inorganic and Organic
Compounds.

This new edition contains chapters describing the sources of
data, the methods of calculating them to desired terms, the inter-
pretation of their tabular anangement, some of the methods used
for the accurate determination of solubilities, and the inclusion
of the freezing points.
Williams, R. S. Principles of Metallography.

This is a scientific study of the properties and structure of
mixed metals. The book treats of the non-ferrous alloys of
iron and steel, with empha'^is on the practical applications of
metallography.

Vol. XII, No. 1] BOOK NOTES 69

OF GENERAL INTEREST.
Brearly, H. C. Time Telling Through the Agej.

An interesting work giving historic facts about the making of
timepieces, as well as much information on the science of
horology.

Elliott, H. S. R. Modern Science and Materialism.

A good discussion, not unduly technical, of the relation between
the universe as a whole matter and energy, life and conscious-
ness, vitalism, materialism, and idealism.

Ellwood, Charles A. An Introduction to Social Psychology.

It has seemed to the author that a simple statement of the bear-
ings of modern psychological theories upon the problems of social
organization and evolution may be useful as a basi for the con-
struction of general sociological theories, and as an introduction
to sociology and the social sciences in general.

Henderson, L. J. The Order of Nature.

This book on philosophy considers the problem of the physical
rind chemical origins of diversity among inorganic and organic
things, and the adaptability ol matter and energy.

Lorentz, H. a. The Einstein Theory of Relativity ; a Concise
Statement.

An effort to explain the Einstein theory in a manner under-
standable to the educated general reader.
Osler, Sir William. Old Humanities and the Netv Science.

The "Boston Transcript" considers this essay a "rare produc-
tion, witty, learned, fraught with a high degree of inspiration,
full of sympathy for the old humanities."
Te^\d, Ordway & Metcalf, H. C. Personnal Administration.

This book is the first adequate manual for the head of a per-
sonnel department as well as for the executive directly in charge
of such matters as emplovment, health and safety, educational
development, and joint relations with employees. It gives the
principles and the best prevailing practice in the field of admin-
istration of human relations in industry. The conclusions reached
are based upon the experience of manufacturing plants through-
out the country during the past fifteen years.

EDITH H. FORD,

Associate Librarian.

ALPHABETICAL INDEX OF ADVERTISERS.

Page

Allis-Chalmers Mfg. Co 4

American Association of Engineers 8-9

Armour Institute of Technology 1

Armour & Co 10

Besly & Company. Chas. H 12

Banning & Banning" 12

Brady Foundry Co., James A 5

Christensen School of Popular Music 7

Engineering Agency 11

General Electric Co 2

Hansell-Elcock Co 7

Hills, Chas. W 4

Jack Shannon Co 14

Jointless Fire Brick Co 13

Lufkin Rule Co 14

]\Iagie Bros 4

Roebling & Sons, John A 6

Robinson & Co., Dwight P 7

Swenson Evaporator Co 14

Western Electric Co 3

Wilson Corporation, J. G 12

Why good students are not
always successful men

IN a certain art school it is said
that no medal man has ever be-
come a great artist. But it does
not follow that poor students after-
ward make the biggest men.

Still this is true: IVlan}^ good stu-
dents are apt to miss the larger
truths. Their very nearness to text-
book and laboratory obscures their
vi^iun of the basic laws which clarify
all science and indeed all life.

Studies are of value not so much
as exercises in the details of technical
lore, but as they help in the search
for principles to use later in life.

Perhaps you will forget your cal-
culus formulae and the skilful use of
the ruling pen, but the ability to
think straight and to co-ordinate
thought with action— these are essen-
tial to your fullest development.

Vou may grow to the stature of
an engineer who can sell, an engineer
who can direct other men, an en-
gineer who can build.

Think about your life that way,
and keep this fact before you —

The electrical industry offers a
life-work to men who combine
vision with constructive common
sense.

Western Electric — an organisation
which through half a century has had
a share in bringing the convenience of
electric light, power and communico
tion to millions of Americans.

'^ WILLIAM A. MAGIE FRANK O. MAGIE %

% President JOHN Q. MAGIE Treasurer ♦

';* Secretary ♦>

►:* TELEPHONE MAIN 1074-1075 |

MAGIE BROTHERS

I CYLINDER, ENGINE AND DYNAMO OILS |

;♦* Cup Greases, Boiler Compound, Cotton Waste ♦>

►> 110-112 S. CLINTON STREET CHICAGO J

% Established 1887 t

Power and Industrial
Machinery

Electrical Machinery — Steam Turbines — Steam'
Engines — Hydraulic Turbines — Pumping Engines

— Centrifugal Pumps ^ Gas Engines — Oil Engines

— Mining Machinery — Metallurgical Machinery —
Crushing and Cement Machinery —Flour Mill Ma-
chinery — Saw Mill Machinery — Air Compressors

— Air Brakes — Steam and Electric Hoists — Farm
Tractors — Power Transmission Machinery.

AlliS' Chalmers Mfg. Co.

Milwaukee, Wisconsin

I CHARLES W. HILLS |

I PATENT, COPYRIGHT, TRADE |

I MARK and CORPORATION LAW |

I Electrical, Mechanical and Chemical Engineers 1

g — w

I 1523-33 Monadnock Block -:- Chicago |

mill

When writiiiK to Advertisers, please mention THE AKMOl K ENtilN'IiKK

The above illustration shows three of the eighteen

Harrington Stokers

recently installed by the municipal lighting company
of a large eastern city.

The installation of the HARRINGTON STOKER
means a distinct

Saving of Coal

because the HARRINGTON STOKER is the only
stoker which will bum any kind of coal, coke breeze,
lignite, bituminous, and washer refuse— with practi-
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U^ritc for "Tzcclrc fuel Facts" the
story of the HARRIXGTOX STOKER.

THE JAMES A. BRADY

FOUNDRY COMPANY

4500 South Western Blvd. Chicago, Illinois

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ROEBLING WIRE ROPE SLINGS

JOHN A. ROEBLING'S SONS COMPANY

Manufacturers of

WIRE ROPE, STRAND, TELEPHONE, COPPER, FLAT,

SPECIAL SHAPE AND MISCELLANEOUS WIRES,

INSULATED WIRES AND CABLES.

Trenton, New Jersey

165 West Lake Street

Chicago, 111.

Wlu-ii wriliiiK to .V(lveI■ti^«•rs, please nienlion TMK \KM<H H KNCilNKIOK

ANYONE CAN LEARN

RAGTIME
^ f JAZZ

PIANO PLAYING

We teach adult be-
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IN 20 LESSONS

The simplest and
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Advanced course for
players. Our schools are
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sen. Vaudeville's "Czar ol
Ragtime."

Christensen School
of Popular Music

£. Jackson Blvd.

Plione Harrison 5669
for Free Booklet.

Complete Service

IX THE DESIGN AND CON-
STRUCTION OF
Steam Power Stations
Slioi»s
Foundries
Hydro-Electric Developments
StppI ;Mills
Chemical Plants
Railroad ShoDs
I.oconiotive Terminals
Passenger Terminals
Concrete Factory Building:s
Gasoline Extraction Plants
Transmission Systems
Housing Developments
Office Buildings
Hotels
Harbor Developments

Dwight P. Robinson & G).

Ini-uru.irato'l

Engineers & G)nstructors

rj.^ Ea.^t 46tb Street

NB"V\' YORK

Chieaao Cleveland Dallas

Pittsburg'h Los Angeles

Yoniigstown

CoDiSolidated with
kA'estinghoiise. Church, Kerr & Co.

Incorporated

Hansell-Elcock
Company

Foundry

STRUCTURAL STEEL, ORNA-
MENTAL IRON WORK, FIRE
ESCAPES, STEEL DOORS,
STAIRS, GRAY IRON CAST-
INGS. .J

Office and Works:

Archer and Normal Avenues,
23rd PI.. Canal and 24th Sts.

CHICAGO

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Two Great
Founded on the

Armour Institute
of Technology

"This institution is founded
for the purpose of giving to
young men an opportunity to se-
cure a hberal education. It is
hoped that its benefits may
reach all classes. It is not in-
tended for the poor or the rich,
as sections of society, but for
any and all who ar-^ earnestly
seeking technical education. Its
aim is broadly philanthropic.
The Institute is not a free
school ; but its charges for in-
struction are in harmony with
the spirit which animates alike
the Founder, the Trustees, and
the Faculty ; namely, the desire
to help those who wish to help
themselves." — From the A. I. T.
Catalogue.

American Association of Engineers,

63 East Adams Street, Chicago.

Gentlemen:

I shall be glad to receive full information concerning
America's largest engineering society.

Yours truly,

A. E. 29

When writing to Advertisers, please mention THE ARMOUR ENGINEBB

BHI

Institutions
Same Principles

American Association
of Engineers

"Out of the recognition of the
adage that 'the Lord helps those
who help theniselves' has come
our present Association, origin-
ated and maintained by men who
are determined not to rely upon
others, nor to wait for some old-
er society to awake to their
needs, but to get together and
make an elfective agency for
self-help — and for service to hu-
manity. They are dominated by
altruistic ideals, but are eminent-
ly practical in trying to Improve
their own conditions, believing
that with larger opportunities
and better appreciation they can
more effectively add to the sum
of health, comfort and prosper-
ity of mankind." — From retiring
address of Dr. Frederick H.
Newell as president of A. A. E.

"The desire to help those who wish to help themselves"
activates every endeavor of the American Association of
Engineers. The present membership of more than 22,000
includes 3,200 students throughout the country. The 200
chapters and clubs include 34 regularly constituted student
chapters. At the University of Arizona every engineering
student and member of the engineering faculty are mem-
bers of the A. A. E. If you want to make the most out of
your engineering career you can't afford not to join. Your
name and address on the form on the opposite page will
bring full information.

When writing to Advertisers, please mention THE ARMOUR ENGINEER

—9— ^

"It Takes the Guesswork
Out of Food Buying"

WHEN your dealer shows you a food
marked with the Armour Oval Label,
all doubts and uncertainties disap-
pear. For you know every product bearing
this trade mark is dependable — and depend-
ability is a big thing to look for in these days
of high food cost and uncertain values.

Star Ham and Bacon, Veribest Canned
Meats, Dry Sausage, Poultry, Eggs, Clover -
bloom Butter, Veribest Evaporated Milk,
Veribest Cheese and scores of other foods
are all brought to you at their best when you
specify 'Armour's Oval Label Products."

Ask any dealer carrying them why he so
strongly endorses Armour's Oval Label
Foods. He will tell you that it is because
they build good will and greater satisfaction
among all of his customers.

ARMOUR A^D COMPANY

CHICAGO

5355

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—10—

Twenty- eighth Year

The

Engineering
Agency

INCORPORATED

Technical Employment

1662 Monadnock Block
Chicago

Absolutely No Advance Fee of
Any Kind Whatsoever

See Us for Positions in

APPRAISALS

METALLURGY

ENGINEERING

CONTRACTING

MANUFA CTURING

ARCHITECTURE

CHEMIST R Y TEA CHING

MINING SALES

Harrison 4056

When writing to Advertisers, please mention THE ARMOUR EfNGINBER

—11—

'* A A A AA A A A i.*4 A A A A A A A A A^ A. A A. A A^ ^* A A *T* A A A *.▼* JU JU *K. J^ JU .T* *.T« »'tf <T* jX» lA. J>U. Jti

• *_^ y y W V V V V V V >* V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V •*♦ V V V V V V >* V V V V V V V

BANNING & BANNING

COUNSELORS-AT-LAW
Patent, Trade Mark and Copyright Causes

THE MARQUETTE BUILDING
Chicago Illinois

THOMAS A. BANNING, JR.

♦

Machinists, Mill and
Railroad Supplies

Brass, Copper, Bronze and
Nickel Silver

BESLY GRINDERS

BESLY TAPS

The leading Engineering
Colleges and Institutes
have found Besly Quality
and Service a Decisive fac-
tor.

CHAS. H. BESLY & COMPANY

118-124 N. Clinton St., Chicago, 111.

Wilson Rolling Steel Doors
Standard for 45 Years

The J. G. WILSON CORPORATION

8 West 40th Street, New York

Offices in Principal Cities.

When writing to Advertisers, please mention THE ARMOUR ENGINEER

—12—

FURNACE LINING

For New or Old Boilers There Is
No Better Furnace Lining

Plibrico has been developed as a plastic furnace lining that
can be shaped in place and afterwards vitrified to make a one-
piece monolithic lining — than which there is no better setting
for any industrial boiler. It has been the one and only ambition
of the Jointless Fire ]3rick Co. to serve well not only with a view
of profit, but from an altruistic angle and a real desire to serve
at the gate post, where economy begins in every boiler plant —
in the boiler furnace lining.

Old Boiler settings are re-
born by patchiyig with i
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Shipped in steel con-
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carried in all principal
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Write for book on Furnace Building

—13—

VFfC/N

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TAPES

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Accurate — Dependable All Ways

the/ufmnPuleCo. ^^. J""'^

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FOR CHRISTMAS

A Sweater or Jersey in your school colors

Alfred Johnson Tubular Ice Skates

Sol Levinson's Boxing Gloves

Footballs — Basket Balls — Indoor Balls

Golf Clubs — Tennis Rackets

Striking Bags and Platforms

Roller Skates — Exercisers — Pennants

The Jack Shannon Co.

Chicago's Leading Sporting Goods Store

Swenson Evaporator Company

ENGINEERS AND MANUFACTURERS

Established 1889
SINGLE AND MULTIPLE EFFECT EVAPORATORS
BEET SUGAR AND CHEMICAL PULP MACHINERY

945 Monadnock Building F. M. de Beers, Pres.

Chicago, 111. P. B. Sadtler, V.-Pres.

When nritiiig to Advertisers, please mention THB ARMOUR ENGINEER

—14—

Statement of ownership management, circulation, etc., of
THE ARMOUR ENGINEER, published quarterly at Qiicago,
111., required by an Act of Congress, August 24, 1919.

Editor — ^John P. Sauger, 836 Wilson Ave., Chicago, 111.

Managing Editor — Spencer N. Havlick, 422 Garfield Ave., Chi-
cago, 111.

Business Manager — Fletcher E. Hayden, 5249 Calumet Ave.,
Cbicago, 111.

Associate Business Manager, Emil F. Winter. 3914 Green-
view Ave., Chicago, III.

Publisher — The College of Engineering, Armour Institute of
Technology, Chicago, 111.

Owner — The College of Engineering, Armour Institute of
Technology, Chicago, 111.

FLETCHER E. HAYDEN,

Business Manager.

Sworn to and subscribed before me this 7th day of December,
1920.
Chicago, Dec. 7, 1920 GEORGE S. ALLISON,

(Notary Seal) Notary Public.

--■'^—''- '"'••"-

Volume XII.
Number 2.

JANUARY, 1921

Per Copy, 15 Cents
Per Year, $1.50

CONTENTS.

ENGINEERING AN ESSENTIAL OF ECONOMIC AND

MILITARY PREPAREDNESS 71

By Dr. Frank W. Gunsaulus.

ECONOMY OIL BURNING FURNACES 78

By LeRoy H. Badger.

THE APPLICATION OF AUTOMATIC SUBSTATIONS

TO INTERURBAN LINES 91

By Charles H. Jones, '09.

FUEL AND AIR MIXING DEVICES FOR INTERNAL

COMBUSTION ENGINES 96

By Daniel Roesch, '04-

MAKING WORK A GAME 106

By L. K. Sillcox.

EDITORIALS 112

ENGINEERING SOCIETIES 116

COLLEGE NOTES 124

ALUMNI NOTES 129

BOOK NOTES 131

ALPHABETICAL ADVERTISING INDEX 135

Armnur
3ln0ttt«t? of ®f rtjttologg

CHICAGO

THE COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING OFFERS COURSES IN

Mechanical Engineering
Electrical Engineering
Civil Engineering
Cheniical Engineeriftg
Fire Protection Engineering
A rchitecture, and Industrial A rts

These Courses are each four years in length and
lead to the degree of Bachelor of Science

COMPLETELY EQUIPPED SHOPS
and LABORATORIES

^\\t ilttstttut^ lulkttna

WILL BE SENT ON APPLICATION

'-I—

What Is Vacuum?

F THE traffic policeman did not hold up his hand and
control the automobiles and wagons and people there
would be collisions, confusion, and but little progress
in any direction. His business is to direct.

The physicist who tries to obtain a vacuum that is nearly
perfect has a problem somewhat like that of the traffic
policeman. Air is composed of molecules — billions and
billion? of them flying about in all directions and often
colliding. The physicist's pump is designed to make the
molecules travel in one direction—out through the exhaust.
The molecules are much too small to be seen even with a
microscope, but the pump jogs them along and at least
starts them in the right direction.

A perfect vacuum would be one in which there is not a
single free molecule.

For over forty years scientists have been trying to pump
and jog and herd more molecules out of vessels. There are
still in the best vacuum obtainable more molecules per
cubic centimeter than there are people in the world, in
other words, about two bi'lion. Whenever a new jogging
device is invented, it becomes possible to eject a few
million more molecules.

The Research Laboratories of the General Electric
Company have spent years in trying to drive more and
more molecules of air from containers. The chief purpose
has been to study the effects obtained, as, for example,
the boiling away of metals in a vacuum.

This investigation of high vacua had unexpected results. It became
possible to make better X fay t ubes — better because the X-rays could
be controlled; to make the electron tubes now so essential in long-
range wireless communication more efficient and trustworthy ; and to
develop an entirely new type of incandescent lamp, one which is filled
with a gas and which gives more light than any of the older lamps.

No one can foretell what will be the outcome of research in pure
science. New knowledge, new ideas inevitably are gained. And sooner
or later this new knowledge, these new ideas find a practical applica-
tion. For this reason the primary purpose of the Research Labora-
tories of the General Electric Company is the broadening of human
knowledge.

GeeeralWElectric

General Office

Schenectady, N. Y.

When writiDK lo AUverlisers, please mention THE ARMOUR BNOINBSR

—2—

THE ARMOUR
ENGINEER

The Quarterly Technical Publication

OF THE

Armour Institute of Technology
chicago, illinois

Volume XII Number 2

January, 1921

by
John P. Sanger

and

I'Metcher E. Hayden

The Armour Engineer

VOLUME XII. JANUARY, 1921. NO. 2

ENGINEERING AN ESSENTIAL OF ECONOMIC AND
MILITARY PREPAREDNESS

By Dr. Frank \Y. Gunsaulus.
President of the Armour Institute of Technology,

The folloK'ing article, prepared from an address delivered by
the principal speaker before a recent meeting of the Illinois
Manufacturers' Association, places an unmistakable charge upon
the engineers of the United States in preparedness. Great prob-
lems of preparedness for both zvar and commercial progress lie,
in the field of engineering. What the speaker did not say, but
what efi\gineers \vill infer, is that they must not only carry owi^
the great engineering' problems, but must be leaders in their pro-
motion. A breath of progress such as engineers aspire to pervades
this rewritten address.

The great question before myself, like yourselves, is or ought
to be, not what is the attitude of Germany, but what is the atti-
tude of the whole world on the other side of the Atlantic with
reference to the supineness, the stupidity, the hesitance, the lack
of discipline and force and vigor in our teaching and our practic-
ing the results of science as applied to the solution of practical
problems in engineering.

All true education is the education simultaneously of head,
heart and hand. Physiologically, you cannot have a good heart
without a good hand, and you cannot have a good hand without
a good head and a good heart, and you cannot have a good head
without a good heart and a good hand. I mean to say that the
intellect, as we used to say, and the emotions and the will, the
region of dream and duty and integrity, must be contemporane-

*Reprint from the "Professional Engineer."

72 THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [January, 1921

ouhly educated and that means the doing of things that \vc feel
an obligation to in the form of duty and that we see in the
dreamland of imagination. That gets the blood circulation through
the whole human body; that gets the gray matter of the brain
into the ends of one's fingers.

We must remember that the weakness of our American educa-
tion has been in the fact that we have sent the head to school and
the heart to church, and the American hand has been about as
worthless and useless and uneducated a thing as there ever was
in the universe. My plea tonight for handicraft is a plea for
patriotism. It is a plea for country. It is a defense, not against
Germany, but against flaccid, brainless, horn-blowing American-
ism.

The recent war was a war of engineers. Every force of
modern engineering ever discovered was taken and used by a
nation wise enough to have trained the hand with the head. Ger-
many took our barbed wire fence for war, took our armor plate
for war, took our machine guns for war, took our submarine for
war, and when the Zeppelin failed, took our aeroplane for war.
She was not guilty of petit larceny. It was grand larceny. It
was the larceny of a great, big brainy people with strong, culti-
vated hands, trained hands.

Now we are face to face with the fact that Germany, having
outgeneraled us in what we call statesmanship, or in what we
may call international politics, and having had the world so long
where she could say, "If you don't let me behave as I want to,
T won't pay my debts," has the opportunity to so get herself
together, with the interests of exchange not altogether against
her, and with prodigious industry, that the other day when the
American Locomotive Works and the Baldwin Locomotive pre-
sented their bids for engines for Java and Sumatra, the vice-
president of the Baldwin Locomotive Works told me that they
woke up to the fact that even though they had done their best,
Germany by three or four thousand dollars on each engine won
the day and will supply Holland with her locomotives for Java.

Now I am not inveighing against Germany, but I do not respect
the kind of Americanism that forgets how nearly we were
strangled to death because we had not educated the American
hand.

What are the immediate problems at home, then, that a person

Vol. XII, No. 2] GUNSAULUS: ECONOMIC PREPARERNESS 73

in my position ought, noblese oblige, to speak to you about to-
night? The problems of engineering that must be solved if we
are even to maintain our place, and much more soon and much
more vividly must they be solved for all the people if we are
to advance.

One hundred thousand American professional engineers have
the glory of their profession to-day because we have learned in
America to feed nations. Think of it ! Herbert Hoover, the most
able man in my judgment that this war has developed, an
engineer, has taught the world the abiUty of America, under
proper management and discipline to keep a world from starving
to death. Do you suppose there are not greater difficulties in
the future? Because we have apparently won this war, must we
close our brain to the fact that we can lose the war because our
brains are inside of a bushel?

I tell you, men and women, a war is won in the mind of a
people and it is lost in the mind of a people. There is no power
that we know of in the history of human thought that can fore-
cast so certainly the failure of what is merely a physical event,
no power of which we are so certain as that self-conceit which is
having its orgy of discourtesy and contempt to-day; that self-
conceit that poisons the mind and infests the imagination and
ruins the character of a great people.

In the first place, let us take some of the problems of civil
engineering. The great man of Germany to-day is Hugo Stinnes.
Mr. Hugo Stinnes is the man who first of all said, "This great
factor of coal is fundamental. The next fact is the way to get
coal to the Krupp factory." So all of the little rivers of Germany
were used and inland waterways were constructed by civil engin-
eers, and when finally the Krupps broke down, and Bertha's
husband was unable to run things successfully, Hugo, the man
who built great works, made his appeal to oil, fuel oil. Then he
began to open huge pits of lignite, and he began to break down
mountains of shale, and he began to extract oils, oils, oils, and so
completely did his inland waterworks succeed in carrying to
and fro the burdens that needed to be carried to and fro that he
concluded to organize the banks of Germany that had helped him
to do business.

By and by he bought the Atlanta Hotel in Berlin, with giving
up some of the twenty-six newspapers that he owned in Germany.

74 THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [January, 1921

Then he bought another large hotel in Berlin and he became the
owner in the face of twelve million men of the very thing they
had dreamed about, a socialized state.

Now this is not a man of yesterday but he is a man of to-day.
He is the man in Germany to whom the Germany of the Hohen-
zoUern idea looks with hope. Here we are, for example, in the
United States with a great struggle for coal. Any man who
knows anything concerning the subject at all knows that we are
behind our own Americans who had the vision and inventiveness
of mind long ago to perceive that in this great country there
must be such use made of waterways that in any crisis fuel and
food could be given to the people.

You can see in the drawing made by Robert W. Fulton, civil
engineer, published in 1796, almost ever}-thing tliat this great
German mind of patriotism and imagination has put into the
form of active machinery, and the Germany of to-day is a Ger-
many in which other things being equal such an outrageous pro-
gram as was proposed by those Americans interested in the
higher price of coal would be simply a laughing matter ; nobody
in Germany would take it seriously.

A representative man of South America came to Armour
Institute the other day and said, 'T am up here with a commission
to find out why it is that this great Central West of yours cannot
send to South America its products in such a way and at such,
a time that it is worth while for us to buy it up here?" He sees
that at the present time all of the shipments from the Central
West have to be shipped by way of New York, He has brains
enough to see that between Chicago, the capital of this great field
of grain, silver, steel, iron, of e\erything, and New Orleans there
is the simplest problem of engineering which any great nation has
had put before its imagination or its learning.

Why there are sixty-eight miles of declivity, for example, that
would furnish by accurate computation two million dollars worth
of power if it were properly used by engineering processes in the
course of a single week. We have been losing, in spite of all that
Isham Randolph has done — a name of one of the greatest
engineers and one of the greatest friends of the Middle West
and Chicago and this nation, — we have been losing millions and
millions of money. Not only have we been losing that but we
have been losing international relationships and a vast business.

Vol. XII, No. 2] GUNSAULUS: ECONOMIC PREPARERNESS 75

Suppose in the course of this war. we could have sent food
down our rivers instead of waiting for railways? Suppose we
had been able to send even to the Gulf of Mexico, and suppose,
further and more interestingly, we could have been able to send
food to the Atlantic seaboard in large measure, — do you suppose
that there would have been any such suffering?

If I were to talk here until morning, I should not exhaust the
subject of what must be done in civil engineering with respect
to our railways, but I shall not enter upon that theme.

If I were to go into the intricacies and refinements and theories
of chemical engineering, I should be able to tell you how all the
vast corn fields in the West have been under experimentation and
discussion with regard to the making of paper. I should tell you
how lignite has come to be as important a thing in all the traffic
of the world and the progress of the world's future as any single
element that has been discovered in 150 years. To-day there come
to such institutions as ours great problems from the manufac-
turers of illuminating gas, and they know as well as we that the
engineer is the man who must think these things out.

Engineering education is not like any other kind of education
that I know of, or ever experienced. \\'hen I went to school
we studied such subjects as came under the purview and juris-
diction of my father and mother. I could go home and complain,
and there were mighty few propositions in all the realm of my
grammar that could not be arranged for at home to suit the" taste
of the little son. When you get into an engineering school, the
shortest distance between two points is a straight line. Mama
cannot help it, the doctor cannot help it, papa's money cannot
help it. It is not so because the parson said so. Priests have no
place. You could not organize a jurisdiction ecclesiastical in
geometry and have a lot of priests stand outside and say, "Believe
this or go to hell."

And the education of the engineer in America means, with one
hundred thousand of them at work now, straight-forward think-
ing men,— -and the harder the stuff in \vhich he works, the surer
the groove of the thinking.

A boy takes an instrument at the Armour Institute of
Technology fitted to make a screw thread one-eighty thousandth
of an inch fine. If it is one-eighty-five thousandth of an inch fine,
that tool will tell on that bov more certainly that will the tool

76 THE 4RM0UR ENGINEER [January, 1921

which makes a thread only one-eighty thousandth of an inch fine.
The higher up vou go, the nearer you come to radium and the
X-ray.

Just the touch of that screw un a telescope and you are away
vner there some place, and it will take you a good many days
and months and years to find out where \ou are, for you must
calculate it all from here.

I tell you a man that has preached, or a lawyer that has argued
cases before the court, or any kind of a rhetorical brother, gets
the rhetoric all knocked out of him when he comes down here
and finds that he has to talk in lines one one-hundredth thousandth
of an inch fine.

Now, how can we neglect the kind of education that makes a
man think in straight lines ; and makes him know that truth is
set down because it is true, and that it is not true because it is
set down; that it is better for a man to tell the truth, but that the
truth is utterly independent of the man?

Well, I will tell you what we did for help in getting finer screw
threads. We went to John Brashear of Pittsburgh and told him
of our difficulty. He knew of a worm in Portugal which spun
so fine a thread that we could not compare for fineness the fila-
ment of a spider's thread. The spider's thread was entirely too
coarse, too much like a rope. We got this worm and had this
worm go to work for us, and he spun that thread so fine that we
made a calculation. Now, that thread is so fine, — well, let us
make the calculation right here. You remember when John Field
said to Robert Louis Stevenson, "Where shall I find you?"' They
were standing in .San Francisco looking toward the west. Robert
Louis Stevenson said, "At the first house on the left,'' and he
pointed across the Pacific. The first house on the left, the first
big star, is Alphacus .Santori. Now let us calculate a little.

If I were to take this filament and peddle it out at the end of
mv wagon, starting from Chicago, going to .San Francisco, and
from San Francisco to Honolulu, and from Honolulu down
around to Hong Kong, China, and into Persia to Constantinople,
and from Constantinople to Rotterdam, and from Rotterdam to
New York, and New York to Chicago, I would use just eleven
and two-thirds ounces, but if I had a wagon and started out to
go to that star, which is indespensable in astro-physical calcula-
tions, and would peddle this fine filament out, it would require

Vol. XII, No. 2] ECONOMIC PREPARERNESS GUNSAULUS: 77

three hundred thousand tons ! Now, that is the kind of a universe
in which your engineer hves, and it is right in that sort of
universe that the battle is to be won.

It will be of interest to Armour students and graduates to know
that the Institute is in possession of the original of Herbert
Hoover's great work, the translation from the original Latin
of "De Re Metallica," by Georgius Agricola. This work covers
metallurgical processes, geolog}^-, mineralogy, and mineral law
from the earliest times to the i6th century.

OBTAINING LIQUID PRODUCTS FROM COAL

In obtaining liquid products from coal by hydrogenation under
pressure, coal is used which contains not more than 85 per cent
of carbon referred to dry substance free from ash. In an ex-
ample, 5 kilos of coal having a carbon content of 74.48 per cent
on the above basis was mixed with 10 kilos tar oil and heated for
six hours under a pressure of 100 atmospheres of hydrogen. 87
per cent of the coal was converted into liquid products as against
II per cent of a coal with a carbon content of 92.1 per cent simi-
larly treated. (Chem. & Met. Eng., 12-22-19).

ECONOMY OIL BURNING FURNACES

By LeRoy H. Badger, Mechanical Engineer.

De Reiner Blatchford Company.

Oil burning furnaces are varied in design and in their method of

combustion but the furnaces herein described are designed to give

the most heat and the best distribution of heat possible for the

amount of fuel consumed.

In the installation of oil burning furnace equipment, a very
important factor is a knowledge of the contents of the fuel used.
The ordinal-}' oil used, commonly called fuel oil or crude oil, has
an analysis approximately as follows :

Carbon 85 per cent

Hydrogen 1 1 per cent

Oxygen 2.5 per cent

Nitrogen 0.6 per cent

Sulphur 0.9 per cent

Gravity 26 to 28 Baume
Weight per gallon 7.3 pounds
Vaporizing point 130 deg. fahr.
Calorific value varies from 18,000 B.T.U. to
19,300 B.T.U. per pound.
As a comparison with other fuel it might be well to state that
coal has a calorific value which varies for different grades, but
for ordinary grades runs about 12,000 B.T.U. per pound. Nat-
ural gas gives 800 to 1000 B.T.U. per cu. ft. and coal gas 590
to 650 B.T.U. per cu. ft.

Of the advantages of oil over other fuel the following items
are the most important:

(aj Reduction of waste is made, for in handling oil there
is ver}' little loss, and in handling large quantities of solid or
gaseous fuel, this is a \erv large and important factor.

(b) It is much cheaper to handle oil, there being less weight
to haul and much less labor required to load and unload it from
the cars.

(d) One of the most important factors is the elimination of
ash and smoke. In some states, supervision requires that all
smoke be eliminated from shops, and this is accomplished very
easily by the use of oil without the necessity of having smoke-
stacks to carry ofif the smoke.

Vol. XII, No. 21 BADGER: OIL BURNING FURNACES 79

(e) Correct and evt'ii distribution i>t heat is obtaitied and
the required temperature can Ije maintained \ery readilx' liccause
the supply of fuel is so easily regulated.

-(f) Oil ignites instantaneously and a furnace can be brought
up to the required temperature much quicker.

In obtaining proper combustion, the atomization of the oil is
very important. To obtain this properly, the method used is to
force the oil through a small opening under a pressure of at least
15 pounds per square inch (see center section of burner in Fig.
i) and to force a stream of air through a tube surrounding the first
tube under a lil<e pressure. The end of the air tube is cup shaped
to force the air over and through the stream of oil as it comes
out. This contact of the oil and air causes atomization, but this
is further accomplished by the aid of an automatic preheating and
straining device through which the oil passes. This is heated by
means of a pipe extending through the wall of the furnace. The
end is stopped just about 2 inches above the top of the preheater.
There is a gate placed in this pipe to prevent an excess of heat
coming out, and with this the temperature of the oil is regulated so
that by the time it reaches the nozzle of the burner, it is nearly
at the point of atomization. This arrangement of preheater and
pipe may readily be seen on any of the furnaces shown in the
cuts. All dirt and water is separated from the oil by this strainer,
thus allowing the use of \evy poor grades of oil which could not
otherwise be used, and at the same time getting the required value
from the combustion. Any dirt or water in the oil will cause
v/hat is commonly called "spitting" of the burner.

The amount of blast is also very important. Oil, for proper
combustion, requires about 1650 cubic feet of free aiv per gallon.
Therefore it is very necessary to control the blast and at all times
have just the proper amount for the oil being consumed. This
is regulated by means of a gate and an experienced man can read-
ily tell when the amount is correct, by the appearance of the flame.

By the use of the combustion chamber shown in Fig. i. much
is accomplished toward the complete combustion of the oil. The
blast as will be seen, passes up through a tee shaped pipe, divid-
ing and going up passageways on both sides of the chamber.
These passageways are at all times quite hot and the blast is there-
fore preheated before it reaches the point, of contact with the oil
to produce combustion. Because of this preheating of both oil

THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [January, 1921

aiid air hefore thc\ arc mixed for cotnltustinn, a <^reat saxing in
the amount of fuel recjuircd is obtained.

For the proper operation of this combustion chamber the
lolloving essentials are required: 8 ounces or more of fan blast
and 15 pounds or more ])ressurc i)er square inch on flie oil and
air lines.

Fig. 1. Details of burner and combustion chamber. The
path of the blast oil and compressed air, by means of
which perfect combustion is obtained, can be noted.

The reconMiiended oil line system is as follows: a large storage
tank of the re(|uired capacity is directly connected to an oil pump.
{■>om the pump the oil line is taken through or around the shop
building and returned to the storage tank. A pressure regulating
\alve is placed near the pump on this line, and is set at approxi-
mately 20 pounds per s(|uare inch. Another of these valves is
placed just before the return line enters the tanks. This valve
should be set at approximately 15 pounds per square inch. Between
these two valves all branch lines to the furnaces are taken off. By
the use of this method the pressure is maintained evenly at all
times, which in turn gives better results at the furnaces, for a
varying pressure will give a varied amount of heat.

Vol. XII, Xo. 2] BADGER: OIL BURNING FURNACES 81

The refractory material u>ed in the hning of the furnaces and
combustion chambers is another important factor. As the tem-
perature in furnaces varies from about 1200' to 3000° Fahr.,
the length of service varies in the different types of furnaces.
However it is the best plan to u<e a very high grade of fire brick
in all types. This sa\es money in the long run, for it costs as
much to put in the cheap grade as it does the best grade.

Fire brick should be laid in a good grade of fire clay and care
should be used to see that the clay is not too thick. The usual
method is to dip the brick in the clay. Contrary to the methods
used in ordinary building brick, there should not be a thick layer
of clay between the layers of brick. AMien brick is laid in the
above manner, on applying the heat, the brick and clay fuse to-
gether forming a solid wall, with no open joints.

At all times in constructing a furnace the lining shctuld be of
sufficient thickness to withstand the temperature required with-
out permitting excessive heat to reach the outer casing.

A very good grade of fire brick as used in the furnaces here
described has an analysis about as follows :

SiHca 57-77%

Alumina 37.74'?^,

Ferric Oxide 2.55%

Lime • 0.60%

Magnesia 1.18%

Soda & Potash 1.18%

Specific gravity 2.60

The softening temperature should be for cone ^t,. Cone 31 is
that required for the furnaces.

The crushing strength should be about 1000 pounds per square
inch with brick on end.

Spalling should not be more than 2^ or 3^
Penetration should not exceed 0.13 inch.

Allowed expansion 1%

Allowed contraction 1.5^

Porosity approximately 18^

Water absorption gp

The above analysis gi\es a high grade brick which will with-
stand all ordinary temperatures up to 3200° Fahr. and will outlive
the lower grades of brick bv more than two to one.

THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [January, 1921

Fig. 2. Standard type forging furnace. Details of construction shown in Fig. 3.

Note heat-deflecting pipes, protection shield and arrangement of the

oil preheating and straining device.

Vol. XI'l, No. 2] BADGER: OIL BURNING FURNACES 83

An attempt will be made to gi\e a brief and comprehensive
description of the various types of furnaces most commonly used.

Forging furnaces are the most common type used and will be
treated a little more fully than the other types. Fig. 2 shows a
standard type of such a furnace. These are used for all kinds
of small forgings, and even for some of the small hammer work.
The temperature required for this class of work is from 2600° to
3000° Fahr. Necessarily the lining must be of a quality and
thickness to take care of this high temperature. The worker is
protected from the heat from the working opening by means of
an asbestos shield and blow pipe. This pipe deflects the heat up
behind the shield. Thus he is enabled at all tiiiies to watch the
work and not overheat it.

The general arrangement of this furnace is shown in Fig. 3.
This is only one size but this class of furnace is manufactured
in any size desired for small hand work.

The following description of the action of the heat on the
brick work will apply to any of the furnaces.

The temperature is \ery often brought from a dull red heat
to full heat in a very short period of time, and this causes the
refactory lining to undergo such a swift change that spalling
soon will result. This is possibly more pronounced in the arch
than elsewhere for the loose pieces drop to the floor. However
with an even distribution of heat there is very little difterence in
the life of the brick in the sides and arch.

The side walls are subjected to a coating of slag consisting
chiefly of iron and its oxides. The result of this scale is to exert
a cutting action upon the lining, and if it does not eat away the
refractory material it penetrates it and thereby hastens spalling.

Nearly all of the furnaces of this type are made of the leg
type as shown. The casing is mlade of cast iron, cast in sec-
tions and bolted together and further strengthened by the use of
tie rods. The purpose of making it in sections is to provide more
latitude for the expansion which is bound to result when it is
heated up.

Annealing furnaces are, as the name implies, used for different
kinds of annealing, and the temperature maintained averages
about 1400° Fahr. The construction of the brick work varies
greatly in this type, some having muffle arches to prevent the
impinging of the flame on the work and to more evenly distribute

<S4

THE ARMOUR ENGINEER

[January, 1921

M 0

'I' u

■« "i

« i

It e

ill

Vol. XII, No. 2] BADGER: OIL BURNING FURNACES

Fig. 4. Small size hammer furnace. Note preheating arrangement.
Details of construction of this type shown in Fig. 5.

the heat. The best type for work of this nature is what is called
the car bottom furnace. This is so constructed that the work
for annealing is loaded on a car which is run directly into the

86 tup: armour engineer [January, 1921

furnace. In this \va} there is no loss of time in cliarging the
furnace and no consequent loss of heat. The side walls are .so
constructed that there is a comparatively tight joint between the
\vall and the top of the car. The floor of the car is covered with
tire brick.

Bulldozer furnaces are used for all classes of work done on
liulldozers and therefore \ary considerably in size. The tem-
i)crature required for this class of work ranges from 1700° to
1800"^ Fahr. The casing is constructed of heavy castings, well
ribbed and securely held together with bolts and tie rods. The
burners are usually placed on one side and the arch slopes to the
other side, to give the heat a better circulation. The sizes run
from 3'-o" X 5'-o" single furnace to ()'-o" x i I'-o" double fur-
naces. The benefit of the double furnace is that the bulldozer
can be kept busy by working first from one side and then the
other with no delay due to charging.

Flue welding furnaces are small and of the leg type. They
are so constructed that three flues may be heated at once or one
superheater flue may be heated. The heat necessarily must be
very intense and consecrated. The temperature required is from
2600° to 3000° Fahr.

Hammer furnaces are a very common kind and are used for
all large forgings, that cannot be forged by hand. As they
usually are placed near a hammer it is very essential that they
be constructed to withstand the continual jar. The casing is
made similar to that of the other furnaces except thai in most
cases an additional brace or buckstay is added to hold them
rigid. A sntUl one of this type is shown in Fig. 4. This is
3'-o" x 5'-o" inside dimensions as shown on Fig. 5. As will also
be noted only one combustion chamber is used for this size, and
the brick work is so constructed that an even distribution of heat
is obtained. These are built in any size depending upon the
nature of the work to be done.

Mufifled tool furnaces are specially designed for the temper-
ing of tools and like work. The best design has two working
chan^.bers, one for high temperatures, and the other for low
temperatures for tempering. The working of the tool is done in
the open chamber. The two dififerent temperatures are obtained
l»y forming a muffle which is not open to the direct flame and
derives its heat through the walls of the muffle. The outer part

\ol. XII, No. 2] BADGER: OIL BURNING FURNACES

,»6^

Fig. 5.

Details of con-
struction of small
hammer furnace,
shown in Fig. 4.
These are made In
all sizes, with single
or double chambers.

"^/fv

88 THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [January, 1921

lias tlie flame directly into it. The tlour lias a checker work of
brick underneath so that the Haiiie circulates completely around
tlie muffle. The work in this type of furnace is usually governed
by a pyrometer so that it is \ery easy to maintain the correct tem-
;)erature. The temperature required is from 1400° to 1500"
1-ahr. in the muffled chamber, and from 1700° to 1800° Fahr.
in the open chamber. These are constructed in either the small
leg or the full length type.

Plate furnaces are \aried in size according to the size of the
plates to be heated. They are constructed with a low arch and
a low door opening and are so arranged that the entire plate is
heated uniformly. To accomplish this in the case of circular
plates it is necessary to ha\c a hollow bottom with vents in the
floor that allaw the heat to come up against the bottom of the
plate in the center. .\ sample of this type is shown in Fig. 6.

Rivet machine furnaces are used for heating the rods before
they are fed to the rivet machines. The rods are fed directly
From the furnace and are thus kept hot until the last reaches the
machine. The}- are long and narrow, usually about 25'-o" long
and about 2^" wide. .Ml burners are placed on the same side.
I'he arch slopes down quite sharply to the other side. This to-
gether with the hollow bottom insures an even distribution of the
heat at all times. Tlie tem])erature required is from 1700° to
1800° Fahr.

Spring and casehardening furnaces are used for working
spring steel and for case hardening. The temperature for spring
work is about 1600° Fahr. although this varies with the class of
spring steel used. The Hashing of the temper is accomplished in
a muffle chamber away from the llanie. The furnaces are so ar-
ranged that two si)ring fitters may work at the same one.

In all of the furnaces above described and all others it is
necessary to consider the space to be heated in determining the
number of combustion chambers required. One combustion
chamber will properly heat a space of from 30 to 40 cubic feet.
The amount of oil consumed will vary according to the temper-
ature required but will run from three gallons per hour on the
small and low temperature furnaces, to eight gallons per hour on
the large and high temperature furnaces.

The control of the oil supply is obtained with a needle valve
placed between the preheater and strainer, and the burner. The

Vol. XII, No. 2] BADGER: OIL BURNING FURNACES

90 THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [January, 1921

control is so exact that with all conditions as they should be, the
burners can be set to give the desired heat and will require no
adjusting to maintain that temperature.

The few different types described are for the most general
kinds of work, but give a fairly good idea of the field covered.
In all cases a furnace should be designed for the particular work
it will be called upon to do, for in this way only are the two
greatest essentials derived ; namely efficiency and economy.

An attempt has been made to make the furnace proposition
as clear as possible, without going into too many details and
without centralizing on any particular kind, as the field is very
large and varying.

THE FEDERATED AMERICAN ENGINEERING
SOCIETIES

One of the most encouraging of recent developments in the
engineering world, is the organization of the Federated American
Engineering .Societies. This organization, embracing as it does
the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, the American
Institute of Electrical Engineers, and the American Institute
of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers, stands in a position
where it can direct all the .Societies toward a common goal. It
can eliminate much of the friction between the various branches
that has heretofore existed, and can establish in its stead, a unity
of effort tliat will hel]) all. Herbert Hoover, the president of the
Federated Societies, is a man of broad understanding, and is fully
capable of the task before him. We appreciate the difffculties
confronting such an organization in its early years, and wish it
much success.

THE APPLICATION OF AUTOMATIC SUBSTATIONS
TO INTERURBAN LINES

By Charles H. Jones '09.

The cost of powei- on the average iiiterurban property is one
of the large items of operating expense. The unit is usually
very high, due to the lower load factor and high operating charge.
Substations are usually 300 or 500 K. W. units and the operating
charges on this size of stations are as heavy as those on large
stations. It is usually the case to combine this operating work with
some other, such as that of ticket or freight agent. This is not very
satisfactory as the kinds of work are entirely different. A man
does not become proficient in operation as the majority of his
work is that of an agent, and substation operation is only a side-
line. This desire to combine jobs very often is one of the fun-
damental ideas considered in laying out the substations and the
result is that an ideal power system is sacrificed to operating
expense. In the long run an inefficient power system results.

Often several machines are placed in a station when it would
be to the general advantage of the system to spread them out,
but the high cost of operation prevents such a layout. The
automatic substation has done a great deal to correct this error
as it has made possible the additions of substations without cor-
responding increase in operating expenses. This has resulted
in a radical change in power conversion and distribution engi-
neering, for it has shifted the investment from distribution copper
to automatic substation control equipment in the substations.
I'hese changes result in reduced operating expenses, reduced
line losses and reduced idle running time of converters. The
latter two are \ery important and in many cases will show a
greater saving than that made in operating labor.

Another factor of considerable importance, is the speed of
operation in case of emergency and the positiveness of such op-
eration. This is not the case with hand operation, as under ad-
verse conditions the rather inexperienced operator in stations of
this type does not function properly or as quickly as automatic
equipment.

The introduction of automatic substations came about at a time
when electric railway properties were doing practically no ex-
tension work. On account of serious financial difficulties

92 THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [January, 1911

and inability to raise money, very few installations were made,
although a saving could have been made in operating expense
due to their installation. The result has been that practically all
installations which have been made were due to either an ex-
tension of the system or a rehabilitation of the power system.

'ihe Chicago, North Shore & Milwaukee Railroad, a high
s})eed heavy serxice inlerurban line between Chicago and Mil-
waukee, was one of the pioneers in the installation on inter-
urban systems. In fact, it is practically the first extensive in-
stallation for heavy service. The passenger equipment consists
of 45-47 ton steel cars equipped with four 140 h. p. motors each;
15-40 ton steel trailer cars; 40-38 ton wooden interurban cars
with four 75 li. p. motors per car. There are also 22 express
cars with two motor (-((uipments, two 40 ton and two 50 ton
locomotives and 150 freight cars, together with the usual com-
j»lement of line cars, work cars. |)lows. sweepers, etc.

An hourly high speed limited servicers given between Chicago
and Milwaukee, a distance of 86 miles, on week days and half-
hourly service on Saturday afternoons and Sundays. The run-
ning time is two hours and thirt}-five minutes on regular limited
trains and two no-stop trains are operated in each direction
daily making the run in two hours and ten minutes. The schedule
speed is 34.5 miles ]>er hour but about 38 miles of this is through
cities and towns wliich require a reduced speed, so that for the
balance of the run it is necessarv to maintain a speed of over
sixty p.iiles per hour, b'or tliis service, the equipment is oper-
ated in trains of from two to five cars. A half-hourly express
serxice is also maintained between Chicago and \\'aukegan, and
a half-hourly local serxice l)etxveen luanston and Waukegan.

In addition to the aboxe service an extensive merchandise dis-
patch service is handled betxveen Chicago and Milwaukee. Over
a part of the system considerable carload freight is handled whicn
consists princii)ally of sand, graxel. stone, and coal.

From the aboxe tabulation of serxice rendered it is evident
that considerable responsibility is placed upon the power system.

In 1906 the i»ox\er sxstein was only sufficient to handle single
car serxice using a 38 ton car. W'itli the purchase of additional
car equipment it became necessary to increase the poxver facili-
ties. At this time a xerv careful studv was made of the various

Vol. VII, No. 2] JONES: SUBSTATIONS 93

methods available, which were the raising of the line voltage,
the addition of feeder copper, or the increasing of the number of
substations. On account of the large amount of old motor equip-
ment which would not stand an increase in operating voltage,
the changes in control equipment necessarj^ for operation on
two hne voltages, and the probable municipal objection to a 1200
\ olt system in cities, it was decided that the first method was
out of the cjuestion. Calculations made on the feeder system,
showed that the amount of copper required was so great as to
make the cost prohibitive, and in addition the line loss would
be very great. Therefore, it was decided to increase tlie number
of substations. The spacing at that time was approximately 13
miles on the north end of the line, which is in high speed territory,
and the one where most low voltage trouble was encountered.
A careful investigation was made of existing automatic substa-
tions at that time and it was decided to make the new stations
automatic. These are located approximately half-way between
the hand stations. Two of these were installed in 1917 and one
in 1918. The rotary equipments were obtained from other parts
of the line where larger sized machines were installed in the
manual stations. The automatic equipment was purchased new
and installed in buildings erected for this j^articular purpose.
.\11 of these installations were made with 500 K. W. 25 cycle
equipment.

On account of the pressure of war business at the Great Lakes
Xaval Training .Station it became necessary to make a manu-
ally operated temporary installation of a new 1000 K. AV. rotary.
This equipment was intended as automatic and the building was
erected accordingly. The automatic equipment was added in
tlie winter of 19 18 and 19 19. Since that time automatic equip-
ment has been added to one of tW'O 300 K. \\'. machines in the
Libertyville manually operated substation.

A sixth station is now in the course of installation to replace
a portable substation at Raxinia Park. This is to be a 1000
K. W. 60 cycle installation, which is the first station of this
frequency to be installed on the line.

In the installation of this type of station it is possible to
effect considerable economy in building construction, due to the
tact that the conveniences usually provided for operators, sucli

94 THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [January, 1921

as plumbing, heating, etc., can be eliminated. Single unit station
buildings are all that are needed, as the theor>' of the system
demands many stations and short feeding areas. The substation
buildings used on the North Shore Line are one story in height
without basements, and ha\e shallow machine pits, the floors of
which are raised about two feet abo\e the surrounding ground
level to prevent the acccumulation of water. The foundations
are of concrete and extend to a point 6 inches above the floor
level. The walls from this point up are of brick. Pressed brick
is used outside and common brick inside. The roof, which is
of 3 in. reinforced concrete, is supported by steel beams, one
steel column being located approximately in the center of the
building. The floor is of 6 in. concrete laid on a cinder bed. Light
is admitted through wire glass windows set in steel frames just
below the roof on three sides. Ventilation is provided by louvers
on all sides just above the floor, with Burt Ventilators in the
roof. High tension line entrance is made through the roof with
45000 volt roof bushings. The building is of suflFicient size to
accommodate equipments up to 2000 K.W'. capacity.

The automatic equipment is comparatively simple in its oper-
ation and its performance corresponds with that which takes
place in the automatic accelerating equipment on multiple unit
trains. The conditions under which it performs are a great deal
more favorable in the substation than on a car. The number of
operations is bound to be a great deal smaller than on car equip-
ment. The latter ha\e stood the test of time and therefore there
is no reason wh) the substation e(|uii)ment will not stand up
equally as well. The various protective devices used are no
different than those which have been used in manually operated
substations for years, and their performance is known. The
various contactors, etc., used, have had long tryouts in industrial
work, and have given satisfactory results.

When high tension switching problems are invohed in the
station under consideraticjn they require careful analysis, as very
often it will be possible to handle them at a point, where other-
wise men Avould be required for the twenty-four period.

The results of automatic operation have been very gratifying
and from our experience I have come to the conclusion that in
the future the automatic substation will play a ven.' important
part in railway elrctrificatinn problem^. Tt has put a new feature

Vol. XII, No. 2] JONES: SUBSTATIONS 95

into the direct current system on account of its having n^ade
possible greater Hniits for 600 volt apphcation due to a reduction
in the cost of feeder installation and in the line losses. This is
a great advantage as the lower line voltage lessens the dif^culties
encountered in the maintenance of both car and overhead equip-
ment.

WIRELESS TELEPHONY AS A POLICE AID

The use of the wireless telephone as an aid in the prevention
of crime is being tested by the Police Department of St. Louis.
A sending outfit with a range of forty miles has been installed
at the police headquarters and three automobiles have been
equipped with receiving apparatus. By this means it is possible
to change the orders of a squad while it is at work. One man in
each automobile has the receiver strapped to his head at all times.
If, for instance, a squad were sent out on a false clew and correct
information reached headquarters after the men had left, it would
be possible to stop the wild-goose chase and give the squad the
proper orders. — Electricol World, Jan. i, 192 1.

FUEL AND AIR MIXING DEVICES FOR INTERNAL
COMBUSTION ENGINES.

By Daniel Roesch, '04.

The correct proportioning of fuel to air supply, and the homo-
geneous blending of the mixture, are of \ ital importance to the
satisfactory operation of internal combustion engines.

THEOKIiriCAL PROPOKTIOMNG.

The theoretical air rc(juirements may be computed for the fuels
jiiost commonlv used in combustion engines as follows:
r"oK Xaiikai. CiAS : (By Volume).
Principal Constituent, Methane (CHJ
CH, + 2O, = CO, + 2H,0
Then for each cu. ft. of Methane 2 cu. ft. of O. are required.
Since air ]>y volume is 21% Oo and 79% No
2

— = 9.53 cu. ft. air required per cu. ft. of natural gas.
21

For Natural Gas (By Weight)
CH, + 2O, = CO, + 2H,0,
Molecular weight of CH^ = 12 -f 4 = 16.
Molecular weight of 2O, = 2 X 32 = 64.
Molecular weight of CO. = 12 -f- 32 = 44.
Molecular weight of 2H0O = 2 (2 -f- 16) =36.
or
16 lb. CH^ unites with 64 lb. O,, to form 44 lb. CO, and 36 lb. H^O.

64
Therefore, for each lb. of CH, burned — or 4 lb. of 0, must be

16
furnished.

.Since air is 20, O., and //% N„ by weight, the air require-
ment is

4
or 17.32 lb. per air per lb. of natural gas.

0.23

The computation of Air Ri:quiri:.mi:nts for Gasoline is made

complex because gasoline is a nn'xture of various hydrocarbons.

Vol. Xil, xVo. 2] ROESCH: FUEL MIXING 97

When it is desired to compute the air requirements in a similar
manner as that given for natural gas, it is necessary to know the
nature and amount of each constituent. The individual air re-
quirement of each constituent is then computed in accordance
with the amount of the same present in a unit volume or weight.
The sum of these gives the air requirements per unit of fuel. As
in other mixtures, oxygen present in the fuel decreases the neces-
sary oxygen and air supply. An average analysis will show by
weight :

Carbon, per cent 84.0

Hydrogen, per cent 15.5

Nitrogen. Oxygen, Sulphur, etc.. per cent. . 0.5

Total, per cent 100. o

Using this analysis we can conveniently determine the oxy-
gen and air requirements by tlie following method :

Taking the carbon and hydrogen content separately :
For Carbon Content:

C + O, = CO2.
12 -L- 32 = 44.

One pound of carbon requires ( — ) of oxygen.

12
0.85 pound of carbon requires 0.2667 X 0.85 lb. of oxygen,
or 0.2266 lb. of oxygen.
For Hydrogen Content :

2FL -\- 0„ -^ 2H,0.
4 + 32 = 36.
32
One pound of hydrogen requires -^ lb. of oxygen.

4
0.155 pound of hydrogen requires 8 X 0.155 lb. of oxygen.

or 0.124 Iti. f;f oxygen.
The total O2 required will then be : 0.2266 -f 0.1240 == 0.3506 lb.
per lb. of oxygen.

0.3506

The air requirement by weight is = 15.23 lb.

0.23

98 THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [January, 1921

To obtain the mixture ratio by Volume of Liquid Gasoline
TO Air we must know the density of the Hquid gasohne and the
density of the air.

6.2

Gasohne weighs approximately 6.2 lb. per gallon or = 0.0268

231
lb. per cu. in.

231

This corresponds to = 37.3 cu. in. |)er pound.

6.2
Air at 62 deg. fahr. occupies 13.14 cu. ft. per lb.
From the above we have :

I lb. of gasoline requires 15.23 lb. air for combustion.
Then :

37.3 cu. in. of liquid requires 15.23 X 13-14 cu. ft. of air for
combustion ; or

15.23 X 13-14 X 1728

Each cu. in, of liquid gasohne requires

37-3
cu. in. of air = 9280 cu. in.

The use of gasoline of ditiferent composition from that given
above or assuming air at other temperatures and pressures will
modify the above values.

The mixture ratio of Gasoline Vapor to Air can be obtained
from the above, knowing the ratio of volumes of liquid gasoline
and gasoline vapor.

One pound of liquid gasoline produces approximately 4.2 cu.
ft. of gasoline vapor at 60 deg. fahr., and hence:
Liquid Gasoline vs. Gasoline Vapor
37.3 cu. in. =*= 1728 X 4-2 cu. in.
or
1 cu. in. ^= 195.6 cu. in.

From abo\ e :

1 cu. in liquid gasoline requires 9280 cu. in of air for com-
bustion. Therefore:

I cu. in. gasoline \apor requires 47.4 cu. in of air for com-
bustion.

Vol. XII, No. 2] ROESCH: FUEL MIXING yy

Practical Proportioning.

The above requirements are for a theoretical mixture and are
modified in practice for the following reasons :

Due to stratification, which is always present to a more or less
extent, some sections of an engine cylinder charge will be richer
than others. There are, therefore, lean, rich and correct portions
to each mixture. The actual carburetor adjustment must be made
rich enough so that the fuel-impoverished sections of the charge
will propagate the flame. This means an enriched charge, but
this factor is coordinated with the fact that a certain range of ex-
plosiveness is possible with gasoline. The latter influence permits
an adjustment with less enrichment even to the extent of air
excess. Because of the importance of stratification trouble we
find considerable attention given to this matter in a carburetor,
manifold and engine design, and numerous instances of static and
dynamic devices to produce turbulence.

Another phase of the above, which influences the mixture, as
adjusted in the carburetor of a multiple cylinder engine, is that of
unequal distribution or stratification between cylinders. In many
cases one or more cylinders will be rich (or lean), while all the
others have the proper mixture. If this condition is adverse
enough to cause missing, the leaning (or enriching) of the car-
buretor may cause the cylinders that are missing to fire without
impoverishing (or enriching) the other cylinders sufficiently to
get beyond the range of explosiveness. Aggravated cases of this
condition would require a redesign or attention to the mechanical
defects which cause them.

Common cases of the poor mechanical conditions producing
stratification between cylinders are as follows:

1. Leaky Inlet Valve Stem Guides.

2. Leaky Piston Rings.

3. Leaky Valves.

In any of the above cases satisfactory- adjustment could be
made if all cylinders leaked the same and within the range of
correction by carburetor adjustment. However, these leaks usu-
ally var}' in the difterent cylinders and are not constant. In this
connection it is interesting to note that mixture ratios taken from
a carburetor that performs satisfactorily on an engine in "good''
condition show a ver\' rich mixture at closed throttle and close

lUU

THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [January, 1921

to theoretical mixture ratio at wide open throttle. This is attrib-
uted to air leakage principally through the inlet \alvc stem guides,
which is greatest at closed throttle because of the greater differ-
ence in pressure across the guide (Inlet manifold suction 15 to 20
inches of mercury). .Such leakage is practically nothing at full
load on the engine when the inlet manifold depression may be 0.5
to 1.0 inches of mercury. The carburetor engineer must there-
fore design the carburetor "wrong" to make it right.

Another factor that influences the mixture ratio is the quality
of the fuel and its vaporizability. With gasoline of extremely
high end point or mixtures of gasoline and kerosene, a part of
the fuel goes into the cylinder unvaporized and as such requires
less air for coml)U>tion. This is a condition always found when
starting cold and demands the use of the choke or car-
buretor dash control to enrich the mixture. It is estimated that
for zero temperature starting with gasoline, about twenty times
the fuel must be supplied in order to produce an explosive mix-
ture. As soon as the combustion chamber has had a few explo-

sions this reriuirenient is reduced to ten or five times the normal
fuel supply. .Subsequent warming of the engine furnishes a hot
air supply, and increasing temperature to the cylinder walls and
the hot spot (where provided), and permits normal carburetor
adjustments to be used. The above description of starting con-
ditions also furnishes a clue to undue crank case oil dilution.
The abnormally rich mixture used condenses on the piston head
and is forced by the rings into the crank case. At the same time

A'ol. XII, No. 2] RbESCH: FUEL MIXING TOl

the oil is washed from the cylinder walls and is frequently the
direct cause of scoring of these parts.

Classification and IDescription of Devices Used.

A. For Gaseous Fuels :

I. Mixing valves. (Often combined with governing
throttle valve).

B. For Liquid Fuels:

1. Injection devices.

' (a) Dependent entirely on heat of compression for
ignition,
(b) Dependent on hot bulb or hot plate for ignition.

2. Oil gas producers combined with mixing valve.

3. Vaporizers or generators.

4. Atomizers or carburetors.

(a) Surface. ' ;;,

(b) Puddle.

C. For Solid Fuels :

1. Gas producers for coal, peat or wood.

2. Air contact generators for solidified gasolines or al-
cohols.

-^ (Use a mixing valve of some kind to proportion
the charge correctly).

3. Direct injection of powdered fuels or colloidially sus-
pended fuels.

Fig. I shows an elementary form of mixing valve for gaseous
fuels. The gas and air cocks are regulated so that an explosive
mixture leaves the device and enters the engine. To maintain
constant proportions, the gas is usually regulated to approxi-
mately atmospheric pressure at its regulating cock. This is ef-
fected by a pressure regulator or gasometer. With gas at a
higher pressure than atmospheric the mixture would be rich at
light loads and lean at heavier loads. Maintenance of this gas
pressure at about zero gauge is of utmost importance when an
engine operates at varying load, but good results can be obtained
for any uniform gas pressure if the demand of the engine is con-
stant. The usual permissable allowance is -f- or — 0.5 inch of
water.

102

THE ARMOUR ENGINEER

[January, 1921

Fig. 2 shows a successful mixing and throttle valve combined
which is suitable for clean gases. EHrty gats or air will cause the
close fitting cylindrical valve to stick. Dirty oil wiil produce the
same results and cause irregular governing action. A is the mani-
fold casting with a machined bushing, B, pressed in place.
This construction permits the parts in the bushing to be machined
accurately. The valve C-1) is in two parts and held together by
the center bolt. The lower extension of this bolt connects to the

n^^

governor, which can then move the valve axially. Rotation of
either part (" or O can be made independently to give varying

Vol. XII, No. 2] ROESCH: FUEL MIXING 103

amounts of gas or air. These pass to the center of the valve and
then to the manifold, as indicated by the arrows. The valve as
originally made did not have the parts E, F and G and gave a
stratified mixture. The added parts forced the gas to go to the
lower part of the valve and out of the small holes, where it in-
timately mingled with the larger air volume. These changes pro-
duced a smoother running engine and lower fuel consumption.

The desired mixture is hand regulated for the correct gas port
opening. After this setting is made the governor action opens or
closes these ports proportionately and maintains the mixture (as
adjusted by hand) for all loads on the engine. The cutting off
edges of the ports must be identical or the mixture ratio will
change at light loads. Conditions like this are sometimes pro-
duced by dust in the air piling up at X X X X, especially when
oil is present at these points. A stop is usually provided which
hmits the closure to port openings just sufficient to operate the
engine with no load. This prevents missing and hunting under
varying loads.

For Liquid Fuels other arrangements have been devised
which can be classified as follows :

Injection of the liquid fuel into the cylinder is used in the
Diesel engine, and combustion begins as soon as the fuel comes in
contact with the highly heated air. The air must, of course, be
above the spontaneous ignition point of the fuel. The required
temperature is obtained from the heat of compression, which is
from 900 to 1 100 deg. Fahr., with compressions of from 500 to
550 lb. per sq. in. In order to more completely atomize the fuel
and reduce stratification and slow burning, this liquid fuel is
injected with higher pressure air. This effectively subdivides the
fuel and distributes it through the air for combustion. The
atomization is accompanied by a slight refrigeration effect.

A somewhat similar arrangement is used in the Hvid type of
engine, wherein the liquid fuel is first introduced into a "cup'*
of relatively small volume and which is in communication with
the main combustion chamber. The construction therefore
does not require a separate air supply for fuel injection. Com-
pressions of 400 to 425 lb. per sq. in. are practical for kerosene.
Sufficient temperature rise from compression is obtained to start
and operate on this cycle.

104 THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [January, 1921

The Semi-Diesel and Hot Bulb types have also come into ex-
tensive use, permitting of lower compressions but requiring some
local hot spot in the combustion chamber to effect sufficient tem-
perature rise for igniting the fuel. Provision for starting cold
may include an electric spark plug, a hot wire or preliminary
heating by a torch or a hot bulb. Control of the point of ignition
if influenced by the temperature of the jacket water or air and by
the load on the engine. The Semi-Diesel may have from 150 to
300 lb. per sq. in. compression, while the hot bulb type is usually
lower and may be 50 lb. per sq. in.

The use of liquid fuels in internal combustion is sometimes
accomplished by first cracking these fuels with heat and then
using the gaseous fuel formed as described above. Oil gas pro-
ducers can in this way supply gaseous fuels for other purposes.

A somewhat similar arrangement is used when lighter fuels
are available. The heating them vaporizes the fuel without crack-
ing, and it can be mixed directly or in two stages with the re-
quired air. The two-stage method has the advantage of facilitat-
ing the transfer of the rather unstable fuel through the neces-
sary piping. Condensation of the fuel must be carefully guarded
against. The engine jacket water or exhaust gases are used for
this heating.

The most extensively used devices for proportioning liquid
fuel and air, before introduction into the engine are the car-
buretors or atomizers. These use the relatively lighter fuels, as
gasolines and kerosenes. For the very light gasolines the Sur-
face or Puddle types of carburetors are satisfactor}'. The air
in passing over or through the fuel is sufficiently enriched at
ordinary temperatures to produce the Sesired mixture ratio. An
objection lies in the more rapid evaporization of the lighter ele-
ments while the heavier constituents of the fuel remain behind
and accumulate in the bowl of the mixing device. The Spray
types of carburetors, however, use a considerably greater range of
fuels and have hence practically replaced the surface or puddle
types. One of the requirements for good mixtures is the thor-
ough distribution of the fuel in the air. The mixture must be
homogenous to give quick and complete burning. The higher
the engine speeds the more imperative this requirement. With
stratified mixtures the burning becomes slow and incomplete, re-

Vol. Xll, No. 2J ROESCH: FUEL MIXING 105

suiting in lower power, greater fuel consumption and a greater
loss of heat to the water jackets. The latter item is directly
caused by the greater cylinder wall exposure to the lingering
flame. In some cases the flame dies out while attempting to
propagate itself through the charge which is too lean or too rich
in parts. This problem of intimately mixing the fuel and air is
more difficult with such fuels as gasoline (approximate mixture
ratio I to 9000 by volume) than it is with fuels such as natural
gas (approximate mixture ratio i to 10 or 12). It can be com-
pared in the case of mixing liquid gasoline with air to attempting
a mixture of uniform color with a bottle of India ink and a tub
of milk. The elimination of streaks requires energetic stirring.
A natural turbulence is usually incorporated in the carburetor,
and manifolds are often designed to augment this characteristic.

Typical, Practical Mixture Ratios.

FUEL

FUEL TO AIR

Natural Gas (Volume to

Volume)

i-ii

Natural Gas "

1-7

Water Gas "

1-3

Coke Oven Gas "

1-6

Producer Gas "

1-1.25

Blast Furnace Gas "

i-i

Gasoline Liquid "

1-9000

Gasoline Liquid (Weight to Weight) . . .

1-15

*Gasoline Liquid (Weight

Volume) . .

1-200

Gasoline Vapor (Volume

Volume) . .

1-53

Benzol (Weight to Weight)

1-14

Alcohol

I-IO

*Lb. to cu. ft.

MAKING WORK A GAMF

By L. K. Sillcox.
The following inspiring address zums made by the genera!
superm^tendent of motive power of the Chicago Mihvaukee &
St. Paul Ry. to the Raihvay Club of the University of Illinois,
December i6. It is a timely introduction to the coming holiday^
season — a ti^nc for careful meditation and resolution, but it is
also good for all times. Play the game and make good I

When it came to choosing a subject, the one selected seems
to briefly sum up my experience since entering the vocation of
railroad life and it would be my purpose tonight to take a few
leaves from the book of experience and present them in a frank
and faithful manner.

It is well to remember that all growth depends upon activity,
and life is manifest only by action. Furthermore, there is no
development physically or intellectually without effort, and effort
means work. Work is not a curse, it is the prerogative of in-
telligence, the only means to manhood and the measure of civi-
lization. The degree of success which one may attain is not
merchandise or position or anything else but character, and it
is, therefore, important to determine at any time not so much
where we are, but exactly whither we are going.

In railroad activity we are brought face to face with the vary-
ing human quantity on account of the diversity of the work, more
than in any other field. The success of a railroad in the end is
largely patterned after the fashion of a mans career, and there-
fore, depends upon the character and effectiveness of service
rendered by each individual composing the organization. The
personal example set by those in authority is of vast importance,
and education through intimate contact of officers with men
serving in their departments in an honest endeavor to bring home
to each one the critical situation in reference to transportation
matters, is very necessary, so that a true realization of personal
responsibility may be had, and thus obtain adequate return in
honest endeavor for every expenditure made in the handling of
the business off'ered.

♦Reprinted from the "Railway Review." — 12-2$-'20.

Vol. XII, No. 2] SILLCOX: MAKING WORK A GAME 107

Faith in the Individual.

A true preventative of labor difficulties is to be found in the
cultivation of a good understanding between employees and their
officers. In these days, grave problems have to be faced in the
railroad and industrial world and we can readily see that their
only solution lies in keeping before us fundamental virtues and
an endeavor should be made to avoid some of the most familiar
and most undesirable of the traits to which mankind has owed
untold degradation and suffering throughout the ages. America
is built on faith in the individual, faith in his will and power to
do right of his own accord, but equally in the determination that
the individual shall be protected against whatsoever force may
be brought against him. We believe in him not because of what
he has, but what he is. Good will come out of the present evils
if we face them armed with honesty of purpose, demonstrating
that we are fearless of soul, firm in time of necessity, and if we
exert a kindly disposition to talk without the betraying weakness
that cringes before wrong-doing, and showing by deeds and words
our knowledge, that in such a government as ours, each of us
must personally bear a sense of duty to the nation.

I speak in this way, because, if college bred men are to exer-
cise an influence over the progress of the world which is their
portion, they must exhibit in their lives a knowledge and a learn-
ing which \s tnarked tmth candor, humility and the honest mind.
In these days of violent agitation, scholarly men should reflect
that the progress of the past has been accomplished not by the
overthrow of institutions, so much as discarding that which was
bad and preserving that which was good, all in a sense of evo-
lution; unless such a plan is adhered to, we should have missed
the central feature, in all progress.

There is a natural desire in every human mind to seek better
conditions, and such is highly praiseworthy, but there must be
discrimination in the methods employed. Wholesale criticism
of everybody and everything does not necessarily exhibit honor-
able qualities and may not be true. On the other hand, we must
always have an alert and interested citizenship and in order to
obtain it, we must look to ourselves not in expectation of a re-
ward, but with a desire to serve, realizing that out of government
we obtain exactly what we put into it. It is the part of educated
men to know and recognize these principles and influences, and

108 THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [January, 1921

knowing them to warn their fellow countrymen, many of whom
have not had adequate opportunity to truthfully and impartially
judge facts for themselves.

Hoiv Responsibility Comes to Men.

As you men ad\ance, }ou will hnd that responsibilities will
crowd in upon you according to the measure of progress realized.
Our nation today needs the help and assistance of every well-
informed man, to first see that in his own experience, he is doing
all that he can for the best interests of advancement, and at the
same time, is endea\oring to inform along proper lines those who
are so easily misled and who have not had the advantages of
higher education. This will often require extreme courage, but
it is the part of real men to play.

It may be wondered just why 1 have used this sort of a pre-
liminars' discussion and it would be better explained if I could
tell you what a large portion of a railroad officer's time is taken
up in dealing with the human side of the service; that is, espec-
ially in these days ; the purpose being to tr}' and have employees
function since railroad managements are doing their utmost along
honest lines to obtain reciprocal response. Unless this can be
realized in full measure, no railroad can really socceed. From
this you can see that an officer, no matter how highly educated
he may be, unless he has schooled himself to be a real fellow,
can ne\er hope to succeed and get the best from his subordinates.
I commend this thought to you and ask that any man who leaves
this university to take up railroad work, or in fact any occupa-
tion, that in his ten, fifteen or twenty years' apprenticeship to
become an officer, that he fail not to study men from day to day
and endeavor to learn from those with whom he associates, to
store up and build upon his best and most lasting experience. If
this is done, there is no question that "with the equipment of a
good education and a manly conduct, future success is bound to
become a realization.

Any college man going into railroad service on a large system,
must successfully compete with a vast number of energetic,
earnest, honorable men who have not had the advantages which
he has enjoyed and this is an appeal to every college man entering
railroad service to try and be doubly careful, not to lay undue
weight on the question of his education, as compared to his neigh-

\ol. XII, No. 2| SILLCOX: MAKING WORK A GAME 109

bor's. This can be brought into play later, as an executive, far
better than in the probationary years in the shop as a. junior
officer, because much more is expected from the college man and
less excuse would be accepted from him for failing to function,
than would be true of his neighbor, who had not been given these
advantages.'

Mechanical Department a Place for Young Men.

In the mechanical department on the railroad with which I
am connected, we have many splendid university men who are
doing wonderfully good service; a number are running loco-
motives and for reasons known to themselves have not aspired to
executive positions, yet their influence is tremendously beneficial
in the field where they serve. We have other men who are
steadily advancing and are a great credit to themselves and our
company ; in fact, they are indispensable on account of the ser-
vices they have been able to give. Recently, it has been necessary
to promote a number of technical graduates, but the supply of
mechanical men on the railroad has not been sufficient, with the
result that we are breaking in civil, electrical and mining engineers
to mechanical positions, these men having served many years with
our property. I mention this for the reason that there are places
for university men on the railroads today and there is as much
opportunity as in the past, but college men must make themselves
fit and work out their plans in such a way that they will obtain
access to these promotions and conduct themselves in such a
manner through power of example that they will be found indis-
pensable to the service.

There are many problems which are being given serious thought
at this time where the best possible education is required, and
where men who have been trained to think clearly along local
lines, are needed.

Taking the locomotive problem, for instance; the immediate
need is to provide more power without imposing additional strains
on roadway or structures. Further than this, there is a trans-
portation requirement in the improvement of design and method
of operation which will reduce road service failures. The ques-
tion of motive power management to bring it parallel with
those methods which have resulted in the greatest success
to the handling of vast industrial establishments is receiving

no THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [January, 1921

.>erious tliought. Surely the motive power problem presents
possibiKties as great as those in any field of engineering activity
and they are worthy of thought and consideration, as a life task,
to any man. The motive power officer on any large system and
his assistants live a very busy life as compared to past, experience
and there are great questions of shop management, the economics
of operation, and most of all the labor problems, which have
lo be dealt with from day to day. Power has to .be designed,
prepared and maintained to carry trains a mile long with existing
facilities. Records of performance and cost of work must be
carefully reviewed and checked in detail.

The economics, both technical and commercial, surrounding the
operation, maintenance and design of railway equipment is an
enormous problem in itself and requires intimate knowledge of
detailed service so far as it relates to any particular road or
territory. The motive power and car departments of railroads
disclose a two-fold purpose : The technical work which is the
basis of all design and methods in repair and maintenance and of
all those means which are employed by the engineer to insure
freedom from failure and economy in operation; secondly, there
are matters of administration, having to do with men, and with
all of those features which are essential in securing their prompt
and harmonious action. The one is the work of the engineer, the
other the work of the business man. While any motive power
department must perform both of these functions, it may within
limits emphasize one or the other, and evidence is not lacking
which shows a tendency in present practice to slight the technical
and to emphasize the admini-stration.

The Tasks Ahead for Young Engineers.

To be successful in either of these branches, wide experience
is necessary. It is into the engineering branch that technical
school graduates are most likely to drift, the work being not only
agreeable but clo.sely allied to the student's experience at school.
Without in any way reflecting upon the opportunities ofTered in
the line of mechanical engineering, it should be said that ex-
perience, either in the shops, repair yards, or in the roundhouse,
is important for a man who is to succeed. It seems positively
desirable to recommend men to delay entering the engineering
work until they have had experience in one or more of the other

\ol. XII, No. 2] SILLCOX: MAKING WORK A GAME 111

branches. If they are by temperament and abihty quahfied for
either shop or road administration, tiiey will learn this fact most
easily and quickly in connection with the actual contact, and if
they are better fitted for engineering service, they will be better
able to handle them later on, because of the road or shop experi-
ence. It seems in general, desirable for men to avoid the technical
branches immediate}}' upon completion of their college course.

In studying the careers of successful men, a prominent fact is
developed, which seems specially applicable to railroad men.
Those who have actvtally advanced most rapidly and have risen
highest, have usually advanced slowly during the first ten or more
years. It is believed that an attractive future has been pictured
for those who prepare and equip themselves in the right way to
carry the mechanical railroad burden of the future. It most
assuredly will pay to prepare thoroughly and well, for which
years of experience are required.

For men to succeed, it is merely necessary to "make good."
Ever}' railroad official is looking for men who may be trusted
to do things. The official does not need to be told who can do
them. A man makes his record by work itself. He should seek
opportunities to do things that somebody wants done. Of these
opportunities, railroad mechanical department work is full beyond
measure.

TRUCK MAKES 24-HR. N OX -STOP RUN

In a recent test made upon the Indianapolis, Ind., Speedway,
a stock model of the Duplex truck, loaded with gasoline, oil,
and ballast and weighing 8,300 lbs., exclusive of the drivers, made
a 24-hr., non-stop run at an average speed of more than 38 miles
per hour, running the total distance of 930 miles between i 157
P. M. .September 30, and the same hour the following day.

The Armour Engineer

The Quarterly Technical Publication of the

Armour Institute of Technology

VOLUME XII JANUARY, 1921 NUMBER 2

PUBLISHING STAFF FOR THE YEAR 1920-1921

John P. Sanger, Editor Spenser X. Havlick, M'ng. Editor

Fletcher E. Hayden, Bus. Mgr. Emil V. Winter, Assoc. Bus. Mgr.

Board of Associate Editors.

H. M. Raymond, Dean of the Engineering Studies.

L. C. Monin, Dean of the Cultural Studies.

G, F. Gebhardt, Professor of Mechanical Engineering.

E. H. Freeman, Professor of Electrical Engineering.

A. E. Phillips, Professor of Civil Engineering.

H. McCormack, Professor of Chemical Engineering.

E. S. Campbell, Professor of Architectural Design.

Published four times a year, in November, January, March and
May. Publication Office: Federal and 33rd Streets, Chicago.

TERMS OF SUBSCRIPTION.
The Armour Engineer, four issues,postaage prepaid, $1.50 per annum

The Technical Press is invited to reproduce articles,
or portions of same, provided proper credit is given.

UNUSED TOOLS

Perhaps the best known engineer in the United States today,
aside from such inventors as Edison and Steinmetz, is Herbert
Hoover. There are many, however, who do not know that he
is an engineer. Hoover's reputation rests on his relief work in
Belgium and on his administration as Food Director during the
recent war. It is only the technical man who recognizes him as
America's foremost mining engineer and as president of the
Federated American Engineering Societies. Yet this man is one
of the few of his profession who have risen above purely tech-

Vol. XII, No. 2] EDITORIALS 113

nical work, and are using their trained minds to direct great
enterprises.

That this should be the exception rather than the rule in this
day of great industrial activity, seems strange. Many of our
great enterprises have sound engineering practice as the very
foundation of their success. .Such are the steel industry, the oil
business, the railroads, the lumber enterprises, the automobile
business, and many others. Yet at the head of the United States
Steel Corporation is Judge Gary, a lawyer; the leading spirit of
the Standard Oil Company was H. H. Rogers, a business man ;
James Hill, the founder of the Great Northern Railroad, was
an operating man ; and Edw^ard Hines, the lumberman, started
as a salesman. These instances can be duplicated in nearly all of
our great industries. The engineer, whose knowledge is necessary
for their success, is not at their head.

The reason for this state of affairs is not hard to find. The
man who holds the executive position of a great industry must
have a variety of characteristics. He must first have a detailed
knowledge of his own business. He must be able to make quick
decisions. He must be an excellent judge of men. He must
pos-sess great tact. Above all else, (and it is here that the
engineer has failed) he must thoroly understand the business
w^orld of today, and particularly its relation to his own industry.
This entails a knowledge of banking, of insurance, of invest-
ments, of marketing securities, and of foreign trade. Such a man
cannot aflford to be made the plaything of his competitors. He
must see all of the phases of his business.

The engineer to date has been so intent upon his technical
problems that he has either passed by or neglected this other
factor so necessary to his success. The colleges cannot be
blamed for this state of aitairs. for their purpose is to teach the
basic laws upon which all engineering rests, and to point the way
to their application. P2ven here, those subjects dealing with
business principles are the most neglected. The fault lies clearly
enough in the limited interests of the engineering student.

Today the technical man stands as one in possession of a
valuable tool that is useless for want of sharpening. The emery
is at hand, too, for our libraries are full of books on business
principles ; our magazines and newspapers devote page? to them ;
our schools give varied courses in the related subjects ; and busi-

114 THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [January, 1921

ness methods are the constant talk of all men so engaged. If the
engineer wishes to assume his deserved jwsition as a leader in
modern organized society, he must recognize this need of a busi-
ness training, and supply it.

THE SECRET OF THE MACHINES

(Modern Machinery)

W'e were taken from the ore-bed and the mine.

We were melted in the furnace and the pit,

We were cast and wrought and hammered to design,

We were cut and filed and tooled and guaged to fit.

Some water, coal and oil is all we ask,

And a thousandth of an inch to give us play:

And now if you will set us to our task.

We will serve you four and twenty hours a day !

We can pull and haul and push and lift and drive.
W^e can print and plough and weaA e and heat and light,
We can run and jump and swim and fly and dive,
^^ e can see and hear and count and read and write!

Would you call a friend from half across the world?
If youll let us have his name and town and state.
You shall see and hear your crackling question hurled
Across the arch of heaven while you wait.
Has he answered? Does he need you at his side?
You can start this very e\ening if you choose.
And take the western ocean in the stride
Of se\enty thousand horses and some screws"

The boat-express is waiting your command !
You will find the Mauretania at the quay.
Till her captain turns the le\er 'neath his hand.
And the monstrous nine-decked citv goes to sea.

Vol. XII, No. 2] EDITORIALS 115

Do you wish to make the mountains bare their head
And lay their new cut forests at your feet?
Do you want to turn a river in its bed,
Or plant a barren wilderness with wheat?
Shall we pipe aloft and bring you water down
From the never failing cisterns of the snows,
To work the mills and tramways in your town,
And irrigate your orchard as it flows?

It is easy ! Give us dynamite and drills !

Watch the iron-shouldered rocks He down and quake

As the thirsty desert level floods and fills,

And the valley we have damned becomes a lake.

But remember, please, the law by which we live.
We are not built to comprehend a lie,
We can neither love nor pity not forgive,
If you make a slip in handling us you die!
We are greater than the Peoples or the Kings —
Be humble, as you crawl beneath our rods! —
Our touch can alter all created things,
We are everything on earth — except the Gods.

Though our smoke may hide the heavens from your eyes,
It will vanish and the stars will shine again.
Because, for all our power and weight and size.
We are nothing more than children of your brain.

Rudyard Kipling.

THE ARMOUR INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY BRANCH

OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF MECHANICAL

ENGINEERS

Charles T. Walter President

John P. Saiii^er riee-President

Robert W. \'an \'alzah Treasurer

William A. Heitner Seeretary

The meeting ^cliedule adopted by the A. S. M. E. wa.s rigo-
rously adhered. tt). a^ was the policy of calling on members for
short talks.

Mr. J. P. Sanger gave a >nai)py talk on "Cost Accounting."
He touched on :

1. Cost of Finished Product.

2. Cost o.f Indixidual tj] >eration.

3. Overhead Charges.
- 4.. Sales —

(a) Home Markets.

(b) Foreign Markets.

Mr. S. X. Havlick gave a comparative talk on the "Systems ot
.Assembly."' The discussion compared the operations consisting
of minutes and seconds, a^ is illustrated by the "[■"ord" system,
against operations taking an hour or more. This led to a lively
discussion pertaining to the psychological effect of the "Ford''
system on the men.

. Mr. C. B. Doolittle described the proposed Ford Power Plant
at River Rouge. He laid special stress on the type and design
of the boilers, which are so immense that they might easily be

Vol. XII, No. 21 ENGINEERING SOCIETIES 117

termed superboilers, the combustion chambers being so large as
to easily accommodate eight standard Ford cars.

He also discussed the feasibility of making castings from the
metal taken directly from the blast furnaces.

Mr. A. Hoven's talk, "Planning in a Factory," proved^ ver}'
interesting and instructive. He described a system used for
planning the work for machines, and the recording of data suffi-
cient to re-manufacture the articles at some future time.

Other interesting topics were : "Methods of Saving of Coal
Due to Unnecessary Losses in Boilers," by Mr. Naiman ; "Intake
Manifold Design, and Fuel Control," by Mr. H. W. Bird ; "Diesel
Engines," by Mr. S. Webster, and " A Trip Through a Gas
Plant," by Mr. F. Quinlan.

This latter topic proved very interesting since Mr. Quinlan
has served the Gas Company in various capacities for several
years and is an authority on this subject.

The A. S. M, E. is accomplishing its purpose and results are
forthcoming. Wm. A. Heitner, .Secretary.

THE ARMOUR CHEMICAL SOCIETY

President E. F. Winter

Vice-President J. W. McCaffrey

Secretary W. J. Savoye

Treasurer H. W. Ahlbeck

The Armour Chemical Society has held but one important
meeting since the last "Engineer" went to press. This was on
Jan. 4, 1921, when Mr. Herbert Sieck, '11, gave a very inter-
esting talk on "Cocoanut Oil Refining." Mr. Sieck had with
him the flow sheet of the plan of manufacture, and samples of
the oil at various stages of the process. Every man present was
much interested, and the Society wishes to thank Mr. Sieck
most heartily.

The president wishes to announce that he has several instruc-
tive talks planned for the future. On Feb. 15, Mr. David Lesser,
'14, of the Goldsmith Smelting & Refining Company, will talk
on "Secondary Metals; Refining and Smelting." The place will
be Science Hall, and the time four o'clock. All students who
are interested in this, subj-ect are urged to be present.

W. J. Savoye, Sec.

118 THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [January, 1921

THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF ELECTRICAL
ENGINEERS

. In accordance with the plans adopted at the first meeting of
the society, regular meetings of the Armour Branch of the A. I.
E. E. have been held every two weeks, at which the student
members were the speakers. The program has been as follows :
Nov. 5, 1920.

Types of Electric Furnaces, by R. J. Grant.

Theory of the X'acuum Tube as Used in Radio Work, by

W. W. Pearce.
Electrical Apparatus for Unloading Vessels, by A. R.
Mehrhoff.
Nov. 19, 1920.

Burning Out a 750 \'olt Turbo Alternator, by R. C. Grube.
Discussion by D. S. Chase, L. S. Bloom, and T. L. Albee.
Dec. 10, 1920.

The Lake Front Improvement, by J. J. O'Rourke.
Machine Switching Telephone Boards, by G. H. Kelly.
Development of Synchronous Convertors, by T. L. Albee.
Dec. 13, 1920.

Ardois System of Signalling, by F. V^. Walters.
Gas Engines As Prime Movers, by R. J. Grant.
* The Outlook for the 1921 Graduates, by Leslie Weiss.
Jan. 7, 1921.

Regular meeting, followed by a smoker in the Y. M. C. A.
rooms. Speakers at the smoker included Prof. Freeman,
and two graduate engineers.
The A. I. E. E. is going into things with a snap this year. The
plan of student talks is proving a great success. Every member
of the Armour branch is gaining valuable knowledge and expe-
rience in giving these short talks, and all have proved willing to
accept a share of the responsibility. The year of 1920-1921 is
proving one of the best years experienced in the history of the

^^^"^h- T. L. Albee, Sec.

* Leslie Weiss, an Armour graduate of 1918, took the General
Electric Company's Training Course at Schenectady, and is at
present in the managing department of a hydro-electric develop-
ment in Pennsylvania.

Vol. XI], No. 2] ENGINEERING SOCIETIES 119

THE FIRE PROTECTION ENGINEERING SOCIETY

President IV. E. Kingslcy.

Vice-President JV. W. Oakc

Secretary . /. W. Roddick

Treasurer E. IV. Geisler

Chairman of Social Committee. .R. R. Maguirc
The Fire Protection Engineering Society, which has been dor-
mant since the period of the war, was reorganized on November
15. President Kingsley deHvered a very unique opening ad-
dress, setting forth the object and aims of the society, after
which the main business was discussed. A committee was ap-
pointed to revise the constitution to meet the present needs.

Prof. Finnegan, head of the department of Fire Protection
Engineering, gave an interesting talk on the need of technical
men in the insurance field.

The outlook for the society for the coming year is very bright,
due to the presentation of twenty-five scholarships a year by the
Western Actuarial Bureau. This large increase in the Fire
Protection course will mean a great deal to the future of the
society, since all the men are here for a definite purpose. The
new men have shown their interest in the society by being present
at the first meeting, which was a great success.

J. W. Roddick, Sec.

THE WESTERN SOCIETY OF ENGINEERS

Since the writing of the report of the activities of our society
for the last issue of the "Engineer," we have held two very
profitable meetings. At the first of these, Dean Monin gave us a
very instructive and, as usual, interesting talk on some of his
vacation experiences, and also talked on other matters of value
to prospective engineers. It was to be regretted that a larger
number of our members did not attend.

The other meeting, after the regular business had been carried
out, consisted of a discourse on "Sewage Disposal" by Mr.
Langdon Pearse, Chief Engineer for the Sanitary District of
Chicago. His talk consisted of an explanation of the modem
methods of taking care of sewage in general, and as particularly

120 THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [January, 1921

applied in Chicago. Those present must certainly have gained
some new ideas, or a clearer conception of those ideas which the\
possessed before hearing Mr. Pearse. He made the statement,
which may be repeated for the benefit of all of us, that a suc-
cessful engineer must be a diplomatist and must have a knowledge
of politics in order to make possible necessary construction in
many cases.

A number of our members ha\e changed from participating
to student members in the parent body of the \\\ S. E.. and
eighteen participating members ha\e been added to our roll.

Mr. A. Appelbaum has been elected Secretary to take the
place left vacant by the resignation of Mr. W. K. Lyon, with
Mr. E. M. Seaberg as Assistant ."Secretary.

The year 1920 has seen our organization expand and become
an important cog in the Department of Civil Engineering, and
we look forward to a continuation and enlargement of our pre-
vious success during the coming year. E. M. Seaberg.

THE ARMOUR ARCHITECTURAL SOCIETY

Massier Theodorus M. Hofmeester

Secretary Helen L. Fassett

Treasurer Edmund J. Ryan

On Monday, November 15, 1920. the Armour Architectural
Society held its annual initiation and banquet in the club rooms
of the Art Institute. As is expressed by the old quoted phrase,
"an enjoyable time was had by all," including the initiates. No
casualties were reported and all of the Freshmen were able to be
seated at the banquet table.

The Speaker of the evening was Andre' N. Rebori, the noted
Chicago architect. Mr. Rebori gave a ver}' interesting talk,
touched often with his genial humor and pleasant satire. He
was followed in order by Mr. Cambpell, Mr. Krehbiel, and Mr.
McCaughey, who each gave a few words of sound advice to the
initiates.

The architects are ju>tly proud of their showing in. the recent
New York Competition where Massier Hofmeester won a second
medal, .and four other Seniors took Mentions... A second problem

Vol. XII, Xo. 2] ENGINEERING SOCIETIES 121

has been sent in which has not yet been judged. The subject
is "A Monumental City Hall Staircase." It is lioped that even
more honors shall be gained at this judgment.

The Society is planning to give a dance in the near future in
the club rooms of the Art Institute. A cordial invitation is here
extended to all engineers to be present at this event.

ARMOUR RADIO ASSOCIATION

The A. R. A. has been very fortunate in being able to have
some very interesting talks by members who have had commer-
cial operating experience. The radio amateur is always interested
in commercial apparatus whether of Marconi or Xavy type.

The fourth regular meeting of the association was held No-
vember lo. T920. in the Physics Lecture Room. The first busi-
ness before the meeting was the appointment of a program com-
mittee. President Goodnow thereupon appointed the following
as members of this committee:

Mr. A. R. Mehrhof.
Mr. G. H. Kelley.
Mr. T. A\ . Falconer.

The president called upon Mr. Mehrhof for an impromptu
talk. Mr. Mehrhof responded with a talk covering the descrip-
tion of the new Marcoiii cabinet type transmitter as installed on
ship stations in tlie Great Lakes region. The new apparatus is
of the 500 cycle multiple quenched spark type. The entire. set
with the exception of the transmitting key and motor-generator
set is mounted in a cabinet which does not occupy more than a
cubic foot of space. The novel feature of this new apparatus
is the combination change-over switch mounted on the front
panel. This switch not only effects the transfer of the antennae
from the receiving to the sending set but also starts the motor
generator set in operation. The new transmitter is rated at one-
half K. \\ . imput and has a conservative range of 150 miles.

The speaker also stated that the carborundum detector is
standard equipment on all Marconi receiving sets. In these cir-
cuits it is always used in conjunction with a potential rheostat and
battery. This detecting device is not very highly respected by
amateur operators since the introduction of vacuum tubes, but

122 THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [January, 1921

Mr. Mehrhof defended the carborundum detector on the ground
of stabiHty of operation. He stated that it was practically im-
possible to use an ordinary galena crystal on shipboard because
engine vibration and other disturbances prevent the permanency
of a sensitive contact which is absolutely necessary.

President Goodnovv also called upon Mr. E. Sanborn for a
short talk covering his commercial experience in the navy during
the war. Mr. Sanborn had some very interesting experiences
with submarine radio. He gave some confidential sidelights on
the comparative efficiency of Marconi and Telefunken apparatus.
He found that the two K. W. Marconi transmitter would radiate
about seventeen amperes on overload while a Telefunken trans-
mitter rated at one-half K.W. would normally give the same radi-
ation. This showed conclusively that the latter type is the more
efficient radiator. The new submarine aerial developed by the
Navy Department during the war was also described in detail.
The unique feature of this submarine loop aerial is the utilization
of the frame of the submarine as part of the loop. Mr. Sanborn
also gave some exceedingly humorous instances of the precarious
risks assumed by a submarine crew. One member became en-
tangled with the antennae wires while doing some heavy work, and
was nearly electrocuted when the radio operator began transmit-
ting without giving the usual warning.

The fifth regular meeting of the association was held Decem-
ber 15, 1920, in the Physics Lecture Room. The association en-
joyed a very interesting talk on the timely subject of heterodyne
reception by Chief Operator Hultgren. As evidence of the im-
portance of this particular phase of radio to operators he cited
the fact that at least two amateur stations in the vicinity of Chi-
cago have had no trouble in receiving radio telephone music from
special amateur stations as far east as Pittsburgh. Pa. Mr.
Hultgren explained the fundamental theory of heterodyning by
the use of a simple crystal detector circuit which was induc-
tively coupled to a high frequency alternator. He then clearly
showed how a vacuum tube is used in a modern self -heterodyne
receiver wherein a single tube performs simultaneously the three
functions of detector, amplifier and local oscillator.

Ralph Kendrick, Secy. A. R, R.

COLLEGE NOTES

ATHLETICS

Basketball opened up athletic activities in the Armour Insti-
tute of Technology for the season 1920-21. The college has
booked games with a number of strong teams as is shown by
the following schedule :

American College of Physical Education — at Armour. . .Nov. 30

Butler College— Indianapolis, Ind Dec. 3

Indiana University — Bloomington, Ind Dec. 4

Hahnemann Medical College — at Armour Dec. 10

Illinois Wesleyan University — at Armour Dec. 17

Chicago College of Osteopathy — at Armour Jan. 7

Notre Dame University — at Armour Jan. 12

Chicago Technical College — at Armour Jan. 14

Valparaiso University — Valparaiso, Ind Jan. 17

Lake Forest College — Lake Forest, 111. Jan. 19

Augustana College — Rock Island, 111 Jan. 2^

American College of Physical Education — Chicago, 111.. Feb. i

Lake Forest College— at Armour Feb, 8

Notre Dame University — South Bend, Ind Feb. 11

Elmhurst College — at Armour Feb. 16

Illinois Wesleyan University — Bloomington, 111 Feb. 21

James Millikin L^niversity — Decatur, 111 Feb. 22

-Augustana College — at Armour Feb. 25

This year's basketball team is being coached by W. E. Johnson
and consists of the following players :

S. Havlick (Capt.) Guard P. Witashkis Forward

H. Ahlbeck Forward E. Johnson Guard

G. Schumacher Forward E. Payson Guard

C. Sippel Center .A.. Zalewski Guard

D. Rutishauser Center A. Fischer Guard

O. Kuehn Forward S. Farrell Forward

The initial game of the season was played with the American
College of Physical Education on November 30. The Institute

124 THE ARMOUR ENGliNEER [January, 1921

team won this game by a score of t,^ to 21. In this game Ahlbeck
and Schumacher starred for Armour, the former making six
baskets and the latter four.

The Institute players made a trip to Indiana and played Butler
College on December 3. The two teams were well matched and
alternatelv held the leading score until the latter ijart of the
second half when Pat Page's team made a series of long field
goals. The final score was 32 to 2^. The following evening the
Institute team met the I'niversity of Indiana team on t!ie latter's
floor, and was defeated by a score of t6 to 48, by the strongest
team in Indiana and probably in the Big Ten Conference.

On December 10 the Institute team met the Hahnemann Medi-
cal College team in the Armour gyninasium. This game was a
decided victory for Armour in e\ery detail as is shown by the
.score, which was 34-14. Ahlbeck increased the Tech score con-
siderablv by making se\en baskets and ^^ix free throws. Close
guarding by Johnson and Haylick kept the Medics away from
their goal and forced them to take long shots at the basket which
ihey failed to make.

The University of Chicago booked a game with Armour on
December 15, in Bartlett Gymnasium. The Tech team played
a remarkable passing game, and led the Maroons by a 2 to o
score for several minutes after the starting whistle. Due to
a strong Maroon defense the Institute players were unable to
get within range of the basket for many shots, and Chicago soon
took and held the leading score. The splendid following that the
Institute had, which con^^isled of several hundred students and
a fifteen-piece band, illustrated the manner in which the college
is backing the team.

On December ly the Institute team played the Illinois W'es-
leyan University at the Armour gymnasium and was defeated for
the first time this season on their own floor. The victory for
Illinois W'esleyan was gained principally by long field goals. Hous-
sler of the W'esleyan team made the greater number of these for
the visitors. Illinois W'esleyan is a member of the Little Nine-
teen Conference and is probably the strongest team in that league.

Armour Institute played a second game with the University
of Chicago on January 3, in which the most accurate "basket
shooters" of the Maroon team were held to a few baskets. Due
to the strong guarding and to the Tech players' ability to find

Vol. XII, No. 2] COLLEGE NOTES 125

the basket the final score was 15 to 34 in favor of the Maroons.

W'hen the Chicago College of OJ^teopathy came to Armour they
found the team in good condition, well able to find the basket
and skilled in passing the ball. Schumacker made eight baskets
and Havlick added eight more points to the score. Ahlbeck,
Rutishauser, Sippel, Johnson, Payson and Fischer showed their
ability to' break through the defense of the Osteopaths.

It is anticipated at this time that the basketball team for the
year 1920-21 will win the majority of their games, although they
are carrying a heavy schedule. Greater enthusiasm for athletics
has been shown this season than ever before and is illustrated by
the large attendance at the games. We earnestly hope that the
intense interest among the students in the Armour Institute
of Technolog}' for the ])romotion of athletics will continue to
exist.

THE NEW YORK COMPETITION

Few of the engineers realize the position that our Architectural
Department holds in the intercollegiate world, but an event has
recently occurred which forces attention in their direction.

There is held in New York five times a year, what is known
as the Beaux Art Competition. All of the Eastern colleges and
some few of the Western, send problems there to be judged by
prominent New York architects. The nature of these problems
is announced in advance, and a definite time is allowed for their
completion. The rewards gi\ en are First Medal, Second Medal,
First Mention, and Mention, in the order named. To win in this
competition is counted a great honor, and requires real talent,
for there are drawings entered from all parts of the country.

This year is the first that Armour has entered in the competi-
tion, and we are quite proud of the results. T. M. Flofmeester,
Massier of the Architectural Society, won a second medal on
his presentation of "A Country Estate,'' which was the problem
judged on November i6th. Mentions were taken by five other
Seniors: I. Jerry Loebl, Norman J. Schlossman, Helen L. Fas-
sett, George D. Conner, and Rudolph Nedved.

A second problem has been presented that has not yet been
judged.' The subject was "A Monumental City Hall Staircase,"

126 THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [January, 1921

and some very creditable drawings were presented. We hope
tjiat in this second competition, our architects n>ay add still more
glory to their name.

TAU BETA PI

Tau Beta Fi, honorary engineering frateniitv. announces the
initiation of the following Seniors into its membership: M. O.
Brueckner, F. Duennes, F. E. Hayden. \\'. A. Heitner, J. J.
O'Rourke, D. L. Rosendal. C. T. i\aher. S. H. WVbster, and
R. W. Van Valzah.

LIST OF THESES TO BE PRESENTED BY THE

SENIORS OF THE MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT.

'A Proposed Design of the Air Testing Laboratory for The
Greater Armour Institute of Technology."

Charles T. Walter.

"A Proposed Design of the Refrigeration Laboratory' for The
Greater Armour Institute of Technolog\"."

Alfred C. Hoven.
R. W. Van Valzah.

"The Performance of a Harrington Forced Draft Chain Grate

Stoker." _ _, .^ ,. ,

C. B. Doohttle.

S. H. Barce.

F. D. Quinlan.

"Design of An Intake Manifold for Low Grade Fuels."

Harlan Bird.

"Shock Absorption of Automobile Tires."

L. S. Maranz
L. B. Newman.

'"A Proposed Design of the Hydraulics Laboratory for The
Greater Armour Institute of Technolog}'."

Wm. A. Heitner.
lohn Plocar,

Vol. XII, No. 2] COLLEGE NOTES 127

"The Relative Cost of Operating Steam and Electric Locomotives
for Switching Purposes on the St. Paul R. R. Industry
Tracks." j. p, Sanger.

S. N. Havlick.

"A Proposed Design of an Experimental Automotive Laboratory
for The Greater Armour Institute of Technolog\\"

B. E. Wolgemuth.
W. S. Pawlowski.

"Test of a 300 pound De Laval Oil Purifier and Clarifier."

S. H. Webster.

"A Proposed Design of Steam Laboratory for The Greater
Armour Institute of Technology."

J. H. Clouse.
F. C. Duennes.

"Thermostatic Temperature Control of Gas Engine Jacket
Water." M. G. Gross.

A. J. Steiner.

ililiiliiliiliiliiliiliiliiliiliiliiiiiliiliiiiiiniiiliiliiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiijj

1 ALUMNI NOTES I

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE MEETING

A meeting of the Alumni Executixe Committee was held on
Jan. II, in the grill room of the Great Northern Hotel. Those
present were President Matthews, Lynn l£. Davies, Roscoe Har-
ris.' Sidney Jones, \\'. Oberfelder, E. A. Freeman, and C. A.
Knuepfer. The committee decided to hold a dance on Feb. 4,
1921, in the Red Room of the Hotel La Salle. All alumni, and
tlie present Senior class are in\ ited to attend. The regular fall
Alumni Meeting and Ranquet has been dispensed with, and the
next meeting of this kind will be held in May, 1921.

-NEW ADDRESSES

Floward Cooper, '13, has left the Baltimore Copper Works
and is now connected with the Sinclair Oil Refining Company in
Chicago.

Donald E. Cable, '18, after obtaining his ^L .^. degree in
Chemistry at Madison, Wisconsin, while employed there by the
U. S. Forest Products Laboratory as chemist and engineer, has
gone to the Agricultural Experiment .Station of the L'niversity of
Wyoming as assistant research chemist.

Ralph A. Walther, '09, formerly with the C. & N. W. Ry.,
is now suiXTintendent of construction for the C. E. Carson Co.,
of Chicago.

John W. Jierney. '17, is with the Electric ."storage Battery Co..
Chicago, in their operating and construction department.

I^aul .Stern. '20, is chemist for the Ami-rican Cocoanut But-
ter Co.

*NoTE. — Both the college and the Alumni Association are very
anxious to keep an accurate record of all Alumni. The reader
is therefore urged to help us bv sending in anv such information.

Vol. XII, No. 2J ALUMNI NOTES 129

Ernst Sieck, '15, has left the American Coke and Chemical
Co. to become chemical engineer for the Abbott Laboratories,
Chicago.

Louis A. Simons, '11, is now Staff Engineer with L. V. Estes,
Inc., Chicago.

Ir.win Herbert Shram, '08, has been transferred from Susque-
hanna, Pa., to Marion, O.. where he is Terminal Superintendent
for the Erie Railway Co. He was formerly Division Engineer
for the same road.

Louis Roller, "12, has returned to Chicago from Sioux City,
Iowa, to act as Sales Engineer for the McClellan Refrigerating
Company.

R. \y. Regensburger, '20. is Testing Engineer . for Swift &
Co.. at their Chicago yards.

Louis I. Potter, '99, is \'aluation I'ilot for tlie N. Y. C. R. R.
at the New York Terminal.

Harold C. Peterson, '20, is another one of our recent gradu-
ates who has seen opportunities through the position of Engineer
with Swift & Co., while William McCauley has chosen the
Qiemical Department of the same firm as his road to success.

Sidney Kahn, '12, has become Secretary of the National Vine-
gar Corporation, Colgate Creek, Md. ...,'■■.■=..

BOOK NOTES

Among tlie recent additions to the library, the following have
been selected as of especial interest to the students in the depart-
ments of :

MECHANICAL EXGINEERINCi

Hoffman, J. D. Handbook for Heating and rentilating En-
ginecrs.
A practical discussion, with tables and charts on design and
installation. The book covers the fundamental principles of heat-
ing and ventilating and gives applications and designs in a man-
ner that can be understood clearly.

IvENs, E. M. Pumping by Compressed Air.

This book contains the necessary information for the study,
design, installation, and operation of a compressed air pumping
plant of any size or capacity.

Moore, H. F. Textbook of the Materials of Engineering.

A concise, elementary presentation of the physical properties
of the common materials used in structures and machines. Brief
descriptions of their manufacture are also given.

Sterling, F. W. Marine Engineers' Handbook.

This handbook, which summarizes the best practice and most
approved modern theory of marine engineering, is intended for
designing and operating engineers.

ELECTRICAL EN GIN EERI N G
Dawes, Chester L. Direct Currents.

A thorough discussion of the many types of machinery and
transmission devices which are met in practice.

Lawrence, R. R. Principles of Alternating Current Machinery.
The book covers the principles underlying construction and
operation. Only the most important types of machines are in-
cluded, but these are developed in detail to bring out important
principles.

Vol. XII, No. 2] BOOK NOTES 131

Rankin, Robt. Storage Battery Practice.

A book designed for the practical engineer. The nature and
action of primary and secondary cells are explained and there
is a chapter devoted to manufacture. The directions for installa-
tion, operation, and repair are simple and to the point.

SloaN'E, T. O. Standard Electrical Dictionary.

"All the recent advances in appliances, new developments and
refinements in theory have been fully treated."

CIVIL EMGIXEERING
Fowler, C. E. Ordinary Foundations.

This new work gives the latest practices and methods in its
field. It takes up the working details and shows the results of
actual experience.

Knowles, Morris. Industrial Housing.

The problems of appropriate planning of streets, lilocks and
lots, parks and recreation facihties. drainage, sewerage, water
supply, gas and electricity, transit and transportation, health and
sanitation are all thoroughly discussed, as well as the actual
planning and building of houses.

Paaswell, G. Retaining Walls, Their Design and Construction.
The author considers the theor\' and design of retaining walls
for earth, and the tools, machinery, concrete forms and work
rec|uired in their construction.

Simon, F. C. Dredging Engineering.

T\\Q construction and operation of tlie principal tyi^es of
dredges are described in detail. The second half of the book
deals with the actual j)lanning and working out of dredging
problems.

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

Derr. Loitis. Photogrof^Jiy for Students of Physics and Chem-
istry.
This book on the general principles and processes of photog-
raphy is intended for students who are interested in its scientific
aspect.

132 THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [January, 1921

Matthkvvs, J. AJ. Application of Dycsinffs to lextilcs. Paper.

Leather and Other Materials.

Tlie book appeals to the interest of all those concerned in the

api)lication of dyestufts. A brief discussion of the use of dyes

in lines of industn- other than the field of textiles is included.

Maxtei), K. B. Catalytic Hydrogcnation and Reduction.

In his preface the author states that "the present volume has
been written with the object of presenting in easily accessible
form the numerous examples of catalytic hvdrogenation.

Slosson, E. E. Creative Chemistry.

An interestingly written book for the general reader on the
application of chemistry in the industries and the derived prod-
ucts. Jt contains chapters imi explo.si\es, fertilizers, artificial
dyes, ])erfumes and essences, cellulose, rubber, sugar, corn prod-
ucts, \egetable oils and their products. ])()isonous gases in war-
fare, products of the electric furnace, and metals.

OF (;b:XERAL IXTEREST

1{|SH(M\ j. 15. Theodore h'cosr^'clt and His Time Shuo.'n in His'
Letters.
1 his 1^ the biography which was written with Roosevelt's co-
operation and for which he contributed h\> correspondence. The
result i.■^ a combined study of personality and a history of Xew
York state and America from ]88i to IQ19.

CHKki.NC'ioN. \\ T. Llements of Marketimj.

\ description of the processes of distributing merchandise, in-
cluding storing, transporting, selling and other concrete jiroblems.

(k)Li)\]A\. O. l'>. Tinancial Liujineerinij.

In thi^ book engineering methods are applied to the solution
of bu>iness and adniinistrati\ e i)roblems. teaching how to translate
engineering factors into dollars and cents. All mathematical
deductions are worked out in detail.

Hi.xDi's, M. G. Russian Peasant and the Revolution.

"In order to fully understand the Russian revolution and its
ultimate destinv." savs the author, "we must understand the

<lo\. XII, No. 2] BOOK NOTES 133

Russian peasant, who constitutes by far the most important ele-
ment, and the mightiest force in Russian life."

Martin, E. S. Life of Joseph H. Choate as Gathered from His
Letters. '
This story of a famous statesman in his own words gives a
glimpse into the diplomatic life of the United States and Europe.

PuKiNTON, E. E. Personal Efficiency in Business.

Suggestions are here given in popular style for the cultivation
of mental, physical and hygienic habits which will put one into the
mood for deserving advancement in business.

Trent, W. P., & Wells. B. W. Colonial Prose and Poetry.

The object of the anthology is to give the critic of hterature
an opportunity "to study the effects of environment upon the
literary powers and products of a transplanted race."'

TuELL, H. E. The Study of Xations.

To aid international understanding the author emphasizes a
tolerant and appreciative attitude toward nations other than our
own. Each nation is studied from the point of view of its
present individuality, of how history has made it what it is, and
of what it may be expected to contribute to civilization.

Edith Ford, Associate Librarian.

HAVE YOU ONE?
One of the most comprehensive and valuable handbooks we
have found is Waterman's Handbook of Mathematics for Engi-
neers." This little book contains in condensed form, all of the
important formulae of Algebra, Trigonometry, Analytical Geom-
etry, EHfferential and Integral Calculus, Mechanics, .Strength of
Materials, and Hydraulics. There are also sections devoted to
Heat Engineering and Electrical Engineering, a five place table
of logarithms, five place tables of both the logarithmic and nat-
ural functions of angles, and a small steam table. This book can
easily be slipped into the vest pocket and costs but $1.50. We
would advise ever\- engineer to have one.

ALPHABETICAL INDEX OF ADVERTISERS.

Page

Allis-Chalmers Mfg. Co 4

Armour Engineer 13

Armour Institute of Technolog}- 1

Armour & Co 8

Besly & Company, Clias. H 10

Banning & Banning 10

Brady Foundrj- Co., James A ... 5

Christensen School of Popular Music 7

Clarke-McElroy Publishing Co 13

Engineering Agency 9

General Electric Co 2

Hansell-Elcock Co 7

Hills, Chas. \V 4

Tointless Fire Brick Co 12

Koehne, Wm. L 11

Lufkin Rule Co 11

Magie Bros 4

Roebling & Sons, John A 6

Robinson & Co., Dwight P 7

Swenson Evaporator Co 11

Western Electric Co 3

Wilson Corporation, J. G 10

''My first job was

to build a shanty"

WHl'.X I got out of schooi."' said the
old j>i-;id. "I went aroiiiiil ;dl primed
to discuss equilibiium ol' iiHiueuts or to
lay out a high tension svbteni between
New York and C hieago.

"But the first thing the boss set ine at
was to build a shantj'. That had me
stumped. It didn't seem fair. I'd never
had a shanty course at college.

•'Still 1 relied my sleeves up and started
in. At first the thing wouldn't 'jell' at
a!!, 'i'he joints didn't stay put. The roof
sagueil in the middle.

•"But I went over luy plans and rea-
soned out the wh.y and wherefore of the
trouble on a common-sense basis. I
stayed with that job till I hail it licked.

"Then I suddenly realized that the

biggest thing ! had learned at college

was not the bits of specific information,

but something of much more importance

whicii these had taught me— the ability

to think."

* * *

No curricxdum can include everything
you ought to know. Its business is to
show you the principles which imderlie
all knowledge.

So if your ambition is to become a
man's size engineer or manufacturer, you
must start now to get at the heart of your
problems. Vi'sualize how those basic
laws can apply to other ;uid vaster work.

Then you'll be ready for whatever new
demand comes along, and w hen your big
opportunity comes to carry out some of
your visions of great achievement — youTI
find the going easier.

The electrical industry needs men who
can see far and think straight.

^estem Electric Comi

Wherever people look to electricity for the
comforts and conveniences of life today, the
Western Electric Company offers a service
as broad as the functions of electricity itself

When nriting: to AdverUeers, plesM mention THE ARMOUR BTNGINEER

-3-

'« A A A A A V'*^* *% A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A *% **• »% '*« A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A
I.* V V V* V >* W V V V V V V V V* >• V V V V V V •♦* V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V *♦* V V V

WILLIAM A. MAGIE FRANK O. MAGIE %

President JOHN Q. MAGIE Treasurer ♦

Secretary *

TELEPHONE MAIN 1074-1075 |

MAGIE BROTHERS I

CYLINDER, ENGINE AND DYNAMO OILS |

Cup Greases, Boiler Compound, Cotton Waste ♦:•

110-112 S. CLINTON STREET CHICAGO %

Established 1887 1*

Power and Industrial
Machinery

Electrical Machinery — Steam Turbines — Steam
Engines — Hydraulic Turbines — Pumping Engines

— Centrifugal Pumps — Gas Engines — Oil Engines

— Mining Machinery — Metallurgical Machinery —
Crushing and Cement Machinerj^ — Flour Mill Ma-
chinery — Saw Mill Machinery — Air Compressors

— Air Brakes — Steam and Electric Hoists — Farm
Tractors — Power Transmission Machinery.

Allis- Chalmers Mfg. Co.

Milwaukee, Wisconsin

I CHARLES W. HILLS |

I PATENT, COPYRIGHT, TRADE |

I MARK and CORPORATION LAW j

I Electrical, Mechanical and Chemical Engineers i

I 1523-33 Monadnock Block -:- Chicago I

liiiiiiiiiiiiHimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiyiiiiiP^

When writing to Advertiser**, please mention THK ARMOUR KNOINEKK

The above illustration shows three of the eighteen

Harrington Stokers

recently installed bj^ the municipal lighting company
of a large eastern city.

The installation of the HARRINGTON STOKER
means a distinct

Saving of Coal

because the HARRINGTON STOKER is the only
stoker which will bum any kind of coal, coke breeze,
lignite, bituminous, and washer refuse — with practi-
cally no waste.

Ji^rifr for "Twehr i^'ucl Facts'' the
story of the HARRIXCrOX STOKER.

THE JAMES A. BRADY

FOUNDRY COMPANY

4500 South Western Blvd. Giicago, Illinois

Wlien wiitlnc to Advertisers, plefMe mention THE ARMOUR KNOINEEB

ROEBLING WIRE ROPE

FOR ENGINEERING

JOHN A. ROEBLING'S SONS CO.

TRENTON, N. J.
165 West Lake Street Chicago, 111.

When writing to Advertisers, please mention THE ARMOUR BNOIME]£R

—6—

ANYONE CAN LEARN

RAGTIME
"JAZZ

PIANO PLAYING

We teach adult be-
ginners
8N 20 LESSONS

The simplest and
most instructive
course of music les-
sons ever written for
beginners.

Advanced course for
players. Our sci.ooli f.rc-
under the personal taper-
vision of Axel Christen-
sen. Vaudeville's "Czar oi
Ragtime."

Christensen Schosi
of PopuCar Music

20 E. Jackson Blvd.

Phone Harri.son oSOO
for Free Booklet.

Complete Service

in the design and construction of

SHOPS

FOUNDRIES

STEEL .MILLS

CHE.MICAL PL.\>JTS

F.\CTORY BUILDI.NGS

5 GASOLINE EXTRACTION PLANTS

Y\ STEAM POWER STATIONS

HYDROELECTRIC DEVELOPMENTS
TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS

RAILRO.\D SHOPS
LOCOMOTIVE TERiMINALS
P.\SSENGER TER.MINALS

HOUSI.NG DEVELOP.MENTS

OFFICE BUILDINGS

HOTELS

HARBOR DEVELOP.MENTS

DWIGHT E ROBINSON & GO.

'Engineers & Constructors
125 East 46 St., New YorK

OwtSOtidated with WlE.SriSCHOVSE.CinmCH.KJCRR ^ COMPAtniMC.

Hansell-Elcock
Company

Foundry

STRUCTURAL STEEL, ORNA-
MENTAL IRON WORK, FIRE
ESCAPES, STEEL DOORS,
STAIRS, GRAY IRON CAST-
INGS.

Office and Works:

Archer and Normal Avenues,

23rd PI.. Canal and 24th Sts.

CHICAGO

—7—

rmour's

OVAL LABEL

A Safe Guide to Good Buying

You can't see through tin. What you can see
through glass may deceive you. There are
only two safe and sure ways to select food.

One way is to taste and test all of it. To be a fair
judge you must have expert knowledge regarding
all kinds and gi*ades of food. Such knowledge comes
only through years of close, careful study, research
and experience — and for this the average person
does not have time.

The other way is to let the Armour Oval Label be
your guide. This is by far the easier of the two,
safer and more sure. Every food product bearing
this Oval Label is selected by recognized food ex-
perts, prepared and packed by men who have made
a life study of the intricate art of sanitary preserva-
tion of flavor, food value and tempting appearance.
That is why the Armour Oval Label "takes the
guesswork out of food buying."

Armour Oval Label Products include: Star Ham,
Star Bacon, f^t/^ej/ Canned Foods, Oleomargarine,
Shortenings, Fresh and Dry Sausage, Dairy Prod-
ucts, etc.

Every c/ood grocer has Armour Oval Label Foods or
can get them for you from a nearby branch house.

ARMOUR A COMPANY

CHICAGO

.5656

WtaeM writinr to Advertisers, please mention THE ARMOUR KTfOINluKR

Twenty- eighth Year

The

Engineering
Agency

INCORPORATED

Technical Employment

1662 Monadnock Block
Chicago

Absolutely No Advance Fee of
Any Kind Whatsoever

See Us for Positions in

APPRAISALS

METALLURGY

ENGINEERING

CONTRACTING

MANUFACTURING

ARCHITECTURE

CHEMISTRY TEACHING

MINING SALES

Harrison 4056

WluB wrlttBiT to AdT«rtUers, plesM mention THE ARMOUR SWOIKEBR

BANNING & BANNING |

COUNSELORS- A TLA W |

Patent, Trade Mark and Copyright Causes %

THE MARQUETTE BUILDING |

Chicago . i . . - . Illinois •?

THOMAS A. BANNING, JR.

Machinists, Mill and
Railroad Supplies

^ Brass, Copper, Bronze and
^ Nickel Silver

BESLY GRINDERS

BESLY TAPS

The leading Engineering
Colleges and Institutes
have found Besly Quality
and Service a Decisive fac-
tor.

CHAS. H. BESLY & COMPANY

118-121 N. Clinton St., Chicago, 111.

Wilson Rolling Steel Doors
Standard for 45 Years

The J. G. WILSON CORPORATION

8 West 40th Street, New York

Offices in Principal Cities.

Wben writing: to Advertisers, please mention THE ARMOVK E240INEER

-10—

VF/C/N

"Challenge" "Reliable'

"Engineers" and "Wolverine'

TAPES

For years most favorably known
Accurate — Dependable All Ways

THE/UFK/NfiULEnO ^^^ 7**"^

^ *• '* "^ Windsor,

SAGINAW, MICH. Canada

WM, L. KOEHNE

PHOTOGRAPHER

SPECIAL RATES

to all Armour Institute Students

and Families

The Koehne Studio

Monroe Building
104 South Michigan Avenue

Swenson Evaporator Company

ENGINEERS AND MANUFACTURERS

Established 1889
SINGLE AND MULTIPLE EFFECT EVAPORATORS
BEET SUGAR AND CHEMICAL PULP MACHINERY

945 Monadnock Building F. M. de Beers, Pres.

Chicago, 111. P. B. Sadtler, V.-Pres.

When writing to Advertisers, please mention THE ARMOt'K ENGINEER

—11—

Backing Up

Successful

Plants

FURNACE LINING

helps plants all ovei- the country in their fight to keep down fuel cost
by making; air-tight, gas-tight furnace linings that assure permanent
fuel economy and eliminate shutdowns.

PLIBRICO is the choice of successful business because it is the fur-
nace lining that gives the maximum in service, with minimum main-
tenance expense. It improves combustion.

FI.IBKICO i^ delivered only in steel parkaKes of distinctiTe appearance
as shown below. \\'arplionse stocks carried in all prim-ipal cities for imme-
diate deliveries.

Write for illustrated book on Furnnce Linings.

II30-II50 CLAY ST. CHICAGO.

When writinK to Advertisers, please mention THE ARMOUR ENGINEZU

-12—

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\0f course, we want]
j more articles and ads I

I Rates for Remaining Issues : |

I No. Issues Full Page Half Page Quarter Page |
I 2 $25.00 $15.00 $8.00 I

1 1 $15.00 $8.00 $5.00 I

1 THE ARMOUR ENGINEER I

Phone Midway 3935

clMKE-HiELRov

FUELISniNG CO.

Publishers Printers

6219 Cottage Grove Ave.

Wh^n writing to AdvertiserK, please mention THE ARMOUR ENGINEKK

—18—

Statement of ownership, management, circulation, etc., of
THE ARMOUR ENGINEER, published quarterl}^ at Chicaago,
111., required by an Act of Congress, August 24, 19 19.

Editor — John P. Sanger, 836 Wilson Ave., Chicago, III,

Managing Editor — .Sjienser N. Havlick. 422 Garfield Ave.,
( hicago, 111.

Business Manager— Fletcher E. Hayden. 5249 Calumet Ave.,
Chicago, 111.

Associate Business Manager — Emil F. Winter, 3914 Greenvievv
Ave., Chicago, 111.

Publisher — The College of Engineering. Armour Institute of
Technology, Chicago, 111.

Owner — The College of Engineering. Armour Institute of
Technology. Chicago, III.

Fletcher E. Hayden,

Business Manager.

.^worn to and >ubscribed before me this 0th day of Januu-
ary. 192 1.

George S. ALLisoisr,

Notary Public.

Chicago, Jan. 6, 192 1.

(Notary Seal)

bV-'-'X f^J lii!2il>>-, Lilkils^ ^-^i&OSi.- ■■■'^ -^ ■ ■■"? ^

\'<>liimc X.'I.
Nil 111 her :i.

MARCH, 1921

I'er Copy, 15 Cents
Per Year, *1.50

CONTENTS.

INVESTIGATION OF THE EFFECT OF AIR CON-
DITIONS UPON THE POWER OF AVIATION
ENGINES 135

By Harold S. White.

A NEW SYSTEM OF DIRECT MOTOR CONTROL . 145

By Henry I. Rosenthal.

COSTS AND THE ENGINEER 15S

By Guy F. Wetzel.

THE NEW CHICAGO TELEGRAPH BUILDING OF

THE WESTERN UNION TELEGRAPH CO. . 166

By W. W. Drew and R. A. Newlander.

THE ROOSEVELT ROAD VIADUCT 173

By Morris Grodsky.

STANDARDIZATION OF LUMBER 189

By Charles Edward Paul.

EDITORIALS 193

ENGINEERING SOCIETIES 196

COLLEGE NOTES 201

ALUMNI NOTES 210

BOOK NOTES 213

Armour
ifnatttut? of ®?rl|nologg

CHICAGO

THE COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING OFFERS COURSES IN

Mechanical Engineering
Electrical Engineering
Civil Engineering
Chemical Engineering
Fire Protection Engineering
Architecture, and Industrial A rts

These Courses are each four years in length and
lead to the degree of Bachelor of Science

COMPLETELY EQUIPPED SHOPS
and LABORATORIES

®t|0 SInstttut? lulbtina

WILL BE SENT ON APPLICATION

What Is Air Pressure Z

THE air is composed of molecules. They con-
stantly bombard you from all sides. A thousan i
taps by a thousand knuckles will close a barn
door. The taps as a whole constitute a push. So tha
constant bombardment of the air molecuks constitutes
a push. At sea-level the air molecules push against
every square inch of you with a total pressure of nearly
fifteen pounds.

Pressure, then, is merely a matter of bombarding
molecules.

When you boil water you make its molecules fly off.
The water molecules collide with the air molecules. It
takes a higher temperature to boil water at sea-level
than on Pike's Peak. Why? Because there are more
bombarding molecules at sea-level — more pressure.

Take away all the air pressure and you have a perfect
vacuum. A perfect vacuum has never been created.
In the best vacuum obtainable there are still over tA'O
billion molecules of air per cubic centimeter, or about
as many as there are people on the whole earth.

Heat a substance in a vacuum and you may discover
properties not revealed under ordinary pressure. A new
field for scientific exploration is opened.

Into this field the Research Laboratories of the
General Electric Company have penetrated. Thus one
of the chemists in the Research Laboratories studied
the disintegration of heated metals in highly exhausted
bulbs. What happened to the glowing filament of a
lamp, for example? The glass blackened. But why?
He discovered that the metal distilled in the vacuum
depositing on the glass.

This was research in pure science — research in what may be
called the chemistry and physics of high vacua. It was undertaken
to answer a question. It ended in the discovery of a method of
filling lamp bulbs with an inert gas under pressure so that the
filament would not evaporate so readily. Thus the efficient gas-
filled lamp of today grew out of a purely scientific inquiry.

So, unforeseen, practical benefits often result when research is
broadly applied.

General Office

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When writing to Advertisers, please mention THE ARMOUR E3NGINEER

THE ARMOUR
ENGINEER

The Quarterly Technical Publication

OF THE

Armour Institute of Technology
chicago, illinois

Volume XII Number 3

March, 1921

The Armour Engineer

VOLUME XII. MARCH, 1921 NUMBER 3

INVESTIGATION OF THE EFFECT OF AIR CONDITIONS
UPON THE POWER OF AVIATION ENGINES

By Harold S. White, '17

I. AIR TEMPERATURE EFFECTS.

From the results of many engine tests it has been found that
the indicated power is proportional to the weight of air taken by
the engine. Assuming the same reaction of combusion, the power
of an engine should be directly proportional to the weight of charge
used. Changes in air temperature such as we are dealing with
should not affect the reaction of combustion except as it affects
air weight.

From the foregoing we get the relation :

HP = CXW. (i)

We are considering the effect of air temperature alone, other
factors such as throttle opening, speed, and air pressure being
held constant.

The present day theory follows. If we consider the engine as
a displacement pump the volume of air handled is constant be-
cause the displacement is constant.

The following symbols will be used throughout the paper:
HP = Horsepower.
W = Weight of air per sec.
C = Constant.
T = Absolute temperature.
D = Density of air in lb. per cu. ft.
V = Volume of air.

Vo = Specific volume of air in cu. ft. per lb.
u = Velocity of air.
P = Pressure of air.
Pj ^ Pressure of air entering orifice.
P2 = Pressure of air leaving orifice.
Pm = Mean pressure of air (P^ -4- P,) -4-2.
n = Exponent (1.405 for adiabatic expansion).
Ha = Head in ft. of air.

136 THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [March, 1921

Now W = V X D (2)

or \V = C X D (since V = c.)
Therefore HP. = c V D. (From Eq. i and Eq. 2) (3)
From this we can see that horsepower is proportional to density.

T I

Now Va = 53.34 X — and D -= —
P Va

P
Then D = c — (4)

I
Therefore HP. ^ c X — (Since P = c) (5)

T
This theory that power is proportional to density (Eq. 3) or
inversely to the absolute temperature (Eq. 5) is commonly
accepted by engineers of today, as is evidenced by such correction
factors as the following, taken from the technical press :

"Horsepower Computations. — The horsepower values may be
referred to standard conditions of 760 mm. barometric pressure
and 15 deg. cent, by a correction factor. Humidity is not consid-
ered.
Where

Horsepower corrected = horsepower reading X C.
C = Correction factor.

29.92 459 -f T
c \/

H 459 + 59

H =^ Barometric pressure-in. of mercury.
T = Air temperature deg. fahr.
Also for the theoretical temperature correction alone we have
given by the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics Re-
port No. 45, page 31, Plot 4.

273 + T
Fo =

273
Where

Fo = Theoretical factor,
T = Temp, in deg. cent.
Both of these ft^rmulac show that theoretically the power is
inversely proportional to absolute tcni])erature.. From the last
mentioned report we can also see the divergence of the actual

Vol. XII, No. 3] WHITE: AIR EFFECTS ON POWER

137

experimental corrections for the temperature from the theoretical
values. This plot is shown in Fig. i.

JUl^lff^Tii

Fig. 1.

Showing the Close Agreement Between the New Theoretical

Factor and the Experimental Factor.

In the above theory is the assumption that the volume is con-
stant a correct one? The air flow through an engine is not a dis-
placement proposition, but should be considered on a restricted
flow basis. The valves have an orifice efifect, and we shall investi-
gate the air flow on this basis.

138

THE ARMOUR ENGINEER

[March, 1921

Fig. 2.
Showing the Constant Manifold Depression for Air Tem-
perature Changes.

From "Lucke's Thermodynamics" (page 1098) we can derive
an approximate formula for flow through an orifice with the fol-
lowing assumption: If the drop in pressure is small, the work
derived from expansion may be neglected, and the fluid may be
considered as non-expansive and of a density corresponding to
the mean pressure on the two sides of the orifice and to the ori-
ginal temperature.

u ^ ^/ 2g Ha
Ha = Va (Po

Va =- 53.34 X

(6)
(7)

(8)

Putting Equation 7 in terms of P^, Po and T, we have
c X T X (P2 — Pi)
Ha =

rPe + PO

We can see from Fig. 2 that the manifold depression is con-
stant for temperature changes, and therefore it is reasonable to
assume that the pressure drop through the valves will also be
constant. Therefore, let us assume that the pressures are con-
stant.

Then :

Ha= c T

u = V 2 g c T

= c V T
V = u X area (which is constant)
= c VT

From this we see that the volume varies as the square root of
the temperature instead of being constant, as is assumed in the
present day theory.

(9)
(10)
(II)

Vol. XII, No. 3] WHITE : AIR EFFECTS ON POWER

139

For a more exact proof we have from "Goodenough's Ther-
modynamics" (page 252) : n — i

u- n r / P„ ^

= (Pi VJ 1— - n

2 g n — I I 1 P J

Assuming only frictionless, adiabatic flow.

]

(12)

or u

[

Po \

PiVj I-

n — I

(13)

" — I L I Pi /

Now P. V. ^ R. T. and if the pressures are constant

u = c V T
or V = c V T

which is the same result as was obtained by an approximate
method in Equation 11.

The fact that volume increases with temperature is shown by
Fig. 2 of Mr. S. W. Sparrow's paper, given in the March, 192 1,
issue of the S. A. E. Journal.

Since the volume is not constant for temperature changes,
horsepower cannot be proportional to density, as can be seen by
following the reasoning in the present day theory. (Eq. 2 and
%3)-

If volume varies with the square root of the absolute tempera-
ture, let us see how weight of air and horsepower will vary.

Now W = V X D

^cV't'XD (14)

I
and D -= c X — (for constant pressure).
T

Then W = c V^ X c X —

T
I

W = c X

V T
Therefore H. P. = c X -

V T

(15)
(16)

(17)

140

THE ARMOUR ENGINEER

[March, 1921

Equation 16 may also be derived from Equation 1188 of
"Lucke's Thermodynamics" (page 1098) by assuming the pres-
sures to be constant and substituting
R T,
for \\

From Lucke (Eq. 1188) :

W =

we ffet

W = c

V T

Durley (A. S. M. E. Translations '06, page 206) checked ex-
perimentally the efifect of air temperature upon air flow through
an orifice under constant head, and found that it varied inversely
as the square root of the absolute temperature.

The correction factors derived from the relation

H. P.

are shown in Fig. i. It will be seen that the new correction
comes ver)' close to the one derived from experimental data.
Table I also shows the agreement between these factors. It may
be seen from the X. A. C. A. report (page 22, plat 7) that their
last check tests are closer to the new relation than to their
earlier correction factor.

Having seen how cloesly the new relation fits the test results
it is reasonable to consider that the assumption of constant pres-
sure drop may be correct, especially in view of the constancy of
such pressure drops as we can observe.

II. AIR PRESSURE EFFECTS.

Continuing our investigation on an orifice flow basis, let us see

how pressure changes afi'ect the flow for constant temperature.

From the X. A. C. A. Report No. 48, page 7, shown in Fig. 3,

we see that the manifold drop in pressure is proportional to the

Vol. XII, No. 3] WHITE : AIR EFFECTS ON POWER 141

air pressure. Therefore, it is reasonable to assume that the drop
through the valve would be proportional to the air pressure.
That is, the ratio of the two pressures is constant,

or ^ c.

R, T,

Also = Vi ■

Pi
Using these two relations in connection with equation 12, we
see that

u = c.
Therefore V = c.

\\^ = V X D. .
Therefore W^ = c X D.

H P = c X ^^' = c X D.
Now D = c X P (for constant temperature).
Therefore HP = c X P.

This same result can be obtained from the approximate for-
mula previously used or from Lucke's Equation 1188. The fact
that the horsepower is proportional to pressure has been shown
many times. Therefore, the assumption that the pressures main-
tain a constant ratio seems to be justified. From this we may see
that the new theory is in agreement with actual results for pres-
sure changes also. In this analysis we see that the volume of air
is constant, and that therefore the power is proportional to
density. In the temperature analysis the volume was not con-
stant, and therefore the power was not proportional to the density.
That is, power is proportional to density for pressure changes

only.

III. AGREEMENT OF NEW THEORY WTH

TEST RESULTS.
After obsen'ing how closely the new horsepower temperature
relation checked the N. A. C. A. correction factor secured from
the Hispano-Suiza engine tests at various altitudes and with vari-
ous carburetors, the author plotted the square root relation on
their best check test (No. 119) and found all points except one
within 1/2 of 1% of this curve. This relation has also been ap-
plied to Liberty engine tests at 14,000 ft. and at 25,000 ft., and
it has been found to express the slope of the points very well.

142

THE ARMOUR ENGINEER

[March, 1921

While this paper was written with the idea of investigating the
air temperature efifect on aviation engnes only, there is nothing
in the reasoning which does not apply to any internal combustion
engine of this type. I'he author therefore applied the new rela-
tionship to some of the published tests on other engines.

Fig. 3.

Showing the Relation Between Manifold Depression and

Barometric Pressure.

By applying it to Prof. O. C. Berry's tests, conducted at Pur-
due University, on an automobile engine at one-half throttle
and i,ooo R. P. M., it was found that the average of the points
for mixture ratios of .1 lb. fuel to i lb. air, .09 to i, and .08 to i,
were within 2% of the square root relation for temperatures
from 80 deg. fahr. to 275 deg. fahr. Prof. Berry's paper was
given at the Spring meeting of the A. S. M. E., June 16, 1919.

investigation was also made of some tests on a tractor engine
made by the International Harvester Co. and reported in the
S. A. E. Journal for February, 1920. These tests were made at
wide open throttle, at speeds from 300 rpm. to 1,000 i*pm., and
at various mixture ratios.

It was found that by averaging the results of Table II of this
report, that the average decrease in B. H. P. from 70 deg. fahr.
to 240 deg. fahr. was 12.54%. The decrease that would be ob-
tained from the square root relation is 12.22% and that obtained
from a density of air basis (inversely as the absolute temperature)
would be 22.98%, using the same temperatures as given in the
table. This shows the close agreement between the new relation
and actual results as compared with the density relation. Plotting
power against temperature for several mixture ratios and speeds
showed again that the square root relationship expresses the aver-
age slopes of the points very well.

Vol. XII, No. 3] WHITE: AIR EFFECTS ON POWER 143

IV. APPLICATONS.
The author fully realizes that there are a great many factors,
such as distribution, stratificaton, mixture rates, volatility of fuel,
vapor pressure, etc., that may influence this relationship between
power and air temperature, but where the conditions are such
that these do not vary too greatly, the orifice flow of the charge
is the governing factor.

In resume it will be seen that we have applied this relation to
various engines, altitudes, throttle openings, and speeds, and con-
sequently it appears to be applicable to the gasoline engine in
general.

Having observed that on a basis of orifice flow the horsepower
should varv' inversely as the square root of the absolute tempera-
ture, and directly as the pressure, the author suggests that the
following formula be adopted for conxerting horsepower to stan-
dard conditions :

P stand. / T actual

HP = '"^ "\ / ^ ^^- ^^^"^^

Stand. P actual V T stand.

The range of pressures and temperatures over which this cor-
rection may be applied is necessarily limited, but for ordinary
atmospheric condition the relation should hold. By using a
relation between altitude (pressure) and temperature, the eflfect
of the former upon power can be determined. All problems of
the gasoline engine having to do with the air flow should be inves-
tigated on a basis of orifice flow.

The author wishes to acknowledge the assistance given him
by the Bureau of Standards. An investigation along this line
was suggested to him by Mr. Stanwood A. Sparrow, of the
Bureau staff.

144 THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [March, 1921

TABLE NO. I.
HORSEPOWER CORRECTION FACTORS FOR TEMPERATURE.

Centigrate Temperatures
Standard Temperature ^ 0°C.

Temp- Cqrrection Proposed

erature Factor Correction

O-'C. from Factor
N. A. C. A.
No. 45

—20 .9622 .9620

—10 .9811 .9810

0 1.0000 1.0000

10 1.0189 1.0188

20 1.0378 1.0364

30 1.0567 1.1535

40 1.0756 1.0715

50 1.0944 1.0882

60 1.1135 1.0964

70 1.1324 1.1215

80 1.1512 1.1375

90 1.1702 1.1538

100 1.1891 1.1695

110 1.2080 1.1850
Multiply by factor to get

power at 0°C.

Fahrenheit Temperatures
Standard Temperature = 60° F.

Temp- Correction Proposed
erature Factor Correction

0°F. from Factor
N. A. C. A.
No. 45

—40 .8980 .8980

—20 .9183 .9200

0 .9387 .9400

20 .9590 .9600

40 .9800 .9800

60 1.0000 1.0000

80 1.0210 1.0193

100 1.0410 1.0382

120 1.0610 1.0574

140 1.0815 1.0748

160 1.1020 1.0925

180 1.1225 1.1100

200 1.1430 1.1270

220 1.1635 1.1445

Multiply by factor to get
power at 60° F.

A NEW SYSTEM OF
DIRECT MOTOR CONTROL

By Henry I. Rosenthal '10.

The following article describes the system of motor control
invented by Leigh J. Stephenson, and is a reconstruction of a
paper written in conjunction with him. The tests recorded by
the curves were conducted by Mr. Stephenson.

.At the present time there are three general types of motors
serving the field covered by direct current power, and while
these three types are in general more satisfactory and possess
a greater adaptability than the motors serving the alternating
current field, still with the present method of control used with
these three general types there is much wanting in the inherent
characteristics obtained with them.

These three types of motors are the shunt, the series and the
compound, and while each possesses many desirable character-
istics, there are points found in one t>'pe which are entirely lack-
ing in another type, which points would be desirable in all.

The shunt motor has a fairly constant speed, which may be
adjusted as desired. It is not particularly susceptible to changes
in voltage and mjay be used to regenerate power. It, however,
does not possess high starting torque except with excessive cur-
rents and is not adaptable where rapid acceleration is desired.
The series motor while possessing the abihty to develop a high
torque without excessive currents and ability to accelerate rap-
idly has but one efficient operating speed and is unsuited to
applications where it is desirable to regenerate power. The
speed of the series motor is variable depending on the super-
imposed load and applied voltage, this characteristic in many
cases being undesirable.

The compound motor while possessing all of the desirable fea-
tures of the shunt and series motor in a greater or less degree
is, nevertheless, a compromise and the advantageous character-
istic of the shunt and series motor are obtained only partially
by the use of this type of motor.

The system of control, invented by Leigh J. Stephenson of
1315 Monadnock Block, Chicago, Illinois,, and described in this
paper, gives to the motor the full advantages of the type now
generally used for any particular service while still mantain-
ing the advantageous characteristic not possessed by that type.

146 THE ARMOUR ExNGlNEER [Alarch, 1921

The system of control described in this paper provides means
of giving the motor a high torque at starting and rapid accele-
ration, with the characteristics of the series, shunt or compound
motor, as desired on running. At the same time it provides
for regeneration of power when it is desired to slow down the
motor, thus providing a source of power having all the desir-
able characteristics now obtained in present motor application,
and the additional desirable characteristics which heretofore have
been impossible to obtain. In addition to giving the motor the
above desirable characteristics, the system is so designed that it
provides means whereby the characteristics may be changed
while the motor is operating, at the will of the operator, thus
providing a source of power having characteristics adapting it
to the peculiar requirements of any mechanism. It also pro-
vides a system of control by which a single type of motor may
tie giyen the characteristics of a shunt, series or compound motor
as desired, thereby minimizing the variations in design.

There have been many attempts by many inventors to devise
systems of control possessing the characteristics of the system
described in this paper. These attempts have been divided into
two classes — the first, that of using a motor with a separately
excited field has met with success but has led to such complica-
tions as to make its use unsuited for general application. The
second method, that of using a counter electro-motive force
has been previously unsuccessful due to unstable conditions ob-
tained within the ojierating range of the motor. The method of
control described in this paper, while belonging in this latter
class, does not possess the undesirable feature of instabihty, and
it will be clearly shown later in this paper that this method pos-
sesses a degree of stability as great as now obtained with the
standard shunt motor.

The accompanying sketch marked Fig. i illustrates the gen-
eral connections necessary for this method of control. The
motor used is of the shunt type and the shunt field winding is
cfinnected in series with the armature which for purposes of
convenience, w^ill be termed a regulating dynamo. This motor
field winding and regulating dynamo armature in series form
the field winding circuit which is connected directly across the
line. The armature of the regulating dynamo is connected me-
chanically to the motor armature so that the speed of the regu-

Vol. XII, No. 3] ROSENTHAL: MOTOR CONTROL 147

-Z^iTLe- W-Lre'S

■l:^

^yKd^A

-:J^OLoF^rr7-LCztZZJ^c

\-Mato7-'^lelcl TRnjduig.

Corurh^ y7%$t:^^'2fe^ > M

-^fe^-/

lating dynamo is dependent upon the speed of the motor. The
regulating dynamo is provided with a field winding, which is
so connected that the electro-motive force of the regulating
dynamo opposes the line voltage impressed upon the field wind-
ing circuit of the motor. This field winding of the regulating
dynamo is connected in series with a control rheostat, which
circuit is connected directly across the field of the motor, so
that the current in the regulating: dvnamo field circuit will al-

148 THJC AF^MOUR ENGINEER [March, 1921

ways be proportional to the current in the motor field winding.
The ratio of these currents may be. varied by adjusting the con-
trol rheostat connected in series with the regulating dynamo field.

The performance of a motor thus equipped may be divided
generally under three divisions:

Performance under acceleration.

Performance under changes of load with constant voltage.

Perfomiance with constant torque and changes in applied
voltage.

A motor equipped as described, on starting from rest and
accelerating to the running speed of the motor will perform as a
series motor, the current in the field being proportional to the
current in the armature during the acceleration period, thus ob-
taining the desirable characteristics of the series motor, namely,
the relatively small armature current to obtain a required torque,
and a minimum period of acceleration.

When subject to load changes, with a constant applied voltage,
the perfomiance of a motor equipped with this control will depend
upon the speed ratio between the motor and the dynamo, upon
the inherent tendency of the motor to change speed with change
in load, and to a slight extent upon the relative saturation of the
motor and dynamo fields.

By proper choice of speed ratio the motor can be given its
natural inherent characteristics. If for any reason it were de-
sired to have the speed of the motor vary', when subjected to
load changes, to a greater extent than it would naturally vary,
this could be accomplished by decreasing the speed of the dynamo
relative to the speed of the motor. With a few series turns on
the motor field it is possible to approximate series speed charac-
teristics while running.

Broadly, therefore, a shunt motor with this control could be
given startling characteristics closely approximating that of a
series motor, and by the methods outlined above the speed char-
acteristics while running could be modified to approximate either
the shunt, the series, or intermediate points.

Figure 3 shows a .set of characteristic curves which were plot-
ted from a test of an outfit equipped with the control described
in this paper. These tests were conducted with constant applied
voltage. The lines marked A, B, C, D. and E represent various
speed ratios between the motor and the regulating dynamo.

Vol. XII, No. 3J

ROSENTHAL: MOTOR CONTROL

149

^^/J ^^ S6^^ d^ /^6'^ /£Z^^ /^(P6> /6iP^ /mP ^^^

J^^dioy'^^p^e-d^

^J^.2

When operating under constant torque and with changes in
appHed voltage, the performance, if the motor were operating at
a constant low point in its speed range, would approximate the
performance of a series motor, its speed increasing with an in-
crease in voltage and decreasing with a decrease in voltage. An
adjustable speed shunt motor under the same conditions would
have the same characteristics inasmuch as its field would be so
saturated as to not readily respond to voltage changes.

150 THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [March, 1921

When operating on a high point in its speed range the perform-
ance under changes in apphed vokage would depend upon the
original design of the individual equipment. With the magnetic
saturation of the dynamo field relatively low as compared to the
magnetic saturation of the motor field, the changes in speed with
changes in voltage would be similar to that obtained when the
motor is operating at a low point on its speed range and where
there is always a relatively low saturation of the dynamo field as
compared with the motor field. If the saturation of the dynamo
field at high speeds is relatively high as compared with the
saturation of the motor field, the condition just opposite of that
described will result, namely, the speed of the motor will de-
crease with an increase in voltage and will increase with a de-
crease in \oltage. At some intermediate point the motor speed
will remain constant with changes in applied voltage. This inter-
mediate point is not necessarily the point where the saturations of
the two fields are equal.

The design of the control permits of material variation in the
relative saturation of the motor and dynamo field at the higher
speeds, and therefore considerable latitude in the characteristics of
the motor under changes in voltage as described above without
materially afifecting the performance of the motor under changes
in load.

With this system of control, on starting, resistance is placed
in series with the motor armature, thus limiting the initial inrush
of current in the same manner as in the methods of control now
commonly in u.se. As the apparatus is at rest, the regulating
dynamo will not generate any counter-electromotive force, so that
that field of the motor will take maximum current and conse-
quently the motor will develop maximum torque. As the motor
accelerates, the regulating dynamo will generate an increasing
counter-electromotive force, the value of which will depend upon
the speed ratio between the motor and the dynamo, and also upon
the amount of resistance in series with the field of the regulating
dynamo. This will weaken the field of the motor as the generated
voltage of the regulating dynamo increases. As the motor speed
increases the motor armature current decreases and the ratio be-
tween the motor armature current and the field current remains
approximately constant until the motor reaches the stable run-
ning speed corre.sponding to the setting of the adjustable field

Vol. XII, No. 3] ROSENTHAL: MOTOR CONTROL 151

resistance. This gives the motor the same accelerating charac-
teristic as that of a series motor in which the ratio of these two
currents is unity. The starting resistance in series with the motor
armature can be cut out at a rate to keep the starting current
within the desired limit, as is usual with the methods of control
now commonly in use.

The rate of acceleration of the motor can be controlled by the
rate at which the dynamo field resistance is cut out. The high-
est possible rate of acceleration is attained when the field resist-
ance is all cut out in one step. The motor armature in this case
is limited to a definite value fixed in the design of the control sys-
tem, and can be held within the overload capacity of the motor.

For each setting of the adjustable field resistance there is a def-
inite stable running speed for the motor for any particular load.
With the dynamo field circuit open, the generated voltage of the
dynamo is practically zero and the motor will run at its lowest
normal running speed for full field. W ith all of the field resis-
tance cut out of the dynamo field circuit the dynamo-generated
voltage will be a maximum and the motor will run at its highest
normal running speed for a weak field. Any intermediate speeds
are obtained by adjusting this resistance.

Whenever it is desired to decrease the speed of the motor it is
necessary to merely cut resistance into the field circuit, thereby
decreasing its potential apphed to the field winding of the motor.
This correspondingly increases the generated voltage of the motor,
causing it to rise above the line voltage, and in this manner to re-
turn power to the line.

The rate at which the motor is retarded can be controlled as
desired by the rate at which the resistance is inserted in the field
winding circuit of the regulating dynamo. If the motor is con-
nected to any apparatus which at times tends to run above the
speed desired, as a crane lowering a load, or a train descending
a grade, the speed may be held at any desired point within the
limits of the motor by merely adjusting the field resistance. This
will be accomplished with a return of power to the line.

As mentioned above, for each setting of the field rheostat there
is, at any given load, a definite stable speed for the motor. This
will be brought out more clearly by a study of the cun-es shown
in Fig. 2.

In this figure the cur\'es, A, B and C show the change in speed
of the motor with a change in voltage applied to the terminal of

152

THE ARMOUR EXGIXEER [March. 1921

Vol. XII, No. 3] ROSENTHAL: MOTOR CONTROL 153

the motor field winding. Curve B shows the changes in speed with
zero armature current. Curve A represents the speed of the
motor while carrying full load current with different potentials
apphed to its field terminals, and curve C indicates the speed of
the motor at full-load breaking current. These curves are typical
for any motor, irrespective of its control.

Lines d to k, inclusive, correspond to different settings of the
regulating dynamo field rheostat and serve to indicate two things,
namely, the voltages generated by the regulating dynamo, and
the voltages applied to the field terminals of the motor. The dis-
tance between the line Y-d and the line O-X is a measure of the
voltage across the motor field terminals when the field circuit
of the dynamo field is opened. Upon this condition the voltage
applied to the motor field is practically equal to full line voltage.
The distance between the intersections of the curves A, B and C
and the line Y-e and the anxis 0-x are measures of the voltages
applied to the motor field terminals, and the distances between
the intersections and the line Y-d are measures of the voltages
generated by the regulating dynamo for the same setting of the
rheostat. In a similar manner the distances between the inter-
sections of the remaining lines e to k, inclusive, and the lines A, B
and C and the lines O-x and Y-d are measures of the voltages
applied to the motor field terminals and the voltages generated by
the regulating dynamo. The lines d to k. inclusive, correspond
to settings of the rheostat which give equal increments of ampere
turns in the regulating dynamo field winding.

For each setting of the field rheostat the motor speed is in-
dicated by the intersection of the dynamo line for that setting
with the motor line for the particular current which the motor
is drawing.

For any setting of the field rheo-^tat with changes in load the
motor speed will follow along the dynamo hne corresponding lo
this setting. The new speed will then be indicated by the inter-
section of this same dynamo line with the motor curve corre-
sponding to the new current. It will be seen from this that the
speed change with change of load is influenced by the spacing of
the Hnes A, B and C, and the curvature of the dynamo lines.

The more nearly the dynamo lines are parallel to the motor
lines the greater will be the change in speed with change of load.
The dvnamo lines cannot be straight lines, but must curve and be

154 THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [March, 1921

asymptotic to tht- line O-X on account of the parallel connec-
tion of the dynamo and motor fields. The curvature of these
lines depends on the speed ratio between the two machines and
on the number of dynamo armature conductors.

Increasing the dynamo speed relative to the motor speed, or, in
other words, increasing the speed ratio gives these dynamo lines
a greater curvature tending toward a sharp bend, thus giving
the motor a speed current characteristic approaching that of the
shunt motor. Decreasing the speed ratio has the opposite efifect
and gives the motor a characteristic approaching that of the
series motor.

The spacing of the lines A, B and C depends on the inherent
tendency of the motor to change its speed with changes of load
independent of the type of control. This is determined by the
motor armature resistance and the changes of magnetizing force
with changes of load. This latter is influenced by armature re-
action and may be further affected by the addition of series field
turns.

It will be noted that the speed load characteristics of the motor
can readily be made as desired by the proper relation of the
above factors.

It will be seen that the dynamo lines, on account of their cur\a-
ture, intersect any one motor line but once, indicating but one
speed for a gi\en load and a given netting of the rheostat. This
means that the motor is stable under all conditions. This is a dis-
tinctive feature of this system of control and one not to be found
in previous systems of control using a counter-electro-motive
force in the field circuit.

As mentioned above, the spacing of the motor lines. A, B and
C is influenced by the addition of a few turns to the motor field
winding. Another effect of these turns is to damp out current
fluctuations during regeneration and to cause an equal distribution
of load between motors operating in parallel on the same mechan-
ism.

Compared to standard series motor control this system will
eliminate a large part of the rheostatic losses during acceleration
because resistance is used only to bring the motor up to its lowest
running speed. When speed adjustment is required this system
is particularly efficient because for all speeds above the lowest
running speed no armature resistance is required.

Vol. XII, No. 3] ROSENTHAL: MOTOR CONTROL 155

In comparison with shunt motor control the field rheostat
losses are largely eliminated because the regulating dynamo
always functions as a motor, helping to carry the load.

Irrespective of the type of control that this system replaces,
and aside from the saving due to regenerative braking, this system
will show a higher efficiency than any of the present systems,
for the reasons stated above.

Inasmuch as the many advantages of this system of control are
obtained without the addition of complicated apparatus and as
the general construction is similar to that of systems not having
many of these features, its reliability will be equal to that of
any present system.

As this system of control gives rapid acceleration and regenera-
tive breaking, it is especially adaptable to any machine requiring
frequent starting and stopping. This, in conjunction with the fact
that load characteristics similar to those of a shunt, compound
or series motor can be obtained, as desired, and with the fact
that the speed can be adjusted to any desired value, makes this
system of control especially suited as motive power for city and
interurban railways, heav}^ traction, hoists and elevators, cranes,
steel mill main rolls, planers, positive starting, printing presses,
and many other applications. Its application to traction is more
fully described herein.

For traction work the apparatus and wiring connections are the
same as have been described. The motors may be operated either
permanently in series or permanently in parallel, or where wide
speed ranges are required series-parallel grouping may be used.
The system is applicable either both for hand type drum con-
trollers or for remote control, either for single or multiple units.

The characteristics of this system of control make it especially
applicable to traction work, as it combines high starting torque,
rapid acceleration, regenerative braking, adjustable running
speeds, and choice of load characteristics.

Having a choice of load characteristics, it is possible to have
the many advantages of a constant-speed motor while retaining
starting torque and rapid acceleration.

On starting, resistance must be placed in series with the motor
armature. This resistance can be cut out when the minimum
speed of the motor is reached. Where series-parallel groupings
are used no resistance is necessary at the transition point, as the

156 THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [March, 1921

motors can be brought to proper voltage by field control to obtain
smooth transition.

For the maximum rate of acceleration above the minimum
running speed the field resistance can be cut out in one step and
the current can be limited to a safe maximum by the design of
the system. The field strength depending on the speed of the
dynamo, it cannot be weakened beyond a predetermined value of
each speed. For rates of acceleration less than the maximum the
field resistance can be cut out step by step. As these steps will
be very small, acceleration will be smooth and even.

It has already been explained that by cutting resistance into the
dynamo field circuit regeneration is accomplished. By this means
it is possible not only to hold a car or train on a down grade at
any desired speed within the capacity of the motors, but also to
gradually decrease the sped to the minimum running speed of
the motors. The rate of braking depends upon the rapidity at
which the resistance sections are cut in. The operator therefore
has the rate of braking entirely under the control and will be
guided in braking in the manner as is now customary with air
brakes.

Operation of the system is extremely simple, as a single lever
can control the starting, acceleration, speed setting and braking.

The motors while running will maintain their generated voltage
even during an interruption of the supply voltage. This elimi-
nates the possibility of fLashovers at section breaks. This also
provides a means of emergency braking on long down grades be-
cause the traction motors will thus furnish power for the air
compressor motor independent of the main source of power
supply.

The efficiency of this system of control is ver}' high because
of the large reduction in rheostatic losses, the fact that all points
on the controller are running points, and because a large part of
the energ}- required to accelerate a car or train is returned to the
line through regeneratixe braking. The percentage of energy
saved though regeneration will depend on the operating character-
istics of the railway system on which it is used. It will be greater
in hilly and mountainous regions than in level countrv. The
amount will depend on the grades, the number of stops to a mile,
the schedule speed, etc. Considering each car as a moving sub-
station, at times putting power into the hne, the voltage of the

Vol. XII, No. 3J ROSENTHAL: MOTOR CONTROL 157

line will be stabilized and the copper losses in trolley wire and
feeder cables reduced because there will be less energy transmit-
ted from the generating or substation for the same service.

It may be seen from the foregoing that the system of control
described herein is applicable to any direct current installation,
and is especially advantageous where high starting torque and
rapid acceleration are necessary, and where regenerative break-
ing, adjustable speed or constant speed would be desirable.

STEAM TURBINE LOCOMOTIVE

According to the "Railway Gazette" of London, a turbine-
driven locomotive is now being tried on the Swiss Federal Rail-
ways. It is converted from a standard 4-6-0 type as used on the
Federal Railway. The turbine is reversible and is placed in front
of the smokebox, power being transmitted by 30 to i gearing to a
horizontal crank shaft placed above the leading truck, the rods
of the six coupled wheels being extended forward and connected
with the crankpin at each end of the crankshaft.

The engine is designed for a turbine speed of 8000 r. p. m.
giving running speed of 49 miles per hour. The boiler is equipped
with a superheater and a condenser is fitted below it, utiHzing
water from the tender to which later it is returned for cooling
by being allowed to fall in narrow streams from the roof ex-
tending over the tender, which is designed for the purpose. As
there is no blast nozzle an air draft through ventilators is used
for maintaining the required action on the fire in conjunction
with a blower. It is claimed that while making the trial trips
the engine has shown a fuel economy of 25 per cent under that
of the compound locomotive in service, while it runs very
smoothly at high speeds, this being accounted for by the re-
duction of the reciprocating parts.

— "Mechanical Engineering," March, 1921.

COSTS AND THE ENGINEER

By Guy F. Wetzel, '15.

Of all the fields of activity open to the engineer, that of in-
dustrial administration and operation ofifer at least as attractive
work and opportunity as any. However, the engineer can not
use his purely technical training and knowledge as much as in
the pursuit of engineering work, and must augment his techni-
cal knowledge by further study and practical experience. This
is the case with anr line of work, however, if he wishes to suc-
ceed.

In our modem industrial organization as a whole, the techni-
cal engineer very often comes in contact with problems, more or
less of an accounting nature, especially in estimating cost, figuring
actual cost, making reports and recommendations, classifying
property accounts and so on." As the engineer enters the field of
management, costs and cost reports, operating statements and
balance sheets immediately become important to him, and he must
at least have a working acquaintance with them.

The subject of costs is a very broad one. covering as it does,
work from recording the payroll to the submission of the auditor's
report. The word "costs" is used here to cover two general pur-
poses ; to determine costs for pricing purposes, and to record the
results of operating a manufacturing business, in other words,
both detailed cost of product, and general cost of manufacture
and determination of manufacturing profits.

The work of the efiiciency engineer, the production engineer,
or the industrial engineer is ver}- liable to include such prob-
lems as proper distribution of factory overhead expense, stand-
ardization of labor costs for cost estimates, stores control, analysis
of operating statements, and balance sheets, analyzing or re-
valuing plant accounts, and making reports on factories from the
financial as well as the operating view point.

Volumes could be written about any of these subjects so that
this discussion must be brief and will be confined to costs and
overhead expense analysis.

Manufacturing Costs are made up of three parts, each of which
is independent of the other, and is made up of details that natur-
ally come into their proper group. Two of these parts, labor and
material, might be said to be definite and comparatively easy of

Vol. XII, No. 3] WETZEL: COSTS AND THE ENGINEER 159

determination, while the third, variously referred to as overhead
expense, factory overhead, burden, or indirect expense, is a
variable and no method has yet been devised which will give as
determinate results as can be obtained with the labor and mate-
rial items. This statement applied both to the total manufactur-
ing burden and the amount charged to any item of the product to
absorb the burden. The total burden is made up of definite
charges such as indirect labor, power, light, heat, maintenance
and expense supplies, and variable or arbitrary figures, such as
depreciation, building charge, reserve for taxes, and any other
items which are determined by some one's decision rather than
actual payments of invoices or bills. The total of all the figures
for both definite and assumed items is determined, however, and
the result used as a definite and correct figure in determining
costs, and profits or losses. This accounts for tKe fact that
sometimes plants which have made money show net losses, and
others which have actually lost money can be made to show
profits.

With the total burden for the plant settled, the next step is
to make provision for allocating or proportioning it to the products
manufacturing so that the selling price will include the cost of
lalbor, cost of material, cost of burden, cost of selling, and profit.
The methods for allocating the burden to the product are all
arbitrary in at least some particulars, though some are more ac-
curate than others, and each method will give different results
as far as cost are concerned. This means that two factories
producing the same kind of goods, operating under identical con-
ditions, with equal finances, equally capable managements and
workmen, and using the same percentage of profit, will figure dif-
ferent selling prices for the same article if they use different
methods of distributing their burden.

As previously stated, there is no relation between material, labor
and burden, but of the methods used for taking care of the latter
factor, several arbitrarily assume a relationship and make burden
a function of the labor charge, the material charge, or their sum.

These methods are :

(i) Percentage of direct labor added to direct labor charge

plus material charge.
(2) Percentage of material charge added to the sum of mate-
trial and labor charges.

160 THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [March, 1921

(3) Percentage of material plus direct labor added to their
sum.

(4) Percentage of material to cover both burden and direct
labor, added to material cost.

(5) Charge (in dollars) per labor hour, determined by divid-
ing total department burden by the number of depart-
ment direct man hours or total factory burden by fac-
tor^' direct man hours.

factory or department overhead by factory or depart-
ment production, respectively.

(7) Machine hour rate.

(8) Process hour rate.

1 here may be other methods in use. variations from, or combi-
nations of the abo\ e, but those mentioned include all the generally
used plans.'

The method to be used depends entirely on the nature of the
product, the number of different products made in one plant,
and the refinement of method considered desirable by the man-
a,gement. Another consideration is the ratio of burden to total
factory cost, which indicates the relatve importance of accuracy
in the burden distribution.

The percentage of direct labor ( i ) is one of the more common
plans, which applies to a great many plant.:> where simplicity is
an important factor, and where the burden is not much greater
than the direct labor. If the burden percentage is high (over
200%), compared with direct labor, any error in the labor figure
is largely increased in figuring the burden. When some of the
products acquire high priced labor and some cheap labor, it is
obvious that the former will carry a higher burden charge even
though less equipment and supervision are required.

Percentage of material charge (2) is suitable for an industry
such as cement making, etc., where labor is a small item, and only
one or two products are made.

Percentage of material plus labor (3), is not as accurate as
(i), but it is usually used in the harness and saddlery industry.
Using material as well as labor for a distributing basis, simply
brings one more unrelated factor into the burden calculations.

Percentage of material (4), to cover both labor and burden
gives very crude results if applied to a \ariety of products, but
would apply in the same way as (2).

Charge per labor hour (5) is a more rational method than

Vol. XII, No. 31 WETZEL: COSTS AND THE ENGINEER 161

any of those previously mentioned, and if classified, as for ex-
ample, for bench and Hght machine work, medium sized machine
work and heavy or specially expensive machine work, gives re-
sults comparable with the best, and with a small amount of work.
This plan is very good for metal working plants, and also fits
well into a number of other industries.

Charge per unit of production (6) is only adapted where one
line of product is turned out, such as cement, brick, linoleum, etc.,
and a charge per ton, per thousand, per yard, etc., can be easily
found to cover burden, or burden plus labor.

The machine hour rate method (7) and the process hour rate
(8) are the highest developments in the problem of distributing
overhead expense, which is of course, the most difficult part of cost
finding and cost accounting. They are worked out in much
the same way by charging all expenses for light, power, rent,
depreciation, maintenance, supplies, etc., direct to a machine (7)
or to a group of machines used in a process (8) and prorating
factory administration, clerical work, miscellaneous expense, etc.,
to them on the basis of size, value or other factor. To get this
plan worked out means a complete surv'ey of the factory, prorat-
ing the power, rent, maintenance, supplies, etc., by measurement
or estimate, charging depreciation direct, supplies direct, and other
factory charges, including factorv' service and administration,
based on floor space occupied, value, man hours, or a composite
factor of all three. The result is a money charge per hour against
all the work turned out in an hour by a machine or process
group. To illustrate, if a planer finishes 30 pieces per hour and
the machine rate is $.60 per hour, the burden cost of each is
$.02.

In many cases it is desirable to get the o\erhead charges in
terms of production rather than time. This can easily be worked
out from the time charges by dividing by production per period,
which gives a money charge per unit of production to cover the
expense of manufacture. This applies where a number of dif-
ferent products are made and is not the same as (6).

The question of whether to departmentalize all charges is an
important one, and must be decided, giving consideration to mat-
ters of product, information desired, processes involved, and so
on, before a cost finding method can be worked out. If the
nature of the product is such that it goes through all the processes

162 THE ARMOUR EXGIXF.F.R [Nfarch. 1921

in the plant, with relati\ely the same manufacturing effort
experienced by each, then no advantage in accuracy of costs will
be gained by departmentalizing the charges. This, however, is
seldom the case, which makes it advisable in most instances to
carry all overhead or burden charges against departments. In one
metal working factory that the writer recalls, the overhead, based
on a percentage of direct labor, varied from 6o7, to 125% in ten
or twelve departments. Thus it can be seen that nearly every
cost (on articles having a different routing through the factory)
would be different if a plant average were used in place of the
departmentalized charges.

In working out the departmental burden charges, the different
items making up the total factor}- burden can be assembled under
five heads, namely: (i) building charge. (2) investment charge,
(i) administration charge. (4) power charge, (5) direct charges
to departments.

The building charge ( i ) is made up of rent or equivalent
charges, heat, light, elevator service, janitor and watchman serv-
ice, water, maintenance of buildings and grounds and building
depreciation, unless they are included in the rent, and other items
that relate to the building and can be divided among the depart-
ments on the basis of floor space used. The total of the charges
grouped under this heading is then charged to each department
in the same ratio that the department floor area bears to the total
available factory area. If there is a general store room or general
factor)' office, their area should be omitted from the total and the
balance used in pro-rating the charges.

The investment charge (2) refers to factory- equipment, and is
made up of depreciation on equipment, taxes on equipment, in-
terest if charged. Maintenance in many cases can be charged in
here on the assumption that in general, maintenance cost is pro-
portional to the value of the equipment, that is. a large machine,
or a complicated and expensive smaller one, will require a greater
amount of care and attention and repairs to keep it operating effi-
ciently, than a small and simple inexpensive one. The total of
these charges is carried to the various departments in the same
ratio that its equipment in\estment bears to the sum of the de-
partment equipment accounts. Greater accuracy can be obtained
in the depreciation charge, if desired, by working this out machine
by machine for each department, and handling as a direct charge.
Whether the additional accuracv is worth the extra work, when

Vol. XII, No. 3] WETZEL: COSTS AND THE ENGINEER 163

considered in relation to the final results, is a question which must
be decided in indi\idual cases, depending on conditions and cir-
cumstances.

The administration charge (3) is made up of general adminis-
trative salaries and office expenses, factory administrative sal-
aries, stationary, telephone and telegraph, factory clerical office
help, experimental and engineering work, welfare, cost of employ-
ment, and any other charges that pertain more to the executive
end of the factory operation than to building or investment
charges as above described. It should be noted here that the
classifications above referred to, are for distributive purposes only,
the main considerations being whether the various details that
make up the total charges can be most equitably distributed on the
basis of floor space, value, or administrative factor.

Distributing the administration charge requires an arbitrary
basis, and is the arbirtrary i)art of cost finding referred to pre-
viously. The followin,g method has been applied in several plants
with satisfactory and equitable results.

The administrative effort and expense expended in operating
the departments of a factory- are proportional to size as measured
in square feet, to value of investment in equipment, and to the
number of emp>loyees. We have a total expense made up of items
which are perfectly legitimate, yet are general, and can not be
said to be distributable to the departments except in an arbirtray
way. Yet it is desirable to accomplish this as equitably as pos-
sible. Therefore, since the amount of administrative expense
depends upon the three factors mentioned, it should be pro-rated
accordingly.

The easiest way to distribute the buildmg and iavestment
charges is to calculate a percentage of each for each department.
We will then reduce the number of direct-labor man-hours per
department to a percentage. Then the percentage of the admin-
istrative charge per department will be

h i b

X = 1/3 (— + - + -) 100
H I B

where X = department percentage of administrative expense
h = no. of department man hours (direct labor)
H = no. of factory man hours
i = department investment value
I = factorv investment value

164 THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [March, 1921

b = department building charge
B = factor)' building charge.

Having previously figured each of the three percentages (i. e.,
building, in\estment, man-hours) the formula could be expressed
X% = i/3(h% + i%+b%)

The power charge per department (4), is found either by meas-
urement or by estimating the proportional amount of power used
considering the rated horse power of motors, and probable aver-
age load, for electrical power, and corresponding measurements
or estimates for pneumatic, hydraulic, gas, or steam power. As
the power requirements vary so greatly in nearly every depart-
ment of a factory, it is advisable to make a careful analysis and
survey of each before making up the charges. This is really an
engineering problem and is a good example of how cost and en-
gineering work are related.

Direct charges (5). include all charges that because of their
size or nature can not be included consistently under one of the
other headings. An example is machine rental, which in some
industries is an important item. Special equipment such as a
high pressure boiler or superheater, refrigerating machine, pump,
etc., that serve but one or two departments will also cause direct
charges to be made against the departments served.

We now have the total make up of the monthly, quarterly or
other period departmental burden, expressed for example as
Dept. A, $750.00, Dept. B. $900.00, Dept. C, $600.00, etc. These
charges can be distributed to production in accordance with the
plans previously described, with the exception of the machine
hour rate and process hour rate plans.

The machine hour rate plan of distributing factory overhead
expense simply requires the same analysis and distribution of ex-
pense as previously outlined for departments, carried down to
machines, expressed as so much per month, and then dividing by
machine hours per month to get rate per hour. Machine in the
sense used here means bench, or floor space, or special fixture,
at which men work, as well as machines as ordinarily understood.
The use of this plan requires a complete system for keeping the
necessar>' records of production, man-hours, operations involved,
etc., for applying the machine rate to factory costs when it is
worked out.

The process hour rate is worked out like the machine hour rate
except that a group of machines required in one process is used
instead of individual machines. In figuring the cost of produC'

Vol. XII, No. 3] WETZEL: COSTS AND THE ENGINEER 16.5

tion of an article, the number of process hours times the hour
rate gives the overhead charge for that process.

In this paper the writer has attempted to bring out some of
most important points to be considered in cost finding as well as
present some ideas on distribution of overhead expense, and its
analysis, that may be helpful. The average plant manager is some-
what afraid of the details of cost analysis and is averse to permit-
ting much work to be spent along these lines. On the other hand,
one who is conscientiously trying to find accurate costs, wants to
get all the details as accurately as possible, and is liable to get into
unnecessary^ refinement. The methods suggested here are admit-
tedly not the most accurate, but considering consistency, results
obtained, and work required, will be satisfactory and involve a
minimum of detail and effort. In other words, we have tried to
strike the happy medium between common-sense and efficiency
on the one hand and unnecessary refinement, detail and red tape
on the other. It is possible to finish a shaft accurate to within a
few hundred-thousandths of an inch, but the ordinary tolerance
is measured in thousandths, and that is all common-sense manu-
facturing allows except in special cases.

The big problem of any cost-finding plan is to get the first
analysis and sur\ey made and the methods worked out, after
which continued operation of a properly developed cost system
can be carried on by the average factory cost man.

CO-OPERATIVE BUYING SOCIETIES

A writer in the October, 1920, issue of the "Monthly Labor
Review" gives an outline of the effects of the war on the co-
operative efforts in European countries. In many of these coun-
tries a food panic began directly after the declaration of war
and the prices of course increased rapidly. Everyone who had
ready money endeavored to buy all the foodstuffs he could ob-
tain. The co-operative stores sold all goods, however, at the
usual prices to both members and non-members and in conse-
quence their stock was reduced so rapidly that they began the
practice of selling only to members. This in turn resulted in
an enormous increase in the appHcation for membership in co-
operative societies of this kind. It at once became necessary to
refuse all applications for new membership until conditions of
wholesale food supply became more normal. The writer remarks
that these co-operative societies were very^ effective in stabilizing
the prices of food. — "Industrial Management," Jan. i, 1921.

THE NEW CHICAGO TELEGRAPH BUILDING

OF
THE WESTERN UNION TELEGRAPH COMPANY

By W. W. Drew, '11
and R. A. Newlander, '18

It is a rather simple thing — this business of handhng a telegran].
You step up to the counter, write your message, hand it to the
operator, lie makes a few dots and dashes — the recei\ing operator
copies it. the messenger delivers it. The work has been done.
Such is the popular conception of the transmission of a telegram.

A description of the new Western Union seven story structure
at 427 South La Salle .Street will tell the real story of how tele-
graph messages are handled. This building is a modern steel and
concrete fireproof structure, three hundred feet long by one hun-
dred and fify feet wide, and is the largest building in the world
which is devoted exclusively to telegraph purposes. It is never
clo.sed, functioning the entire twenty-four hours every day
throughout the year.

Nine million messages a month are handled in this office. The
operating room covers three floors and by means of selective belt
conveyors, messages receixed on circuits are routed to the proper
wires of destination on an a\ erage elapsed time from wire to wire
of about two minutes. To handle this large volume of traffic an
oj:erating force of three thousand persons is required. In addi-
tion to the operators, the new building houses one thousand other
people who are employed in bookkeeping, auditing, plant and com-
mercial duties.

In large cities, messages are handled by four methods. Mes-
sages originating at branch offices or destined to jtatrons in branch
office areas, are generallv handled by Pneumatic Tubes, Tele-
phone, or the well known Morse system. Occasionally, where
branch offices have a considerable file of traffic to handle and are
located too far from the main office to make Tube installation
economical. Automatic printing telegraph ai)paratus is used.

Between large cities the Automatic printing telegraph system
has, to a marked degree, supplanted the Morse. The Multiplex
system which is largely used, provides for as high as four duplex
channels on one wire, each one of which is operated by a sending
and receiving o])erator at each end of the circuit, thus allowing

Vol. XII, No. 3 J

EIREW: TELEGRAPH BUILDING

167

four simultaneous transmissions in each direction. These chan-
nels operate at speeds ranging from thirty-five to sixty words per
minute, making possible the transmission of five hundred mes-
sages per circuit hour.

All of the methods of transmission with the exception of that
by Pneumatic Tubes, require well trained operators. The new
building contains a large number of well equipped school rooms
where Morse, Automatic, and Telephone telegraphy is taught.
It takes approximately twelve months of training to teach stu-
dents enough of the Morse so as to enable them to work on very

Close-up View of a City Line Concentration Unit.

slow wires; the Automatic training period requires three months;
the Telephone course can be finished in about six weeks.

All city traffic, whether it is handled by Morse, Tube, Tele-
phone, or x^utomatic methods, comes in on the fifth floor of the
building. Here are located the terminals of the large underground
Pneumatic Tube system which reach to all points in the loop and
a few outlying branch offices. City wires which are operated by
the Alorse method are all terminated in concentration units so
designed that four operators have direct access to each unit.

168

THE ARMOUR ENGINEER

[March, 1921

These units ha\e terminated in them any number of citv wires up
to sixteen. The wires terminate in jacks and lamps, and the
operators' Morse sets are wired to-cords and plugs.

The Telephone Department covers about one-third of the fifth
floor and has its ceiling treated with felt to cut down the amount
of noise. Noiseless typewriters are used in this department so
as not to interfere with the telephone transmission and reception
of messages. In this room messages are received from and de-
livered direct to patrons. The recording board when finished will

A Busy Moment on the Main Line Switchboard.

consist of forty positions" for the reception of telegrams by tele-
phone. There are also forty positions arranged for the delivery
of telegrams and sixty-six for the handling of messages between
branch offices and the main ofiice.

Messages received on this floor are sent to the sixth and sev-
enth main operating floors by means of belt conveyors. All re-
ceiving positions whether for Morse, Automatic, Telephone or
Tube operation, are served by rapid belt conveyors which carry
the messages from these positions to central distributing centers
where they are routed to their proper wires of destination by a
system of selective distributing belts.

Vol. XII, No. 3] DREW: TELEGRAPH BUILDING 169

All telegraph wires entering Chicago come through an under-
ground cable system and terminate on a main distributing frame
on the third floor. Here are also located twenty-seven sections
of switchboard, repeater tables, and tables on which are located
quadruplex and duplex terminal apparatus. The switchboards
are of the latest pin-jack type and are equipped so that wire faults
and failures can be quickly and accurately located.

On the third floor is also located the Dispatcher who keeps in
touch by wire with traffic conditions all over the country and
directs the setting up of additional or emergency circuits between
cities for the handling of sudden files of traffic or for the divert-
ing of traffic to other routes when regular routes have failed.

The Commercial News Department occupies part of the third
floor for the handling of market quotations, baseball scores dur-
ing the season, and news of other sporting events.

Power for the building comes in from the Edison Company
at a potential of two hundred and tu-enty volts over six-one mil--
lion five hundred thousand C. M. cables. This power is distrib-
uted for various uses through twenty sections of Tennessee pink
marble switchboard. From these sections of switchboard, power
feeders run to zone power panels located throughout the building.

The emergency power consists of two sets of twin unit seventy-
five K. \\\ three wire Crocker-Wheeler generators, each directly
connected to two semi-Diesel internal combustion oil engines of
one hundred and twenty horsepower each. These engines are
supplied with fuel oil from a ten thousand gallon storage tank
located underneath the basement floor. Oil is drawn from this
tank by an automatic pump and measuring device and delivered
to smaller service tanks. The starting de\ice for these engines
consi-sts of a supply of air pressure pumped up by electric pumps
into storage tanks and maintained at one hundred and eighty
pounds pressure. These engines can be started and put under
full load within a period of seven minutes, thus insuring a mini-
mum interruption to the telegraph senice.

The lighting system is protected from failure by use of a stor-
age battery and automatic emergency switch. In case of failure
of the main source of power for the lights, this switch automat-
ically operates and throws the lighting load on the storage battery
until the emergency engines can be started.

170

THE ARMOUR ENGINEER

[March, 1921

The power for the operation of the telegraph circuits is sup-
plied by means of twelve motor generator sets. These machines
furnish one hundred and sixty, two hundred and forty and three
hundred and twenty volts. Their control apparatus covers five
sections of marble switchboard. All of these machines are dupli-
cated so as to protect the service from interruption.

The power for the pneumatic tube system primarily consists
of fi\e seventeen bv fourteen Laidlow-Dunn-Gordon air compres-
sors, each dri\en by thirty-fi\e horsepower motors delivering air

View of Repeater Department.

at from five to eight pounds pressure and maintaining a vacuum
of from ten to sixteen inches.

The boiler room contauis two water tube horizontally bafifled
boilers of the Heine type, each rated at three hundred boiler
horsepower. These units are used for heating the building. The
grates are the LeClade-Christie chain type. There is in addition
to these two boilers one Kewanee firebox boiler for heating water
for building and restaurant purposes during the summer months
when the large boilers are shut down. There are two boiler feed
pumps of the single acting type of sufl:'icient size to handle the
maximum boiler capacity.

Vol. XII, No. 3] DREW: TELEGRAPH BUILDING 171

The heating plan used is known as the direct-indirect system
and is regulated by Johnson thermostatic controls. Radiators are
placed in the usual way, that is, under the windows, and are
supplied with steam from the low pressure control valves con-
nected to a vacuum system fitted with Johns-Manville vacuum
traps. The indirect system which is placed in two pent houses
on the roof draws the air through two large fans of the squirrel
cage type, one sixty inch in diameter having a capacity of thirty-
one thousand seven hundred and eighty cubic feet per minute,
and one sixty-six inch diameter of the same type and a capacity
of thirty-three thousand five hundred and seventy cubic feet per
minute. The air is drawn through air washers and then heated
by means of large vertical radiators to a temperature of about
sixty degrees "F." and delivered by means of air ducts to the
operating floors. Exhaust fans by means of ducts and ceiling
openings make a complete change of air every ten minutes.

The water supply for the building is taken from the city mains
through two eight inch meters into a surge tank in the sub-
basement, from which it is pumped into a house tank on the roof
by means of two Worthington triplex pumps, six by eight inches,
driven by fifteen horsepower Western Electric motors. The
drinking water system consists of one five ton Krochell carbon-
dioxide machine and one triplex circulating pump with proper
cooling coils. The water for drinking purposes is taken from the
hot water system at one hundred and eighty degrees "F"," cooled
dow^n to forty-five degrees "F," and filtered before going to bub-
blers located throughout the building.

There are two compressors supplying air for Shone Sewer
Ejector system, automatically handling the sewerage and waste
water below the city sewerage system. These compressors also
furnish aid vv'hich is piped throughout the building for cleaning
electrical and other machiner}'.

There are two company operated restaurants serving food at
cost, one on the main floor for messenger boys and the other on
the fourth floor for the other employees. The latter restaurant
is of the cafeteria type and has a capacity sufficient to meet the
needs of the thirty-five hundred employees in the building. All
the baking and cooking is done in a modern equipped kitchen so
arranged as to secure the best service at a minimum cost.

The building has a theater with a seating capacity of approxi-
mately three hundred, for use of the employees in staging amateur

172 THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [March, 1921

productions and concerts. The second floor is given over to
women's and men's rest and locker rooms. The rest rooms are
equipped with rugs, tables, comfortable chairs, lounges and other
furniture. A Victrola and piano are also provided. Each em-
ployee is provided with a steel locker for clothes.

For the recreation of the messenger force, a well equipped
gymnasium with shower baths is available.

The second floor also houses a well equipped medical depart-
ment, including a hospital where emergency cases may be
promptly handled by a corps of trained nurses and a company
physician.

On the roof of the building handball courts have been provided
for use during the sumn.ier months. The roof will also be used
for other recreative purposes.

FEDERAL AID FOR DRAINAGE PROPOSED

Government assistance in the drainage of swamp lands, protec-
tion of overflowed lands, and reforesting of cut-over lands is
provided in a bill now before Congress, drafted by Edgar A.
Rossiter, consulting engineer, Chicago. Such assistance would
be rendered through the Department of the Interior with a fund
provided by annual appropriations by Congress. Under the pro-
posed plan any state reclamation board could call for an investi-
gation of a project to determine such charge per acre on the lands
affected as would return to the fund the estimated cost of con-
struction, the board to have charge of construction. For opera-
tion and maintenance an additional charge might be made, but this
work might be transferred by the Department of the Interior
to a local drainage association or district. \\'hen any project
includes a na\igable stream which might be utilized for barge
transportation the cost would be divided between the Federal
government and the land-owners. Mr. Rossiter points out that
Illinois alone has 10,000,000 acres of swamp and overflowed lands,
but that State laws provide no relief, while the Federal reclama-
tion act establishes a precedent for such improvement work as
is covered in the proposed bill. He states that arid lands are
worth $50 to $100 per acre when irrigated, but that swamp lands
are worth $200 to $350 per acre when drained.

- — Engineering News Record.

THE ROOSEVELT ROAD VIADUCT.

By Morris Grodsky, '15
Formerly Senior Bridge Designing Engineer, City of Chicago

Historical.

Roosevelt Road (formerly 12th Street) is one of the main
arteries of Chicago. It is situated at the south end of the down-
town district and is the connecting link between that district and
the West Side. Most of the railroads entering Chicago from the
south have their yards and freight stations near Roosevelt Road.
The railroad tracks crossing Roosevelt Road extend from State
St. on the east to Canal St. on the west. .

A steel viaduct carries Roosevelt Road across this maze of
tracks. This structure was built in 1880 and consists of several
through trusses and trestle spans. It is inadequate as a thorough-
fare for the present traffic (it is only 80 ft. wide), besides being
old and eaten by rust.

The I2th St. Improvement Ordinance passed by the City
Council for widening the then 12th St., throughout its length is
118 ft., replacing the old viaduct by a new structure, removing the
present swing bridge over the South Branch of the Chicago River
by a single leaf bascule bridge.

The bridge division of the city then designed the viaduct. The
roadway and sidewalk consisted of small-span concrete slabs
framing into steel stringers, which in turn framed into steel cross
girders. The stringer spans were made unequal in length in order
to accommodate track spacing under the viaduct. The stresses in
the stringers were analyzed by means of the three-moment
theorem and temperature stresses were guessed at in the usual
way. The steelwork was to be encased in concrete for firepoofing.
The plans were completed in 19 17.

At that time the shipbuilding and other war industries had the
priority on structural steel ; little was available for private or
municipal construction, especially in such large quantities as was
required for the viaduct. The end of the war was then not in
sight ; postponing the viaduct was not desirable. Accordingly the
engineers in charge of the improvement began to think of a con-
crete structure.

The railroads whose tracks go under the viaduct were directly
interested in this improvement, as they were required to pay a
part of the cost of the viaduct as well as to maintain the viaduct

174

THE ARMOUR ENGINEER

[March, 1921

after ten years from the date of its completion. After negotia-
tions between city olTicials and representatives of the raih'oads, it
was agreed to build the viaduct of concrete, provided the column
spacing were to remain as in the previous design. It was also
agreed that the city would build the part of the viaduct east of
the Chicago River (as well as the bascule bridge across the river),
while the Chicago Union Station Co. would build the part west
of the river.

The first study of the concrete viaduct made was of a flat slab
structure. The width being such (ii8 ft.) as to allow several
j)anels transversely, the design adapted itself to flat-slab. But
the difficulty encountered was the longitudinal column spacing.
For flat-slab more or less uniform column spacing is required;
but the layout of tracks under the viaduct and the required clear-
ances between columns and rails did not allow a uniform spacing.
Hence this design was abandoned.

A study was then made in a beam and girder design. Slabs
were spanned between stringers placed close together. The
stringers framed into cross-girders, which were supported by
columns. It was the same as the old steel design, with the steel
members replaced by concrete.

At this time, Mr. R. R. Lefifler (then with the Bridge Division)
submitted a design consisting of slabs spanning between four
rows of longitudinal girders, thus eliminating the stringers. The

VoLXII, No. 3] GRODSKY: ROOSEVELT RD. VIADUCT 175

relative merits of the two designs will be discussed later. These
two designs were brought before the Chicago Plan Commission,
which decided in favor of Mr. Leffler's design. However, the
Chicago Union Station Co. adopted for the west part of the
viaduct a beam and girder design and could not be persuaded to
adopt the city's design. Thus it happened that the two parts of
the viaduct ha\e different structural features.

General Description.

The Roosevelt Road viaduct extends from A\'abash Ave. to
Canal St. The South Branch of the Chicago Ri\er divides the
viaduct into two parts: The east half and the west half. The
east part begins at Wabash Ave. with a 219 ft. filled approach and
continues to the Chicago River with 1788 ft. of viaduct. Clark
St. is elevated north and south of Roosevelt Road to meet the
viaduct. The Clark St. approaches consist of 500 ft. of filled
approach and 335 ft. of viaduct to the north of Roosevelt Road
and of 550 ft. of filled approach and 335 ft. of viaduct to the
south of Roosevelt Road. The viaduct is also reached by an
approach on Wells St. On this approach 108 ft. adjacent to
Roosevelt Road will be built of concrete, while for the remaining
546 ft. the old steel approach will be used after raising it to meet
the new grades.

The West part of the viaduct begins at Canal St. with a 245 ft.
filled approach and continues to the Chicago River wi*^h 1072 ft.
of viaduct. At Lumber St. a ramp is built to reach the viaduct.
This ramp is about 600 ft. long. The Chicago River is spanned
by a single leaf bascule bridge of the Chicago type. The bridge
has four trusses of varying spans, as the opposite banks of the
Chicago River are not parallel to each other. The shortest span
is 182 ft. y/2 in. and the longest is 211 ft. lo'/s, in. The bridge is
90 ft. wide and has a 56 ft. roadway with 17 ft. sidewalks on
each side of it.

The Roosevelt Road viaduct is 118 ft. wide. In the center of
the viaduct is a 25 ft. island carrying the two street car tracks.
On each side of the street car island is a 29 ft. 6 in. roadway for
vehicular traft'ic and a 17 ft. sidewalk for foot traffic (see Fig. i).
The Clark St. approaches are 50 ft. wide and consist of a 6 ft.
sidewalk on the east side of the approach, a 42 ft. roadway and
a 2 ft. curb on the west side of the approach. The Wells St.
approach is 60 ft. wide and flares out to 104 ft. at Roosevelt Road

176 THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [March, 1921

to allow the street cars to turn from Wells St. to Roosevelt Road
and vice versa. The Lumber St. ramp is 40 ft. wide.

Design Features.

The 1 2th St. Improvement Ordinance provides that the con-
struction of the new viaduct go on without interrupting traffic.
The old steel viaduct occupies the north half of the widened
street. Hence it was decided to build the new viaduct in two
halves. The south half is to be built hrst, the traffic meanwhile
using the old viaduct. When the south half of the new viaduct is
completed and linked up with the bridge, traffic will be switched
onto it, the old viaduct taken off and the north half of the new-
viaduct built. Thus the viaduct is designed and built in two
identical and independent units.

In general the structure consists of slabs carried on four lines
of longitudinal girders. These girders frame into rectangular
columns resting on caissons which are carried to bedrock. The
column sizes as adopted allow maximum clearance between rail-
road tracks under the viaduct. For the same reason the columns
are often placed at a skew with the center line of the viaduct.
The expansion joints occur about every 200 to 240 ft. The sec-
tions between expansion joints are made entirely independent of
each other by placing a double column at the joint.

The design adopted for the East part of the viaduct differs
from the usual beam and girder construction in many respects.
In the so-called beam and girder construction the slab is carried
by closely spaced stringers. The stringers frame into cross-
girders, which in turn are framed to the columns. In this design
the slab, although spanning a short distance between stringers,
must be made heavier than required for the load it carries, in
order to get the minimum thickness considered to be good practice
for slabs exposed to impact.

In the design adopted for the viaduct east of the river, each
half consists of a roadway slab spanning between two longitu-
dinal girders. The clear span of this slab is 25 ft, 6 in. The
girders are ordinarily 6 ft. wide. To one side of the roadway
slab is a sidewalk slab cantilevered from the girder; to the other
side, another cantilever slab carrying the street car. Fig. i shows
the cross-section for one-half of the viaduct only (the other half
is the same as but opposite hand to this one). The sidewalk slab
is cantilevered 13 ft.; the street car slab, 8 ft. 6 in. The advan-

Vol. XII, No. 3] GRODSKY: ROOSEVELT RD. VIADUCT 177

tage of this arrangement lies in the fact that the two cantilever
slabs supply continuity to the roadway slab, giving in efifect a
three-span continuous slab. This reduces the positive moment
in the roadway slab and permits its spanning 25 ft. 6 in. between
girders. Another advantage of this arrangement is that it is only
necessar}' to design one foot of slab ; the design can then be
applied for the full length of the viaduct, since the cross-section
does not change except at street intersections.

The great number of stringers of the beam and girder con-
struction are combined in the viaduct design into two girders (for
each half of the viaduct). Each girder is 6 ft. wide; but where

required by high unit shear to be wider, it is made 7 ft. 8 in. wide.
The depth of the girder is made varying according to the span
lengths. The girders are rigidly framed to the columns by means
of haunches. The columns are 6 ft. 7 in. wide and 2 ft. 6^ in.
thick for expansion joint columns and 2 ft. 8 in. thick for others.
This simphfies the calculations of stresses in the columns.

To balance the bending moments induced by possible unequal
loading of the cantilever slabs, struts are put in about every 30 ft.
They span across the girders thus taking moments due to torsion
in the girders. In order not to complicate the stresses in these
struts, a ^ in. crack is left between them and the roadway slab
above. This allows the slab to deflect without bringing any load
on the struts.

The viaduct cross-section outlined above possesses certain ad-
vantages. It is simple and applies throughout the length of the
viaduct. The slab, strut, girder and column dimensions are stand-
ardized. This simplifies the formwork and allows it also to be
standardized. The fact of using only two girders reduces the
amount of forms used from 15 to 20%.

This design permits also the simplification of the reinforcing
steel. The steel in the slabs and struts is the same throughout the

178

THE ARMOUR ENGINEER

[March, 1921

length of the viaduct. 'Ihe girders being largely of one width,
admit standardization of the top and bottom reinforcing. As
shown in the girder section. I'ig. 2, bars having the same identi-
fication numbers are placed in the same relatixe positions in all
girders. Again no bent bars are used in the girders. The
stirrups are the same in number ( 11 for the 6 ft. width. 14 for
the 7 ft. 8 in. width) in all girders, and are of a shape easy to
hook around the longitudinal reinforcing. In the columns steel
is used only in certain combinations. The steel used is about
95%. base (that is ^)4 in. and abo\e in size). This means a lower

unit price ; il also means that for a certain tonnage there are
fewer bars to place, thus showing a sa\ing in the cost of laying
steel. Again_ the percentage of bent bars is smaller than usual,
being only about 30 to ^^"^/i . also reducing the cost of steel.

The computation of the amount of live load coming on the
girders is greatly simplified, as there are no stringers to bring
on concentrated loads. The amount of li\e load coming from
the slabs is always the same, giving the girders a uniform live
load.

The design lends itself readily to analysis as a rigid frame. The
girders are continuous over and stififened by the columns. To-
gether they form a vertical rigid frame between expansion joints.
In the beam and girder construction most of the stringers are

Vol. XII, No. 3] GRODSKY: ROOSEVELT RD. VIADUCT 179

not in line with the columns. They are continuous over the
cross-girders. But together with the cross-girders they do not
form frames lending themselves to analysis, as the stiffness of
the stringer supports is difficult to determine.

From the architectural standpoint the design also possesses
advantages. The beam and girder construction is an imitation of
the typical steel design with short spans for slabs and many
stringers. It is in fact of the same appearance as steel encased in
concrete. The nevy design is adapted specifically to concrete : it is
massive and has few and simple Hnes. It eliminates the great
number of unsightly beams, underneath the structure, substi-
tuting for them arched girders blending into the columns. The
architectural features of the viaduct were worked out in co-
operation with the Chicago Plan Commission. .Such parts as the
heavy concrete railing on the viaduct, the fascia beam, the curve
of the haunches, the vertical lines of the columns, the ornamental
iron railing on the approaches, etc., received the attention of the
Chicago Plan Commission. To prevent an illusion of sagging to
which concrete girders of long spans are subject, they were
cambered an amount proportional to their span lengths ( i in. for
every 12 ft. of span between curved haunches).

Loads and Unit Stresses.

The dead load consisting of the weight of the slabs, railings,
pavement, street car ballast, struts and girders is considered uni-
formly distributed o\er the girder span with a value of 13000 lbs.
per lin. ft. of girder supporting the sidewalk and 12000 lbs. per
lin. ft. of girder supporting the street car slab.

The specifications used for live loads and stresses were "Speci-
fications Governing the Construction, Repairs and Rebuilding of
\^iaducts Over Railroad Tracks," issued by the Bureau of Engi-
neering, Dept. of Public Works, City of Chicago, Januar}% 1917.
According to these specifications the roadway slab is designed for
a 24 ton truck, concentrating 12000 lbs. on each wheel. Space not
occupied by the truck is covered with a uniform live load of 100

lbs. per sq. ft. The impact allowance is taken as I ^ S .

L+150
where I is the impact increment, S is the computed maximum
live load stress and L is the length of the load producing maximum
stress. The wheel concentrations are assumed to spread in a

180 THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [March, 1921

manner described in the specifications and an equivalent uniform
live load for the roadway slab is obtained as 220 lbs. per sq. ft.
(including impact^. The street car cantilever is designed for a
live load of a 50-ton street car and 100 lbs. per sq. ft. on the area
unoccupied by the street car. The equivalent uniform load is
computed as 285 lbs. per sq. ft. (including impact). The side-
walk cantilever is designed for a live load of 100 lbs. per sq. ft.
without allowance for impact.

The live load on the girder supporting the sidewalk and road-
way comes from a 24-ton truck, 100 lbs. per sq. ft. on area un-
occupied by the truck, 100 lbs. per sq. ft. of sidewalk and a
cantilever reaction due to a live load on the sidewalk cantilever
with no live load on the street car slab. Impact is allowed as per
specifications. The resulting live load is taken as 4600 lbs. per
hn. ft.

The live load on the girder supporting the roadway and street
car slabs is taken in a similar way, replacing the 100 lbs. per
sq. ft. on the sidewalk by a 50-ton street car with 100 lbs. per
sq. ft. on area unoccupied by street car. The resultant live load
is 5600 lbs. per lin. ft. (including impact). Thus for the loads
on girders : -fl^'

Dead load on sidewalk girder 13000 lbs. per lin. ft.

Li\e load on sidewalk girder 4600 lbs. per lin. ft.

Total load on sidewalk girder 17600 lbs. per lin. ft.

Dead load on street car girder 12000 lbs. per lin. ft.

Live load on street car girder 5600 lbs. per lin. ft.

Total load on street car girder 17600 lbs. per lin. ft.

For the sake of uniformity, the dead load for both girders is
taken at 13000 lbs. per lin. ft. and the live load, at 4600 lbs. per
lin. ft. -

The tractive or longitudinal forces are taken at 20% of the
moving live load on one track, thus giving 20000 lbs. as the hori-
zontal force for each half of the viaduct.

For the calculation of temperature stresses a basic temperature
of 65° F. is assumed with variations of 40° up to +105° F. and
of 80° down to — 1=,'^ F. The expansion joint is made i in. wide
at 65° F. with a jM-oportional variation if construction is carried
out at a different temperature.

Vol. XII, No. 3] GRODSKY: ROOSEVELT RD. VIADUCT 181

The unit stresses are taken according to the specifications : 750
lbs. per sq. in. for compression in extreme fiber due to bending in
1-2-4 concrete; 16000 lbs. per sq. in. for tension in steel (Note:
Only structural grade plain bars are used) ; 450 lbs. per sq. in.
direct compression on 1-2-4 concrete; shear without web rein-
forcing— ^40 lbs. per sq. in.; with web reinforcing- — 120 lbs. per
sq. in. ; bond- — 80 lbs. per sq. in. on plain bars. The value of n is
taken at 15 for 1-2-4 concrete.

Method of Analysis.
The roadway slab was designed as continuous over rigid sup-

w P w /^

ports. For dead load a moment of at the support and

12 23

w P

at the center was used. For live load, was used for moment

12
both at the support and at the center. For the cantilever slabs
the usual moment coefficients were used.

Each line of girders with the columns between expansion joints
was treated as a rigid frame. The reasons for not using the
ordinary simple methods of analysis (as the three-moment
theorem), were the following:

1. In order to clear the railroad tracks under the viaduct,
columns had to be put at convenient places without giving due
regard to equal span lengths. The columns are rigidly connected
to the girders and therefore are liable to bending moments due
to loads on the girders. The unequal column spacing may cause
heavy moments in the columns from the dead load alone.

2. The live load on the viaduct is of the moving type. The
moments induced in the columns due to the moving live load in a
monolythic structure are considerable, especially as the column
spacing is irregular.

3. The distance between expansion joints amounts to 240 ft.
and over in several cases. Temperature changes will cause con-
siderable stresses in this distance between joints. The usual
practice of analyzing the temperature stresses is to assume the
amount of contraction or expansion as a deflection of the upp^r
end of the column (considered free to move), while the lower
end is held rigid. In other words, the column is considered as
a cantilever restrained at the bottom and deflecting at the top an
amount equal to the contraction or expansion of the girder from

182 THE ARMOUR ENGINEER 1 March, 1921

the center of the frame to the column in question. The stresses
caused by such a deflection are assumed to be equal to the tem-
perature stresses in the columns. However, since the frame is
unsymmetrical and doubt may arise as to the amount of deflec-
tion in eacli column ; and since the columns are rigidly connected
to the girders instead of having their upper ends free to move,
thus causing difficult stresses in the columns; this method of
obtaining stresses in columns due to temperature changes is
l)rimiti\e and cann(.)t insjjire confidence in the results obtained l)y
it.

These factors make it necessary to design the girders and col-
umns as a rigid frame. Of the known methods of analyzing rigid
frames, the Slope-Deflection method possesses the advantage of
greatly reduced computations. This decided the use of that
method in analyzing the frames.

The slope-deflection method of analyzing rigid frames is
based on expressing the moment at any point in terms of moment
at the joint of column and girder. The moment at the joint A of

any member AB, Mai, = 2EK (26'a + ^b ) + Cab, where

1
Mab is the moment at the end A of member AB, K is the ratio
of the moment of inertia of the member to its length, E is the
modulus of elasticity of the material, B.^ and (9b are the angles
made by the tangents to the deformed neutral axes with their
original ])Ositions at A and B respectively, d is deflection at right
angles to the member AB of end B relative to end A and Cab is a
factor depending upon the load and is equal to the bending
moment at the support A of a beam AB (fixed at both ends) of
the same loading and span as the member AB.

In analyzing the frame, expression for moments (similar to the
above expression) for the ends of each member in the frame and
for various conditions of loading are written. The sum of such
moments around each joint must equal zero for equilibrium. By
considering that the sum of the horizontal reactions at the foot of
the columns must equal zero for the cases of vertical loading and
temperature variations; or must equal the horizontal load in case
of such a load — another equation may be obtained. For frames
with one tier of columns (that is one story in height), the num-
ber of e(|uations thus obtained will be ecjual to the number of

Vol.XII, No. 3] GRODSKY: ROOSEVELT RD. VIADUCT 183

unknowns. These equations are solved simultaneously and values
for moments at the joints are obtained for various conditions of
loading. Knowing the moments at the joints, the moment at any
other point can easily be calculated. Moment diagrams for vari-
ous loads are plotted and from these the combination giving the
maximum moments is obtained. The calculations are not shown
here, as they occupy too much space.

Note : The columns rest on caissons, hence unyielding supports
were assumed. Also the columns were assumed fixed at the tops
of the caisson caps.

Special Features.

The viaduct at State St. consists of three arched spans : one
over each sidewalk with a 15 ft. clear opening and one over
the roadway with a 60 ft. 8 in. clear opening. The columns into
which the arch ribs frame are placed at the street lines and at
the curbs, giving unobstructed roadway and sidewalks. There
are 6 arch ribs acro.=s State St. The exterior ribs are 6 ft. wide,
the four interior ribs are 12 ft. 7 in. wide. The exterior columns
are 4 ft. by 6 ft. 11 in.; the interior, 4 ft. by 14 ft. i. in. Con-
necting the arch ribs are two slabs. One at the top of the rib
serves as sidewalk or roadway for the viaduct; the other, at the
bottom of the rib, serves as a ceiling for the subviaduct
space. The space between these two slabs was left hollow
in order to save weight (and dead load). The ceiling slab is
arched in a transverse direction, which together with its curving
in the longitudinal direction, gives a groined effect. The columns
are connected in a transverse direction by small arch ribs.

On top of the viaduct the usual heavy reinforced concrete
railing gives way to a balustrade of graceful outlines. Four
stairways, one in each corner of the street intersection, connect
the upper level with the street. The stairways are of reinforced
concrete, each one consisting of a slab resting on two arched
.stringers. The stairway railing is of ornamental iron.

The balustrade, the ornamental iron railing and the fade
ornamentation on the exterior arch received special architectural
treatment and were approved by the Chicago Plan Commission.

Structurally, the crossing presented a difficult problem. The
thickness of the interior rib effective to resist moment from the
loaded 60 ft. 8 in. clear span was only 2 ft. 5 in. This was caused
by the fact that on the one hand the State St. crossing is near

184 THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [March, 1921

the east end of the viaduct and the elevation at the crossing could
not be raised without bringing the approach grade above the
practical. On the other hand, clearance for street cars had to be
provided under the arch. The approach grade was given the
maximum value to which the Chicago Surface Lines would agree,
viz.: 3.4%. State St. underneath was depressed about 2^^ ft.;
then only giving 2 ft. 5 in. as effective depth for the interior ribs.
To make an expansion joint through the center of the roadway
arch and thus create two cantilever arches, was not desirable, as
the joint would be difficult to hide and would mar the face orna-
mentation on the exterior arch.

To get out of the difficulty, the three arch spans v^ere con-
sidered as continuous. The sidewalk arches were made very
heavy in spite of their small spans ; this together with the heavy
columns caused a large moment at the springing of the roadway
arch, which reduced the moment at the center sufficiently to
allow the use of the shallow ribs.

Another interesting feature occurred at the river end of the
east part of the \ iaduct. The section between the last expansion
joint and the east abutment of the bascule bridge consists of two
spans averaging about 65 ft. each. The Wells St. approach joins
the viaduct at this section and the street cars from Wells St. cross
over to the viaduct. This necessitated a heavier construction,
resulting in larger loads for the girders.

The columns are on skew to the viaduct and so are stiffer than
when usually placed at right angles to the viaduct. The com-
bination of heavier loads, a section with only two spans, and
columns stiffer than usual, causes high stresses in the columns.
In addition to this the girder seat at the abutment practically
fixes this end of the section. The resulting temperature stresses
in the columns when added to the dead and live load stresses,
make the columns unsafe.

It was desirable to obtain movement under temperature varia-
tions at the abutment seat of the frame. At first a phosphor-
bronze plate on the abutment seat and a cast-iron plate as a shoe
on the girder were tried. The resulting coefficient of friction,
however, would still be large enough to overcome the horizontal
reaction obtained when this end is considered fixed. Thus no
movement would occur.

Recourse was then had to rollers. Three 12 in. segmented
rollers (4^ in. wide and 2 ft. 8 in. long) were placed on the

Vol. XII, No. 3] GRODSKY: ROOSEVELT RD. VIADUCT 185

base casting. On top of the rollers were placed: a lower pin-
casting, a 6 in. pin and an upper pin-casting fastened to the
bottom of the concrete girder. The pin turns in phosphor-bronze
bushings. The upper pin-casting is fastened to the girder and the
base casting to the abutment seat with four 1^2 in. round bolts
each. This arrangement, allowing movement in the frame under
temperature variations, brought the column stresses down to a
safe limit.

FORMWORK.

As was described above, the cross-section is typical through-
out the viaduct. This means that the forms for the slab are the
same for the entire length of the viaduct ; the curved soffits of
the cantilever slabs and the haunches near the supports of the
roadway slab are also typical. The same is true of the girder,
their width being constant (either 6 ft. or 7 ft. 8 in.). The
struts have the same dimensions in all cases. The interior col-
umns are all alive, as well as the expansion joint columns. This
simpHfies the forms to a great extent and allows them to be used
several times.

But simple as the forms are, the falsework presented a com-
plicated problem. There are only a few spans without any rail-
road tracks underneath, where a regular timber trestle can be
built to support the formwork. In those cases the forms were
supported in the usual manner by joists framing with beams,
supported by posts, etc. (See Fig. 3.)

In a number of cases the girders crossed one or two tracks
close together, about 14 ft. on centers. Then timber posts were
set up on the outside of the tracks, I bearhs were laid over the
posts spanning the tracks and the forms were supported by the
I beams.

In several cases where a cluster of tracks crossing the lower
level of the viaduct, and where no clearance under the viaduct
existed to permit the forms to be supported by girders spanning
the tracks, the forms were supported from overhead. Six steel
girders were placed in a longitudinal direction above the top of
the future concrete and supported either on the adjacent con-
crete (if already poured) or on timber trestles. Timbers were
laid across these girders with a uniform spacing; long bolts were
carried from these timbers down through the formwork, support-

186

THH ARMOUR ENGINEER

[March, 1921

ing the I fceains which hold up the forms. Fig. 4 shows this
arrangement previous to the pouring of concrete.

Older tlie.-e conditions, the formwork could not he built hap-
hazardly, but was carefully designed and built from designs as
closely as conditions on the job permitted. The fact that the
forms rejieat was an incentive to turn out the most economical
forms. Again the difficulty of supporting them made a detailed
study necessary. The Designing Division of the Bureau of
Engineering accordingly made designs and details for every span
of the \iaduct, where there were tracks underneath. They de-

Vol. XII, No. 31 GRODSKY: ROOSEVELT RD. VIADUCT 187

signed the overhead supports, girders, I beams, timber trestles,
etc. Their plans guided the men on the job wherever possible,
and gave a solution to each falsew^ork problem as it presented
itself.

Plant.

Several schemes were presented to bring about 'an efficient
handling of the materials and distribution of the concrete.
Among them was one to build a narrow gage railroad on top of
the existing steel viaduct, leaving sufficient clearance for traffic ;
to have one central plant and to distribute the concrete by means
of small cars to points where it is needed. This scheme was
abandoned because of the inability of the present steel viaduct
to withstand the extra load and the vibration.

The scheme finally adopted was to use three plant layouts, one
at State .St., another to the east of Wells St., and the third
at Clark St. The first layout will take care of about 620 ft. of
viaduct; the second, of about 725 ft., and the third, of about 420
ft. on Roosevelt Road, and in addition the Clark St. approaches.

The plant equipment consists of two i-yd. electric-driven Mil-
waukee chain-belt mixers, one distributing tower, one electric
hoist and chutes.

No extensive storage facilities were provided. Enough mate-
rial is kept en the job to run the plant for about a half day
Arrangements with local supply companies were such that a
practically uninterrupted supply of materials was insured during
periods of concreting.

The concrete distribution was effected by hoisting the concrete
in a tower and bringing it to the desired location by a system
of spouts. 1 .

Concreting.

In order to make the slabs, girders and columns act together,
as was assumed in the analysis, it was necessary to insure a
monolythic structure. To that effect construction joints were
placed only at center lines of bents. Between bents concrete is
poured in one continuous operation. To guard against interrup-
tion of concreting due to a breakdown of a mixer, an extra
mixer is kept ready to start and continue the concreting. All the
concrete poured (with a very few exceptions) is of 1-2-4 mix.
The concrete in the abutment is of 1-3-5 '""i^- The sidewalks are
covered with a i-in. granite finish within 54 min. after the slab is
poured.

188 THE ARMOUR EXGINEER [March, 1921

Cost,

A correct estimate of the cost of the east part of the viaduct is
impossible. The prices of labor and material have changed so
much since construction started, and will no doubt keep on
changing in the future until the job is finished, that it is impos-
sible to forecast the cost of the entire improvement. However,
ihe substructure on Roosevelt Road east of the river, including
the caissons, caisson caps, caisson beams and subcolumns built
in 1919, cost $500,000. The superstructure is at the present time
about 40% completed, but unit prices so far are not available.
Even if they were, they would not be indicative of the cost of the
entire superstructure, as prices in the future will no doubt be
different

Organization.

The viaduct is built by the Bureau of Engineering in the De-
j'.irtment of Public \\'orks. The plans and specifications were pre-
pared in the Designing Section of the Bidge Division. Mr. T. G.
Pihlfeldt was at the head of the Bridge Division; Mr. H. E.
Young, of the Designing Section. Now, Mr. C. S. Rowe and
Mr. J. R. Hall, respectively, occupy these positions. The plans
were prepared under the direct charge of the writer. The con-
struction is done by the Construction Division, under Mr. J. J.
Versluis. Mr. J. Cermak is in direct charge of the construction.
Mr. H. B. Anderson is the resident assistant engineer.

TO MOVE TOWN SO AS TO BE ABLE TO BUILD DAM

It now seems practic?.lly certain that in connection with the con-
struction of the American Falls reservoir on the Snake River in
Idaho, legislative authority will be given to purchase, condemn,
and improve land for a new town site to replace the portion of the
town of American Falls which will be flooded by the new reser-
voir. The project calls for a 90-ft. dam, which would impound
3,000,000 acre feet and make available for irrigation the entire
.water resources of the Snake River.

In addition to moving a large part of the town of American
Falls it will be necessary to acquire the 6000 h.p. hydro-electric
plant of the Idaho Power Company located just below the dam
site. The proposed dam would make necessary the relocation of
several miles of the Oregon Short Line Railroad. Indian lands
as well as private lands would be flooded . This calls for time-
consuming adjustments. All of those matters, however, are to
be carried forward as rapidly as possible. Thus far arrange-
ments have been concluded for the use of less than 1,000,000 acre
feet. — Electrical World, Feb. 26, 1921.

STANDARDIZATION OF LUMBER

By Charles Edward Paul.
Professor of Mechanics, Armour Institute of Technology.

The United States Forest Service estimates that there are two
thousand, two hundred and fifteen bilhon feet of saw timber
standing in our forests today. As a concrete example of the
magnitude of this supply, if all the timber in only the states of
\\'ashington and Oregon was cut and loaded into freight cars
containing 30,000 feet per car, it would require 114,000,000 cars
for Washington and 77,700,000 cars for Oregon.

The lumber industry as a whole, with its raw material scat-
tered widely over about thirty per cent of the surface of the
United States and bringing its products to the building material
markets in every city and village, is vast in its physical and com-
mercial resources, immensely important in its position in the
building field, but sadly deficient in its structural standards.
What is Standardization f

A material is standard when it meets definite quahfications
which are set up and established by authority as rules for the
measure of quantity,* quality, extent, or value. At the present
time, each regional association of lumber manufacturers has its
own separate set of standards- for the size and quality of the
commercial product which its members cut from a given species
of tree. Even logs from the same district, or tree, if deUvered
to manufacturers belonging to different regional associations,
would be cut into material for the consumer under two different
standards as to size and commercial grade for the same quality
of material. This multiplicity and diversity of standards, places
the industry in a position such that it has no standard that can be
applied to lumber in general, although each regional association
of manufacturers produces a material which has a common use in
many or all purposes.
Who is Interested in Standardization, and for What Reason?

The Consumer — Consumers of wood, including the designer,
the contractor, the architect, and the engineer, are interested in
definite standards of size and grade on account of the great con-
fusion now^ existing in these points which are of extreme mi-
portance to them in their work. They can see no reason why a
piece of dimension commonly referred to as a "two by four"
should be i 9/16" x 3>4" in one book of grading rules, and i^" x

190 THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [March, 1921

3%" in anotlier. Xor can they understand why the grade of
"Xo. I Common" should have very different specifications in the
rules of different associations of manufacturers. The consumers
do not request or demand that material shall be full rated size,
or that it shall meet any requirement as to quality set by them, but
they do want a rated si/.e and a gi\en name to mean the same
thing with all manufacturers of lumber.

The finished structures in which wood is used by these men
have very definite dimensions. Combinations of various pieces
of wood when used one on the other are required to produce
finally a g\\en thickness, or lead bearing capacity. Uniform
standards as to size and quality would allow the development of
standard units of design, which could be used with certainty as
to results obtained. As the situation exists at present, these men
must investigate particular variations in sizes and specifications
as to grade for each kind of lumber used in a structure before
they can proceed with its calculations. A design which is correct
in one section of the country may be entirely inadequate in an-
other section, even though the same nominal sizes of material are
used. This makes it far easier for the designer to use compet-
ing materials which have very definite standards throughout the
country.

The Distributor — The distributor of wood products, as for in-
stance the retail lumber dealer, is interested in standardization
of lumber since he realizes the present difficulties which the
consumer faces, and can see no absolute need for such a con-
dition.

Variations in the same nominal size in different species of
lumber cause confusion in his yard stock. His yards are filled
with all kinds of thicknesses and widths, and no one knows the
loss and trouble which is entailed.

The consumer accuses him of selling extra scant sizes and
proves it by going into his yard and showing him the same
nominal size of material that measures larger than the kind he
delivered.

He is in contrcnersy with building inspectors and often cannot
furnish material that will meet the requirements of city ordinances
which were framed in the days when a "two by four'" was a
"two by four."

He knows that diminished sizes have upset the few standard
tables that the designer depended upon for his load carrying

Vol. XII, No. 3) PAUL: LUMBER STANDARDS 191

members, and that a vast wave of general protest is forming.
Such a condition does not help his business.

The Manufacturer. — The manufacturer in general is interested
in standardization because he recognizes that the complaints of
the consumer and the distributor of his product are just and rea-
sonable. He wishes to furnish a material which will meet the
public demand, but fears that a change in his present sizes and
methods of grading may interfere more or less seriously with
the routine of his business. He knows that the demand for
standardization has reached the point where something will be
done to remedy the present situation. He hears that national
engineering and architectural societies have decided to formulate
their own standards and then base their orders for lumber on
these standards. Needless to say their proposed standards do not
take into account the possible disturbance which may be caused
in the lumber industry^ Even rumors of legislation have been
heard which would specify finished sizes of lumber to be the
same as present nominal sizes.

The manufacturer realizes that such standards of size and qual-
ity can be developed best in the industr}^ where the material is
best known. In this way, the demands of the consumer can be
met with the least disturbance in present manufacturing rules and
processes. Co-operation with the consumer through representa-
tive engineering or architectural societies and with the Forest
Products Laboratory, Madison, Wisconsin, should produce
standards which will satisfy the consumer as well as the producer
and have a real technical basis.
What Will Be the Effect of Standardization?

True standardization for lumber will mean the adoption of :

a. A definite plan of classification and nomenclature to be used
in describing kinds, grades, and sizes of lumber.

b. A logical series of lumber grades based upon certain stand-
ard defects. These grades to be chosen in such a manner
as to cover all species and kinds of lumber by definite basic
rules. These basic rules are to be modified slightly by per-
mitting or restricting other defects, if necessary, to meet
variations due to use of product or nature of growth in tree.

c. Uniform sizes for all commercial grades and kinds of man-
ufactured lumber.

All books of grading rules for lumber will follow the same
general arrangement of descriptive matter.

192 THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [March, 1921

The words, definitions, and trade terms used in these books will
have the same meaning with each species of lumber.

Designers will soon learti the standard sizes and will know that
these do not vary in the different species. Also, that a given
grade of lumber is practically the same in all species, except for
minor variations in defects which will be stated clearly in the
grading rules for a given species.

Standard tables for use in designing structures can be pre-
pared for architects and engineers, depending upon unit stresses
only.

The industry will profit by removing the present elements of
uncertainty in preparing lumber specifications, thus satisfying the
consumer and making it easy for him to use wood properly. The
adoption of definite standards will cause the designer to consider
wood more favorably and thus create a greater demand. One of
the best ways to meet competition is to make it easier for the con-
sumer to buv.

FERRIS WHEEL OF PARIS TAKEN DOWN.

In the recent past there have been two worthwhile attractions
in Paris for the tourists in search of big things, namely, the
Eiffel Tower and the giant wheel. But today the latter, which
has been proclaimed unsafe and a serious menace by the powers
that be, is being taken down, piece by piece.

"La Grand Roue," as it is called, was completed in 1899 and
opened to the public during the exposition of 1900. It measured
325 feet in diameter and was of remarkably light construction.
Since then it has offered entertainment to tens of thousands of
visitors to Paris, commanding, as it does, an excellent panorama
of the city. By last October, however, the authorities decided that
the wheel was no longer safe, and they stopped its operation.
More recently the owners of the wheel, finding no further use
for their property in its usual shape, decided to dismantle it and
to convert the cars and steel and cables into spot cash. It is just
as well perhaps, for Ferris wheels have long since outlived their
usefulness.

— "Scientific American," Feb. 26, 1921.

The Armour Engineer

The Quarterly Technical Publication of the

Armour Institute of Technology

VOLUME XII MARCH, 1921 NUMBER 3

PUBLISHING STAFF FOR THE YEAR 1920-1921
John P. Sanger, Editor Spenser N. Havlick, M'ng. Editor

Fletcher E. Hayden, Bus. Mgr. Emil F. Winter, Assoc. Bus. Mgr.

Board of Associate Editors.

H. M. Raymond, Dean of the Engineering Studies.

L. C. Monin, Dean of the Cultural Studies.

G. F. Gebhardt, Professor of Mechanical Engineering.

E. H. Freeman, Professor of Electrical Engineering.

A. E. Phillips, Professor of Civil Engineering.

H. McCormack, Professor of Chemical Engineering.

E. S. Campbell, Professor of Architectural Design.

Published four times a year, in November, January, March and
May. Publication Office: Federal and 33rd Streets, Chicago.

TERMS OF SUBSCRIPTION.
The Armour Engineer, four issues,postage prepaid, $1.50 per annum

The Technical Press is invited to reproduce articles,
or portions of same, provided proper credit is given.

ON "GETTING BY"

Slang phrases come and go in much the same manner as do pop-
ular songs. When such expressions do remain in common speech,
it is because they phrase an idea of constant occurrence to the
public mind in a very forceful way. Such a phrase is the much
used expression — "Getting By."

It is common to envy the man who "gets by" with his studies.

There are business men who seem to "get by" on their "pull."'

Salesmen are said to "get by" on their "line."

The phrase is in daily use everywhere.

It first sprang into existence during the recent war. Labor
was scarce. Men of little or no ability were in great demand.

194 THF. ARMOUR F.XGIXRKR [\rarch. 1921

The natural tendency of the worker was to obtain as much money
for as little work as possible. From this tendency came the ex-
pression, and as the former has lasted, the latter has also stayed.

The appeal to "get by" is great, because results which otherwise
seem far oft appear easily obtainable. Success is made a simple
thing, and no great effort is required to attain it.

Adherence to such a creed through life, howe\cr, will lead to
ultimate indolence. It violates one of the foremost laws of
science and of common sense — that of the Conservation of En-
ergy. A man certainly cannot get any more out of an enterprise
than he i)uts into it — and "getting by" implies that he can do just
this.

"Getting by" leads to jeaknisy and bitterness. One sees the
goals reached by those ahead of him without realizing the ac-
companying eft'ort spent. Jealousy results.

"Getting by" leads one to misrepresent facts, for when one
tries to ad\ance without eft'ort, a lie may seem to open the way
more easily. The impulse is followed, and when the crisis comes,
the man has not "got the goods." and failure results. Inevitably,
then, the circumstances rather than the creed are blamed.

No truly great man e\er "got by." Washington was one of the
most conscientious workers known. Lincoln spent hours in study.
Edison and Stienmetz are noted as much for their persistencv as
for their genius. Hooxer obtained his reputation for clear think-
ing by constant practice and concentration.

Let no one be fooled by this catch phrase. It may make a
strong appeal, but it is false. "Getting by" has caused the atti-
tude that is responsible for much of our labor trouble today. It
has ruined more than one promising business and can lead to no
permanent good.

The creed which leads to all true and permanent success seems
best stated by one of the ablest and most energetic Americans
of all time. Theodore Roosevelt says:

"I wish to advocate, not the doctrine of ignoble ease, but the
doctrine of the strenuous life — the life of toil'and effort, of labor
and strife; to uphold that highest form of success which comes.
not to the man who desires mere easv peace, but to the man who
does not shrink from danger, from hardship, or from bitter toil,
and who out of these wins the splendid, ultimate triumph."

Vol. XII, No. 3] EDITORIALS • 195

HOW DID YOU DIE?

Did you tackle that trouble that came your way

With a resolute heart and cheerful?
Or hide your face from the light of day

With a craven soul and fearful?
Oh, a trouble's a ton, or a trouble's an ounce,

Or a trouble is what you make it.
And it isn't the fact that you're hurt that counts,

But only how did you take it?

You are beaten to earth? Well, well, what's that?

Come up with a smiling face.
It's nothing against you to fall down flat,

But to lie there — that's disgrace.
The harder you're thrown, why the higher you bounce ;

Be proud of your blackened eye!
It isn't the fact that you're licked that counts;

It's how did you fight — and why?

And though you be done to the death, what then ?

If you battled the best you could,
If you played your part in the world of men.

Why, the Critic will call it good.
Death comes with a crawl, or comes with a pounce,

And whether he's slow or spry.
It isn't the fact that you're dead that counts.

But only how did you die?

— Impertinent Poems, by Edmund Vance Cooke.

THE ARMOUR INSTITUTEOF TECHNOLOGY BRANCH

OF THE
AMERICAN SOCIETY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS

Charles T. Walter President

John P. Sanger I' ice-President

Robt. W. Van Valzah Treasurer ,

William A. Heitner Secretary

A general meeting of all the meclianical students was held in
the Mission on Januar\' 12, 1921.

The program consisted of a motion picture film on "Car Motor
Truck Axles.*" This film was purely educational, and proved
very instructive.

An illustrated lecture was given by Mr. G. R. Read on "Dia-
mond and Gold Mining in Africa." Mr. Read's lecture was en-
tertaining and instructi\e, giving an insight not only of the opera-
tions of the mine, but also of the way in which the natives live in
the Transvaal.

"A Summer Spent on an Ore Boat" was the topic discussed by
Mr. Paul Rupprecht in which he cfescribed the methods in which
ore is shipped and loaded at the various docks on the Great Lakes
route. His account was so interesting that many expressed their
desire to ship out on the Great Lakes during the Summer.

Other topics were : "The Manufacture of Condensed Milk," by
Mr. H. E. Hagen, and "Drilling for Oil." by Mr. .Mark Rumley.

Mr. Rumely explained many of the difficulties encountered in
this work. He told of one instance when the rope snapped and the
drill head was lost in the bottom of the bore. Since the tool could
not be retrieved it was necessary to "shoot" the well. This meant
that 2000 feet of casing had to be pulled up and a charge of nitro-
glycerine exploded at the bottom of the bore. The way in which

Vol. XII, No. 3J ENGINEERING SOCIETIES 197

he explained this and other methods of procedure proved very
interesting. His talk was entirely extemporaneous, since the time
left was insufficient for the discussion of his original topic.

The annual "Smoker" was held in the Y. M. C. A. rooms at
Armour, on February 25th. It was one of the BIG events on the
A. S. M. E. schedule for 1921.

The program was arranged by Messrs. S. Webster, B. Wolge-
muth and S. Barce, of the social committee, who supplied "eats"
and "smokes" in abundance.

Professor George F. Gebhardt, who was the speaker of the eve-
ning, briefly outlined the object of the Society by calling attention
to its value and application. He expressed regret for those
freshmen and sophomores who did not avail themselves of this
opportunity to become acquainted with the Faculty of the Me-
chanical Department and other members of this Society, since
this was primarily the purpose of the Smoker.

Several other Professors were called upon to say a few words,
and the way they responded showed their willingness to co-op-
erate with the students— which is manifestly the true Armour
spirit.

W. A. Heitner, Secretary,

ARMOUR INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY BRANCH
AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS

R. C. Malwitz Chairman

T. L. Albee Secretary

W. W. Pearce Treasurer

The A. I. E. E. Smoker originally planned for January 7,
192 1, had to be postponed because it conflicted with other school
activities. The postponement was announced at the meeting of
January 6, but in spite of this disappointment, the talks and dis-
cussions at the meeting were heartily enjoyed.

Exams then approached with the end of the semester, and of
course, interest was centered strongly on matters other than the
A. I. E. E. It was necessary, therefore, to wait until the second
semester was well under way before the next meeting could be
called. On February 18, a regular meeting was held, and the
Smoker arranged for the evening of February 25. At this meet-

198 THK ARNFOUR ENGINEER [March, 1921

ing, an instructive lecture on "Moving Picture Projectors and
llieir Accessories," was given by Robert P. Bums, and a talk
on "Salesmanship in Engineering," by Fletcher E. Hayden.

The Smoker on the 25th v^^as a complete success, in spite of
the fact that the outside speakers failed to appear. Chairman
Mahvitz opened the festivities and was followed by Prof. Freeman
who gave a long talk on "The Character of an Engineer." He
explained the various systems of character judging used by sev-
eral big companies in selecting men for engineering jobs, and he
showed a few of the ways by which students can examine them-
selves, and work towards improvement in character.

After Professor Freeman's talk, the refreshments were served.
"Smokes" were plentiful and good ; and the "eats" were more than
enjoyable. Music was furnished by Harry Kihlstrom
and George Zahrobsky, with piano and violin. The meeting be-
came a real "get-together" social affair, with card-playing,
talking, and music, and was thoroughly enjoyed until the lights
went out at 1 1 :30.

Watch for the future "doings" of the A. I. E. E.

T. L. Albee, Secretaary.

ARMOUR BRANCH OF THE WESTERN SOCIETY
OF ENGINEERS

R. M. Singer President

G. C. Kumbera Vice-President

G. W. Peterson Treasurer

A. Appelbaum Secretary

Attention should be called to the quality of the lectures pre-
sented to the society during 1920, which were especially successful
due to the efforts of the President in procuring speakers of inter-
est and ability.

.^t the last meeting December 8, 1920, Mr. Langdon Pearse,
chief engineer of the Sanitar}- District of Chicago, gave a talk
on the subject of "Sewage Treatment and Disposal." His dis-
course did not only include the problems of design and construc-
tion, but also the various difficulties that arise in financing a sewer-
age project. The speaker placed great stress on the necessity of
diplomatic dealings with the "average" citizen who knows little
and cares less about this matter so vital to his welfare. The
meeting was brought to a close after a general discussion by the

Vol. XII, No. 3] ENGINEERING SOCIETIES 199

members. Undoubtedly, 'Mr. Pearse's lecture was a benefit to
everj'-one present, and we all hope he favors us again in the
near future.

Since the last issue of the "Engineer," many names have been
added to our membership list. At the present writing our total
enrollment consists of sixty-three, including both active and par-
ticipating members.

The next meeting will take place on March 2, 192 1. The
main business will be the election of officers for the next tenn.
The required petitions for nomination are now being drawn up,
and from all indications a spirited race is sure to ensue. The
earnest co-operation of all concerned assures the progress of the
society, and the results of the coming period will most probably
be even more remarkable.

A. Appelbaum, Secretar}-.

ARMOUR RADIO ASSOCIATION

President E. A. Goodnow

Chief Operator H. I. Hultgren

Secretary Ralph Kenrick

The sixth regular meeting of the Association was held on Jan-
uary 5, 192 1, in the Physics Lecture Room. This meeting was
featured by a laboratory' demonstration of the radio telephone.
Mr. A. R. Mehrhof, in conjunction with Prof. Wilcox, set up
a complete radio telephone transmitting and receiving station.
The transmitter was of the vacuum tube type, employing grid
circuit modulation. The results obtained were fairly satisfactory
considering the fact that no antennae was used. Mr. Mehrhof
gave an illustrated lecture on "Methods of Modulation" with
particular reference to modulation produced by the human voice.
He explained that in general modulation is the impressing of one
frequency upon another higher frequency. In the case of radio
telephony he explained that the variable frequency of the human
voice is impressed upon the much higher frequency produced
by the oscillator circuit of the transmitter. The various circuits
that can be used to produce this result were projected upon the
screen, and explained in detail by the speaker. The circuit dia-
grams shown included arc sets, vacuum tube sets, and one circuit
.showed a method of using a high frequency alternator through

290 THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [March, 1921

properly amplified field circuit control. The lively discussion
which followed this talk was evidence of the interest shown by
the members. The application of the magnetic amplifier of Dr.
Alexanderson, in this connection "was pointed out by Prof.
Wilcox.

The next meeting of the Association was held on Fobruar^^ 2,
192 1, in the Radio Room in Chapin Hall. The Association was
fortunate in securing a "Magnavox" loud speaking telephone for
this meeting. The loud speaker was used in conjunction with
a four step vacuum tube amplifier. Spark stations in the local
district were received with a deafening roar capable of being
heard all over the building. Wireless telephone music from an
amateur station was received with sufficient intensity to be heard
clearly anywhere in the room. An interesting thing noted was
that with four steps of amplification the distortion of the music
was almost negligible. Using the station's low power undamped
wave transmitter (9YL) communication was carried on with
several amateur stations in the vicinity.

Ralph Kenrick, Secretary.

DID YOU GET ONE?

Your last chance to secure a copy of the 1919-20 "Cycle." The
Senior Class has reduced the price of the "Cycle," bound in green,
black or tan leather, which formerly sold at $5.00 to $3.00. There
are only a few copies on hand, so mail your remittance promptly
to S. N. Havlick. care Armour Engineer.

iiiiiiiHiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiNiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiJiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiitiiHiiiiiiiiiiin

i COLLEGE NOTES |

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THE VISIT OF THE SENIORS TO ARMOUR AND
COMPANY

On Thursday, February 17, the entire Senior class and a large
number of the professors of the Institute made what proved to
be a very interesting and profitable trip through the Armour and
Company plant at the Stockyards, at the invitation of Mr. Phillip
D. Armour. The men met in the Armour and Company g\'m-
nasium at 8:15 in the morning where they were divided into
groups according to their particular line of work. Each group
was under the guidance of an expert in its Hne. Thus the Mechan-
ical Engineers were under the direction of the Assistant Master
Mechanic, the Chemicals were guided by a chemist, the Electricals
by a man from the electrical department, and the Civil Engineers
and the architects were in charge of a construction expert. This
arrangement made it possible for each man to see that part of the
plant which interested him most, and the plan worked out to
perfection.

The entire group was first taken as a unit through the killing,
skinning, and butchering departments, and the progress of the
animals w'as followed from the stock pens straight through to the
wholesale market. The most impressive thing about this part of
the trip was the perfect co-ordination of all the units performing
the work. Division of labor was here carried to the limit and
each man had but a single operation to perform on the animal
as it passed slowly by him hung from an overhead trolley. When
it was realized that but ^2 hours elapse between the time when the
animal enters the plant and is ready for shipment, some idea of
overall efficiency was gained.

After the trip through the main plant the groups divided, and
each spent the rest of the morning inspecting that part of the
plant which was of greatest interest to them. The Mechanical En-
gineers spent most of their time in the power plant and about the
refrigeration machinery ; the Chemicals visited the laboratories
and the oleomargerine plant; and the Electricals and Civils each
visited places of special interest to them. In each of these de-

292

THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [March, 1921

Vol. XII, N0..3] COLLEGE NOTES 203

partments the results of keen engineering analysis as applied to
the particular problem of the packers were seen, but a detailed
description of the devices would be impossible here.

At 12 .-30 the groups reassembled at the g}'mnasium where they
were met by Mr. Armour and had their picture taken, a copy
of which is shown here. The men then went to the lunch room in
the main building where they were ser\^ed a truly excellent dinner
topped off by some genuine strawberr}- shortcake.

Mr. Philip Armour then gave a short talk on the relation of
the Institute to Armour and Company. Mr. White, vice-president
of the \A"hite Motor Truck Co., gave a very interesting discussion
of the future of the truck industry. Mr. Noble spoke on the
relation of the cattle raising industr}^ to the stock yards, and Col.
Evans, an Armour man of '12, gave some very graphic remin-
iscences of his college days. Dr. Gunsaulus concluded with a
few of his usual apt remarks.

The men who went on the trip enjoyed a very profitable and
interesting visit, and were very glad to hear that it is to be made
an annual custom— the date to be between the birthdays of Lin-
coln and of Washington. All of the men are exceedingly grate-
ful to Mr. Armour for his excellent hospitality and wish to thank
him greatlv.

UNCOLN'S AND WASHINGTON'S BIRTHDAYS.

Two very interesting assemblies were held during the month
of February, one on Friday the nth, in memory of Lincoln's
birthday, and one on Tuesday the 22nd, in memory of Washing-
ton's birthday.

At the first of these President Gunsaulus delivered a
very interesting lecture on Abraham Lincoln.

At the second Mr^ Eugene Prussing, an eminent lawyer of Chi-
cago, talked on "W^ashington as an Engineer." Mr. Prussing
brought out clearly that while Washington was noted most for his
ability as a soldier and as a statesman, he owed his success to that
clear thought and ability to organize which everv-where character-
ize the successful engineer. Some incidents of the personal life of
W^ashington were told which showed that even at an early age,
he was trained in the engineering point of view.

204 THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [March, 1921

BASKETBALL

Since the last issue of the Armour Engineer the basketball team
has played a number of interesting games, the first of which was
with Notre Dame in the Armour gymnasium. This game was one
of the hardest fought of the season due to the strong defense of
the opposing team which consisted of football men. Coughlin,
Kiley and Anderson were All American football material. The
visitors came to Armour expecting an easy victory since they
had a clean slate for the entire season. Their attitude changed,
however, when the Armour team started the scoring with a four
point lead. Mehre, center for Notre Dame, put his team in the
lead with a series of long clean shots. Schumacher made five
baskets for Armour while Witashkis and Havlick each made
three. The game was the best attended one of the season and
many expectant visitors were turned away due to the limited
capacity of the gymnasium. f

The Armour team defeated the Chicago Technical College by
superior pass work in an easy game on the Tech floor by a
score of 31 to 9. Sippel. Witashkis and Schumacher made the
greater number of points for Armour.

The Lake Forest team was the next to meet defeat by the
Armour quintet. The game was played at Lake Forest and was
the slowest game of the season due to the strict refereeing. The
Lake Forest team had a lead at the half of 19 to 12, but the
Tech players came back strong in the second half with close
guarding and snappy passes and defeated their opponents by the
narrow margin of 24 to 25.

The Institute players made a trip to Rock Lsland, Illinois, and
played Augustana College of that city. The Augustana play-
ers gained an early lead which they held throughout the entire
game, Bengston being their leading scoring factor. Havlick led
the Armour scorers with four baskets.

The Tech players next visited the American College of Physi-
cal Education of Chicago and obtained a victory by a score of 25
to 20. The Institute team was handicapped by the loss of
Schumacher's assistance because of an injury to his side in the
Augustana game. Havlick added the bulk to the Tech score
with seven baskets. The score at the half was 18 to 22 in
Armour's favor. During the second half both teams tightened
up on their defense, and as a consequence only one basket was
made by each team during the second period.

Vol. XII, No. 3] COLLEGE NOTES 205

Lake Forest came to Armour to take a victory to avenge their
defeat on their home floor but were again beaten by the Engineers.
The game was a hard fought one, the score at the half being 14
to 15 with the margin belonging to Armour. By the end of the
second half the Tech players had increased their score by a greater
proportion than their opponents had, the final score being 29 to 24.
.Schumacher featured for Armour with eight baskets.

When the Armour players journeyed to South Bend, Indiana,
to play the Notre Dame quintet a return game they encountered
the unexpected and unprepared for — a dirt floor. As a result
the team met the greatest defeat of the season, being unable to
pivot, stop or turn quickly without cleats on their shoes. The
Notre Dame team was disappointed as they had expected a very
hard game after their experience in the Armour gymnasium.

Elmhurst College team came to Armour and were defeated
28 to 14. Schumacker made six baskets for Armour, Havlick
three and Kuehn and Witashkis each two. Heckmann made the
greater number of baskets for the visitors. No baskets were
made by Armour on free throws while the visitors added four
points to their score in this manner.

The Tech team made it's final trip of the season to Southern
Illinois, where they played against the Illinois Wesleyan and James
Millikin Universities at Bloomington and Decatur, respectively.
These teams are rated among the strongest in the state and ex-
pected easy victories. On February 21st the Armour team was
beaten by Illinois Wesleyan in a close and hard fought game.
The score at the half was 14 to 12 in Illinois favor, the final score
being 31 to 40. Schumacker made six baskekts for Armour, Hav-
lick and Witashkis each adding three more. At no time in the
game did the Wesleyan team have a safe lead.

■On February 22nd, the night following the Wesleyan game, the
Institute team defeated the James Millikin University, in a strenu-
ous battle on their home floor. The game was characterized by
the close guarding of both sides. The Armour team gained the
lead in the first half, which ended in their favor with a score of
10 to I. It was thirty-two minutes before the Milliken team were
able to score a basket, though they were the first to score during
the game. Each team played a half without scoring a basket.
The final score was 8 to 12. James Millikin has defeated the
University of Illinois and Illinois Wesleyan and many other of
the strong teams in tlie state, so that this victory for the

206 j ; THE AR^rOUR EXGIXEER [March. 1921

Armour team was one to be proud of. The Institute team was
greatly handicapped on this trip due to the absence of Ahlbeck,
the Tech's star forward, due to injuries.

During the game the Armour team was supported by a lone
rooter who proved to be a very efficient one, namely, Mr. Donald
Willard, an Alumnus from '05. At Decatur the team was the
guest of Mr. Willard at the Oriental Inn, after which he took the
players on an inspection trip to the Decatur Malleable Iron Co.,
of which he is president. The team's final trip proved to be the
most successful and enjoyable of the season.

The final game of the 1920-21 season was played in the Armour
gymnasium against the Augustana College of Rock Island. The
visitors came fully intending to defeat the Armour team, as they
had done for three successive games in the past. This was one
of the hardest fought and most interesting games of the season,
and at the half appeared to be a defeat for tlie Engineers, the
score being 23 to 14. in favor of the visitors. In the second period
the Tech players tightened up on their guarding and increased
their score by spectacular basket shooting. With four minutes
to play the score was tied. During the remainder of the game
the Tech players added one more basket to their credit, making
them victors by a 33 to 31 score.

After the game a meeting was held in which the team elected
Don Rutishauser next year's Captain.

Much credit is due Professor Schommer for the success of the
team during the latter part of the season. He took charge of the
coaching after \\'. E. Johnson's resignation was recjuested, and
was able to carry the team over the most difficult part of the
schedule and obtain five victories out of seven games.

BASEBALL

The baseball season, 192 1, was ushered in on March first. Base-
ball practice has already begun under the direction of Coach J.
Leo Walsh, a first baseman on the Bloomington Champion team.
1920, and under contract to play in the Three-Eye League upon
the completion of his work with the Armour Institute of Tech-
nology on June first.

The new coach opened up practice by giving the candidates a
line on the proper methods of bunting, and batting, as well as the
knack of picking up grounders. A host of new material appeared

Vol. XII, No. 3] COLLEGE NOTES 207

to cast their lot for places on the college team. It is Walsh's
opinion that a strong team may be formed out oFthe 35 players
that are now undergoing the tests outlined for them.

The Institute is in great need of a pitching staff. About a half
dozen candidates have taken to the mound. The only nucleus
left around which to build a strong pitching staff is made up of
Van Dyke, Gilbertson and Desmond. Infielders who look good
are Tener, Rutishauser, Rowe, Kuehn, Schumacher, Sippel, Hard-
wicke, Bradley, Latta, Rupprecht, Anderson, Stoker, Parkin,
Spaid, Andrzelcyk and others.

It is anticipated at this time that when the Board of Athletic
Control meets, they will adopt the following schedule for the
season 1921 :

Elmhurst College at Armour Sat. April 2

Beloit College , • at Beloit Mon. April 4

Northwestern University at Evanston Sat. April 9

University of Chicago at Stagg Field Tues. April 12

Augustana College at Armour Fri. April 15

Concordia Teachers College at Armour Tues. April 19

Bradley Polytechnic Institute at Peoria Wed. April 27

Lake Forest College at Armour Sat. April 30

Beloit CollegS at Armour Tues. May 3

Bradley Polytechnic Institute at Armour Fri. May 6

Augustana College at Rock Is'nd Sat. May 7

Elmhurst College at Elmhurst Wed. May 11

Lake Forest College at Lake Forest . . . .Mon. May 16

Valparaiso University at Armour Fri. May 20

Concordia Teachers College at Oak Park Sat. May 21

Valparaiso University at Valparaiso Mon. May 23

De Pauw University at Greencastle Tues. May 24

What is the most sought attribute of a baseball team?

That question has been answered and discussed by many coach-
es. Some say that the ability to have freeness of motion is the
greatest asset. Others assert that to be able to throw quickly and
accurately is the difference between victory and defeat. Still
others contend that teamwork wins every contest.

It must be conceded that no team would be a success without
the accomplishments named, still the predominating factor gov-
erning a coach's actions as he starts his players along the train-
ing route is to round them into condition and keep them

208 ' THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [March, 1921

that way. By condition is meant that state of physical perfection
that will keep a team fresh and fast to the final inning, and will
keep it at the same point of alertness the last inning as in the
opening one.

Many a game has been won or lost just because the players
were or were not able to stand the galT. In fact some coaches
go so far as to say that ever}^ game that was ever won was due
to the superiority of the winner's condition.

Although that statement is rather broad and will, no doubt, be
disputed by many authorities, still it is true that the team that goes
into the game in good physical condition has a great advantage
over the opponents that start to lag after the seventh inning.

The more seasoned a team is, the greater are their chances for
winning.

SENIOR CHEMICAL THESES

The Estimation of Benzene in Admixture with Parafin Hydro-
carbon.— Raymond S. Scherger.

The Formation and Properties of Benzene Meta Di-sulphonic
Acid. — Cornelius Sippel, Jr.. and Harry W. Ahlbeck.

The Studyof the Formation of Aluminum Nitride. — Eugene B.
Rudd and Lawrence L. Veit.

Zinc Nitride, Its Formation, Properties and Alloys. — William
J. Savoye and Alfred R. Edwards.

Heat Transmission in Condenser Coils.- — Walter J. Anderson
and Lyman D. Judson.

The Study of the Formation of Chromates and Di-chromates. —
Hilton Kaplon and Herman JM. Schiflfman.

The Absorption of Carbon Dioxide from Gas Mixtures. —
Aaron Pashkow.

Electrostatic Precipitation of Soaps from Oils. — Mynhart O.
Brueckner and George M. Dowse.

Reduction of Ortho-Nitro-Benzoic Acid. — Emil F. Winter
and Emil W. Pfafflin.

Vol. XII, No. 31 COLLEGE iNOTES 209

SENIOR ELECTRICAL THESES

F. A. Anderson, F. E. Hayden: A Partial Illumination Survey
of the City of Chicago.

L. S. Bloom, G. J. Zahrobsky: The Design, Construction, and
Test of a SHp Meter.

R. O. Klenze, C. A. Grabendike: The Effect of Spark Fre-
quency Upon the Ignition Range of Explosive Vapor Mixtures.

M. J. Grill, H. F. Schreiber : The Design, Construction, and
Test of an Electro-Magnetic Dynamometer.

H. C. Kihlstrom, J. J. O'Rourke : The Design of a 20,000
K. V. A. Power Plant.

R. J. Grant: A Cost Estimate of a 20,000 K. V. A. Power
Plant.

T. L. Albee, R. C. Malwitz : The Relative Cost of Operating
Steam and Electric Locomotives for Switching Purposes on the
St. Paul R. R. Industry Tracks,

W. W. Pearce, D. L. Rosendal : The Design, Construction,
and Test of a Vacuum Tube Radio Telephone.

R. Knotek, J. Newman : The Thermal Control of Electric
Heating Appliances.

D. K. Muramoto : A Studv of Commercial Illumination.

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1 ALUMNI NOTES 1

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A LOYAL ALUMNUS

During the basketball team's recent trip to Decatur, Illinois,
where they played against the James Millikin University, the
following incident occurred : It was between the halves and the
team had gone to the dressing rooms to rest. The score was lo to
I in favor of Armour. When the reserve players who had been
sitting on the bench came down they said "Keep it up fellows, you
are playing a wonderful game. The whole grandstand is with
you, rooting against their own men." Later it was discovered
that Mr. Donald W'illard, '05, was the source of all the cheering.

After the game Mr. File, a Millikin Alumnus, Mr. N. Peterson,
an Armour instructor who managed the team, and the team were
the guests of Mr. W'illard for dinner at the Oriental Inn. It was
a men-}' group that compared the college days of '05 with those
of '21. And what could be more pleasing to a basketball player
than an elaborate dinner after a hard fought game ?

After dinner Mr. Willard called up the Decatur Malleable
Iron Co., of which he is president, and had the night watchman
illuminate the plant. The entire party was then driven in Mr.
Willard's and Mr. File's automobiles to the Decatur Malleable
Iron Co., and an inspection trip through ever}' part of the industry
was conducted by Mr. Willard who explained each process in
detail. This trip proved a very instructive and enjoyable one.
Features which impressed all were the cleanliness of the plant,
the modern equipment and the high test results of the products.
Another point of interest was that Mr. Willard has in daily use
the slide rule and set of drawing instruments which he purchased
when he entered the Academy of the Armour Institute.

The team wishes to express its appreciation to Mr. Willard for
making the Decatur trip the most enjoyable trip of the season.

NEW ADDRESSES

James G. Shakman, '14. has left Chicago to take a position in
Pittsburgh with the International Filter Co.

George W. Smith, '06, is now connected with the Central Texas
Ice and Light Co., Marlen, Texas.

Vol. Xn, No. 3] ALUMNI NOTES 211

R. H. Sarle, '17, who has been doing such satisfactory work
with the Cutler Hammer Co., has moved to the Allis-Chalmers
Mfg. Co., of Milwaukee. He is to be in the Hydraulic Turbine
Dept.

I. R. Wishnick, '14, is now president of the Wishnick-Tumpeer
Chemical Co;, Chicago.

Milton Foskett Daniels, '11, for some time past with the Home
Insurance Co. of Chicago, has been transferred to their Portland,
Oregon, office.

Leroy J. Enzler, '16, is now in St. Louis with the Goodman
Mfg. Co. He was formerly located in the engineering depart-
ment of the same firm in Cincinnati.

Eugene S. Harman, '15, and Wm. Dady, '19, are both with the
Wisconsin Steel Co. in Chicago.

OBITUARY.

Frank Edward Wernick, 1910, mechanical engineer, Syracuse,
N. Y.

ALUMNI NOTES

The Armour Alumni dance was held in the Red Room of the
La Salle Hotel, Friday evening, February 4th, 1921. The music
was inspiring, the floor was in excellent condition, the dancers
were all in fine spirits and a wonderful time was certainly had by
everyone present. The only unfortunate thing about these alumni
gatherings is that so many of our former graduates do not realize
what good times they are niissing when they fail to turn out for
them. If you missed this dance just make up your mind right
now to surely be present at the Spring Banquet, which will be
held some time during May, the exact date and place to be deter-
mined later. Come once and you will certainly come again.

A NEW USE OF THE ARMOUR BULLETIN

A unique use of the Bulletins of the Armour Institute of
Technology' was mentioned by an alumnus the other day. He said
that since graduation he kept a complete file of them and used
threm in looking up the references and qualifications of Armour
men who were seeking employment under him.

If the address was 33 Michigan Avenue, and no business con-
nection was mentioned, he considered that it was evident that the

212 THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [March, 1921

man had forgoten his Alma Mater, or was too careless and slip-
shod to send in his changes of address and the names of his
employers.

It also showed that mail sent by the Alumni Association or
by the Institute was being delivered and that he was too "busy"
to fill in the return postal cards. "Location unknown," of course,
gave absolutely no information and would give perhaps a worse
impression than an old and evidently incorrect address.

Where a bona fide address and a real business was given, and
if in this case the mformation, when compared w'ith the informa-
tion furnished by the applicant in his letter, was evidently old,
the impression on the mind of the employer left a great many
things to be desired.

If, however, the changes of business and changes of address had
been kept up to date, as indicated yearly by the copies of the bul-
letins, and where these facts agreed with the facts as furnished
by the applicant, the veracity, the thoughtfulness and thorough-
ness, as well as the technical qualifications, were well indicated.

Nothing need be said of the few cases where references and the
facts contained in the year book do not agree.

(J. C. P., 1905.)

NOTE — Better keep the Institute posted as to your where-
abouts and your business connections. And, an occasional news
item under the head of Alumni Notes won't hurt you any.

iiiitiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiitiiiiii

BOOK NOTES

The following books have been added to the Library recently
to be used as tools in the Departments of :

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Hatt & Scofield. Laboratory manual of testing materials.
Gives methods of tests, specificatioins and related data.

Hibbard, H. I>. Manufacture and uses of alloy steels. Pre-
sents in a concise manner information of present value, relating
to the manufacture and uses of the various commercial alloy
steels.

Hultgren, Axel. Metallographic study on tungsten steels. The
subject is divided into two sections, first, the transfonnations of
tungsten steels during dififerent heat treatments and the structures
thereby formed, and, second, carbides in tungsten steels.

Moore, H. Liquid fuels for internal combustion engines. The
author "has attempted briefly to explain the chemical differences
which exist among liquid fuels." A glossary of trade names for
petroleum products is included.

Thomsen, T. C. The practice of lubrication. An engineering
treatise on the origin, nature and testing of lubricants and on their
selection, application and use.

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Croft, Terrell. Wiring for light and power. Explains clearly,
in simple language, how to install wiring and apparatus for prac-
tically all services to meet the requirements of the National Elec-
trical Code.

Fish, F. A. Fundamental principles of electric and magnetic
circuits. An introduction to the study of electric power machinery
and transmission.

Gandy, T. S. Direct-current motor and generator troubles.
"Explains sources of trouble when standard types of motors will
not run, and analyzes points on the selection, care and repair of
machinery by the operator."

Lamme, B. G. Electrical engineering papers. This volume
is a collection of the author's more important engineering
papers presented before various technical societies and published
in engineering journals.

214 THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [March, 1921

Peek, F. W. Dielectric phenomena in high voltage engineering.
"This book covers the properties of gaseous, liquid and solid in-
sulations, and methods of utilizing these properties to the best
advantage in the practical problems of high voltage engineering.

CIVIL ENGINEERING

Kean. F. J. A critical survey of current practice with special
reference to the balancing of inerita forces.

Lanchester, F. W. The flying-machine fn»m an engineering
standpoint. A series of lectures by a member of the British
Advisory Committee for Aeronautics on aerodynamics and air-
plane construction.

Thompson. G. P. Applied aerodynamics. .\n up-to-date pre-
sentation of the existing state of aeronautical science.

Watts, H. C. Design of screw propellors. A record of the
methods used by the author for the design of screw propellors for
actual service in the held during the war.

Wilson, E. R. Aeronautics. As treated here the two main
divisions of the subject are Rigid Mechanics and Fluid Dynamics,
both of which the writer considers fundamental in aeronautical
engineering.

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

Giua. M. & Giua-Lollini, Clara. Chemical combination among
metals. The chemistry of metals has been largely studied by
means of thermal analysis.

Henderson, G. C. Catalysis in industrial chemistry. An illus-
trated record of over 200 applications of catalysis in the processes
of industrial chemistry, compiled from various sources.

Rodenhauser, I. \W. and others. ITectric furnaces in the iron
and steel industry. A book which thoroughly describes electric
furnaces designed .solely for the iron and steel industry.

Sutermeister, Edwin. Chemistry of ])ulp and paper ^making.
The author's purpose is to assist the young technical man, who
has a fair knowledge of the elements of chemistry, to understand
the chemical processes involved in the manufacture of pulp and
paper.

Watson, E. R. Colour in relation to chemical constitution.
The subject matter of this book will be valuable to students on
account of its scientific interest and its practical utility.

Vol. XII, No. 3] BOOK NOTES 215

PHYSICS

Crehore, A. C. The Atom. An original contribution to the
atomic theory and not a review or fresh presentation of current
theories. The book contains also a readable account of the au-
thor's equation of gravitation.

Crowther, J. A. Ions, electrons and ionizing radiations. "An
endeavor to bring the development of the last quarter of a century
to the comprehension of the student equipped with a fair knowl-
edge of the other branches of physics and of mathematics through
the calculus."

Einstein, Albert. Relativity. "The discoverer's own explana-
tion of relativity is written, as far as possible, to be understood
by persons with college entrance equipment."

Humphreys, W. J. Physics of the Air. An account, reprmted
from the Journal of the Franklin Institute, of the "physical phe-
nomena of the earth's atmosphere."

Schlick, Moritz. Space and time in contemporary physics.
An introduction to the theory of relativity and gravitation which
gives an explanation of Einstein's important discoveries.

OF GENERAL INTEREST

Edman, Irwin. Hunman traits and their social significance.
"Throughout the long process of civiHzation two factors have
remained constant," says the author, "nature and human nature."
This book is a thorough discussion of the second factor.

Fisk, H. E. Dominion of Canada. An account of our neigh-
bor' government finances, resources, trade and manufacture.

Hawkins, N. A. Selling Process. In his article on Salesman-
ship in the November issue of the Armour Engineer Mr. Cofifeen
refers to this as "one of the most helpful first books on this gen-
eral subject."

Horton, C. M. Opportunities in Engineering. These essays
of popular interest are certain to furnish their readers with en-
thusiasm for a "wonderful profession'* which the author
considers "a force fraught with stupendous possibilities." The
author continues : "Thus it will be seen that engineering is
a distinctive and important profession, for the reason that en-
gineers serve humanity at every practical turn." He also refers
to the tremendous power which engineers wield in world affairs."

Hurley, E. N. New Merchant Marine. The former chairman
of the United States Shipping Board tells in this book how the

216 THE AR^^OUR ENGINEER [March, 1921

problem of supplying sliips for war demands was met, and dis-
cusses the future of the American Merchant Marine, foreign
fields of commerce and related topics.

Kennard.. J. vS. Goldini and the Venice of his Time. The
biography of an Italian playwright of the eighteenth century
followed by a description of his realistic comedies of Venetian
life and manners.

Pepper. C. M. The life and times of Henry Gassaway Davis,
1823-1916. His biographer tells of his pioneer railway days, his
senatorship, his career as a railway builder, including the Pan-
American Railway, his nomination as Vice-President, and his
personal characteristics.

Vail, T. N. View on public questions. This collection of the
writings and addresses of the President of the-American Tele-
phone and Telegraphy Company from 1907 to 1920 will be of in-
terest to students of the economic and industrial development of
our country.

Beblen, T. B. Place of science in modern civilization. This
carefully selected series of pajjcrs published in economic journals
during the past twenty }ears sums up the author's economic
theories.

ALPHABETICAL INDEX OF ADVERTISERS.

Page

Allis-Chalmers Mfg. Co 4

Armour Institute of Technology ^-^ 1

Armour & Co 8

Besly & Company, Chas. H 10

Banning & Banning 10

Brady Foundry Co., James A 5

Chambers Studio 12

Christensen School of Popular Music 7

Clarke-McElroy Publishing Co 13

Engineering Agency - 9

General Electric Go 2

Hansell-Elcock Co , 7

Hills, Chas. W , 4

Jointless Fire Brick Co I'l

Lufkin Rule Co : 13

Magie Bros < 4

Roebling's Sons, Co., John A 6

Robinson & Co., Dwight P 7

Swenson Evaporating Co 13

Western Electric Co 13

Wilson Corporation, J. G ' 10

"Your old men shall dream dreams,
your young men shall see visions.

Joclll, 28

YOUTH paints iu brilliant colors.
To older, dimmer eyrs the wonder
and the ylory of life {jrey down.

In cngiiieerin<:', the sciences or what-
ever other work you take up, \ ou will
go far if youth means to you enthusiasm,
faith in your ambitions, the spirit that
exults in achieving what other men call
impossible.

So while you plug away at those
knotty problems in hydraulics or conic
sections, keep an open mind to the
larger issues — visions of great achieve-
ment through great service.

To the youthful Bell, as he experi-
mented in the vibrating properties of
ear-drum and tuning-fork, came in fancy
the clear tones of human speech pulsat-
ing over wires iVom far away. Without
the vision he could not later have
evolved the living fact.

You have a like opportunity now to
think about your work in a broad way —
and the bigger your purpose and your
will to serve, the bigger your accom-
plishment.

* * *

The electrical industry needs men
v,ho can see far and think straight.

^estern Electric Company

The part which for SO years this Company
has played in furthering electrical d^velobmenl
is an indication of the shar; it w'l havf in
workini out the even greater problems of the
future.

When writing to Advertiserg, please mention THE ARMOUB ETNCINSa

—3—

..T* ..Tt JU *Tt A A A *VA A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A »*« A A A A A
V V V V V V V W V* V* V* V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V* V V V >• V >* *♦* V •♦* V V V V %• V V V V V

♦ WILLIAM A. MAGIE FRANK O. MAGIE %
t President JOHN Q. MAGIE Treasurer f^
*:* Secretary ♦
•> TELEPHONE MAIN 1074-1075 %

MAGIE BROTHERS I

% CYLINDER, ENGINE AND DYNAMO OILS ♦

% Cup Greases, Boiler Compound, Cotton Waste *

* 110-112 S. CLINTON STREET CHICAGO $
I Established 1887 |

Power and Industrial
Machinery

Electrical Machinery — Steam Turbines — Steam
Engines — Hydraulic Turbines — Pumping Engines

— Centrifugal Pumps — Gas Engines — Oil Engines

— Mining Machinery — Metallurgical Machinery —
Crushing and Cement Machinery — Flour Mill Ma-
chinery — Saw Mill Machinery — Air Compressors

— Air Brakes — Steam and Electric Hoists — Farm
Tractors — Power Transmission Machinery.

Allis- Chalmers Mfg. Co.

Milwaukee, Wisconsin

iHiiiiiiuiiitiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiyiiiiiuuwiiiiiiiiuiiiuiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiyiuiuiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiii»^

I CHARLES W. HILLS |

■ PATENT, COPYRIGHT, TRADE ■

I MARK and CORPORATION LAW |

I Electrical, Mechanical and Chemical Engineers j

I 1523-33 Monadnock Block -:- Chicago §

iiiiiiiiiiitiiiiiiiiiiiiiiHiiiiiiiininffliiiiiinuniiRiiiiuniiniiiiiittJiiiiiiiiii

When writing to Advertisers, please mention THE ARMOUR ENGINEKR

The above illustration shows three of the eighteen

Harrington Stokers

recently installed by the municipal lighting company
of a large eastern city.

The installation of the HARRINGTON STOKER
means a distinct

Saving of Coal

because the HARRINGTON STOKER is the only
stoker which will bum any kind of coal, coke breeze,
lignite, bituminous, and washer refuse— with practi-
cally no waste.

M^rite for "Tzuehc Fuel Facts," the
story of the HARRINGTON STOKER.

THE JAMES A. BRADY
FOUNDRY COMPANY

4500 South Western Blvd. Chicago, DKnob

When writing to Advertisers, please mention THE ARMOUR BNQINEER

ROEBLING WIRE ROPE

FOR ENGINEERING

JOHN A. ROEBLING'S SONS CO.

TRENTON, N. J.
165 West Lake Street ^ Chicago, 111.

When writing to Advertisers, please mention THE ARMOUR ENGINEEK

Hansell-Elcock
Company

Foundry

STRUCTURAL STEEL, ORNA-
MENTAL IRON WORK, FIRE
ESCAPES, STEEL DOORS,
STAIRS, GRAY IRON CAST-

Office and Works:

Archer and Normal Avenues,
23rd PI., Canal and 24th Sts.

CHICAGO

Complete Service

in the design and construction of

SHOPS

FOUNDRIES

STEEL MILLS

CHEMICAL PLANTS

FACTORY BUILDINGS

GASOLINE EXTRACTION PLANTS

STEAM POWER STATIONS

HYDRO-ELECTRIC DEVELOPMENTS

TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS

RAILROAD SHOPS
LOCOMOTIVE TERMINALS
PASSENGER TERMINALS

HOUSING DEVELOPMENTS

OFFICE BUILDINGS

HOTELS

HARBOR DEVELOPMENTS

DwiGHT P. Robinson & Compantt

Engineers and Constructors

NVtenwCHOusE. Church, Kerr it. Co-Inc.

123 East 46'" Strut

Nbw York

ANYONE CAN LEARN

RAGTIME

JAZZ

PIANO PLAYING

We teach adult be-
ginners
IN 20 LESSONS

The simplest and
most instructive
course of music les-
sons ever written for
beginners.

Advanced course for
players. Our schools are
under the personal super-
vision of Axel Christen-
sen, Vaudeville's "Czar of
Ragtime."

Chrlstensen School
of Popular Music

20 E. Jackson Blvd.

Phone Harrison 5669
for Free Booklet.

CHICAGO TOUHASTOWII

TlftLL't Lot >UfCn.«« MONTRKAi,

When writing to Advertisers, please mention THE ARMOUR ENGINEER

—7—

Facts About
ARMOUR and COMPANY

Year 1920

Total number employees 5^433

Number killing plants 15

Number branch houses. 399

Amount paid for cattle (U. S. figures

only) $158,461,042

Amount paid for sheep (U. S. figures

only) $24,877,288

Amount paid for hogs (U. S. figures

only) $192,964,090

Amount paid for calves (U. S. fig-
ures only) $16,557,459

Refrigeration capacity, all plants

(tons per day) 19,771

Motor trucks in service 1,180

Runabouts in service 1,087

Wagons 5 39

Buggies 30

Sleighs 10

Horses 696

Tons of coal consumed 858,461

Bbls. of oil consumed as fuel 806,262

Tons of salt used 12 7,706

Pounds of sugar used 10,908,338

Expense for stationery $600,912.00

Postage expense $343,561.00

Telephone and telegraph expense. . $1,021,002.00
Cans and pails for canned meats and

lards $3,504,874.00

Total number head live stock killed 10,636,874

Visitors 200,000

Ground area (acres) 385

Floor area (sq. ft.) 21,748.023

Number fertilizer plants 12

ARMOUR aV.(? COMPANY

CHICAGO

r)8-20

When writing to Advertisers, plea«« mention THE ARMOUR G:N0IN&;BB

Twenty- eighth Year

The

Engineering
Agency

INCORPORATED

Technical Employment

1662 Monadnock Block
Chicago

Absolutely No Advance Fee of
Any Kind Whatsoever

See Us for Positions in

APPRAISALS

METALLURGY

ENGINEERING

CONTRACTING

MANUFACTURING

ARCHITECTURE

CHEMIST R Y TEA CHING

MINING SALES

Harrison 4056

When wrltlns to Advertlaers, please mention THE ARMOUB E?NOINSBB

A A A A A A A J'kA A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A. »*« J^ J'kJ^JfkA

W W V V V W V V V V* V* V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V

BANNING & BANNING I

COUNSELORS-AT-LAW
Patent, Trade Mark and Copyright Causes

Chicago

THE MARQUETTE BUILDING

Illinois

THOMAS A. BANNING, JR.

t iii! JJPt

Machinists, Mill and i
Railroad Supplies |

Brass, Copper, Bronze and ♦:
Nickel Silver ►>

PrHP™"

BESLY GRINDERS

BESLY TAPS

k.^.^.^

BESir

CHICAGO

The leading Engineering %
Colleges and Institutes %
have found Besly Quality |
and Service a Decisive fac- >:■
tor. ':•

CHAS. H. BESLY & COMPANY

118-124 N. Clinton St., Chicago, 111.

Wilson Rolling Steel Doors
Standard for 45 Years

The J. G. WILSON CORPORATION

8 West 40th Street, New York

Offices in Principal Cities.

When writingr to Advertisers, please mention THE ARMOUR ENGINEER

—10—

■ iiliiliiliiliiliiliiliiiiiiiiliiiiiliiliiii<liiliiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiniiiiiiiiii

iiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iii't,,iiiii'

FURNACE LINING

"Remember how we used to
shut clown boilers here for re-
llniiig? No more now, though,"
s-aid the chief to a brother
engiheer who was visiting his
boiler plant, "not since we dis-
covered what PLIBRICO would
do for our furnaces.

"Every boiler on the line is
getting its PLIBRICO lining
in turn. We're putting in
PLIBRICO baffles, combustion
arches, bridge walls and boiler
door arches, too.

"Why, the fuel we save alone
has pretty nearly paid for the
PLIBIRICO as we went along.
You've no idea how a really
tight setting saves fuel. And

you don't know what a tight
setting is until you have a
PLIBRICO setting.

"Besides, I don't have to stick
jiu'ound nights and Sundays at-
tending to relining. Everv boiler
lined with PLIBRICO is there.
You can depend on it — full ca-
pacity all the time with no
shutdowns.

"Better get PLIBRICO in
your plant. The boss has come
Mcross with a boost in salary
since I showed him what PLI-
BRICO would do.

"AVork for PLIBRICO be-
cause PLIBRICO works for you
and your plant — all the time."

PLIBRICO is a plastic, easily a|)plied monolithic furnace lining.
Dehvered only in steel packa8:e8 of distinctive appearance as shown
below. Immediate deliveries from warehouse stocks in principal
cities. Write for the valuable book on Furnace Building— sent free.

II30-II50 CLAY ST. CHICAGO.

When writing: to Advertisers, please mention THE ARMOUR BNOINSER

—11—

ggig?iiiMiisii§iaiMiiiisiiiiK!isiaias!sisisi§iiK^^

CHAMBERS STUDIO

— ® —

Mentor Building
39 So. State Street

— (§)—

Official Photographer

For Cycle and Senior Classes

BgllliaiSjgSlllKllglgMilSISSllgiillSlSISIMlgiglgliMlSiailgilM^

When writing to Advertisers, please mention THE ARMOUR ENGINEER

—12—

VFK/N

"Challenge" "Reliable"

"Engineers" and "Wolverine"

TAPES

For years most favorably known
Accurate — Dependable All Ways

the/ufmnPuleCo- ^„7 J""^^

t ' '' *^ Windsor,

SAGINAW, MICH. Canada

Clarke-McElroy
Publishing Co.

Publishers and Printers

6219 Cottage Grove Ave. Midway 3935

WE PRINT THE ARMOUR ENGINEER

Swenson Evaporator Company

ENGINEERS AND MANUFACTURERS

Established 1889

SINGLE AND MULTIPLE EFFECT EVAPORATORS
BEET SUGAR AND CHEMICAL PULP MACHINERY

945 Monadnock Building F, M. de Beers, Pres.

Chicago, 111. P. B. Sadtler, V.-Pres.

When writing to Advertisers, please mention THE ARMOUR ENOING2:r

—13—

Statement of ownership, management, circulation, etc., of
THE ARMOUR ENGINEER, published quarterly at Chicaago,
111., required by an Act of Congress, August 24, 1919.

Editor — John P. .Sanger, 836 Wilson Ave., Chicago, 111.

Managing Editor — Spenser N. Havlick, 422 Gariield Ave.,
Chicago, 111.

Bu.sine?s Manager — Fletcher E. Hayden. 5249 Calumet Ave.,
Chicago, 111.

Associate Business Manager — Emil F. Winter, 3914 Greenview
Ave., Chicago, 111.

Publisher — The College of Engineering, Armour Institute of
Technology, Chicago, 111.

Owner— The College of Engineering, Armour Institute of
Technology. Chicago, 111.

Fletcher E. Hayden,

Business Manager.

.Sworn to and subscribed before me this 14th day of March,
1 92 1 .

George S. Allison,

Notary Public.
Chicago, March 14, 1921.
(Notary Seal)

f'E? "ff ^D:

ij f,. r J r>

i^ ftj'io ( fxi Ji^'^-ji-f USX

^
^

■ f^l§lttlfltiiliWrt7i>t<&"^M'*>-''-V*'^-^1^'-'*r'i '^' ■■ - — ■- - ' -<. ^. .. .-t..-^-.^.,. ....:t.,.V..iV...„r .-^^^ .■^j:«..jgai5d j

Volume X5I.
Number 4.

MAY, 1921.

Per Cory, 15 Cent«
Per Year, $1.50

CONTENTS.

FEATURES OF THE NEW FULTON COLD STORAGE

WAREHOUSE 217

3y L. L. Edlund, '16.

SLOW SPEED MOTORS AND THEIR APPLICATION

TO RECIPROCATING AIR COMPRESSORS . . 226

By R. O. Joslyn, '19.

CHEMICAL FIRE EXTINGUISHERS 240

By No:-man F. Kimball.

VALUATION OF PUBLIC UTILITY PROPERTY . .251

By Leslie Weiss, 'IS.

EDITORIALS 259

ENGINEERING SOCIETIES 269

COLLEGE NOTES 275

ALUMNI NOTES 277

Armour
UnBtxtnU of SI?rt|nologg

CHICAGO

THE COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING OFFERS COURSES IN

Mechanical Engineering
Electrical Engineering
Civil Engineering
Chemical Engineering
Fire Protection Engineering
Architecture, and Industrial Arts

These Courses are each four years in length and
lead to the degree of Bachelor of Science

COMPLETELY EQUIPPED SHOPS
and LABORATORIES

WILL BE SENT ON APPLICATION

-1—

What Makes the Firefly
Glow?

You can hold a firefly in your hand; you
can boil water with an electric lamp.
Nature long ago evolved the "cold light."
The firefly, according to Ives and Coblentz,
radiates ninety-six percent light and only four
percent heat. Man's best lamp radiates more
than ninety percent heat.

An English physicist once said that if we knew
the firefly's secret, a boy turning a crank could
light up a whole street. Great as is the advance
in lighting that has been made through research
within the last twenty years, man wastes far too
much energy in obtaining light.

This problem of the "cold light" cannot be
solved merely by trying to improve existing
power-generating machinery and existing lamps.
We should still be burning candles if chemists
and physicists had confined their researches to
the improvement of materials and methods for
making candles.

For these reasons, the Research Laboratories of the
General Electric Company are not limited in the scope
of their investigations. Research consists in framing
questions of the right kind and in finding the answers,
no matter where they may lead.

What makes the firefly glow? How does a firefly's
light diff'er in color from that of an electric arc, and why?
The answers to such questions may or may not be of
practical value, but of this we may be sure — it is by
dovetailing the results of "theoretical" investigations
along many widely separated lines that we arrive at
most of our modern "practical" discoveries.

Vv'hat will be the light of the future? Will it be like
that of the firefly or like that of the dial on a luminous
watch? Will it be produced in a lamp at present un-
dreamed of, or will it come from something resembling
our present incandescent lamp? The answers to these
questions will depend much more upon the results of
research in pure science than upon strictly commercial
research.

General Office

Schenectady, N.Y.
95-382 A

When writing to Advertisers, please mention THB ARMOUR I2NOINBBB

—2—

THE ARMOUR
ENGINEER

The Quarterly Technical Publication

OF THE

Armour Institute of Technology
chicago, illinois

Volume XII Number 4

May, 1921

The Armour Engineer

VOLUME XII. MAY, 192 1. No. 4

FEATURES OF THE NEW FULTON MARKET
COLD STORAGE WAREHOUSE

■ • ::. ' I

By Lawrence L. Edliind, '16

The new Fulton Market cold storage warehouse which has
just recently been put into operation in Chicago is one of the
most modern structures of its kind in the country, and when the
second section is built it will be one of the largest as well. The
plant is located in the block bounded by Morgan, Fulton and
Carpenter Streets and the C. M. & St. P. right-of-way, and is
in the heart of the district which is destined to replace our
present South Water Street produce market. Its location is
therefore admirably suited to the business to which the company
will cater: namely, the storage of fruits, eggs, butter, poultry
and other perishable food products of a seasonable nature. Be-
cause of its recent construction and the numerous unusual fea-
tures incorporated in its design, the plant is one which should be
of interest to engineers.

The design of a cold storage warehouse such as this one, from
the first preliminary studies to the completed plans, or perhaps
better said, until the building is erected and in operation, is a
long story, although it might not be an altogether boresome one.
It would be considerably beyond the limits of this writing, how-
ever, to attempt anything so lengthy and therefore it will be con-
fined to a general description of some of the principal features of
the plant, followed by a more detailed discussion of some of those
matters which will be of particular interest to mechanical
engineers.

THE BUILDING STRUCTURE

The plant is located on a full city block. The present building
occupies the east half of the block and the intention is to build
the other half at a later date. The present building contains the
general office and the engine room, in the laying out of which
sufficient space has been provided to take care of all the additional

2l8

THE ARMOUR ENGINEER

[May, 1921

machinery which will need to be added when the other section
is built.

The building consists of ten stories and a basement. In plan
it is approximately 125 by 300 feet. The stories are all twelve
feet from floor to floor, except the first, which measures 14 feet
9 inches, and the north half of the basement containing the engine
room, which is eighteen feet high. The net area of refrigerated
rooms is about 335,000 square feet and the net volume of this
space (without deducting columns) is 3,800,000 cubic feet. The
gross volume of the building is 5,472,000 cubic feet. When the
recond section has been completed the refrigerated area will be
increased to 695,000 square feet, and the volumes to 7,900,000
and 10,500,000 cubic feet respectively. If the floors are loaded
net to exceed the live load used in the design, the combined
cnpacity of i.he finished plant will be in round number-^ 150
iiiiHion pounds.

The building is of reinlorced concrete thruughoui c^n-l thor-
oughly fireproof. In order to obtain satisfactory foundations to
carry the trem-.Tdous coiumn loads from a building of this height
and floor capacity, it was necessary 10 use caissons extended to

Vol. XII, No. 4] EDLUND: STORAGE WAREHOUSE 219

220 EDLUND: STORAGE WAREHOUSE [May, 1921

bed rock. This was reached at an elevation of about 97 feet
below city datum or 112 feet below street grade.

The floors are of flat-slab design with bays 21' o" by 20' 3",
and all columns from the fifth floor line up are spirally reinforced.
Below this line the interior columns have been made of structural
steel, encased in concrete. This feature was resorted to in order
to reduce the column diameters to a reasonable size in the lower
stories. Had spiral columns been employed throughout, those in
the basement and first floor might have exceeded forty-eight
inches in diameter. Such large columns would very materially
reduce the net volumne available for the storage of goods. As it
is, the concrete-encased steel columns are everywhere 22 inches
and the largest interior spiral columns do not exceed 30 inches.

Insulation against the outside temperature is secured by means
of pure compressed corkboard which completely envelopes the
refrigerated portions of the building. It is evident that in order
to have this cork insulation complete and unbroken, the building
must consist of an interior structure and an exterior brick en-
closure separated from it by a distance equal to the thickness of
the cork. Quite often this exterior wall is self-supporting, of the
necessary thickness for its height, and anchored by suitable means
to the interior building structure at each column. The Chicago
building department is not satisfied with this construction, how-
ever, but requires that this outside wall be supported on a sep-
arate framework of reinforced concrete columns and spandrel
beams. This is the construction at Fulton Market. There is a
clear space of five or seven inches (to admit four and six inches
of cork respectively) separating the inside and outside structures.
These are tied together by means of single bar anchors located at
each column head of the interior framing. With the exception
of these few ties the cold rooms are completely and eflFectively
insured from the outside. All doors to refrigerated space are of
the latest design of cold storage door, having the same insulating
qualities as the walls in which they are hung. The roof is of
course also insulated with corkboard and has in addition an
average covering of two feet of dry cinders to give proper pitch
to the 2-inch concrete slab supporting the composition roofing.

The cut, Figure i, shows the south and east elevations when
the building was nearly completed. It also indicates the extent

Vol. XII, No. 4] EDLUND: STORAGE WAREHOUSE 221

of the large loading dock for teams and trucks. This dock is 146
feet long. The building is provided with three private switch
tracks, two of which are within the building and enter at the
opening shown at the extreme right in the picture. These will
be extended when the future addition is built and will enable the
placing of 18 cars at a time. Ample loading and unloading facil-
ities are very essential to this business because of its seasonal
nature, which means that the stored products are brought in with-
in comparatively short periods : eggs in the spring, butter during
the summer months, poultry and apples in the fall, etc.

The rapid and satisfactory handling of big quantities of these
products requires large, speedy elevators conveniently located
with reference to the loading platforms. The typical floor plan
shown in Figure 2, indicates that there are five elevators and
shows their location with reference to the rooms. On the first
floor, they connect directly by means of wide passageways with
the railroad and wagon platforms. The elevators are of the
electric over-head traction type and travel at 175 feet a minute
with a capacity load of 3000 pounds.

THE REFRIGERATING SYSTEM
The refrigeration of all cold rooms is done by means of the
brine circulating system. There are numerous reasons why it is
more desirable to use brine than the direct expansion of ammonia
in a plant of this kind. Chief among these may be mentioned
greater safety, avoidance of all ammonia leaks and consequent
avoidance of odors in the rooms, compactness of the necessary
ammonia piping, as this is entirely confined to the engine room,
comparative ease of control, and lastly, the greater inertia of
the cooling system which will permit of the compressors being
shut down for many hours while the brine circulation is con-
tinued with only a very slow rise in the brine temperature.

The temperatures which will be maintained in this plant run
from five degrees below to forty degrees above zero Fahrenheit.
This is quite a wide range for a brine system. At times when
both coolers and freezers are to be served, brine is used in the
coolers and direct-expansion ammonia in the freezers. In plants
having only direct-expansion ammonia it is necessary either to
operate two compressors at different back pressures correspond-
ing to the temperatures which are to he carried, or else a double-

222 THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [May, 1921

acting compessor must be used and so piped that the two ends of
the cyhnder may be operated at the required different back
pressures. The use of a single-temperature brine system is far
simpler than any of these and has in addition all the advantages
above mentioned. This is the system in use at Fulton Market.
As it is desirable to have a difference of at least ten degrees
between the brine in the pipes and the air of the room, and as
the lowest temperature desired is five degrees below zero, the
brine is circulated at — 15 deg. fahr. Such a low temperature
requires the use of calcium chloride brine and to be safe against
freezing this is made with a specific gravity of 1.25,

The brine is cooled by means of three "Vogt" horizontal multi-
pass coolers. These are 50 inches in diameter and 18 feet long
and are rated at 125 tons of refrigeration when operated witli
— 20 deg. fahr. brine. The pumps handling the brine are two
"Hill" centrifugals of 1500 g. p. m. capacity each against a 50-foot
head.

In a brine system of this size, it is necessary to make pro-
vision for surges in the lines and for expansion and contraction
of the body of brine circulated. This has been accomplished by
installing a surge tank at the highest point of the system. The
brine supply risers decrease as they go up, but the returns riser
begins with the lowest coils and increases in size going up and
finally discharges into the surge tank. The drain from this tank
then goes down to the engine room and constitutes the suction
to the pumps. These then discharge into the coolers and from
thence the brine travels up to the house. It will be noted that the
brine system is a balanced one and that the pumping head con-
sists simply of the friction through the coolers, heater and coil
plus a very small lift. This accounts for the low-head pumps
used. For purposes of charging the system and making up losses,
a low-capacity high-head piston pump has been installed.

In the proportioning of the pipe coils for the various rooms,
the customary ratios have been used except that in the coolers
allowance has been made for the unusually low temperature of
the refrigerant. Variations have also been made in cases of un-
usual exposures, etc. All pipe coils are of 2-inch standard
wrought steel pipe. The average ratio on the cooler side is one
lineal foot of pipe to 27.2 cubic feet of space and in the freezers
the ratio is i to 7.9. The coils are made up in groups, no single

Vol. XII, No. 4] EDLUND: STORAGE WAREHOUSE 223

pair, of supply and return valves handling more than 300 lineal
feet of pipes. They are hung on the ceilings and vary from a
single layer to three deep. In the coolers they are located above
, the aisles in order to permit the use of the full story height for the
piling of goods.

The ammonia part of the refrigerating system is very compact
and consists of the compressors, condensers, traps, etc. Two com-
pressors have been installed and space is provided for two more
in the future. These are "Ball" two-stage compressors having
28 X 42 inch low-pressure cylinders and 16 x 42 inch high-pres-
sure cylinders. The suction to the L. P. cylinder will be o lb. and
the reservoir in the line between the two cylinders is intended to
be kept at 50 lb. The reservoir is provided with a pipe coil and
all liquid coming from the receiver is passed through this coil
in order to lower its temperature to a point approximating the
expansion temperature in the brine coolers. This is a feature of
efficiency in operation and it may or may not be employed as the
operator chooses.

The ammonia condensers are also located in the engine room
and are of the double-pipe type. They consist of 32 stands 12
pipes high and 21 feet long. The water for these is taken from
the city mains and is recirculated, being pumped up to a "Roder"
cooling tower located on the roof. This tower will cool the
water down to within four degrees of the wet bulb temperature
when the dry bulb thermometer is at 80 or above, and with an
evaporation loss not greater than 5 per cent of the total circulated.
The tower is specially constructed to avoid loss by spraying, being
located as it is and subjected at times to very high wind velocities.

ELECTRICAL MACHINERY
The entire plant is electrically operated and is served from the
12,000 volt underground feeders of the Commonwealth-Edison
Co. A high-tension switch room and transformer vault are lo-
cated adacent to the engine room and contain 3-500 Kva. water-
cooled transformers and a 50 Kva. Hghting transformer. All
power is 440 volts, 60 cycle, three-phase, and it is used on all the
motors throughout the plant. The lighting is Edison single-
phase three wire. The switch-board is in the engine room ad-
jacent to the transformer vault and is complete with oil switches,
relays, meters, etc.

224 "^^^ ARMOUR ENGINEER [May, 1921

The synchronous-motor drive of the ammonia compressors is
of special interest because this is the only plant in the country
in which this type of motors is used direct-connected to ammonia
compressors of this size and capacity and under similar con-
ditions. Each compressor is driven by a 600 HP, 80 RPM, 60
cycle, 3-phase, General Electric synchronous motor. The motors
are provided with 18,000 pound flywheels to assist the flywheel
moment of the motor rotor and relieve the supply line of excessive
current pulsations which are characteristic in compressor drives.
These motors are remote-control operated from duplicate sets of
buttons located on the main switchboad and on motor starting
panels at each machine. The oil switches are all solenoid operated
and all motors are provided with no-voltage and overload relays
giving them full protection. There are also two 50 KW syn-
chronous motor driven exciter sets furnishing direct current for
the fields of the large motors.

MISCELLANEOUS OTHER EQUIPMENT

Although the building structure is of itself fireproof, the goods
to be stored are not and in order to secure the best insurance rate,
the plant is equipped throughout with automatic sprinklers. A
rather unusual feature of this installation is the location of the
dry valves on the various upper floors rather than all together
in the lower story as is generally done. There are two risers,
one for each section of the building, and two floors of a section
are on one and the same dry valve. The sources of water supply
consist of two 20,000 gallon storage tanks located in the penthouse
above the central elevator tower and a 1000 G.P.M. fire pump in
the engine room.

Heat for the ofifices, sampling rooms, engine room and stair-
wells is supplied by a vacuum system. The boiler room is located
to the north of the engine room and is equipped with a 7500 sq. ft.
Kewanee firebox boiler and the necessary vacuum pumping equip-
ment. The chimney for the heating boiler extends up through
the building and out above the roof. In doing so, it passes
through freezers practically all the way and special care had to
be employed to secure the best insulation possible and also allow
room for vertical movement of the stack, due to expansion and
contraction.

Vol. XII, No. 4] EDLUND: STORAGE WAREHOUSE 225

Hot water is supplied to toilet and wash rooms from two
"Ruud" instantaneous gas heaters.

All steam mains are insulated as are the brine risers wherever
these run through unrefrigerated space. The brine coolers and
all brine piping and ammonia suction lines are insulated with cork
pipe covering.

The plant has at this writing been in operation several months,
and although it has not yet been run at capacity, the indications
are that it will be a very economical plant to handle. The syn-
chronous motors are giving excellent performance, proving the
wisdom of the selection of this type of drive. The fact that it
enables the entire plant to operate at unity power factor makes it
a very desirable customer of the electric service company and also
gives it preferred rates which are very much worth while, as the
power bills are a very large item in the operating expenses.

The entire plant and refrigerating system was designed by
Gardner & Lindberg, Architects and Engineers, Chicago.

ATTACKING THE SNOW PROBLEM

The New York State Bureau of Municipal Information has
sought reports from American cities according to the February
issue of the "American City," on the method and kind of appa-
ratus used for snow removal, in order to make available to
municipal officials complete and up-to-date information. This
is important because of the necessity of keeping at least the
main arteries of travel free from snow. The reports seemed to
indicate that municipal authorities are paying more attention
to their methods of attack and consequently have formed some
sort of an organization. Some now recognize the efficacy of
beginning work while the snow is falling. The reports agree
that wherever possible effective machinery should be used to
reduce dependence on labor to a minimum, including the use of
equipment available for temporary conversion to snow fighting.
— Electric Railway Journal, Feb. 26, 1921.

SLOW SPEED MOTORS AND THEIR APPLICATION TO

RECIPROCATING AIR COMPRESSORS

I
f
By R. O. Joslyn, '19, Sales Engineer, General Electric Co.

Progressive and alert manufacturing companies are constantly
on the lookout for more efficient ways and means of attaining
certain results. If the product is satisfactory in quality and quan-
tity, the efforts for improvement are expended in endeavoring to
find cheaper, quicker, and better ways of manufacturing this pro-
duct. Thus when the synchronous motor was introduced into the
industrial and electrical world it was recognized as a very efficient
and flexible machine to apply to equipment that had heretofore
been driven by less efficient slow speed steam or gas engines.

The reciprocating air compressor and its driving element was
found to be a decidedly more efficient unit when the driving ele-
ment consisted of a direct connected synchronous motor than
when a steam engine was employed. It also made a very com-
pact unit and was especially desirable wherever space was an
important item. Before proceeding any further it should be made
clear that air compressors are not always driven by direct con-
nected synchronous motors when electricity is available; many
installations are made up of belted equipment using synchronous,
induction, and direct current motors. The belted motor usually
run at a speed approximately five times the compressor speed
which varies from 75 revolutions to 300 revolutions per minute.
However if a complete analysis were made of the various types
of motors used with air compressors it would require more than
the allotted amount of space available for this article and hence
the following treats with direct connected synchronous motors
only.

The standard electrical material furnished for an air com-
pressor installation consists of the synchronous motor, belted
exciter, rails or foundation caps, and a control panel. The motor
is furnished to the compressor builder without beatings, base or
shaft. The rotor of the motor is pressed, by means of hydraulic
pressure, directly on the shaft of the compressor; the stator is
mounted in line with the rotor and concentric with the shaft and
rotor. The stator rests on the cast iron rails which are set in
the concrete foundation. The rails are approximately 2 inches
thick, 15 inches long, and 8 inches wide, and serves the purpose of

Vol. XII, No. 4] JOSLYN: AIR COMPRESSORS 227

allowing the stator to be moved along the rails in case it is neces-
sary to work on the rotor. If the motor is to be installed where
facilities are not available for pressing the rotor on the shaft, it is
necessary to furnish a split rotor which can be belted on the
shaft. It is sometimes more convenient to ship the stator in two
pieces also but this is usually supplied as one piece.

The belted exciter may be mounted on the floor a few feet from
the compressor. A small pulley is mounted on the compressor
shaft of a diameter approximately five times the diameter of the
exciter pulley so that the exciter will run at a speed five times as
fast as that of the compressor. It is evident that a direct con-
nected exciter to run at 150 or 200 R. P. M. would be consider-
ably larger and more expensive than an exciter running at 1000
R. P. M. Therefore for this particular service a belted exciter is
always preferable to a direct connected exciter. The exciter is a
small direct current generator of the compound wound type. Ii
is adusted for flat compounding, that is 125 volts at no load and
at full load. A typical installation is shown in Fig i.

The synchronous motor panel should be installed in a con-
venient place and arranged so that the operator may have an
unobstructed view of the motor when operating the switches at
the panel. The slate panel is mounted on pipe supports and the
essential equipment is as follows :

I — A. C. Line ammeter.

I — D. C. Field ammeter.
• I — Exciter field rheostat and hand wheel.

I — Compensator mounted in back of panel.

I — Double pole field switch with discharge resistance clips

I — Triple pole double throw main and compensator line oil
circuit breaker.

I — Triple pole single throw starting oil circuit breaker.

I — Lever mechanism with overload trip for the main oil cir-
cuit breaker, mechanically interlocked with

I — Non automatic lever mechanism simultaneously operating
the starting and compensator line oil circuit breakers.

I — Time limit lock to prevent starting the motor except from
the starting taps of the compensator.

I — Undervoltage device for main breaker.

228

THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [May, 1921

Vol. XII, No. 4] JOSLYN: AIR COMPRESSORS 229

2 — Current transformers.

I — Potential transformer for undervoltage device.

2 — Inverse time limit overload relays.
. I — Pilot lamp for exciter circuit.

The starting lever is located on the left side facing the panel. The
underv^oltage device is placed between the two operating levers.
The motor field switch with the barriers is located on the right
hand side and in the center of the board. The two overload relays
are placed on the upper left side ; the ammeters and exciter field
rheostat handwheel occupy the extreme upper part of the board.
The pilot lamp is secured to the upper edge of the panel where it
is in plain view to the operator. In back of the panel and
mounted on the pipe framework the compensator is placed. This
is merely an auto-transformer to enable the motor to be started on
50, 60 or 70% of line voltage. If the compensator has a capacity
of over approximately 300 Kva, it is mounted on the floor instead
of the pipe supports due to its excessive weight. In addition to
the equipment mentioned above it is sometimes necessary to fur-
nish a rheostat in the motor field. This is only necessary how-
ever when two or more machines are excited from a common
source such as a direct current bus or a motor generator set ; but
if an individual exciter is furnished with a synchronous motor
an exciter field rheostat only is required.

The starting switch and running switches are mechanically
interlocked so that it is impossible to close the running switch
first. There is also a time limit interlock arrangement which
necessitates throwmg m the running switch immediately after
releasing the starting switch. In case the operator fails to com-
plete this operation within the specified time the running switch
cannot be closed and it is necessary to repeat the starting opera-
tion. A wiring diagram of a panel is shown in Figure 2. Brief-
ly the method of starting the unit is as follows :

The starting oil switch lever is closed.

This operation closes the two oil switches A and B which are
controlled by a tandem mechanism and close simultaneously. The
switch A connects the compensator to the line and the switch B
connects the starting tap of the compensator to the motor. After
the motor has reached the maximum speed it can attain at this
voltage, the field switch is closed, and the rotor is pulled into
step. The starting lever is then tripped out and the running

230

THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [May, 1921

Source
Ammeter

Slortinq
Compensotor

Oil Circuit Breaker
Shunt

Furnished Onl
When Required

Rheostat

■ Mechanically
Odd Time Limit
Interlock

5unchronous Motor

Fig. 2

switch C closed immediately. The motor is now connected direct-
ly to the line and the compensator completely disconnected. The
rheostat can be adjusted to give the desired power factor which
is usually unity when the motor is carrying full load. The pilot
lamp on the panel is connected directly across the armature of the
exciter in order to indicate when the exciter is delivering full vol-
tage to the motor field.

The starting torque required by an air compressor with the by
have the correct starting torque, pull in, and break down torque.

Vol. XII, No. 4] JOSLYN: AIR COMPRESSORS 231

The starting torque required by an air compresser with the by
starting torque varies with each compressor and it is well for
the compressor builder to notify the electrical manufacturer of the
starting torqque actually required so that the synchronous motor
may be designed to take care of the particular job for which it is
intended. The synchronous motor is started similarly to a
squirrel cage induction motor, and as in the case of the induction
motor the starting torque depends primarily upon the design of
the amortisseur winding. A high resistance winding means a high
starting torque and a low resistance winding means a low start-
ing torque. To present this point more clearly the rotor may be
considered to have two windings or two paths, for carrying the
•current, connected in parallel. The amortisseur winding is one
winding and has a fixed resistance. The field winding is the
other path and its resistance may be infinite which it is when the
field switch is open or it may have a definite value as when a dis-
charge resistance is connected across the field terminals. How-
ever from the law of parallel circuits it may readily be seen that
the complete circuit has maximum resistance when the field cir-
cuit is open and as soon as the field circuit is closed through a
resistance the resistance of the complete circuit is lessened and
there is a lower starting torque. The starting torque of a
synchronous motor also varies as the square of the voltage of the
supply circuit. Since the starting compensators are provided with
three taps it is evident that if the motor fails to start on the lowest
tap the connections may be readily transferred to the next higher
tap. It is advisable to keep the motor connected to the lowest tap
which will give the required starting torque as the current in
rush is less on the lower tap.

The synchronizing torque or pull in torque also depends upon
the resistance of the amortisseur winding. A high resistance rotor
furnishes low pull in torque and vice versa. Thus it will be noted
that good starting torque is obtained by sacrificing the pull in
torque. The most advantageous arrangement is to design the
amortisseur winding so that maximum torque will occur at one
half synchronous speed as this will give about the same amount
of static and synchronizing torque. With the proper value of
resistance across the collector rings the torque near full speed is
increased. A change from this resistance in either direction will
decrease the torque. An accurate and convenient way of deter-

232

THE ARMOUR ENGINEER

mining the proper resistance is to bring the motor to constant
speed at full voltage with the load it has to pull into
synchronism, then by means of a water rheostat or some other var-
iable resistance connected across the collector rings, to determine
the resistance which will increase the speed to the highest value.
The discharge resistance should be designed to contain this ohmic
value. The discharge resistance also serves the purposes of dissi-
pating the excessive field energy when the field switch is opened.
There is another factor that influences the starting torque and
that is the field windings. To insure maximum starting torque
the field switch should be open, which means that the field coils
are open circuited and infinite resistance is in this particular circuit.
The above method is resorted to in case conditions arise in service
where the pull in torque requirements prove to be greater than
were anticipated at the time the machine was designed. It is al-
ways advisable to synchronize the motor when running from the
compensator if possible as the motor may then be thrown directly
on the line with very little disturbance.

The third torque value to be considered in the synchronous
motor is the pull out or break down torque which varies from 150
per cent to 300 per cent of normal torque in standard machines.
The pull out capacity varies directly as the terminal voltage and
also directly as the field excitation. It may be calculated directly
from the saturation and synchronous impedance curves of the
machine or by theoretical formula, the former method is more
accurate as it gives the actual values while the latter method
furnishes theoretical results. Let Figure 3 represent the satura-
tion curve and the synchronous impedance curve of a synchronous
motor.

F is the value of field current necessary to produce normal
terminal voltage En. Fj represents the field excitation required to
obtain normal armature current from the synchronous impedance
curve and F, is the value of field current at full load. The power
furnished to a synchronous machine at break down is
voltage X current

P = V 3 Cos 6 K. W. Therefore at a ter-

1000
minal voltage £„ and a field excitation F, corresponding to nor-
mal armature current, the pull out capacity would be equal to

Vol. XII, No. 4] JOSLYN: AIR COMPRESSORS

233

P =

Cos 6 K. W., which is the normal rating of the

1000

motor. Then at an excitation F2 corresponding to a current of

Fig. 3.

I2, on the synchronous impedance curve and the same termina\

V?En I,

voltage as before the power will be P = Cos. 6 K. W.

1000
That is the break down capacity at a field excitation F2 is

la F2 . . u

equivalent to — ^ — times the normal Kva ratmg of the

In F

machine. The ratio of the field excitation corresponding to nor-

234 THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [May, 1921

mal voltage on the saturation curve, to the field excitation corres-
ponding to normal armature current on the synchronous im-
pedance curve is known as the short circuit ratio. Therefore the

F.
short circuit ratio K ^ — . The magnetomotive force diagram

of a synchronous motor at unity power factor illustrating the
position of the field current values is shown by the small sketcli
in Figure 6.

Therefore F^^ = F2 + F,\

When the short circuit ratio K is known the pull out capacity
is approximately equal to V {i -\- K.^) times the normal Kva.
rating of the machine. The above formula is true of a unity
power factor machine only. For instance if a 300 Kva, unity
power factor machine has a short circuit ratio of 1.4, the pull
out capacity would be

300 V (i + 1-4^) = 300 X 1.72 = 516. KW.
When two or more synchronous machines are operating on
the same system they must run at the same average electrical
speed. The electrical speed is determined by the frequency of the
circuit. There is an elastic or synchronizing force which tends to
keep the machines rotating at the same speed ; in case a machine
tries to speed up it is held back and if it has a tendency to lag» the
synchronizing force will pull it up into the position of uniform
rotation. By position of uniform rotation is meant the position
which the rotor would occupy with respect to the rotating field, if
running at no load with a constant driving force. The air com-
pressor presents a decided variable load throughout each cycle .
The variations are periodic and of sufficient magnitude to cause
considerable trouble if precautions are not taken. Any change in
the load itself compels the motor to readjust itself to the changed
conditions, its tendency being to slow down with increase in load
and to speed up when the load is reduced. Each time the rotor is
thus displaced there is a heavy inrush of line current which re-
turns to normal as soon as the rotor is in the position of uniforn]

Vol. XII, No. 4]

JOSLYN: AIR COMPRESSORS

235

rotation. The increase in current means a large line drop and
consequently if lights are supplied from the same circuit there
is a variation in voltage. With every revolution of the compressor
the Hghts will flicker or perhaps burn out. To limit these devia-
tions of the rotor it is often ecessary to add a fly wheel to the

unit which will give the rotor sufficient inertia to keep it running
comparatively uniformly. The allowable displacement is 3J^
electrical degrees plus or minus from the neutral position of rota-
tion. From the torque effort diagram of the air compressor it is
possible to calculate the fly wheel effect necessary for satisfactory
operation. The rotor of the motor of course has a certain amount,
but in case the value is not sufficient to limit the angular duration
to 35^ electrical degrees, a fly wheel must be added. The torque
effort diagram is calculated from the indicator cards, weight of
the reciprocating parts, radius of crank circle and other data ob-
tathed directly from the compressor.

Synchronous motors are especially desirable for air compressor
service when the system has poor power factor characteristics.
Induction motors and transformers involve a lagging power es-
pecially when underloaded. A poor power factor means larger
generators than necessary, higher cost, lower efficiency and poor

236 THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [May, 1921

regulation. Several power companies, realizing the disadvantages
of a low power factor, penalize their customers if the power,
factor of the individual plants are below a certain value. It is
often the case that a compressor is only required to deliver full
load part of the time and thus it is possible to operate the motor
on unity power factor when delivering full load and at a leading
power factor when operating at part load. It is also possible to
design a synchronous motor to carry full mechanical load and
have available a sufficient amount of reactive Kva. available for
power factor correction purposes. It is possible to operate the
motor at unity power factor by adjusting the field rheostat until
the line or armature current is a minimum for a given mechanical
load. At this point the current is neither leading nor lagging the
voltage and the total power input is being used to drive the load
and to overcome the losses in the machine. If the excitation is
increased beyond this point the current leads the voltage and the
machine is said to be operating at leading power factor, and if
the excitation is decreased below this point the current lags be-
hind the voltage and a lagging power factor results. A syn-
chronous motor is capable of operating at any power factor from
zero to unity if the fields are designed to carry the current with-
out overheating. A unity power factor machine cannot operate
at .8 p.f. and still maintain its full rated load without overheating.
However an .8 p.f. motor can operate at unity without overheat-
ing due to the fact that the minimum amount of armature current
and a smaller field current is required at unity power factor and
thus less heat is generated. It is evident therefore that a unity
power machine operates more efficiently than at any other power
factor ; and also the first cost is lower on account of the fact that
a smaller machine is required at unity than at any other power
factor. A unity power factor machine, when working under full
load, does not deliver any wattless Kva. to the line. but it does
improve the power factor. However if the load is decreased and
full load excitation applied, a certain amount of reactive Kva. is
available. From the above discussion it will be noted that the
power factor of a system will be aided by a synchronous motor.
The amount of this correction will depend upon whether the
machine is (i) a unity power factor motor, (2) a power factor
motor delivering part mechanical load and part corrective load
and (3) a synchronous condenser in which all the input to watt-

Vol. Xn, No. 4] JOSLYN: AIR COMPRESSORS

less leading current is used for corrective purposes. It is evi-
dent under case 3 that a synchronous motor could not operate at
zero power factor and also drive a compressor. However, to
make the explanation of power factor correction complete the
effect of a synchronous condenser on the line has been brought

l/y

up in connection with the other two illustrations. The following
examples will illustrate the three uses : An industrial plant has a
load of 2400 K. W. at .6 p. f. or 4000 Kva. If a 2000 Kva. syn-
chronous motor is added to the system the effects at (i) unity
power factor, (2) .8 p. f., and (3) zero power factor will be as
follows :

(i) As a unity power factor motor, ^g. 4.

Let the line A. B. represent the energy load of 2400 K. W. The
2400

^va. = = 4000 Kva. and is represented by A. C. The

.6
wattles energy is equal to B. C. = V ( AO — AB«) = V (40002—
2400^) == 3200 Kva. A 2000 Kva. i.o p. f. synchronous motor is
added and represented by the line C. D. The total energy load is

238

THE ARMOUR ENGINEER

[May, 1921

now 4400 K. W. and the reactive Kva. remains 3200 Kva. The
total power is A. D. = V (AE^ + DE^) = V (44002 _|. 32002)=

4400
5440 Kva. The new power factor of the system is now = .81.

5440
Therefore using a 2000 Kva. synchronous motor the power
factor has been increased from .60 to .81. The actual mechanical

Fig. 6.

load on the system has been increased 83 1-3% while the gen-
erator capacity has been increased only 36%.

(2) As an .8 power factor motor fig. 5.

Referring to Fig. 5 the lines A. B. C, B. C. and A. C. represent
the energy load, wattless Kva. and total Kva. respectively. A
2000 Kva. .8 p. f. synchronous motor is now added to the system.
This will mean that .8 x 2000 K. W. or 1600 K. W. energy load
and 1200 wattless Kva. has been added. The wattless Kva. of the
synchronous motor will neutralize an equal amount of wattless
Kva. of the system due to the fact that the synchronous motor
furnished wattless leading Kva. as against wattless lagging Kva.
of the load. The line C. F. represents the leading wattless Kva.
and F. C. the energy of the motor. The total energy load is
4000 K. W. and wattless Kva. 2000 A. G. is the total Kva. of

Vol. XII, No. 4] JOSLYN: AIR COMPRESSORS 239

the system and is equal to V ( AH^ -f GH") = V (4000^ + 20002)
= 4472 Kva, This is the rating of the generator necessary to carry

4000

the total load. The new power factor is now = .895

4472
instead of ,60. In this case the energy load has been increased
66%% and the generator capacity approximately 12%.

(3) As a synchronous condenser fig. 6.

A synchronous condenser operates at zero p. f. and is for cor-
rective purposes only. There is no mechanical load available in
this case and the total Kva. is wattless leading. In fig. 6 the same
notation is used; the mechanical load, wattless Kva. and total
Kva. being represented by AB, BC and AC respectively. The
2000 Kva. synchronous condensor is now applied. The leading
wattless Kva. of the synchronous condensor is noted as CD and is
opposite in direction to BC. The energy load remains unchanged
but the wattless Kva. is now BD = 3200 — 2000 = 1200 Kva.
The total Kva. is A. D. = V (AB^ + BD2) == V (2400^ + 1200^)

2000

= 2683 Kva. The new power factor is now = .895. Al

2683
though no mechanical load has been added the total Kva. has
been decreased from 4000 to 2683 and therefore a generator of
only two thirds capacity is required and relative decrease in the
transformers, cables and oil switches.

From the above examples it may be noticed that a synchronous
motor air compressor unit will increase the power factor of an
alternating current system materially.

The above discussion has not gone into the theory of air com-
pressors or synchronous but has dealt with the practicable side
of the subject. There are several text books which explain the
theory of these machines in detail, to which the reader may refer
if sufficiently interested. In conclusion the main advantages of
synchronous motor air compressor units are efficiency, minimum
space, simplicity of operation, and flexibility of power factor
correction.

CHEMICAL FIRE EXTINGUISHERS

Norman F. Kimball, M E., F. P. E., Chief Elngineeri the
O. J. Childs Company, Inc., Utica, N. Y.

Foreword.

Practically all fires are small at the beginning and many fires
are discovered in their incipiency. For the lack of a chemical
fire extinguisher or other suitable means of extinguishing fire
millions of dollars worth of property have been lost and many
human lives sacrificed. Chemical fire extinguishers are de-
signed to take care of incipient fires and they have been in
successful use for many years and their effectiveness is univer-
sally recognized. The soda-and-acid fire extinguishers are thor-
oughly standardized and at the present time there are over
1,000,000 of them in use in this country, guarding factories, ware-
houses, mercantile establishments, hotels, etc.

General Design.

Chemical fire extinguishers of the soda-and-acid type have a
total capacity of three gallons and a solution capacity of two-and-
one-half gallons. Generally speaking, a chemical fire extinguisher
consists of a closed cylindrical container partially filled with a
solution of water and bicarbonate of soda and a small quantity
of commercial sulphuric acid in a glass bottle which is supported
at the upper end of the tank. The acid bottle is closed by means
of a loose stopple which is generally made of lead. The opening
at the top of the extinguisher through which the chemicals are
placed is fitted with a threaded brass collar, and this opening is
closed by a brass cap which threads on to the collar. A length of
rubber hose fitted with a nozzle, is attached to a discharge elbow,
and is used to direct the stream.

Construction.

The illustration shows a three-gallon soda-and-acid extinguisher
manufactured by the O. J. Childs Company, Inc., of Utica, N. Y.

The tank proper of a "Childs" chemical fire extinguisher is
made of a copper cylinder with convex heads. The cylinder is
of cold rolled Lake Superior copper, properly tempered, and of
No. 18 Brown and Sharp gauge, this thickness of copper being
sufficient to make the tank strong enough to withstand a hydro-
static pressure of 350 pounds per square inch without distortioa
The vertical or longitudinal seam is riveted with a row of copper

Vol. XII, No. 4] KIMBALL: FIRE EXTINGUISHERS

241

rivets, the seam is sweated with solder, which is made to flow
through the outer edge, and in addition the joint is backed on
the inside with solder which makes a smooth covering for the

CROSS SECTION SHOWING CONSTRUCTION
"CHILDS" EXTINGUISHER.

BEST BRONZE
BRASS.

BOTTLE CAGE, NO. 4
BRASS WIRE
FASTENED TO
CAP DOES NOT
DEPEND ON
SOLDER, NO
LOOSE PAR

THREADED
COUPLING
TO ELBOW

HOSE TESTED
400 LBS.

"CHILDS"
CLAMPSAVOlb
EXPENSE OF
NEW COUP-
LINGS AND
NOZZLE HOSE
REPLACED BY
THE USE OF
A SCREW \ I
DRIVER. ^1

DOME AND BOT-
TOM FORMED BY
STAMPING AVOID-
ING UNEVENNESS
OF METAL
CAUSED BY
SPINNING.

FILLING LINE.

SOLDER COVER-

NG RIVET HEADS

ON INSIDE SHELL

HAND COPPER
RIVETED JOINTS.

LAPS TINNED BEFORE
PUTTING TOGETHER
THEN SOLDER SWEAT
THROUGH THE JOINT.

UPTURNED EDGE
BOTTOM SOLDER-
ED ON INSIDE OF
SHELL

HEAVY BEAD

FILLED WITH

SOLDER TO

SUPPORT BOTTOM

^S/BOTTOM HANDLE.

rivet heads on the inside of the shell. This form of joint is very
strong, in fact stronger than the copper sheet itself, for in hydro-
static pressure tests to break down the tank invariably fails, or
rupture occurs, in the sheet and not at the joint.

The top and bottom heads are formed by stamping and are of
a heavier gauge of copper than the shell. The top head or dome
is riveted to the shell — this being a special feature of "Childs"
extinguishers — and the joint is sweated and finished in a similar
manner to the vertical seam described in the preceding par-
agraph. The bottom head is set up against a small bead and
adjacent to a large bead which is rolled in the shell. The space

242 THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [May, 1921

between the larger bead and the bottom head is banked with
solder and the joint is sweated.

The interior of the extinguisher shell and all surfaces of the
various brass fittings which are exposed to the solution contents
are coated with a lead-tin alloy as a protection against corrosion.

The lower edge of the shell, which rests on the ground when
the extinguisher is standing normally upright, is strengthened by
means of a stiffening ring. This stiffening ring is a steel wire
inserted in a bead and around which the lower edge of the shell
is spun.

The correct amount of solution which is to be placed in the
tank is shown by means of a filling indicator or marker. This
indicator is a copper angle piece which is soldered to the inside
of the shell at the correct level.

The extinguisher cap which threads down on to the collar is
designed so that the threads are protected against exposure to
the contents of the extinguisher. This cap is provided with a
ring handle to facilitate its removal and replacement on the collar.

The acid bottle is supported in a removable cage in some types
of extinguishers but in the case of the "Childs" extinguisher the
acid bottle cage is fastened to the under side of the tank cap. The
stopple which closes the opening in the acid bottle is of special
composition metal, mostly lead, with a small percentage of anti-
mony. The stopple is designed in proportion to regulate the flow
of acid when the extinguisher is inverted.

The hose on chemical fire extingjuishers is generally of the 3/8"
size and about 17'' in length. The nozzle is cast of composition
metal, similar to that of which the stopple is made.

Operation.

To operate a soda-and-acid extinguisher it should be carried
to the fire by means of the top handle and then put into operation
by merely inverting it. When the extinguisher is inverted the
loose stopple falls partly out of the bottle, and the acid is grad-
ually fed into the soda solution. The chemical reaction between
the acid and soda solution liberates large quantities of carbon
dioxide, commonly known as carbonic acid gas. This immediately
generates comparatively high pressure in the extinguisher which
forces the solution out of the nozzle at a sufficiently high velocity
to provide a good fire stream. The stream can be directed by
the hose and nozzle* t

Vol. XII, No. 4] KIMBALL: FIRE EXTINGUISHERS 243

It may be seen from the preceding paragraphs, that soda-and
acid fire exitnguishers are self contained units. Normally, they
stand without being under pressure, but just as soon as they are
operated they generate their own pressure and discharge a fire
stream about 40 feet in length.

The pressures generated in chemical fire extinguishers depend
upon various features of design and condition. These various
features are the rate of acid feed, the amounts of soda and acid
used, the liquid capacity of the tank, total capacity of the tank-,
the diameter of the nozzle orifice and the temperature of the
solution at the time of operation. The correct rate of applying
the acid is controlled by the design of the inner diameter of the
acid bottle neck, the diameter and length of the stopple, and the
distance the stopple falls away from the bottle when the ex-
tinguisher is operated. In addition to providing correct operating
pressures it is necessary that the solution discharge be alkaline in
character and have no trace of acid at any time during the stream
discharge.

Under ordinary solution temperatures, say about 70 degrees
Fahr., the pressure of about 40 pounds is obtained in five seconds
after the extinguisher is operated, the pressures gradually in-
crease up to about i(X) pounds in approximately 25 seconds and
from then on they gradually decrease until the solution is entirely
discharged. The duration of discharge is about 60 seconds.

Strength.

Approximately all of the soda-and-acid extinguishers now man-
ufactured are built under the rigid specifications of the Under-
writers' Laboratories and each machine bears their label. It is
one of the requirements of the Underwriters' Laboratories that
these devices be of such strength that when tested to a hydro-
static pressure of 350 pounds per square inch, they show no dis-
tortion or permanent set. These extinguishers when tested to
break-down, do not fail or burst at pressures below an average of
500 pounds per square inch. In a test made ypon a "Childs" ex-
tinguisher, failure of the tank did not occur until a pressure of 700
pounds per square inch had been impressed upon the device.
Since the average maximum working pressure is about 100
pounds it can be seen that these devices provide an ample factor
of safety and are thus safe-guarded against failure under average
service conditions.

244 THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [May, 1921

Fire Extinguishing Efficiency.

The theoretical chemical reaction that occurs in a chemical
fire extinguisher of the soda-and-acid type is as follows :
2 NaH CO3 + H2SO, = 2CO2 + NaoSO^ + 2H2O

A chemical fire extinguisher, when properly charged, contains
water, bicarbonate of soda, and commercial sulphuric acid. The
bicarbonate of soda is dissolved in the water and as soon as the
acid is allowed to mix with this soda solution, a violent effer-
vescence or bubbling takes place. This chemical reaction forms
large volumes of carbon dioxide gas. This gas will not support
combustion, it having a great smothering or choking effect on fire,
and it is the presence of this gas which helps to make the chemical
fire extinguisher so effective.

The products discharged from a chemical fire extinguisher, as
shown by the above equation, after operation may be listed as
follows :

1. Water which was originally put in the device.

2. Water formed in the chemical reaction.

3. Water which was in the acid.

4. Sodium sulphate, a heavy insoluble salt.

5. Carbon dioxide gas.

6. Bicarbonate of soda, which was not used up in the chemical
reaction.

The fire extinguishing value of the fire stream discharged from
a chemical fire extinguisher is, therefore, due to the following
properties :

1. The presence of large volumes of carbon dioxide gas, which
acts as a blanket, displaces the air, thus robbing the fire of oxy-
gen without which combustion cannot take place, and smothers
the flames. Carbon dioxide gas is heavier than air and has a
tendency to settle down into confined and inaccessible -places,
where water cannot reach, driving out the oxygen and thereby
smothering the fire.

2. The cooling effect of the water or the absorption of the
heat in vaporizing the water which was originally put into the
device, the water which was in the acid, and the water formed in
the chemical reaction. When water strikes a fire, the heat turns
it into steam and since it requires quite an immense amount
of heat to change water into steam, the temperature of the burn-^
ing materials are lowered to the point where they are so cool they

Vol. XII, No. 4] KIMBALL: FIRE EXTINGUISHERS 245

cannot burn. The clouds of steam also crowd away the air and
smothers the fire.

3. The sodium sulphate is carried along in the stream and
covers the burning substance with a crust-like salt forming a fire-
retardant coating on the burning materials retarding combustion.
A very similar effect to this is that of pouring sand on a fire.

4, In charging an extinguisher more bicarbonate of soda is
used that is actually needed so as to insure that all of the acid will
be neutralized. This excess of soda which is not used up in the
chemical reaction is decomposed or broken up, when it strikes the
fire, into carbon dioxide and carbonate of soda, the former smoth-
ering the fire, and the latter acting as an inert coating and retard-
ing combustion in the same manner as the sodium sulphate.

Summarizing, fires are extinguished in the following ways :
ftrst, by cutting off the supply of air from the burning materials ;
second, by lowering the temperature of the materials so that fur-
ther combustion is impossible. In chemical fire appliances, the
combustion of the soda solution and carbon dioxide gas provides
the means for extinguishing the fire. The solution acts as a carry-
ing agent for the excess soda and when this stream strikes the
base of the flames, it cools off the burning materials and at the
same time the gas crowds the air away and further combustion
is impossible.

On wood fires, or fires in free-burning material of any kind,
and 99% of all fires are of this kind, chemical fire appliances are
in every respect the most efficient that can be put in use. The
reason for this is that in fires of this kind or any fires with a
broken surface, it is necessary to have a steady stream with pres-
sure behind it to send into a fire and cool it ofif, in addition to de-
positing enough carbon dioxide to prevent combustion.

Recharging and Maintenance.

Chemical fire extinguishers should be charged promptly after
use on a fire or if not so used, recharged at least once a year. In
so far as it is practicable each extinguisher should be emptied by
discharging as though on a fire. It is highly desirable at these
yearly inspections, to discharge the extinguisher as if at a fire be-
fore the persons who are likely to use the extinguisher. In this
way valuable knowledge is gained of the operation of the devices.

To recharge, the extinguisher should be placed upright on the
floor, the cap unscrewed, and the acid jar removed. The tank or

246 THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [May, 1921

cylinder should be emptied and thoroughly cleaned, removing
deposits of soda left in the tank from the old charge. The ex-
tinguisher should be partly filled with water and then inverted
enough to drain through the hose. If any obstructions are ap-
parent the hose and nozzle should be cleaned. The soda should
be completely dissolved in 5 or 6 quarts of clear water, luke
warm water being preferable. When the soda is all dissolved and
the solution clear, it is poured into the tank and dean water
added to fill to, but not above, the filling mark on the inside of
the tank. The stopple is placed on the glass bottle, which is
filled with acid to the filling mark on the glass, and the bottle
replaced in the cage. The threads in the collar and cap should be
cleaned and oiled with plain vaseline and the cap then threaded
tightly on the collar. Record tags are attached to most chemical
extinguishers and the date of recharging, together with the sig-
nature of the person who performed it, should be written on this
tag.

Suitability.

Chemical fire extinguishers are especially adapted for use as
first aid fire appliances in extinguishing incipient fires. They are
eflfective upon all fires in structural material, ordinary furniture
machinery, and containers for merchandise. They are especially
suited for fires above floor levels, and upon fires in all substances
that mix with water.

The Underwriters' Laboratories classify these devices as fol-
lows :

"Extinguishers of loose stopple and break bottle types using
soda and acid are effective on incipient fires in free burning
rhaterial (such as wood etc.) and where water of solutions con-
taining large percentages of water are effective. They are of
limited service on fires in liquids of a flamable nature. Their
use on electric arcs, electric machinery, on wiring carrying high
voltages may be dangerous on account of the conductivity of the
liquid."

Chemical fire extinguishers can be readily operated while being
carried about and can also be handled by women. The force,
length and duration of the stream are not dependent upon the
operator. These devices are recommended for use in factories,
public buildings, stores, theatres, hotels, residences, hospitals
schools, etc., etc.

Vol. XII, No. 4] KmBALL: FIRE EXTINGUISHERS 247

Distribution and Arrangement.

Since the needs of each individual property are peculiar, a gen-
eral rule cannot be made as to the number of chemical fire ex-
tinguishers necessary. The local underwriters having jurisdiction
in the territory- where the property is located should be consulted
before chemical fire extinguishers are installed. In some localities
one extinguisher is required for every 2,000 or 2,500 square feet
of floor area, figuring each room, gallery, etc., separately; and
in other localities two extinguishers are required for the same
floor area.

It is very good practice to locate chemical fire extinguishers so
that the travel from any point to the nearest extinguisher will
not be greater than 35 feet in any direction. These devices ought
not be grouped together except in such properties as churches,
schools and strictly office buildings where corridor distribution
and grouping may be necessary to some extent. In many indus-
tries temporary hazards occur from time to time and to properly
protect these it is found good practice to maintain a few portable
stands or racks provided with extinguishers which can be located
near the special hazards.

In order that the extinguishers will be immediately available in
the event of fire, they should be distributed and located where they
will be readily accessible. The practice of painting some sort of a
sign, of sharply contrasting colors, on the walls, well above the
device has been found very satisfactory in buildings where the
extinguishers are likely to be obscured by piles of stock, lumber,
etc. These signs become familiar to the occupants of the build-
ing, bring the apparatus into distinct prominence, and thus tend
to save valuable time in a case of fire.

Susceptibility to Freezing.

When located where temperatures lower than freezing point,
(32 degrees Fahr.), may be encountered, chemical fire ex-
tinguishers should be protected against freezing. The soda solu-
tion of the strength used in these extinguishers will freeze at
about 29 degrees Fahr., and the freezing point of sulphuric acid
varies with its specific gravity from about 29 degrees to 32 de-
grees above zero Fahr.

Attempts have been made to depress the freezing point of the
contents of chemical fire extinguishers by adding certain chem-

248 THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [May, 1921

icals such as ordinary salt, calcium chloride, denatured alcohol,
glycerine, and other less common chemicals. The use of these
ingredients are not to be recommended for the following reasons :

1. Most ingredients when added have the effect of throwing
a part of the bicarbonate of soda out of solution and accordingly
tend to reduce the pressure when the chemical is brought into
service, and to also clog up the extinguisher when used.

2. Many ingredients when added have a tendency to corrode
the interior of the extinguisher.

3. Many ingredients when added may set up a reaction v^^hen
the extinguisher is operated which would have possibly undesir-
able results.

4. The addition of any ingredients for depressing the freezing
point of the bicarbonate of soda solution has no eflfect on the acid
which of itself in many cases may freeze at or near the freezing
point of water.

5. Although ingredients may prevent freezing of solution, the
extinguisher at low temperatures will not be properly operative
on account of sluggish chemical reaction caused by low temper-
ature.

It is good practice to place each extinguisher in a tight wooden
cabinet containing an electric light bulb which should be kept
lighted continually during the cold weather. Such a cabinet
should be conspicuously marked to show that it contains a Fire
Extinguisher.

"Chemical Fire Extinguishers vs. Fire Pails."

The advantages chemical fire extinguishers have over fire pails
are many and great. The more important may be listed as fol-
lows: (i) Reliability of operation, (2) Efficiency, (3) Mainten-
ance, (4) Economy, (5) Appearance, (6) Sense of security.

I. Reliability of operation.

The reason why fire pails fail on the average fire in buildings
is because of their limited range and difficulty of applying them.
It is very difficult or almost impossible to reach with water from
a pail a fire burning v.-ithin flues behind sheathing, on overhead
construction, or on ceilings. W'here a room is on fire and the
door is opened, a volume of hot smoke rolls out, completely block-
ing the entrance, and making it next to impossible to get the water
from a fire pail near enough to the points where combustion is
taking place to have it do any good.

Vol. XII, No. 4] KIMBALL: FIRE EXTINGUISHERS 249

In contrast, effective work can be done with a chemical fire ex-
tinguisher at a distance of 30 feet from a fire, if necessary, and
the stream will penetrate through the flame and smoke, and reach
the point where combustion is taking place. The stream from the
extinguisher can also be directed so accurately that there is no
waste of the fire-extinguishing solution.

2. Efficiency.

Efficiency is the real test of any extinguishing device in fight-
ing a fire. Fire pails depend entirely upon their water contents,
the greater portion of which never reaches the fifire. All the
water from a fire pail is thrown on the fire at once, and there is
no reserve except more pails.

The chemical fire extinguisher is self-acting, it furnishes its
own motive power, acts positively and promptly, and saves much
valuable time. Each gallon of water as it leaves the nozzle of
the extinguisher, carries with it about twenty times its volume of
carbonic acid gas. By conveying this gas along with the liquid,
fires in inaccessible places can be successfully reached. The gas
being heavier than air is carried between partitions etc., directly
to the point where the combustion is taking place.

3. Maintenance.

One of the principal shortcomings of fire pail protection is the
tendency to use them for domestic purposes. Besides this, water
in fire pails evaporates and becomes foul, and the pails are found
inoperative when needed at time of fire.

The chemical fire extinguisher when properly charged and not
disturbed will respond with absolute certainty even after stand-
ing for a year or more. The chemicals retain their full strength
and evaporation at ordinary temperatures is too small to be con-
sidered.

4. Economy,

It is true that in first cost, fire pails are cheaper than chemical
fire extinguishers. However, economy in first cost is not economy
in the long run. The true measure of economy is where the great-
est results are obtained at the least possible cost. Judged by the
standpoint of service the chemical fire extinguisher, with its
almost negligible maintenance cost and its wonderful fire-fighting
efficiency, is the most economical form of fire apparatus obtain-
able.

250 THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [May, 1921

5. It goes without saying that the appearance of fire pails is
anything but handsome and it is because of this that they are
judged unsuitable in many locations. Contrasted with the un-
sightly appearance of fire pails, we have the beautiful finish of
the chemical fire extinguisher, any one of red enamel, polished
copper, or nickel plate.

6. Sense of security.

When all of the water from a fire pail is thrown at a fire at
once, there is no reserve except more fire pails. A nervous, ex-
cited operator at the time of fire dashes the entire contents of a
fire pail on the fire and then he is through unless more pails are
available. In his hurry little attention is paid to direction and
as a result much of the water never gets to the fire — is wasted. -

With the chemical fire extinguisher the stream can be directed
by means of the hose and nozzle. The steady, powerful action of
the stream reassures the nervous or excited operator and he is
thus able to economize in using the contents of the extinguisher
and stand his ground in the face of the hottest fire.

NEW CARS FOR CHICAGO

The Chicago Surface Lines are building fifty trailer cars in
their own shops and fifty additional trailers were ordered on
February 26. One hundred motor cars are being remodeled for
6peration in trains.

An experimental train of two cars has been in operation for
several months with gratifying success.

A feature of the equipment of both the 100 new trailer cars
and the 100 remodeled motor cars is the pneumatic and safety
interlocking door control. This combination of pneumatic door
and step control not only insures safe operation in either single
car or train service, due to the impossibility of starting the cars
until all doors are closed, but it also affords the advantages of
labor saving, power saving, time saving, protection of motor
and controllers, and reduction in car maintenance of doors, steps,
and electrical equipment, with longer Hfe and greater earning
capacity for the individual car units.

"Electric Traction," March, 192 1.

VALUATION OF PUBLIC UTILITY PROPERTY

By Leslie Weiss, '18.
With Gennett, Seeley & Fleming, Inc., Harrisburg, Pa.

Valuation of public utility property during the last ten years,
has opened a new field of endeavor for the engineer. The work
involved in making a valuation is considered as a high grade of
engineering because it requires a thorough knowledge of not only
the details of design ad construction, but also of operation and
financing. Engineers have been requested to give expert testi-
mony with reference to the fair value of public utiility proper-
ties for the purpose of rate making, capitalization, and taxation,
and therefore in order to substantiate this testimony it was neces-
sary to examine the property and its records in detail.

The present era of appraisals and valuations owes its origina-
tion to those municipalities which first took over privately owned
waterworks properties. Hence the waterworks engineers were
the first in the profession to be drawn into this department of en-
gineering and much of the pioneer work may be credited to
them.

The establishment of various public utility commissions for the
purpose of regulating the earnings of public service companies
has created a demand for a fair basis upon which to determine
the tariffs of these companies. It is almost universally agreed
that the earnings of a corporation serving the public should be
governed by the fair value of the property, its operating expenses,
interest on inlVestment, taxes, insurance, and depreciation.
Because these corporations are practically non-competitive, the
ordinary regulation of the rates arising through competition do
not apply. Public Utility Corporations must be organized under
special and specific laws, under which they are granted unusual
franchises. The privileges enjoyed are distinct from those of
ordinary undertakings, and therefore should be subject to special
regulation and control. Also it becomes obvious that regulation
governing the competition for the same business becomes neces-
sary from the very nature of it. Experience indicates that
if these corporations are allowed full and free competition, ulti-
mately they will engage in a warfare that will result in the anni-

252 THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [May, 1921

hilation of one or more of the competitors, the expense of this
being borne by the pubHc.

To show just what are the duties of an engineer engaged in this
work an outline of the proceedure is given. Suppose that a com-
pany selHng electrical energy throughout a territory decides to in-
crease its rates. First it is necessary to prepare a tariff showing
the intended changes, and to file it with the respective public utility
commission. The application of higher rates usually is met with
protest from the consumer. The objections are initially intro-
duced to the operating company through the medium of the vari-
ous civic organizations such as the business associations, and the
chamber of commerce. If no satisfactory adjustment results
from the appeal of the public, a complaint may be entered with
the Public Service Commission of the State. This body as a rule
determines the seriousness of the complaint at a preliminarv
hearing, where representatives of both factions are present.
Usually the evidence produced by the company at this meeting
is insufficient to justify its action, and generally the commission
advises that experts We employed to make a thorough investiga-
tion of the property relative to its present fair value. Occasion-
ally the public also engages engineers to make similar examina-
tions of the property.

The purpose of these investigations is a definite logical one,
namely, to ascertain a fair value for a specific piece of property
at a given time, but this is not always an easy task, owing to the
many factors which must be considered. Exact precision may
be impossible owing to the fact that no two properties are ex-
actly alike ; prices of material and labor fluctuate, property con-
ditions are changing, workmen are liable to err, and hence it be-
comes obvious that the object may unconsciously prejudice the
investigator favorably or unfavorably. Therefore, an individual
endeavor to obtain a just final figure will probably find that the
result differs from that of another expert of equal integrity. But
in all cases the actual engineering facts such as measurements,
quantities, and unit prices, should be agreed upon by the oppos-
ing sides.

Further, there should be no confusion of thought or misap-
prehension as to the fact that there is only one legitimate, definite
value for property determined by the historic cost, or the repro-
duction value for a certain definite period.

Vol. XII, No. 4] WEISS: VALUATION 253

It should be definitely agreed, prior to a detailed examination
of the property, which of these methods is to be employed. The
method of depreciating the property also should be agreed upon
at this time, namely, the straight formula or the sinking fund
method. Sometimes a figure based upon each method is pre-
sented; however, as a rule, the engineers work upon the basis
w^ ich is favored by the various commissions in previous deci-
sions. Whether the historic cost or reproduction value is used
to derive this particular value, the details of it must not be modi-
fied to suit the purpose for which the report is to be used. It
should present a true status of conditions.

For the purpose of differentiation between the two methods
just mentioned a brief definition of each term is given.

The historic cost of an item or a piece of property is its cost
at the time of its installation, whereas the reproduction value
varies from year to year, depending upon the periodic varia-
tions of the cost of labor and material.

The basis upon which the valuation is to be made, having been
determined, the engineer is ready to begin the inspection neces-
sary to make the appraisal. In the process of his work it is well
for him to keep clearly in mind the particular value to be deter-
mined. He must not mechanically collect data, but must fa-
miliarize himself with the details of the organization, its history,
is operation and its financing relative to the purpose of his search.

Also he must know that the appraisal is being made for the
purpose of ascertaining the value of property in its service to the
public, and not its junk value. The final figures must be free
from all doubt as to their reliability in order that their sponsor can
substantiate them when being cross examined on the witness
stand.

Bearing these points in mind, the engineer is ready to proceed
with the actual examinations of the property. This consists of
first making a very thorough inventory and then analyzing the
efficiency of operation of the utility.

The success of the entire valuation depends upon the inventory,
and hence it is obvious that it must be complete and accurate. In
order to minimize the work necessary to complete the report af-
ter the field inspection is concluded, certain separation and clas-
sification of data is necessary. Machinery, buildings, and con-
struction items are recorded as units so that prices for any period

254 THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [May, 1921

may be applied in the future , without confusion or unnecessary
labor.

The total property value may be considered as consisting of a
tangible value, and an intangible value of the property is that
represented by the value of its physical property. The intangible
value does not represent actual property, but is w^hat sometimes is
known as "franchise value," "going concern value," or "good
will value." In the process of the valuation, the tangible value
of the property is divided into sub classes, such as real estate,
buildings, transmission system, distribution system, consumers
services, etc. A further clasification of each sub-division may be
made as follows : Buildings may be separated into generator
station, boiler house, office ; the transmission system may be di-
vided into poles, fixtures and overhead conductors ; the distribu-
tion system into poles and fixtures, overhead conductors, distri-
bution transformers, lightning arresters, etc. The nature of the
classification depends upon the location of the property, and also
upon the separations made in the accounting room by the com-
pany.

In making the inventory each item of property is carefully
prescribed, giving the manufacturer's name, the date of installa-
tion, its operating condition and its approximate remaining life.
Particular mention is made of peculiar conditions of installation
which affect the cost thereof, its operating efficiency and its state
of maintenance. The inventory is so sectionalized that an inspec-
tor's report may later be checked in part for its accuracy without
making it necessary to repeat a great amount of previous work.
This is an important feature of the inspection, as the field notes
may be used as evidence in hearings.

In addition to making a complete inventory it is necessary to
obtain from the vouchers of the company and other records,
available data as to the costs and conditions under which the
property was erected and developed. Further information is
ascertained concerning labor and material costs in the particular
locality by making inquiries among the contractors, builders,
manufacturers and dealers supplying the community in question.

Particular attention is given to the expenditure during the
early history of the company involving items of development ex-
penses, such as interest, taxes and similar expenses during con-
ing construction. The issuance of securities and other forms of

Vol. XII, No. 4] WEISS: VALUATION 255

indebtedness are ascertained from the record books of the com-
pany. Upon concluding the field inspection of the property, and
examining its records, the engineer returns to the office to tabu-
late the results of his work, to which he then applies the unit
prices prevailing throughout the particular valuation period. The
unit costs applied to the inventory are dependent upon the basis
upon which the appraisal is being made, historic cost or
reproduction cost. By unit cost of an item is meant the total cost
to the utility from the time it leaves the manufacturer until it is
installed, comprising selling price, transportation and installation
charges. The unit cost thus determined is then applied to the
quantities found in the inventory. Allowances for overhead
charges, such as engineering, contractor's profit, contingencies,
administration or superintendence during construction, are
made. These overhead charges may be made on each individual
item, but as a rule are applied to certain groups of items.

The summation of the costs of the individual items determined
in this manner then give either the historic cost or reproduction
value, depending upon the basis upon which the valuation is
made. To determine the present value of the property an allow-
ance for its depreciation is made.

Depreciation may occur as the result of the loss of useful life
of a plant unit or because of the invention of a more efficient unit
or in consequence of a change that makes it more economical to
render equivalent service with another plant unit. From this
definition it can be seen that the calculation of depreciation be-
comes difficult because of the widely varying conditions which
must be considered.. While certain methods have been devel-
oped and some principles widely accepted, nevertheless trust-
worthy engineering data on depreciation are exceedingly scarce.
Two methods have become popular during recent years, namely,
the straight line formula and the sinking fund formula.

The former method is based on the assumption that deprecia-
tion accrues according to a straight line law in a simple ratio of
age to life. The formula used follows :

I = Original investment in dollars.

R = Removal cost in dollars.

S = Salvage value in dollars.

D == Annual depreciation in dollars.

L = Estimated life in years.

256 THE ARMOUR ENGINEER IMay, 1921

A = Age in years.

P = Present worth in dollars.

X = Accrued depreciation.

Then

I + R

D =

X = AD
P = I — X

The sinking fund assumes that the accrued depreciation of a
plant unit is the amount already accumulated in a sinking fund
that was begun when the plant unit was first put into service and
whose annual depreciation is such that compounded at a certain
rate of interest the amount at the end of the life of a plant unit
will equal the first cost. In addition to the above data let,

Q =;= Percentage of annual depreciation.

V = I + R — S.

R = A certain rate of interest.

The formulae which may be developed are:

I L (i-R) J

L (i-R)L-i J

P = I — X.

After the present physical value of the plant is determined a
study of the history of the finances should be made with purpose
of determining the advisability of allowing intangible values such
as development expenses and "going value." Whenever investi-
gations show actual deficit during the early years of the com-
pany's operation a "going concern" value can be substantiated.
Otherwise it is doubtful whether a regulating body will accept
such a figure for "good will," as that in a public utility is synany-
mous to the franchise right, the cost of which is a slight item.

Thus the total present value of the property becomes the sum-
mation of the physical plant value, the development expenses and
"going concern" value.

Vol. XII, No. 4] WEISS: VALUATION 257

Now let us see how this present value may be utilized in
establishing fair rates for the company's service. First, the al-
lowable annual revenue must be determined. That in turn is de-
pendant upon what the regulating body may consider as a fair
net profit on the investment, the annual operating expenses, de-
preciation, and the working capital necessary for an active
utility. The following illustration is taken from a recent valu-
ation of an electric company. The reproduction costs established
in this particular case were based upon the costs of labor and
m.aterial for the five year period commencing January i, 1915,
and ending December 31, 1919. This period was chosen because
the Public Service Commission approved of it, and also because
the majority of the company's property was established during
that time. The four per cent sinking fund method of deprecia-
tion was used.

Total Reproduction Value $235,107.54

Annual Depreciation 5,989.46

Accrued Depreciation 53,694.84

Present Physical Value 181,412.70

Contingencies, 5 per cent on all items except

real estate 8,405.64

Engineering and Supervision, 5 per cent on certain

construction items 8,823.48

Organization, Legal Expense, Insurance, etc.,

2 per cent on total 3,972.83

Interest during construction, 15 months, at 6 per cent

gives 3.75 per cent on all items except real

estate 6,950.32

Real Estate, 6 per cent 1,036.37

Total Present Value 210,601.34

Going Concern Value 12,000.00

Working Capital 8,000.00

Amount for Rate Base 230,601.34

An allowance for working capital is made as an active utility
must be in a position to promptly meet all expenses for purchases
of material and equipment, for new business and extensions as
well as to take care of current maintenance and operating ex-
penses. Since accounts from consumers usually are not paid
until the tenth of the month, operating expenses for a month and
a quarter are considered as an adequate amount.

258 THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [May, 1921

The practice of the utiHty commission in the state in which the
valuation was made commonly allows a net profit of 7 per cent
on the actual investment, hence :

7 per cent on $230,601.34 $ 16,142.09

Annual Depreciation 6,975.00

Operating Expenses 76,119.95

Non-operating Expenses 45,000.00

Total Annual Revenue Should Be $144,237.04

The rate schedule was adjusted so that the annual gross revenue
amounted to approximately $144,127.00.

The completed report of valuation contains:
A — Description of the property.
B — Explanation of the Method of Valuation.
I — Historic or Reproduction.
2 — Explanation of Unit Cost.
3 — Method of Depreciation.
4 — Field Inspection and Inventory.
5 — Application of Percentages for Overhead.
6 — Determination of Intangible Values.
C — Analysis of Operating Expenses.
D — Determination of Fair Rate Base.

E — Tables showing itemized inventory and unit costs applied
to them.

The Armour Engineer

The Quarterly Technical Publication of the

Armour Institute of Technology

VOLUME XII MAY, 1921 NUMBER 4

PUBLISHING STAFF FOR THE YEAR 1920-1921
John P. Sanger, Editor Spenser N. Havlick, M'ng. Editor

Fletcher E. Hayden, Bus. Mgr. Emil F. Winter, Assoc. Bus. Mgr.

Board of Associate Editors.

H. M. Raymond, Dean of the Engineering Studies,

L. C. Monin, Dean of the Cultural Studies.

G. F. Gebhardt, Professor of Mechanical Engineering.

E. H. Freeman, Professor of Electrical Engineering.

A. E. Phillips, Professor of Civil Engineering.

H. McCormack, Professor of Chemical Engineering.

E. S. Campbell, Professor of Architectural Design.

Published four times a year, in November, January, March and
May. Publication Office: Federal and 33rd Streets, Chicago.

TERMS OF SUBSCRIPTION.
The Armour Engineer, four issues,postage prepaid, $1.50 per annum

The Technical Press is invited to reproduce articles,
or portions of same, provided proper credit is given.

DR. FRANK WAKELY GUNSAULUS

Dr. Frank Wakely Gunsaulus, lecturer, author, presi-
dent of Armour Institute of Technology, and the out-
standing minister of Chicago, died at his home March 17,
of heart failure. Death came two hours after he was
stricken by an early morning attack.

Dr. Gunsaulus was born at Chesterville, Ohio, Jan. i,
1856, and was a graduate of Ohio Wesleyan University,
entering the Methodist ministry shortly after graduation.

26o

THE ARMOUR ENGINEER

[May, 1921

He was of Spanish descent, and traced his ancestry to a
Protestant martyr killed during the Spanish inquisition
in the sixteenth century. He had three charges in Ohio
during his four years as a Methodist minister, but in 1879
entered the Congregational church, when he accepted a
call to Eastwood Church, Columbus, Ohio. Other pas-
torates were in Newton, Mass., and Baltimore, Md. In
1887 he went to Chicago as pastor of Plymouth Congre-
gational church.

He was joint founder with the late Philip D. Armour,
of the Armour Institute. Following a sermon in which
Dr. Gunsaulus spoke of the obligations of the rich to-
wards the poor, Mr. Armour said he would give the
money if Dr. Gunsaulus would give the time to carry out

Vol. XII, No. 4] EDITORIALS 2^1

the ideals expressed in the sermon. The result was the
estabhshment of Armour Institute.

In 1899 Dr. Gunsaulus resigned the pastorate of
Plymouth Church to become pastor of Central Church,
a non-sectarian body, formerly served by David Swing
and Newell Dwight Hillis. Plans for the expansion of
Armour Institute became so heavy that in 1919 he re-
signed the pastorate of Central Church and was succeeded
by Dr. Frederick F. Shannon.

Dr. Gunsaulus held numerous lectureships in Ameri-
can Universities and colleges. Some of his famous lec-
tures were on Cromwell, Washington, Savanarola, and
Gladstone. He was the author of a biography of Glad-
stone, of a life of Christ, entitled, "The Man of Galilee,"
and of a number of sermons and poems. He was an in-
tense lover of books. His oratorical gifts were excep-
tional, and his genius of administration was evidenced by
the rapid growth of Armour Institute.

Funeral services were held March 19, in the New Eng-
land Congregational Church, and were conducted by Dr.
Shannon, assisted by Dr. Charles W. Gilkey of the Hyde
Park Baptist Church, and Dr. C. F. Brown of the Austin
Congregational Church. He is survived by his widow, a
son, and four daughters.

— "The Continent," March 24, 1921.

THE CHRISTIAN MINISTER

I hold that the ministry of Doctor Frank W. Gun-
saulus in the City of Chicago is without a parallel in
American history. A few have equalled him as a preach-
er ; a very select few have surpassed him as a preacher —
Beecher and Brooks and Simpson. But not one has sent
forth such streams of influence into so many different
channels of a great city's life as did this man, for whom

262 THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [May, 1921

the chariots of God have lately swung low. I say the
many-sidedness of his ministry is unparalleled in our dn-
nals. As a matter of fact, most of us do well in our de-
sire and determination to do one thing; but it is a source
of joy now and then to have a man walk down our human
ways-, and, through the teeming wealth of his nature, have
the very soil of his soul, like the earth in these spring
days, ache and heave and stir with many kinds of mental
and spiritual fruits and flowers. On hearing of his home-
coming, and knowing of his love for children, I quoted
the words of Francis Thompson: "Look for me in the
nurseries of Heaven." "But," as answered my wife, "you
will have to go beyond the nurseries for Doctor Gun-
saulus. You will find him among the artists, the mu-
sicians, the poets, the orators, the educators, the preachers,
and the prophets. He will be everywhere." Was it not
a wise reply? The uniqueness of his minstiry required
many kinds of earth for the manifestation of his soul
while in the flesh; now that he wears his spiritual body,
will he not also have to have many kinds of heavenly
reality for the utterance of his unfettered self? One of
his friends said of the late John Burroughs: "Well, he
used to wonder what it was like beyond and I suppose
he will begin philosophizing again as soon as he gets his
bearings. There will be birds, where John Burroughs is
— birds and great trees." There will he souls where Frank
Gimsaulus is — souls and great music.

A second aspect of his ministry is its rich humanness
and genuine democracy. He was an aristocratic demo-
crat— that is, he united the highest culture with the widest
human sympathies. He was grandly free from a class
consciousness and untoward poHtical partisanship. "I
am a Republican," he said to me not long ago, "because
I believe in a republic — a representative form of govern-
ment— rather than in a pure democracy; but oh! how I
do hate professional politicians !" Even that holy and
righteous hatred was born of his Christian love. I would
to God that it might be born in the heart of every min-

Vol. XII, No. 4] EDITORIALS 263

ister in America. Then he would not allow the profes-
sional politicians to make a fool of him, which is their
first step in making a fool of him.

All classes and conditions of humanity found in this
minister and minstrel the shadow of a great rock in a
Vv'eary land. Rich and poor, educated and uneducated,
capitalist and laborer, young and old — he was to all as
streams of water in a dry place. As chairman of Chi-
cago's Near East Relief Commission, he struggled out of
bed, staggered to the telephone, and sent this message:
"Use my name in any way you see fit to help in the Near
East cause. If we lose Armenia, we lose the gateway.
Do not thank me; it is my duty." Fighting his valiant
fight with death, and having already received his death-
wound, this was among the very last of his eloquent pleas
for a broken and bleeding humanity.

Frederick F. Shannon.

THE ARTIST

To one who desired to increase his realization of the
beautiful Dr. Gunsaulus came bearing gifts. Unlike the
critic who concerns himself only with the differentiation
of the arts, unlike the analyst, who offers us his own kind
of esthetic pleasure in leaving us to wonder at the beauty
of the inarticulate parts which he has disjointed, the
Doctor's was a peculiar mission. He made the enjoyment
of art three dimensional. With him literature, history, the
scripture, psychology, each became in turn a vantage point
from which the work of art presented itself with a new
glory or with additional significance. And in his hands
the work itself became like a torch sending out its rays to
illuminate all manner of corners and crevices of human
interest. Surely the nine muses must have loved an art
lover of this kind, for he never failed in his devotion to
each of them. And if the muses can be thought of as in-
teresting themselves in the service of mankind, it would
seem that Dr. Gunsaulus really carried out their inten-

264 THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [May, 1921

i \

tions. He more than anyone else in this community has
opened the doors of esthetic enjoyment to the passing lay-
man. His flame-like appreciation has kindled many a
nature which without him would have remained un-
warmed by the genial fire of the beautiful.

George William Eggers.

THE SCHOLAR

The personality of Dr. Gunsaulus was complex and
manysided. He was not only a great preacher and lec-
turer, but also a poet, an educator, an interpreter of art,
and last but not least a scholar. Indeed he remarked to
me a number of times that the great desire of his life had
been to lead the life of a scholar and that he had often
regretted that other interests and demands had called him
away from his favorite pursuit.

During the early years of his career as a minitser
Doctor Gunsaulus spent much time in study. He collected
a wonderful library, covering especially the fields of liter-
ature, history, and biography. He often told me how in
those earlier years he had spent the small sums he had
received for lecturing upon purchasing his favorite books.
It is not generally known that his wonderful collection
was purchased from him by Mr. P. D. Armour after his
breakdown in 1898 to help him defray the expenses of his
illness and that they are now a part of our Armour Insti-
tute Library. I remember his speaking of the fact that
now and then men would remark that he had been greatly
favored by fortunate circumstances and how he would
remind them of those early years when he had laid the
foundations of his remarkable career by faithful digging
and plodding. Later on he had little time for systematic
study but was able to draw upon the vast stores he accu-
mulated in his early manhood.

His learning was broad rather than deep. Nature had
endowed him with such marvelous gifts that he might

Vol. Xir, No. 4] EDITORIALS 265

have become as great a scholar as some of the greatest
German and Enghsh theologians, such as Harnack, Fred-
erick Robertson Smith, Lightfoot, or Westcott. He had
a marvelous memory. A mere glance at a printed page
was sufficient to imprint its contents upon his mind. I
have never met a man who had such power of intuition.
You needed only to faintly suggest a line of thought and
he had like a flsh of hghtning fathomed all its bearings.
He had such broad, catholic interests that nothing human
was foreign to him. He always went straight to the heart
of every question. Dry-as-dust learning was repulsive to
him. He loved to attack narrow prejudices. In history
and literature his reading was very comprehensive. He
cared little for fiction but in the great masterpieces of
thought he was thoroughly at home.

By George Lawrence Scherger.
Professor of History and Political Science, Armour In-
stitute.

THE FRIEND

"I had a friend."

What a world of tenderness that phrase unfolds, as
memory turns the scroll of years, filled with the acts of
unselfishness, kindness, and of love, by Frank W. Gun-
saulus.

A generation ago he came into our lives, not as a bene-
dition, but as a revolution.

In me and mine he stirred aspirations and desires be-
fore then dormant.

He knew, and he gave to us the desire to know also.

At thirty-one, five years my junior, he came a Prince
of Light.

Just recently through college training, and with a re-
tentive memory he had packed away wisdom from all the
past, and this he gave us freely.

Not as the pedant does, but as though it was our
thought he had acquired, and was simply using for our
benefit.

266 THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [May, 1921

How unselfish he was with all he had, time, talent, pos-
sessions.

Books he brought, and music,, poetry, tales, and on each
poured the wealth of his knowledge, experience and un-
derstanding, so that they flamed into divine fires.

If any trouble brewed, he discerned it and came to help.

Like all great natures, he had his own heights and
depths of feeling, and many nights we tramped the city
streets conferring together on his trouble or mine, until
the clouds broke, and his sense of humor cleared the air
that had been oppressive, and we parted with a new and
closer sense of kinship.

Upon inquiring more than once why he wore old
clothes, the response was "A clerical brother down state
needed the others to maintain his dignity."

Picture if you can a tall, alert, witty man, the very
epitome of enthusiasm, filled with eloquence, with learn-
ing,-and with song, telling us in the pulpit hour of the
joys of friendship, and then privileged to walk home with
him, to taste its sweetness.

To his friendship and interest, we feel we owe all that
is best in life, and great as he was, he was simple in taste,
kindly, thoughtful, and with no bitterness in his nature.

And how we loved and admired him. Great as he was

in intellect and learning, touched by the divine fire of

Genius, his heart was built in even a larger mould, and

in it we feel we had a secure place. ^^ -i- t

Frank E. Logan.

THE MAN.

Aside from the Church, School, Lecture Platform, Art
Gallery, and Museum, where he shone with such splendor,
Dr. Gunsaulus excelled in a large way in all the attributes
of a kindly and helpful neighbor, a sympathetic and affec-
tionate companion and a wise and thoughtful counselor.
He was easily approachable and his genial countenance
was an invitation to everyone to come to him. He was

Vol. XII, No. 4] EDITORIALS 267

probably known to and had spoken with as large a num-
ber of people as any man among us, excepting perhaps,
Col. Roosevelt, and that other great Commoner, Mr.
Bryan.

Dt. Gunsaulus had a particular knack of getting ac-
quainted with people who were in trouble: They inter-
ested him greatly, and incidentally kept him poor, for he
gave with lavish hand.

He added tremendously to the welfare and happiness
of the world by his own work, and even more was added
by others through his example and urging. His gracious
and generous expressions of appreciation and approval
were a sure and prompt reward for every effort. He had
a long memory for our graces and a merciful forget ful-
ness for our shortcomings.

He was an optimist. In this tattered and torn world of
ours any kind of an optimist is worth while, but there are
variations in values of optimists. We have the fixed op-
timist who is serene and placid and is sure that everything
will come out right and does not move to help; and we
have the fighting optimist, of which Dr. Gunsaulus was
a brilliant example, who far from sure that we can suc-
ceed, throws his whole soul and strength into the com-
bat, eats little, sleeps little, worries and works valiantly
until the battle is won.

Dr. Gunsaulus could have added to his many accom-
plishments had there been more months in the year and
more years in one man's life. A lover of God, he loved
all of His Creations and if on rare occasions he had to
say he "didn't know," it was with a look and tone of re-
gret, as though he had been lacking.

By B. E. Sunny,
President Bell Telephone Co.

268 THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [May, 1921

O CAPTAIN! MY CAPTAIN!

O Captain ! my Captain ! our fearful trip is done,

The ship has weather'd every rack, the prize we sought

is won.
The port is near, the bells I hear, the people all exulting.
While follow eyes the steady keel, the vessel grim and

daring ;

But O heart! heart! heart!
O the bleeding drops of red,

Where on the deck my Captain lies.
Fallen cold and dead.

O Captain ! my Captain ! rise up and hear the bells ;
Rise up — for you the flag is flung — for you the bugle

trills,
For you bouquets and ribbon'd wreaths — for you the

shores a-crowding,
For you they call the swaying mass, their eager faces

turning ;

Hear Captain ! dear father !
This arm beneath your head I

It is some dream that on the deck,
You've fallen cold and dead.

My Captain does not answer, his lips are pale and still.
My father does not feel my arm, he has no pulse nor will.
The ship is anchor'd safe and sound, its voyage closed and

done,
From fearful trip the victor ship comes in with object

won ;

Exult O shores, and ring O bells !
But I with mournful tread.

Walk the deck rny Captain lies.

Fallen cold and dead. — By Walt Whitman.

THE ARMOUR INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY BRANCH

OF THE
AMERICAN SOCIETY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS

Prof. G. F. Gebhardt . . . .Honorary Chairman

Charles T. Waker President

John P. Sanger Vice-President

Robt. W. Van Valzah Treasurer

William A. Heitner Secretary

The last meeting of the A. S. M. E. was held on March 23,
1921. Mr. Bradbury gave a very interesting talk in which some
of the factors justifying the "Special Theory of Relativity" were
considered. The equations for the "Lorentz Transformation,"
and for the addition of velocities were developed. The aspects of
the "General Theory" were also outlined in an elementary way.
Mr. Bradbury's excellent manner of address fully justified the
large audience he drew, which consisted of representatives of
all the Engineering Societies of the Institute.

This year has been the most successful one for the A. S. M. E.
since the period of the war. This was largely due to the rigid
adherence to the program adopted at the initial meeting.

The enthusiastic manner in which the Juniors participated in
the talks throughout the year predicts a very bright outlook for
next year.

W. A. Heitner, Secretary.

270 THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [May, 1921

ARMOUR INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY BRANCH
AMERICAN INSTITUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS

R. C. Malwitz Chairman

T. L. Albee Secretary

W. W. Pearce Treasurer

The past year has certainly been a most successful one for
the local branch of the A, I. E. E. With the one exception of
the First Smoker, when a speaker failed to appear, every plan
has been carried out with good results. Every meeting has been
well attended, and in every instance the audience has been well
repaid.

The American Institute of Electrical Engineers, in providing
for Branches such as this at Armour, has made it the main pur-
pose of these organizations to give students a broader view of
engineering work, and at the same time, to acquaint them with
the problems of moment and the men who solve them. Contact
with a national organization is the chief source of benefits along
this line, and this is furnished by speakers at local meetings, by
meetings with the Chicago Section, and by the published Pro-
ceedings of the Institute. Ranking with these in importance is
the training of the student members in speaking. A feature of
the meetings of the past year has been the remarkably able talks
by the Branch members, a large number of whom have spent
considerable time and trouble in preparing papers, for which
work they are to be sincerely thanked.

Professor Freeman and Professor Snow have put the Armour
Branch under deep obligations by their interest and assistance
thruout the year. Professor Freeman's talk on Character, given
at the first Smoker, was one of the features of the year, and
Professor Snow's paper on "Substations," presented at the meet-
ing of April 7, 192 1, was equally valuable in its line. The infor-
mation concerning the design and construction of substations was
greatly appreciated, especially by the Seniors.

The A. I. E. E. Smoker, held Feb. 25, was such a success in
every way, and was so thoroughly enjoyed by all attending, that
similar get-together meetings were immediately planned for later
dates. One of these was held on April 22, which satisfied all
expectations. The last meeting of the year will be held early in

Vol. XII, No. 4] ENGINEERING SOCIETIES 271

May, for the election of officers for the year 1921-1922. This
meeting will bring to a close one of the best seasons that the
Armour Institute Branch of the A. I, E. E. has known since
its founding in 1903. T. L. Albee, Secretary.

WESTERN SOCIETY OF ENGINEERS

Since the report in the last "Engineer" the Armour Branch of
the Western Society of Engineers has held three meetings. At
the first of these election of officers was held with the results as

follows : r "^tf- * i • " 1 1 tj '.

ij..«bf J

President R. F. Campbell

Vice-President H. A. Peterson

Treasurer T. Michels

Secretary E, M. Seaberg

Ass't. Sec'y V. Hamacek

Faculty Member, Board of

Managers Prof. M. B. Wells

At the next meeting talks were given by the retiring and in-
coming presidents. Retiring President Singer talked on the sub-
ject, "A Cultural Education versus a Technical Education." His
attempt to prove mathematically that the former was the more
valuable was somewhat too involved for the most of us, but his
views were interesting and appreciated.

Mr. Campbell, the incoming president, then made a few re-
marks on the status of the engineer in the British Empire and the
United States, followed by some suggestions from Prof. Wells.

At our last meeting, Mr. F. D. Avery, Bridge Maintenance
Engineer for the City of Chicago, gave a very interesting illus-
tratel lecture on his work in connection with the bridges of this
city. His ideas were interesting and should have proved valuable,
for he emphasized the fact that the maintenance of any structure
is too often forgotten during design. Although his views of ver-
tical shear undoubtedly startled us, our ideas concerning the
stopping of traffic while a bridge is being raised were broadened
and our appreciation of other difficulties of his position increased.
The attendance at this meeting was very good and the indica-
tions are that the year before us is to be one of progress for our
organization. E. M. Seaberg.

272 ENGINEERING SOCIETIES [May, 1921

ARMOUR CHEMICAL ENGINEERING SOCIETY

President Emil F. Winter

Vice-Pres J. W. McCaffrey-
Secretary W, J. Savoye

Treasurer H. W. Ahlbeck

The A. Ch. E. S. held one of the old-time live-wire meetings
on Tuesday, April 12, 192 1. It was a smoker held in the
Y, M. C. A. rooms of Chapin Hall and was well attended by
alumni, faculty and students. Many talks of interest on various
subjects of the chemical field were given by the alumni which
proved to be both instructive and entertaining. This being a
very informal and more or less sociable meeting, it was enjoyed
to the fullest extent by all. When the doughnuts and cider were
served it seemed as though all the students were in a food
analysis class.

It is hoped that another meeting of this type can be arranged
for, in the latter part of April and this, together with a farewell
banquet that is being planned for May will conclude the activities
of the Society for this year.

We thank the entertainment committee, the alumni and the
faculty for the interest shown in the society.

ARMOUR RADIO ASSOCIATION

E. A. Goodnow President

G. H. Kelley Vice-President

H. I. Hultgren Chief Operator

R. S. Kenrick Sec'y.-Treas.

As conclusive evidence of the stimulus given to radio by the
Armour Radio Association it may be stated that the membership
has steadily increased from twelve at the beginning of the year
up to twenty-two at the present writing. Such a phenomenal
increase in membership has never been duplicated in the history
of the asociation. The attendance at the meetings has been satis-
factory and the Sophomores have shown an interest in radio
which we hope can be encouraged.

At the eighth regular meeting, held in the Physics Lecture
Room, on March 9, 1921, the chief business before the associa-

Vol. XII, No. 4] ENGINEERING SOCIETIES 273

tion was the election of a new vice-president to fill the vacancy
created by the absence of L. V. Cooley who has left school. Mr.
George H. Kelley was unanimously elected to this office by the
quorum of members present.

On March 4, 192 1 the radio men at the Institute decided that
they would make a big news scoop by copying President Hard-
ing's inaugural address by radio, using the receiving station at
the Institute. Typewritten bulletins were to be pasted upon the
bulletin board as sections of the address came in "hot off the
ether." The two most competent operators in the association
(Chief Operator Hultgren and A. R. Mehrhof) were delegated
to don the head pieces and translate the "ethereal Greek." Prompt-
ly at 11 :oo A. M. (Central Time) the big transatlantic station at
Tuckerton N. J. (WGG) began calling the famous German
station at Nauen, stating that it had a message for the press
correspondent located at a certain hotel in Berlin. The operator
at Tuckerton then proceeded with the President's inaugu(ral
address. He was kind enough to state that "all interested may
copy," although he neglected to state how he could prevent any
one from copying the message if they so desired. The big sur-
prise came, however, when someone rushed in the room with an
early afternoon edition of a local paper, containing the entire
address of the President, whereas up to that moment only a
meagre fraction had been received via radio. It finally dawned
upon us that the newspapers had received copies of the presiden-
tial address several days before publication and then released
the news at the proper time. The novelty "scoop" was completely
lost and some of the men were inclined to be bitter toward the
newspaper men because of their enterprising tactics.

The Association now boasts an efficient continuous-wave trans-
mitter in place of the old spark set which was completed a year
ago. The "nerve center" of the new transmitter is a Type P
General Electric Pliatron vacuum tube. The plate potential for
this power tube is furnished by a 1500 volt D. C. Crocker-
Wheeler motor-generator set. The maximum radiation is about
2.5 amperes at a wave length of 345 meters. The reports on re-
ception of our new station have been very favorable, many
replying that our signals have been "very QSA".

The Association will also soon be able to boast of an efficient
radio telephone transmitter as the result of the labors of one of

274 ENGINEERING SOCIETIES [May, 1921

our members, W. W. Pearce, who is working upon this new
station as a subject for his senior thesis.

Both long and short wave receiving sets are now in satisfactory
operation, having a receiving radius of over three thousand miles.

The radio fraternity at Armour has nearly completed another
year of progress and activity; much has been done but more re-
mains to be done and it is up to the members next fall to carry
on this interesting work.

Ralph Kenrick, Secretary.

GOOD SCHOLARSHIP IN COLLEGE AND EMINENCE
IN ENGINEERING

A close correspondence between good scholarship in college
and eminence in engineering is shown in an investigation made
under the auspices of the American Association of Collegiate
Registrars by Prof. Raymond Walters of Lehigh University who
presents a report in the current issue of "School and Society."
It was found that of 392 distinguished engineers graduated at 75
technical schools, 182 or 46.4 per cent, stood in the highest fifth
of their class scholastically upon graduation, 109 or 27.8 per
cent stood in the second highest fifth, ']2 or 18.3 per cent in the
middle fifth, 14 or 3.6 per cent in the next to lowest fifth, and
15 or 3.8 per cent in the lowest fifth. Figures for a group of
189 alumni of five eastern engineering schools were somewhat
different in the upper classes, the second highest scholastic fifth
having the largest percentage. In all groupings of the eminent
engineers there were less than 4 per cent in each of the two low-
st scholastic fifths. Of 730 names on the Registrar's Associa-
tion list of distinguished engineers, practically 80 per cent were
found to be collegiate graduates, 16 per cent men of secondary
school education, and less than 5 per cent men who started in
college but did not finish. The arbitrary basis of eminence in
this study of a professional group was taken to be the holding
of office, membership, in important committees, and service as
representatives of the four "founder" engineering societies, civil,
mechanical, electrical, and mining and metallurgy, for five years,
1915-1919. — Engineering and Contracting, 3-16-21.

IIIIIIIJIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIillirilllllllllllllllllllllltlllllllMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIlllllllllllllIIIIIIIIIIIIU

I COLLEGE NOTES |

iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiTi

DEAN RAYMOND ACTING PRESIDENT

On Monday, March 2.y, an assembly was held in the Armour
Mission. Here Mr. George S. Allison, secretary to the Board
of Trustees, read a letter from the Board appointing Dean H. M.
Raymond Acting President of the Institute for the remainder of
the college year. The announcement was greeted with much ap-
plause. Dean Raymond then spoke of the problems confronting
the Institute, and of the spirit in which they must be met. Dean
Monin spoke for the student body and for the faculty, assuring
Dean Raymond of the hearty support and cooperation of all.

GRADUATION EXERCISES

The Senior Class announces that the Baccalaureate Sermon will
be delivered Sunday, May 29th, at Central Church, 220 S. Mich-
igan Ave., by Dr. Frederick F. Shannon.

The Commencement Exercises will be held in the Armour
Mission on Thursday evening, June 2nd. Dr. John Timothy
Stone, pastor of the Fourth Presbyterian Church, Chicago, will
deliver the commencement address. His subject will be "Opera-
tion and Cooperation."

All students and their friends are cordially invited to attend
these exercises.

NO THESES IN 1922

At a meeting of the Executive Council and the heads of the
departments, it was decided to do away with the undergraduate
theses, beginning with 1922. This work will be supplemented by
special experimental problems requiring the same amount of time
as formerly devoted to thesis work.

276 THE ARMOUR ENGINEER [May, 1921

SENIOR THESES IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

EDWARD MLTNDT

Sand and 'Gravel Washing Plants.

WILLIAM K. LYON, Jr.

GEORGE W. PETERSON

Comparative Designs of the Gravity and Ambursen Dams.

HERBERT A. MANN

History of the Development of the Suspension Cable Bridge.

DERWOOD CHASE

Study of the Building Problems of the Badger Basket Company
of Burlington, Iowa.

SIDNEY J. BURKE

Design of a Reinforced Concrete Chimney.
LEE H. ROSBACK

Design of a Sewer and Water System for Kimberly, Wisconsin.

ROY M. SINGER

Effect of Quantity of Water on the Strength of Various Port-
land Cement Mortars.

ABRAHAM APPLEBAUM

Secondary Stresses in a 112 foot Pony Truss.

EUGENE M. MATSON

Adaptability of Reinforced Concrete for Oil Storage Purposes,
and the Design of a Reinforced Concrete Oil Storage Tank.

iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiii

I ALUMNI NOTES |

iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiJiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiTii

A meeting of the Officers and Board of Governors of the
Alumni Association was held on Friday, March 22, at the
Great Northern Grill. At this meeting W. D. Matthews, R. B.
Harris, and W. S. Oberfelder were appointed to draw up a set
of resolutions to be sent to the family of our late president.
Dr. Frank W. Gunsaulus. These men met the following day
and prepared and sent the resolutions.

A committee consisting of W. D. Matthews, A, S. Alschuier,
R. M. Henderson, F. S. HeuchHng, C. T. Malcolmson, and B. S.
Carr was appointed to make plans for a permanent memorial
for Dr. Gunsaulus. These plans will be ready for presentation
to the Alumni Association at its spring meeting in May.

W. A. Kellner, E. H. Freeman, and L. E. Davies were ap-
pointed to make arrangements for the spring banquet, and E.
O. Griffenhagen, F. M. DeBeers, A. H. Goodhue, L. W. Bunge,
and R. O. Joslyn were appointed as a nominating committee.

NEW ADDRESSES

Harry G. Dekker, 09, has been appointed an instructor in
chemistry at Calvin College, Grand Rapids, Mich.

Frederick L. Brewer, Jr.. '15, is now sales engineer with
the Paine, Webber Co., Rookery Bldg. Chicago.

Raymond O. Joslyn and Marcus C. Veremis, both of '19, who
upon graduation went to the General Electric Co. at Schenec-
tady, N. Y., have returned and are working in the Chicago of-
fices of the same company. ,

J. Irving Prest, "18. has returned to Chicago from Seattle, and
is now located at the McCormick Works of the International
Harvester Co.

Dan M. Stump, '13. is factor}' superintendent for the Ad Pho-
toscope Co. of Chicago.

Orvalle C. Badger, '13, is now engineer in the Bridge De-
partment of the A. T. & S. F. Ry. in Chicago.

2'j'^ THE. ARMOUR ENGINEER [May, 1921

G. F. Wetzel, '15, has left the F. S. Betz Co. to become Pro-
duction Engineer in the Factory Division of Montgomery Ward
& Co.

Bela de Remanoczy, '19, has returned to Chicago after spend-
ing some time in Budapest. Hungary.

Herbert \\". Martin. '10, formerly with the Dunbar Mfg. Co.,
has been made manager of the Engineering Dept. of the V. G.
Trueblood Co., Chicago.

OBITUARY

Theodore C. Oehne. 08 — Deceased.

ODE TO EFFICIENCY

You were the type of man of which

The present offers all too few.
You thrust aside rewards more rich

To do the work you chose to do.
Your palm had not the golden itch ;

There was no dollar-mark on you.

You laid your course, and held it true,

Xor followed any narrow plan.
You held this working world in view.

Yet kept a little in the \an.
And any one who knew you knew

You were the measure of a man.

Your brain was clear, your brow was calm,

You planned your work, and kept your course.

You met men with a comrade's palm ;

Your heart and hand knew no divorce.

In you there was a sort of balm,
A power rather than a force.

You flew your flag for those who drown,
You fought the undertow beneath ;

You sought the service, not the crown;

You earned, but never asked, the wreath.

And when the last wave beat you down,
You gripped your colors in your teeth.

Edmund Vance Cooke.

ALPHABETICAL INDEX OF ADVERTISERS.

Page

Allis-Chalmcrs Mfg. Co . 4

Armour Institute of Technology 1

Armour & Co 8

Besly & Company, Chas. H ■ 12

Banning & Banning • 12

Brady Foundrj' Co., James A 5

Christensen School of Popular Music 7

Clarke-McElroy Publishing Co • 14

Engineering Agency 10

General Electric Go , . . 2

Hansell-Elcock Co 7

Hills, Chas. W 4

Jointless Fire Brick Co. . ■ 13

Lufkin Rule Co - 14

Magie Bros 4

Roebling's Sons, Co., John A 6

Robinson & Co., Dwight P 7

Swenson Evaporating Co • 14

U. S. Ball Bearing Co • 11

Western Electric Co • 3

Westinghouse Electric & Alfg. Co 9

Wilson Corporation, J. G. . . • 12

°\

^'Some college men
would call me a failure"

I GOT through in 191+. and I'm not
president of my company yet." con-
fessed the old grad. "We have a pres-
ident, and what's more he seems pretty
healthy.

"Now I see that I was expecting things
to happen too quickly. Ambition is right
and proper, but a man can't qualify as
boss of the whole works till he gets a
grip on the thousand and one details of
his business. And that takes time and
hard licks and maybe some hard knocks.

"But all this is nothing to get down-
hearted over. You'll come through these
early years of training all right, as I did,
if you have picked the right work and
are in it heart and soul.

"At that, we engineers are lucky. If
j"OU don't believe it ask any lawyer or
doctor what his first five- years were like.

"That's the way I reasoned it out. and
I decided to stick. I liad chosen engineer-
ing not as a makeshift job. but as a life
work that any man could be prcud of.
And if you can judge the future of this
profession by its past and present, here's
a game that is certainly worth the candle.

"So, while we are learning the ropes
in our twenties let's keep an ej^e to our
thirties and forties and fifties, when — if
we've learned well enough — we will get
our chance at the big problems we'd like
to tackle now."

The electrical industry needs men who
can see far and think straight.

^esterm Electric Company

About the time that Marconi was first
getting himself tatked about in America,
groups of college men were starting at the
bottom with this Company. Today many
of these are its officials and executives.

When writing to Advertisera, please mention THE ARMOUR ENGINEER

—3—

WILLIAM A. MAGIE FRANK O. MAGIE %

President JOHN Q. MAGIE Treasurer |

Secretary *

TELEPHONE MAIN 1074-1075 *

MAGIE BROTHERS I

CYLINDER, ENGINE AND DYNAMO OILS |

Cup Greases, Boiler Compound, Cotton Waste 4

110-112 S. CLINTON STREET CHICAGO |

Established 1887 %

»^^V^^-^ ^4 *^4 -

Focusing All Responsibility
Upon One Manufacturer

MILLS and power plants completely equipped with AUis-
Chalmers products have the entire responsibility for sat-
isfactory operation centered in one manufacturing concern.
Designed and built under the direct supervision of a single
staff of engineers, all parts of an AUis-Chalmers plant are
correlated— the entire equipment forming a unit unsur-
passed for operating efficiency and economy.

Our Engineers are always pleased to be consulted.

ALLIS-CHALMERS PRODUCTS

Air Brakes
Air Compressors
Cement Machinery
iCondensers
Crnshing Machinery
Electrical Machinery
Electric Hoists
Farm Tractors

Flour 3IiH Machinery
Forgings
Gas Engines
Hydraulic Turbines
Metallurgical 3Iach'nry
.Mining Machinery
Oil Engines
Perforated Metals

Pumping 3Iachinery
Reciprocating Pumps
•Saw Mill Machinery
Steam Engines
Steam Hoists
Steam Turbines
Timber Treating and
Preserving Machinery

I CHARLES W. HILLS |

I PATENT, COPYRIGHT, TRADE j

I MARK and CORPORATION LAW |

I Electrical, Mechanical and Chemical Engineers |

1 1523-33 Monadnock Block

Chicago I

iiiiiiHiiitiiimiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiininiiiiiiiiiiiniiHiiiHiiiiimiiiminitniiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiinuiiiuiiiiiu^

When writing to Advertisers, please mention THE ARMOUR ENGINEER

The above illustration shows three of the eighteen

Harrington Stokers

recently installed by the municipal lighting company
of a large eastern city.

The installation of the HARRINGTON STOKER
means a distinct

Saving of Coal

because the HARRINGTON STOKER is the only
stoker which will bum any kind of coal, coke breeze,
lignite, bituminous, and washer refuse — with practi-
cally no waste.

Write for "Twelve Fuel Facts'' the
story of the HARRIXGTON STOKER.

THE JAMES A. BRADY

FOUNDRY COMPANY

4500 South Western Blvd. Chicago, Illinois

When writing to Advertiserg, please mention THE ARMOUR ENGINEER

ROEBLING WIRE ROPE

FOR ENGINEERING

JOHN A. ROEBLING'S SONS CO.

TRENTON, N. J.
165 West Lake Street Chicago, III.

When writing to Advertisers, please mention THE ARMOUR ENGINEER

Hansell-Elcock
Company

Foundry

STRUCTURAL STEEL, ORNA-
MENTAL IRON WORK, FIRE
ESCAPES, STEEL DOORS,
STAIRS, GRAY IRON CAST-

llNvib.

Office and Works:

Archer and Normal Avenues,

23rd PI., Canal and 24th Sts.

CHICAGC

ANYONE CAN LEARN

RAGTIME
JAZZ

PIANO PLAYING

OwiGHT P. Robinson & Company

Engineers and Constructors

^*lij^glg^^^

We teach adult be-
ginners
IN 20 LESSONS

The simplest and
most instructive
course of music les-
sons ever written for
beginners.

Advanced course for
players. Our schools are
under the personal super-
vision of Axel C'hristen-
sen, Vaudeville's"Czar of
Ragrtime."

Chrlstensen School
of Popular Music

Jackson Blvd.

Phone Harrison 5669
for Free Booklet.

When writing: to Advertisers, please mention THE ARMOUR ENGINEER

—7—

Here are the Basic Principles
of the Armour Business Policy

To serve producers through a daily cash mar-
ket affording the best prices obtainable under
the free and unrestricted operation of the law
of supply and demand, and to otherwise aid
them in development of better agriculture.

To serve employees by oflFering steady employ-
ment, desirable environment and opportunity
for material progress.

To serve retailers by affording dependable sup-
plies of readily marketable commodities.

To serve consumers everywhere by making
always available the food products of farms
and ranches, safeguarded as to purity and dis-
tributed so as to avert famine and glutted mar-
kets.

To serve our stockholders by earning for them
a satisfactory and regular return on their in-
vestment.

To so conduct our business that all its ener-
gies and possibilities shall be completely util-
ized without waste of time, effort or material.

ARMOUR^" COMPANY

CHICAGO

When writing: to Advertisers, please mention THE; ARMOUR ENOII<£iBB

—8—

GEO. WESTING HOL "^i:

the founder of I he
WestinghoHse ind t > t

■\S.

i j^S

The Vision of This Man

Gave America Alternating Current

Thirty-odd years ago state legis-
latures were being importuned to
prohibit the distribution of alter-
nating current on the pretense
that it vas dangerous. Today
legislatures are asked only to com-
pel its makers to distribute it more
widely and sell it more cheaply.

Times have changed since West-
Inghouse bought the Gaulard and
Gibbs Transformer patents, and
brought Alternating Current to
America. This was the necessary
preliminan,' step to the tremendous
developments that Alternating
Current, once known as "West-
inghouse Current," has made pos-
sible.

To eliminate all the alternating
systems and apparatus that are in
use everywhere today would set
this country back thirty years;
but there was a time when all the
resources and courage that.West-
inghouse could command were re-
quired to withstand the bitter

opposition of those who fostered
direct current instead. The wliole
Electrical Industry now recognizes
that there is a proper field for each
system, but it was all or nothing
in the late '80's, when the ques-
tion was first raised.

The original alternating current
system was hardly practicable,
even for lighting purposes. From
it, however, have resulted all the
modern applications of the alter-
nating current system, the many
metliods and devices for transmit-
ting current at high voltages and
stepping it down to lower pres-
sures by transformers located in
connection with the consuming
apparatus, whether in the home,
in industry, or for the Public
Service.

The foresight, the engineering
genius, and the courage of West-
inghouse fatliered the evolution
of Alternating Current, one of
the greatest modern commodities.

Westinghouse

Wh«B writlnK to AdTertisers, pIe»Be mention THb ARMOUR BNGINKBR

Twenty- eighth Year

The

Engineering
Agency

INCORPORATED

Technical Employment

1662 Monadnock Block
Chicago

Absolutely No Advance Fee of
Any Kind Whatsoever

See Us for Positions in

APPRAISALS

METALLURGY

ENGINEERING

CONTRACTING

MANUFACTURING

ARCHITECTURE

CHEMISTRY TEACHING

MINING SALES

Harrison 4056

When writing to Advertisers, please mention THE ARMOUR ENGINEER

—10—

Correct Bearing Design

In the design of a radial ball bearing race con-
tour, race depth, and the method of introducing
the balls between the two rings and the number
and size of balls, largely determine the service the
bearing will give.

Long experience has taught that the most efficient
bearing has a race groove radius equal to 52%
of the ball diameter combined with a race depth
commensurate with the size of the ball pro-
viding necessary capacity.

The consideration of these factors in connection
with a high quality of material and skilled work-
manship has enabled us to make radial bearings
which will safely carry a great load for a long
period of time.

Much useful bearing information is contained in
these special pamphlets : Lubrication of Ball
Bearing^ ; Limits and Allowances on Shafts and
Housings ; Calculating Bearing Loads ; Inter-
changeable sizes of Strom Bearings.

Write for them

The U. S. Ball Bearing Mfg. Company

(Conrad Patent Licensee)
4560 Palmer Street, Chicago, 111.

When writing to Advertisers, please mention THE ARMOUR BNOINKBR

—11—

*5*vVvVvvv*^Vvv^*J**5*^^*I**5*****I*****I**I**I**Z^

BANNING & BANNING

COUNSELORS-AT-LAW
Patent, Trade Mark and Copyright Causes

THE MARQUETTE BUILDING

Chicago Illinois

THO-MAS A. BANNING, JR.

♦t«»l»*If'l»»S ♦t*»t* 't**!' ►I" <«

Machinists, Mill and
Railroad Supplies

^ Brass, Copper, Bronzy and
Nickel Silver

BESLY GRINDERS

BESLY TAPS

The leading Engineering
Colleges and Institutes
have found Besly Quality
and Service a Decisive fac-
tor.

CHAS. H. BESLY & COMPANY

118-124 N. Clinton St., Chicago, lU.

Wilson Rolling Steel Doors
Standard for 45 Years

The J. G. WILSON CORPORATION

8 West 40th Street, New York

Offices in Principal Cities.

When writing to Advertisers, please mention THE ARMOUK EXGINEEK

—12—

FURNACE LINING

This is the material that makes furnace
linings air-tight. No joints where clinkers
may stick and thus start deterioration; no
mortar to fall out. PLIBRICO is a jointless
furnace lining, easily installed by any work-
man who can use a trowel.

PLIBRICO is shipped only in steel con-
tainers of distinctive appearance, as shown
below (and above). Warehouse stocks
carried in all principal cities.

Write for book Al 6 on Furnace Lining.

1131 CLAY ST., CHICAGO, ILL.

When writing to Advertisers, please mention THE AKMOUR ENGINEER

—13—

VF/C/N

"Challenge" "Reliable"

"Engineers" and "Wolverine"

TAPES

For years most favorably known
Accurate — Dependable All Ways

the/ufmnPuleCo. ^^^ ^^"'^

^ * " *^ Windsor,

SAGINAW, MICH. Canada

Clarke-McElroy
Publishing Co.

Publishers and Printers

6219 Cottage Grove Ave. Midway 3935

WE PRINT THE ARMOUR ENGINEER

Swenson Evaporator Company

ENGINEERS AND MANUFACTURERS

Established 1889

SINGLE AND MULTIPLE EFFECT EVAPORATORS
BEET SUGAR AND CHEMICAL PULP MACHINERY

945 Monadnock Building F. M. de Beers, Pres.

Chicago, 111. P. B. Sadtler, V.-Pres.

When writing to Advertisers, please mention THE ARMOUR EXGINE3R

Statement of ownership, management, circulation, etc., of
THE ARMOUR ENGINEER, published quarterly at Chicaago,
111., required by an Act of Congress, August 24, 1919.

Editor — John P. Sanger, 836 Wilson Ave., Chicago, 111.

Managing Editor — Spenser N. Havlick, 422 Garheld Ave.,
Chicago, 111.

Business Manager — Fletcher E. Hayden. 5249 Calumet Ave.,
Chicago, 111.

Associate Business Manager — Emil F. Winter, 3914 Greenview
Ave., Chicago, 111.

Publisher — The College of Engineering, Armour Institute of
Technology, Chicago, 111.

Owner — The College of Engineering, Armour Institute of
Technology. Chicago, 111.

Fletcher E. Hayden,

Business Manager.

Sworn to and subscribed before me this 14th day of March,
1921.

George S. Allison,

Notary Public.
Chicago, March 14. 1921.
(Notary Seal)

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