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HANDBOOK   TO   CHRISTIAN 

AXD 

ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 


PART  I. 
THE   CHRISTIAN    MONUMENTS   OF   ROME 

PART  II. 
THE   LITURGY   IN    ROME 


T* 


HANDBOOK    TO    CHRISTIAN 

AND 

ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 


BY 

M.    A.    R.    TUKER 

AND 

HOPE   MALLESON 

^art  en. 
MONASTICISM    IN    ROME 

Part  EF. 
ECCLESIASTICAL    ROME 

ILLUSTRATED 


THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY 

LONDON:   ADAM  AND  CHARLES  BLACK 
1900 

All  rights  reserved 


Copyright,  1899, 
By  the  MACMILLAN  COMPANY. 


J.  S.  Cushing  &  Co.  -  Berwick  S:  Smith 
Norwood  Muss.  U.S.A. 


ERRATA 

Page  33.  ^^st  line,  for  pp.  92,  175,  read  pp.  92,  176  ; 
for  pp.  175,  197,  read  pp.  176,  196. 

Page  60,  first  line  of  note,  read  Pt.  IV.,  p.  482  ;  last 
line  of  note,  for  p.  482,  read  p.  217. 

Page  212,  third  line  of  notes,  for  pp.  86-7,  read  p.  86. 

Page  215,  line  11,  insert  ancient  before  Holy  ;  line  12, 
for  possessed,  read  held. 

Page  221,  line  4,  for  p.  246,  read  p.  2 89  ;  line  10, 
for  3,  read  2. 

Page  253,  line  21,  fon  College,  read  College. 

Page  356,  line  12,  for  officers,  read  Serjeants. 

Page  499,  line  27,  for  Sagristia,  read  Sagrestia ;  second 
hne  from  bottom,  for  Piazzo,  read  Piazza. 

Page  501,  line  21,  for  adopt,  read  adapt. 

Page  508,  line  3  of  note,  for  dispositonis,  read  dis- 
positionis. 

Page  521,  second  line  of  note,  for  De  Velandis  Vir- 
giniiin,  read  De  Virginibiis  velandis. 

Page  547,  first  line  of  third  note,  for  Papcf,  rtzid  Papa. 

Page  555,  line  20,  date  329-389,  before  Gregory. 

Page  556,  line  13,  for  is  read  its. 


TABLE    OF   CONTENTS, 

PART   III. 

CHAPTER   I. 

ORIGIN    OF    MONASTICISM. 

PAGE 

Asceticism  —  causes  within  the  Church  —  causes  without  — 
Theiapeut;\; — the  solitaries  and  anchorites  —  life  in  the 
desert  —  the  penitents  —  the  Stylitai  —  cenobitism  — 
spread  of  monasticism  —  mpnks  as  a  lay  body  —  Virginity 

—  the  Roman  matron  —  Athanasius  —  Reception  of  mo- 
nasticism in  Rome  —  Marcella  —  Jerome  —  Early  monas- 
ticism in  the  West  —  S.Martin  of  Tours  —  Early  Rules 

—  First  houses  in  Rome  —  double  monasteries  • — •  dress 
of  monks  —  names  for  monks  —  vows  —  enclosure  — 
property  and  dowry  —  government  of  Orders  —  number 
of  Religious  houses  in  Rome  — style  and  titles  of  monks 

—  number  of  monastic  Rules  ..,..,   1-5 1 

CHAPTER  H. 


Benedict  and  the  Benedictines:  —  The  monastery, 
how  built  and  governed  —  Rule  of  S.  Basil  —  Basilians 
and  Antonians  —  the  Rule  of  S.  Benedict  —  the  noviciate 
—  lay  brethren  —  oblates  —  Greatness  of  the  Benedic- 
tines —  Benedictine  nuns  —  Benedictine  canonesses  — 
the  laiis  perennis  —  The  Black  Benedictines  —  Branches 


TABLE    OF  CONTENTS 


of  the  Benedictines :  Cluny,  Cistercians,  Camaklolesc, 
Valloml:)rosans,  Carthusians,  Sylvestrians,  Olivetans,  Ob- 
lates  of  S.  Francesca  Romana,  Trappists,  Bridgettines  — 
Extinct  Benedictine  Congregations  —  Saints  of  the  Order 
and  their  Emblems.  Consecration  of  an  abbat  and  ab- 
bess—  profession  of  nun  and  monk  .         .  .        52-139 

CHAPTER   III. 

FRIARS. 

The  Mendicant  Orders:  — S.  Francis  and  the  Franciscans 
—  S.  Dominic  and  the  Dominicans  —  S.  Theresa  and  the 
Carmehtes^ — -The  Servites  —  The  Minimites — Fratelli 
della  Penitenza —  Hospitallers  of  S.  John  of  God    .      140-202 

CHAPTER   IV. 


AuGUSTiNiAN  Canons  and  Augustinian  Friars  :  —  Ma- 
tricularii  — the  clergy  in  the  bishop's  house  —  Augustine 
and  Eusebius  of  Vercelli  —  Chrodegang  —  Chapter  of 
Aix-la-Chapelle  —  Yvo  of  Chartres  —  canonesses  —  Con- 
gregations of  Regular  Canons  —  Habit  of  canons  —  Au- 
gustinian Hermits  —  Augustinian  Nuns  —  Rule  of  S. 
Augustine  —  S.  Jean  de  Matha  and  the  Trinitarians  —  S. 
Peter  Nolasco  and  the  Order  of  Ransom  —  Order  o 
S.  John  of  Jerusalem,  or  of  Malta  —  Hermits  of  S.  Jerome 
—  of  S.  Paul  the  First  Hermit — Romites  of  S.  John 
Baptist  —  Oblales 203-248 

CHAPTER  V. 
Section   I 

THE   sisters    of   CHARITY. 

The  Coming  of  the  Sisters  of  Charity  :  —  Sisters  of 
Charity  of  S.  Vincent  de  Paul  —  Mary  Ward  and  the  In- 
stitute   of   Mary  —  Filles    de    la    Sagesse — the    Petites 


TABLE    OF  CONTENTS 


Sceurs  des  Fauvres  —  Bon  Secours  de  Troves  —  Sisters 
of  Charity  in  Rome  —  Nursing  Sisterhoods — Teaching 
Sisterhoods  —  Missionary  Sisterhoods  —  Congregations 
following  the  Jesuit  Rule  —  semi-enclosed  Congregations 

—  dress  of  the  active  charitable  Congregations         .      249-294 

Section  II. 

CLERKS    REGULAR. 

Theatines  —  Somaschi  —  Barnabites  —  Jesuits  —  Clerks  M inor 

—  Ministers  of  the  Infirm  —  Qerks  of  the  Mother  of  God 
and  of  Pious  Schools  —  Ecclesiastical  Congregations  — 
Religious  Institutes.  Missionary  work.  Confraterni- 
ties        294-329 


PART    IV. 
CHAPTER   I. 

THE   rOPE. 

The  titles,  dress,  and  insignia  of  the  pope  —  sedia  gestatoria 
—  state  carriages  —  cavalcata  —  papal  orders  and  titles 
of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire  —  Peter's  pence  —  Law  of 
Guarantees  —  Pope's  Court  and  Household  —  papal 
troops  —  diplomatic  corps  —  Xuncio  —  Legate  —  papal 
offices  of  State  —  Bull  —  brief —  encyclical  —  vicariate  of 
Rome  —  palatine  offices 333-363 

CHAPTER    II. 

PAPAL   CEREMONIES. 

Election  of  the  popes  —  Conclave,  history  and  rules  of  — 
funeral  of  the  pope  —  ordination  of  the  pope  —  Consis- 
tory—  cappella  papale  —  beatification  and  canonisation, 
process  and  ceremony  —  the  Roman  Carnival  .      364-389 


TABLE    OF   CONTENTS 


CHAPTER   IIL 


PAPAL   PALACES, 


Vatican  palace  —  Sistina  —  Paolina  —  Chapel  of  S.  Lorenzo 
—  Borgia  apartment  —  Stanze  of  Raphael  —  Museums  — 
Vatican  library  —  Archives  —  Mint  —  Pope's  gardens  — 
Roman  liljraries,  Collegio  Romano,  Alessandrina,  Casa- 
tenense,  Angelica,  Vallicelliana — Papal  palaces  and 
villas  —  Dataria  —  Cancelleria  —  Castel  Gandolfo    .      390-444 


CHAPTER    IV. 

CARDINALS. 

Cartlinals,  their  origin,  their  titular  churches,  dress,  ceremo- 
nial regarding,  the  three  grades  of  cardinals,  list  of  car- 
dinals —  Sacred  congregations,  Incjuisition,  Index,  etc.  — 
Patriarchates  —  Bishops  —  titular  Bishops  —  episcopal 
insignia  and  dress  —  visit  ad  limijia  —  Prelates  and 
Monsignori  —  Canons  —  Priests  —  origin  of  ecclesiastical 
dress  —  style  and  titles  of  ecclesiastics  —  Seminaries  and 
seminarists       „..,....      445-499 


CHAPTER   V. 

ECCLESIASTICAL   OKDEUS. 

Seven  orders  of  the  Hierarchy  —  origin  of  titles  episcopus, 
presbyter,  etc.  —  Office  of  the  bishop  —  of  the  presbyter 
—  of  the  deacon  —  of  the  widow  and  deaconess  —  of  the 
sub-deacon  —  of  the  acolyte  —  of  the  lector  —  of  the  exor 
cist  —  of  the  ostiarius  —  chorepiscopi  —  celibacy  —  eccle- 
siastical endowments  and  immunities        .         .         .      5°°~535 


TABLE    OF  COXTENTS  ix 

APPENDIX. 

PACE 

List  of  the  Popes  and  anti-popes  —  Arms  of  the  Popes  — 
List  of  the  Fathers  and  Doctors  of  the  Church  —  Coun- 
cils —  Pontifical  Academies  —  Roman  books :  —  Liber 
Pontificalis,  Sacramentaries,  Ordo  Romanus,  Pontificale  . 

536-562 


LIST   OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 


COLOURED   ILLUSTRATIONS. 
Printed  separately  from  the  Text. 

PLATE 

I.     Benedictine  in  the  Cuculla,  Benedictine,  Cistercian 
II.     Camaldolese,  Carthusian 

III.  Poor  Clare,   Franciscan    Minor,    Franciscan   Conve 

Capuchin      .... 

IV.  Dominican,  Carmelite 
V.     Franciscan  Tertiary,  Servite 

VI.     Canoness  of  the  Lateran  . 
Vn.     Augustinian  Romite,  Trinitarian 
VIII.     Sister  of  Charily  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul    . 
IX.     Petite    Sceur   des   Pauvres,  Passionist,  Pere   Blanc, 
cettino  ....... 


ntual 


Ground  Plan  of  the  Vatican  Palace 


FACING    PAGE 
92 

108 


Con 


158 
176 
196 
212 
225 
251 

261 
442 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 
Printed  in  the  Text. 

PAGE 

Diagram  of  the  Abbey  of  St.  Gall 55 

Carthusian  Cell "' 

Badges  of  the  Religious  Orders I37~'39 

Seal  of  the  Sede  Vacante 372 

Cardinal's  Hat  and  Shield 449 

Badge  of  a  Chapter  of  Canons      .......     4^4 

Arms  of  the  Popes 549-554 


PART    III. 

MONASTICIS^I   IN    ROME. 


PART    III. 
MONASTICISM   IN    ROME. 


CHAPTER   I. 

ORIGIN  OF  MONASTICISM. 

Asceticism — causes  within  the  Church  —  causes  without —  Thera- 
peutcE —  the  solitaries  and  anchorites —  life  in  the  desert —  the 
penitents  —  the  Stylitai  —  cenohitism  —  spread  of  Monasticism  — 
fnonks  as  a  lay  body —  Virginit)'^  —  the  Roman  Matron  —  Athana- 
sius —  reception  of  Monasticism  in  Rome —  Marcella — Jerome 
—  early  monasticism  in  the  West —  S.  Martin  of  Tours  —  early 
Rules  — first  houses  in  Rome  —  Double  monasteries  —  Dress  of 
monks  —  names  for  monks  —  vows  —  enclosure — property  and 
dowry  — government  of  Orders  —  number  of  Religious  houses  in 
Rome  —  style  and  titles  of  monks  —  number  of  monastic  Rules. 

Though  monasticism  proper  does  not  make  its  appear- 
ance till  the  IV.  century  of  our  era,  it  was  the  outcome  of 
a  still  earlier  form  of  Christian  dedication,  anchoritism  ; 
which  again  had  its  prototype  in  the  asceticism  common 
to  all  religious  philosophies. 

Asceticism,  uo-KT/crt?,  [exercise,  the  exercising  oneself  in  Asceticism, 
any  kind  of  discipline]  a  word  by  the  in.  century  denot- 
ing 7noral  discipline  only,  existed  from  the  first  among 
Christians  :  the  Christians  as  regarded  the  world  around 
them  were  ascetics,  men  who  followed  the  rule  expressed 
so  well  by  S.  Bernard  iioo  years  later  in  the  words  sits- 
tine,  abstine,  who  for  the  sake  of  a  greater  good  and 
because  of  a  clearer  light  both  bore  and  abstained  from 


CHRISTIAN  AND   ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 


Employ- 
ment of 
the  term 
"  ascetic' 


Causes 
within  the 
Church. 


many  things.  Clement  of  Alexandria,  while  representing 
Christianity  itself  as  an  asceticism,  mentions  the  '  ascet- 
ics '  as  those  "more  elect  than  the  elect."  He  terms  the 
Patriarch  Jacob  an  ascetic.  Cyril  of  Jerusalem  apphes 
the  term  to  the  prophetess  Anna  and  those  like  her; 
Epiphanius  to  Marcion  who  abstained  from  marriage, 
Jerome  to  one  who  chose  voluntary  poverty.  In  the  in. 
century  it  is  applied  to  a  confessor  of  the  Faith  suffering 
imprisonment ;  while  Eusebius  says  ascetics  are  devout 
persons  who  ministered  to  the  poor,  and  with  Basil,  and 
in  the  '  Life  of  Antony '  attributed  to  Athanasius,  it 
designates  the  monks.* 

"  Si  la  vie  monastique  n'apparait  que  vers  la  fin  du 
iii'^.'"^  siecle,"  writes  Renan,  "  c'est  que,  jusque  la  I'^glise 
est  un  vrai  monastere,  une  cite  id^ale,  oij  se  pratique 
la  vie  parfaite."  The  Christian  was  "  par  essence,  un 
etre  a  part,  vou^  a  une  profession  meme  ext^rieure  de 
vertu,  un  ascete  enfin."  But  the  profession  of  asceticism 
in  addition  to  the  Christian  profession  was  brought  about 
by  well-defined  causes  both  within  the  Church  itself,  and 
exterior  to  it.  The  primitive  Church  did  not  recognise 
the  possibility  of  a  Christian  falling  into  grave  sin,  and 
the  earliest  factor  in  asceticism,  acting  within  Christianity 
itself,  was  the  gradual  weakening  of  this  presumption.  In 
220  Callistus  had  affirmed  the  principle  that  even  men 
stained  with  the  deadly  sins  might  be  restored  to  the 
Christian  communion.  In  252  Novatian  had  rejected 
the  election  of  Cornelius  because  the  latter  accepted  the 
principle  that  the  Church  was  a  mingling  of  the  good  and 
the  bad,  and,  taking  his  stand  on  the  contrary  principle, 
had  become  the  first  anti-pope.  Peter  once  doubted 
whether  Christ  had  called  any  but  Israel  (Acts  x.) ;  No- 


*  The  earliest  reference  to  what  later  Christians  meant  by  an 
ascetic  life  —  as  when  the  laity  of  Alexandria  declared  Athanasius 
to  be  '  a  pious  ascetic  Christian  '  —  is  to  be  found,  perhaps,  in  Poly- 
crates'  allusion  to  the  Apostle  Philip's  daughter  who  "  lived  accord- 
ing to  the  Holy  Spirit."  With  much  probability  this  signified  the 
coml)ination  of  asceticism  and  virginity  based  on  Matt.  xix.  II,  12, 
20,  21. 


ORIGIN  OF  MONASriCISM  3 

vatian  now  objected  to  Peter's  successor  that  the  sheep 
and  the  goats  were  never  intended  to  feed  side  by  side  in 
communion  with  the  Church.  A  Httle  later,  in  340,  the 
Council  of  Gangres  declared  that  the  maxims  of  the  Gos- 
pel, concerning  poverty  and  the  hke,  were  not  meant  for 
the  simple  Christian  :  and  it  is  then,  though  not  till  then, 
that  in  Renan's  words  "  les  parfaits  se  creeront  des  lieux 
a  part,  ou  la  vie  evangelique  trop  haute  pour  le  commun 
des  hommes,  puisse  etre  pratiquee  sans  attenuation  .  .  . 
pour  que  les  conseils  de  Jesus  soient  p7-atiques  quelque 
pufi."  And  the  monastery  was  nothing  else  but  the  life 
of  the  counsels.  It  is  when  the  Church  ceased  to  be 
"un  vrai  monastere,"  that  the  sentiment  thrust  itself 
upon  the  Christian  conscience  and  imagination  with  im- 
mense force,  that  to  be  "  kept  from  the  evil  "  the  Chris- 
tian should  be  "  taken  out  of  the  world."  In  the  iv. 
century  this  seemed  still  more  clear  —  for  the  Christian 
was  no  longer  an  elect  and  proved  man,  all  men  by  right 
belonged  to  the  great  Ecclesia  fratrum  ;  the  world  was 
baptised. 

To  these  internal  causes  were  added  others  drawn  Causes 
from  the  state  of  society  at  the  time.  The  apathy  and  ^^ithout. 
indifference  of  the  Christian  population  towards  the  State 
had  become  complete  ;  the  imperial  system  afforded  no 
role  for  the  individual  citizen,  who  suffered  perforce  the 
curse  of  idleness,  and  saw  round  him  a  world  steeped  in 
the  corruption  and  servility  of  the  later  Empire,  the  vic- 
tim of  those  great  and  tragic  misfortunes  which  then 
befell  men.  Men's  faculties  could  not  be  employed,  could 
not  develop,  happily  or  harmoniously,  human  nature  was 
thwarted  and  hence  warped.  Desolation  of  spirit,  disgust 
at  an  enervating  inactivity,  thrust  Christians  into  the  path 
of  asceticism  —  at  once  something  strenuous  and  some- 
thing individual  —  and  emphasised  in  the  imagination 
those  special  characteristics  of  the  Gospel  which  lent  so 
sacred  a  sanction  to  the  conception  of  life  as  a  renuncia- 
tion, as  figured  in  the  death  of  the  Cross. 

The  contrast  of  the  claim  made  by  Christianity  with  the 
condition  of  the  world  around,  brought  about  a  religious 


4  CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 

exaltation,  and  decided  for  thousands  of  Christians  a 
vocation,  the  call  to  the  desert.  The  ideal  of  life  became 
mystic  contemplation,  "  Repelled  by  a  world  grown  inef- 
fably corrupt,  the  Christian  .  .  .  descended  into  the 
depths  of  his  own  personahty,  and  cultivated  the  inner 
world  of  moral  freedom  "  neglected  by  Roman  paganism.* 
But  there  was  a  philosophic  influence  at  work,  cooper- 
ating with  the  internal  and  external  causes  which  deter- 
mined the  rise  of  monachisrn  —  the  traditions  of  the  East 
and  the  teaching  of  the  Schools  of  Alexandria.  The 
eternal  war  of  mind  and  matter,  flesh  and  spirit,  belonged 
above  all  to  the  East ;  the  Neo-Platonic  schools  sanc- 
tioned and  organised  the  aspiration  after  a  life  abstracted 
from  the  external  and  material.  It  is  when  Christianity 
comes  into  contact  with  this  school  of  thought,  that 
its  inherent  asceticism  develops.  The  asceticism  to  be 
found  among  the  later  Jews  especially,  forms  a  further 
factor  in  the  result  —  an  asceticism  of  which  they  pos- 
sessed the  type  in  Elijah,  which  was  imitated  by  John 
the  Baptist,  and  systematised  in  the  sect  of  the  Essenes 
that  so  profoundly  aff'ected  nascent  Christianity,  and  in- 
spired the  apocryphal  Gospel  of  the  Egyptians. 

For  Egypt  is  the  classic  land  of  monachism,  Egypt  the 
country  subject  to  the  dual  influence  of  Judaic  and  Pla- 
tonic thought.     It  is  Egyptian  Judaism  which  presents 
us  with  those  precursors  of  Christian  monachism,  the 
TheThera-   Therapeutce,  whose  mode  of  life  so  strikingly  resembled 
peutae.  what  Christian  monachism  later  became,  that  it  has  been 

commonly  believed  that  these  people  were  indeed  not 
Jews  but  primitive  Christians. 

The  Therapeutae  are  described  by  Philo  in  the  VI'!' 
book  of  the  Treatise  concerning  Virtues.  They  are,  in 
contradistinction  to  the  Essenes,  ascetics  who  cultivated 
the  contemplative  life.  The  word  therapeutse,  O^pa- 
TTcvrat,  means  either  'healers,'  or  'worshippers.'  "They 
are  most  fitly  called  healers,  male  and  female,"  writes 
Philo,  "...  by  reason  of  their  professing  an  art  of  heal- 

*  Gregorovius. 


ORIGIN   OF  MOXASTICISM  5 

ing  more  excellent  than  that  which  is  found  in  cities  ; " 
for  their  art  heals  the  soul.  Perhaps,  however,  their 
name  signifies  '  worshippers,'  *'  because  they  have  been 
educated  by  nature  and  the  holy  laws  to  worship  the 
true  Being."  They  dwell  in  solitary  cots,  outside  the 
towns,  having  left  all,  country  and  kindred,  and  are  to 
be  found  throughout  Egypt,  but  more  especially  in  Alex- 
andria. They  pray  twice  every  day,  about  dawn  and 
about  eventide,  at  sunrise  praying  "  for  that  day  which 
is  really  fair,  that  is,  that  their  minds  may  be  filled  with 
celestial  light;"  but  at  sunset  "that  the  soul  may  be 
wholly  relieved  of  the  disorderly  throng "  of  sensible 
things.  They  do  not  eat  or  drink  till  sunset.  On  the 
7th  day  they  come  together,  in  soleiiin  assembly,  re- 
maining in  complete  isolation  for  the  rest  of  the  week. 
Though  the  ascetic  life  was  alien  to  Judaism  as  a  system, 
especially  in  its  earlier  stages,  the  Jews  became  influ- 
enced by  their  environment  when  they  settled  in  Egypt. 
Behind  this  Egyptian  Judaism,  therefore,  there  lies  the 
Egyptian  mythology  :  celibate  communities  were  attached 
to  the  Egyptian  temples,  dedicated  to  philosophy  and 
the  cultivation  of  divine  knowledge,  observing  a  strict 
rule  of  abstinence,  eating  no  flesh,  drinking  barely  any 
wine.  These  religio-philosophic  societies,  which  under 
the  names  of  Oriental  Fakir,  Buddhist  Bhikshu,  the 
Egyptian  celibate,  were  comparatively  feeble  institutions, 
sprung  up,  at  the  touch  and  shock  of  the  great  vital 
force  of  Christian  spirituality,  into  a  world  wide  power. 

Thus  asceticism  became  the  "  adopted  child  "  of  the 
Christian  Church. 

The  solitary  life,  the  combination  of  asceticism  with  The  Soli- 
isolation,  was  the  earliest  definite  form  of  this  ascetic  t^^ies. 
life  among  Christians.  "  La  solitudine  fu  sempre  un'  de' 
bisogni  del  Cristianesimo,"  writes  Dandolo.  That  self- 
dependence  and  sense  of  personal  responsibility,  for 
which  there  was  no  place  in  the  old  Roman  system,  had 
become  paramount  facts  for  the  Christian  :  with  him  a 
new  art  had  been  born  into  the  world,  "  the  art  of  self- 
direction,"   and  inevitably  he  .was  led  to   another  new 


6  CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 

thing,  the  experience  of  himself  as  an  individual ;  and  it 
is  in  this  aspect  that  the  monastic  life  first  presents  itself 
to  us  :  a  wonderful,  an  overwhelming,  an  extravagant 
experience. 
Anchorite.  The  solitary  was  called  anchorite.  Until  the  middle 
of  the  III.  century  the  ascetics  did  not  separate  them- 
selves from  civil  life  ;  Tertullian  emphatically  declares 
that  Christians  are  not  men  living  in  woods,  or  exiles 
from  life  —  silvicolce,  and  exules  vitce.  It  is  when  they 
fled  to  the  deserts  and  forest  fastnesses  that  they  became 
hermits,  anchorites  {rfprjfxo'i,  a  solitary,  a  desert ;  dva;^co- 
piw,  to  retreat  or  withdraw  from  the  world). 
Paul  the  Paul  the  P'irst  Hermit  is  the  patriarch  of  Anchorites, 

first  hermit,  His  country  was  upper  Egypt,  near  Thebes.  He  fled 
22  -341.  ^Q  ^j^g  desert  at  23  years  old,  having  been  warned  by 
his  sister  during  the  persecutions  of  Valerian  that  her 
pagan  husband  meant  to  denounce  him  as  a  Christian. 
When  the  Emperor  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  Persians, 
the  fugitives  to  the  desert  returned,  but  Paul  remained. 
For  90  years  he  abode  without  seeing  a  human  face 
or  hearing  a  human  voice.  Then,  the  story  tells  us, 
Antony,  "  the  Great  Monk,"  at  90  years  old  went  forth 
to  see  an  anchorite  more  perfect  than  himself.  Paul 
hearing  the  footsteps  bars  his  door,  and  Antony  from 
daybreak  to  midday  begs  for  admittance.  Paul,  who 
had  been  fed  for  60  years  by  a  raven  who  brought  him 
half  a  loaf  each  day,  had  received  a  whole  loaf  on  the 
day  of  Antony's  visit,  and  as  neither  would  accept  the 
honour  of  breaking  the  bread,  each  held  his  piece  of 
the  unbroken  loaf  till  evening,  so  engaged  in  holy  con- 
verse that  they  forgot  to  eat,  and  spent  the  entire  night  in 
prayer.*  Paul  then  dying  at  113  years  old,  is  buried  by 
Antony,  who  returned  to  tell  the  story  of  his  life. 
Antony,  Antony  had  himself  been  born  of  Christian  parents 

251-356-        jj-j  i^ipper  Egypt  in  251,  the  same  year  that  Paul  fled  to 

*  Paul  was  in  fact,  it  is  said,  provided  with  food  and  raiment 
from  a  palm  tree  near  his  cave.  The  raven  is  a  hermit's  emblem, 
and  according  to  saint-lore  would  be  made  the  subject  of  a  legend 
later.  • 


ORIGIN   OF  MONASTICISM  7 

the  desert,  and  while  Laurence  Uved  in  Rome,  and 
Cyprian  at  Carthage.  His  parents  dying  when  he  was 
1 8,  leaving  him  with  a  little  sister  and  some  land,  he  sold 
all  his  property,  provided  for  his  sister,  and  fled  to  the 
desert.  Here  he  sought  the  advice  of  other  solitaries, 
and  attained  to  a  great  penance.  He  was  the  model 
solitary,  and  the  Father  of  monachism,  teaching  the 
ascetic  life  to  others,  when  he  believed  that  he  ought  no 
longer  to  refuse  "  this  spiritual  alms."  He  died  in  356.* 
It  is  at  this  time  that  communities  of  anchorites  arose, 
grouped  together  in  what  were  known  as  Lauras,  a  word  of  Lauras, 
uncertain  origin.  The  Laura  was  a  collection  of  huts,  and 
is  thus  a  link  between  the  desert  and  the  monastery.  The 
causes  of  this  rapprochement  of  the  solitaries  is  untraced.f 
The  huts  were  very  poor,  but  afforded  shelter,  and  were 
not  placed  near  each  other  "as  in  cities,"  but  dotted 
about  at  a  distance,  the  very  description  which  Philo 
gives  of  the  dwellings  of  the  Therapeutse  :  it  is  moreover 
in  the  Egyptian  Thebaid  that  lauras  were  principally 
found,  and  they  continued  longer  in  the  East  than  in  the 
West. 

It  is  difficult  to  realise  the  vast  change  which  ancho-  Life  in  the 
ritism  produced.  The  motives  and  causes  which  we  have  Desert, 
described  led  to  an  incredible  '  flight  for  the  desert ' ; 
it  became,  one  may  say,  the  fashion  to  spend  some  years 
in  the  desert,  as  it  was  later  the  fashion  for  young  men  to 
go  to  the  Universities.  The  far  larger  number  of  hermits 
lived  their  whole  lives  away  from  the  public  worship  of 
the  Church,  and  many  received  the  Eucharist  only  when 
they  came  to  die,  and  then  often,  as  the  legends  relate, 
by  miraculous  means.  Solitaries  who  lived  near  towns 
used  to  enter  the  town  on  Sunday  to  assist  at  the  Liturgy, 
reserving  the  Eucharist,  with  which  they  were  accustomed 
to  communicate  themselves  in  the  desert.  Basil  tells  us 
that  this  was  the  universal  custom  throughout  Egypt  in 

*  "  The  Egyptian  peasant  respectfully  declined  a  respectful  in- 
vitation from  the  Emperor  Constantine,"  writes  Gibbon. 
t  But  cf.  Therapeutic. 


CHRISTIAN  AND   ECCIESIASTICAL   ROME 


The  Peni- 
tents. 


Thais. 


his  time ;  nor  did  it  cease  among  the  soUtaries  till  the 
XII.  century.* 

Naturally  the  untutored  imaginations  of  the  solitaries 
led  them  into  all  sorts  of  excesses,  and  nowhere  was 
materialism  more  rife,  Serapion,  an  Egyptian  monk  of  the 
IV.  century,  on  hearing  that  "  God  is  a  Spirit  "  cried  out : 
"  They  have  taken  away  my  God  !  Who  is  there  now  to 
worship?"!  This  tendency  of  the  monks  to  anthropo- 
morphism is  alluded  to  both  by  Rufinus  and  Cassian.  It 
is  easy  to  understand,  from  this,  the  fact  that  the  monks 
were  always  on  the  side  of  superstition.  From  the  time 
of  Antony  till  Benedict  rescued  monachism  everything 
was  exaggerated  ;  a  literal  interpretation  of  precepts  was 
insisted  on,  undisciplined  impulse  governed.  It  was  an 
orgy  of  anthropocentric  theology,  of  a  blind  besotted  mis- 
taking of  means  for  the  end,  of  that  literal  interpretation 
which  kills. 

We  gain  another  picture  of  the  desert  from  the  stories 
of  the  penitents.  For  it  was  not  only  the  young  flying 
"  with  their  youth  in  their  hands  "  to  the  safe  refuge  of 
the  desert  which  created  the  ascetic  hfe,  it  was  also  the 
passion  of  repentance. 

One  of  these  wonderful  examples  of  sorrow  was  Thais, 
a  woman  of  sinful  life  but  of  rich  endowments  who  lived  in 
Alexandria.  The  story  runs  that  when  Paphnutius  heard 
of  her  he  longed  to  help  her,  and  putting  on  worldly 
dress  he  went  to  the  city  to  try  to  win  her  soul.  In  that 
age,  and  in  those  surroundings,  no  one  sorrowed,  no  one 
enjoyed,  by  halves :  Thais  spent  3  years  in  solitary 
penance  ;  at  the  end  of  which  time  Paphnutius  takes  the 
advice  of  Antony,  desiring  that  Thais  should  live  in  this 
austerity  no  longer.  Antony  and  all  his  disciples  prayed 
for  light,  and  Paul  the  Simple  sees  a  magnificent  couch 
in  paradise  and  exclaims  "This  must  be  for  my  father 
Antony  ! "  "  By  no  means,"  he  hears  a  voice  answer 
him,  "  it  is  for  Thais  the  penitent."     Paphnutius  then 


*  Martene,  De  Antiquis  ecclcsiae  Ritibiis, 
t  Cassian,  Collationes, 


ORIGIN  OF  MONASTICISM  9 

went  to  her,  and  she  most  unwiUingly  left  her  retreat, 
dying  two  weeks  afterwards. 

In  the  middle  of  the  v.  century  an  anchorite  on  Mount  Pelagia. 
Olivet  excelled  all  others  by  his  great  austerity  and  holi- 
ness. He  occupied  himself  in  prayer,  in  reciting  the 
ecclesiastical  office,  in  the  singing  of  psalms.  Brother 
Pelagius  sung  these  sweet  hymns  also  in  the  night,  and 
it  appeared  to  those  who  heard  him  as  a  choir  of  angels. 
One  day  they  burst  open  the  cell  of  the  holy  anchorite, 
to  find  her  dead ;  for  she  was  really  a  woman,  and  this 
is  the  wonderful  story  that  the  desert  then  heard  about 
her  :  —  Pelagia  had  been  the  chief  singer  at  the  theatre 
of  Antioch.  Nonnus  the  bishop  who  was  preaching  as 
she  passed  the  church  one  day,  ceased  his  discourse  and 
gazed  on  her  with  the  rest  as  she  passed.  Then  he  fin- 
ished his  preaching,  and  asked  the  other  fathers  if  they 
had  not  observed  her  extraordinary  beauty  :  "  I  looked 
upon  her  wondrous  beauty  with  the  greatest  attention, 
for  God  will  set  it  before  our  eyes  when  He  calls  us  and 
our  flocks  to  account  on  the  great  day  of  judgment." 
When  he  returned  home  the  good  bishop  threw  himself 
on  the  ground,  and  wept  that  he  should  take  less  pains 
for  his  soul  than  Pelagia  for  her  body  :  "  I  am  naked 
poor  and  hateful  before  Thee  and  men ;  "  and  so  he 
wept  all  that  day  and  night  with  his  deacon. 

On  the  next  Sunday  Pelagia  is  present  at  the  mass  of 
the  catechumens,  and  Nonnus  preached.  She  writes  to 
him  wishing  to  become  a  Christian,  and  when  Nonnus, 
surrounded  by  the  other  fathers,  speaks  with  her,  she 
asks  for  baptism.  The  archdeaconess  Romana  is  then 
sent  for,  who  instructs  her  and  assists  at  her  baptism. 
After  staying  with  Romana  for  some  time,  she  is  supplied 
by  Nonnus  with  a  man's  dress,  and  she  departs  to  the 
desert.  When  she  dies,  the  solitaries  praise  God,  and 
the  holy  women  crowd  to  see  their  sister  "  in  whom  God 
had  concealed  such  vast  treasures  of  grace."  On  Mount 
Olivet  there  existed  a  church  dedicated  to  her. 

But  the  great  forces  which  had  formed  the  original 
impulse  of  anchoritism,  were  unable  to  direct  the  result- 


lo        CHRISTIAN  AND   ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 


The  Styli- 
tai,  388- 
459- 


Cenobi- 
tism. 


Pachomius 
and  a  rule. 


Pachomius 
and  Syn- 
cletica. 


ing  avalanche  ;  "  sweetness  and  light "  were  soon  de- 
stroyed, asceticism  developed  on  its  materialistic  side 
not  its  contemplative,  the  desert  ended  in  being  a  pro- 
test against  the  humanities  rather  than  a  vindication  of 
the  spiritual  nature,  the  spiritualities. 

This  spirit  culminated  in  Simeon  Stylites,  of  Antioch, 
so  called  from  his  self  chosen  torment  which  was  to  live 
for  37  years  on  a  pillar  {stylos)  some  3  feet  across,  and 
raised  by  him  in  430  to  a  height  of  40  cubits  (60  feet). 
A  group  of  ascetics,  known  as  styhtai,  followed  this  ex- 
ample. Even  in  the  West  and  as  late  as  the  vi.  century, 
Gregory  of  Tours  has  left  an  account  of  a  visit  he  paid 
to  a  monk  who  having  ousted  a  huge  statue  of  Diana 
from  its  column,  lived  for  some  time  in  its  place.  The 
bishops  had  descended  on  him,  and  pointed  out  that 
he  was  an  audacious  fellow  to  think  he  could  imitate 
the  holy  Simeon  of  the  Pillar  !  And  in  this  able  fashion 
the  scandalous  piety  was  banished  from  the  West,  and 
from  an  age  which  had  outgrown  it.  Stylitai  are  found 
in  the  East  up  to  the  xii.  century.  Other  exaggerations 
penetrated  from  the  East :  S.  Senoch,  a  barbarian  in 
origin,  had  himself  walled  up  at  a  spot  near  Tours,  in 
such  a  position  that  he  could  not  move  from  the  waist 
downwards,  and  in  this  way  he  lived  for  several  years,  the 
object  of  popular  veneration. 

The  next  step  in  the  organisation  of  asceticism  was 
cenobitisin,  the  monastic  life  led  by  a  group  of  men  or 
women  under  one  roof,  and  one  control.  The  dwelling- 
house  was  called  a  cxnobiu77i  (Kotvo/Siov) .  It  was  now 
that  Pachomius  gave  a  rule  for  ascetics,  and  became 
probably  the  first  monastic  lawgiver.  From  him  dates 
the  monastic  life  proper.  He  was  followed  by  Hilarion 
(300-371)  and  Macarius.* 

Pachomius  (born  292)  had  enrolled  himself  as  a  cate- 
chumen on  his  return  in  313  from  the  campaign  against 
Maxentius.  In  325  he  founded  the  famous  coenobium 
of  Tabenna,  a  territory  in  the  Upper  Thebaid,  and  be- 

*  The  so-called  Egyptian  "  Rule  of  Macarius  "  was  followed  by 
some  monks  in  Burgundy. 


ORIGIN  OF  MONASTICISM  il 

came  its  first  Abbas  or  father.  He  successively  estab- 
lished 9  religious  houses,  and  ruled  1400  brethren.  A 
similar  great  work  was  performed  by  his  sister  Syncletica 
of  Alexandria  who  founded  the  first  house  of  nuns. 

The  spectacle  of  a  life  of  sacrifice  and  liberty,  of  Spread  of 
enthusiasm  joined  to  austerity,  affected  the  popular  imag-  Monasti- 
ination,  and  the  deserts  were  literally  peopled  with  these  pourth 
ascetics.  Fifty  thousand,  it  is  said,  would  gather  round  century. 
Pachomius  at  Easter.  Antony's  contemporary,  Amnion, 
"The  Father  of  Egyptian  Monachism,"  formed  hermit 
settlements  on  or  near  Mount  Nitrius,  a  part  once  inhab- 
ited by  Therapeutae  ;  Rufinus,  who  tells  us  that  as  many 
persons  lived  in  the  desert  as  in  the  cities,  speaks  of 
10,000  religious  women,  and  twice  as  many  men,  estab- 
lished at  Oxyrynchus,  the  spot  where  the  "  logia  of  Jesus  " 
were  recently  found,  and  Ambrose  and  Chrysostom  both 
speak  of  communities  of  Virgins  abounding  in  the  East, 
in  Alexandria  and  throughout  Egypt.  In  the  v.  century, 
Palkidius  still  describes  them  as  settled  at  Tabenna  and 
in  other  parts  of  Egypt.  In  Africa  the  great  number  of 
recruits,  writes  Augustine,  came  from  the  poor.  Five 
and  ten  thousand  would  reside  in  one  district,  while 
fanatic  hordes  of  monks  roamed  through  Mesopotamia 
and  Armenia,  peopling  the  deserts  of  the  Holy  Land, 
Lebanon,  and  the  Upper  Thebai'd. 

The  monks  were  a  lay  body  ;  Antony,  Ammon,  Hilarion,  Monks  as  a 
Pachomius,  Benedict,  were  laymen.  The  rules  for  ceno-  '^y  body, 
bites  were  all  rules  for  laymen,  and  no  member  of 
Pachomius'  community  might  be  ordained.  To-day  the 
term  "regular  clergy"  which  is  given  to  monks  seems 
to  imply  that  these  were  in  origin  a  clerical  body,  but 
nothing  is  less  true.  Monks  bore  no  office  in  the  Church, 
and  were  therefore  in  sharp  contrast  with  those  who  did. 
There  is  no  vaster  difference  between  the  monasticism 
of  to-day  as  compared  with  the  original  institution  than 
this,  that  while  the  ancient  monastic  rules  were  dictated 
for  laymen,  and  dictated  by  those  who  were  anxious  to 
keep  monasticism  lay,  to  be  a  monk  or  friar  is  riow 
tantamount  to  being  a  priest. 


laity. 


12         CHRISTIAN  AND   ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 

How  this  has  modified  monastic  Ufe  in  modern  times 
cannot  easily  be  realised.  Now,  the  career  of  a  priest 
has  taken  precedence  of  the  career  of  a  monk,  and  what 
would  not  be  allowed  to  the  latter  is  allowed  to  the 
former  :  in  some  Orders  the  monastic  life  would  appear 
to  be  suspended  in  favour  of  the  duties  of  a  parish  priest 
or  other  pastor,  leaving  of  the  monk  or  friar  nothing  but 
the  dress.  The  change  was  gradual :  Benedict  would  not 
suffer  a  priest  to  bear  rule  in  a  monastery  ;  S.  Gregory  for- 
bade a  man  to  follow  the  double  vocation  of  monk  and 
presbyter,  and  denied  that  it  could  be  properly  discharged 
by  one  man,  and  in  Cassian's  eyes  to  desire  orders  is  a 
The  monks  temptation  of  the  demon.  But  when  monasticism  had 
rank  as  ^^°^^  universal  admiration,  when  it  was  judged  to  be  con- 
separate  version  from  the  secular  and  semi-pagan  world  without, 
[p^t*^  '^^  when  the  profession  of  monasticism  was  recognised  as 
itself  the  profession  of  '  religion,'  the  monks  desired  to 
be  considered  as  separate  from  the  laity.  It  is  possible 
that  while  on  their  side  the  influence  and  independence 
they  enjoyed  ceased  to  satisfy,  and  they  coveted  the 
privilege  which  could  only  come  from  the  clergy,  the  fear 
that  by  their  preaching  and  other  acts  the  monks  while 
still  laymen  were  usurping  the  powers  of  the  presbytery 
induced  the  latter  to  ordain  them,  and  there  are  not 
wanting  instances  of  bishops  ordaining  monks  by  force.* 
The  general  tendency  is  shown  in  the  warnings  given 
by  solitaries  and  abbats  against  ordination,  and  in  the 
.  emphasis  laid  by  Cassian  on  the  'rule  of  the  Fathers' 
that  a  monk  should  avoid  the  society  of  bishops  and 
women  —  of  the  former  lest  they  should  ordain  you. 
His  story  of  the  solitary  discovered  conducting  the  mass 
of  catechumens  alone  in  his  cell,  shows  how  the  role  of 

*  It  is  by  no  means  impossible  that  the  poor  monks  sought  orders 
as  the  only  means  of  preserving  any  rights  and  influence  in  a  society 
which  soon  regarded  the  "  Church  "  as  chiefly,  even  exclusively,  the 
clergy.  But  the  point  must  not  be  too  much  pressed  :  as  a  lay  ascetic 
body  their  power  lay  in  the  hold  they  had  on  the  imagination  of  the 
people;  and  it  is  after  the  monks  fell  like  parish  presbyters  under 
the  complete  power  of  the  bishops,  that  we  hear  them  spoken  of  in 
a  Council  held  in  633  as  "  reduced  nearly  to  slavery." 


ORIGIN  OF  MONASTICISM  13 

the  deacons  and  priests  in  the  churches  had  affected  the 
imagination  of  the  monks.  In  the  vi.  century  it  was 
necessary  to  prohibit  them  from  wearing  the  clerical 
orarion,  and  buskins  in  place  of  sandals,  but  from  this 
time. the  transformation  might  have  come  more  quickly 
had  it  not  been  for  the  strongly  lay  character  of  Bene- 
dict's Rule.  The  repugnance  of  the  early  monks  to 
clerical  orders,  which  the  greater  number  regarded  as  a 
worldly  life,  no  longer  existed ;  and  to  Benedict  this 
change  was  an  evil  to  be  strenuously  guarded  against.  It 
was  not,  indeed,  possible  that  monasticism  should  lack 
episcopal  patronage  ;  the  monks  were  a  weapon  to  hurl 
against  heresies  on  the  one  hand,  a  bulwark  against  pagan 
manners  on  the  other.  In  the  Eastern  Church,  where 
the  spiritual  affinity  of  monk  and  cleric  was  early  utilised, 
the  monks  became  a  disorderly  and  fanatic  horde  always 
ready  to  support  an  episcopal  doctrine,  and  to  throw 
themselves  on  the  side  remote  from  moderation  and 
peace.  Such  a  gang  existed  in  the  iv.  century,  and  was 
characterised  by  a  Pagan  on-looker  as  "  swine  in  human 
form,"  and  such  a  gang  was  ready  to  do  yeoman  service 
to  Cyril  of  Alexandria  in  the  murder  of  Hypatia,  done  to 
death  by  his  monks  with  incredible  barbarity  in  a  Christian 
church.  The  Christian  Father  Chrysostom,  on  the  con- 
trary, earned  their  enmity,  and  the  scandals  they  reported 
of  him  were  sedulously  gathered  up  by  Bishop  Theophilus 
of  Alexandria,  who  calls  Chrysostom  an  unclean  demon, 
and  says  he  was  sold  to  the  devil.  Jerome  took  care  to 
translate  this  scurrilous  diatribe  into  Latin,  and  to  intro- 
duce it  to  the  West.  Such  were  the  amenities  extended 
by  bishop  to  bishop,  and  propagated  by  one  Father  of  the 
Church  concerning  another,  with  the  help  of  the  monks. 
Though  all  the  Fathers  of  East  and  West  without  ex- 
ception praise  monasticism,  its  early  history  in  the  West 
shows  that  t^he  immense  influence  of  S.  Benedict  pre- 
vailed, and  that  early  Western  monks  were  as  a  rule  not 
only  laymen  but  laymen  who  regarded  their  profession  as 
separate  from,  not  an  appanage  to,  that  of  the  cleric. 
Even  as  late  as  the  x.  century,  among  the  500  monks  at 


14  CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAI  ROME 

S.  Gall,  52  only  were  priests,  and  39  deacons.  But  the 
change,  though  gradual,  was  everywhere  sure  ;  first  the 
monks  wanted  a  church  and  service  of  their  own,  in  place 
of  that  attendance  at  the  city  basilica  which  had  been 
their  rule  and  which  formed  a  prominent  feature  of  the 
Divine  office  in  the  iv.  century*  The  priest  for  the  ser- 
vice of  this  church  introduced  the  clergy  into  the  monas- 
tery ;  but  it  was  the  creation  of  a  class  of  Jiieromonachi, 
priest-monks,  ordained  to  perform  the  requisite  sacerdotal 
functions,  which,  as  has  been  well  remarked,  by  intro- 
ducing a  distinction  between  the  monks,  destroyed  the 
homogeneity  of  monasticism.  The  general  law  which 
makes  men  covet  the  privileged  office  succeeded  in  sink- 
ing the  monk  in  the  priest,  while  the  belief  that  monasti- 
cism was  preeminently  the  highest  Christian  life,  ended 
in  the  declaration  of  Boniface  IV.  that  monks  are  more 
than  competent  lo  the  exercise  of  all  clerical  functions  :  the 
change  was  complete  ;  henceforth  the  monks  were  regular 
clergy  and  all  other  priests  ranked  as  merely  secular  clergy. 
It  has  not  been  generally  realised  that  monasticism 
among  women  possessed  still  earher  an  ecclesiastical 
character ;  for  the  nun  represents  not  only  the  cenobite 
ascetic,  but  the  Ecclesiastical  Virgin  who  as  such  took 
rank  among  the  clergy.t  This  fact  receives  confirmation, 
as  we  shall  see,  from  the  rite  of  profession  of  a  nun  in  use 
to-day ;  the  great  episcopal  rite  performed  by  Liberius  in 
Rome,  by  Ambrose  in  Milan,  by  Nectarius  in  Constanti- 
nople, and  which  bears  no  relation  to  the  rite  for  profess- 
ing a  monk,  is  still  observed  in  the  profession  of  a  nun. 

Virginity.  Athenagoras  (11.  century),  Justin  Martyr  (103-165), 

Minucius  Felix  (late  11.  century),  and  Clement  of  Alexan- 

*  See  Silvia's  Peregrinatio  for  the  attendance  of  the  monks  at  all 
the  Canonical  Hours. 

t  To  this  day  it  is  as  a  consecrated  virgin,  rather  than  as  a  mou- 
astria  or  nun,  that  members  of  the  old  Orders  enjoy  whatever  little 
distinction  between  themselves  and  the  laity  remains  to  them,  since 
the  day  of  the  power  of  the  great  abbesses.  For  the  Canonical 
Virgin  see  Part  IV.,  p.  526. 


ORIGIN  OF  MONASTICISM  15 

dria  (nat.  150-60),  all  cite  the  fact  that  the  Christians 
numbered  among  them  many  virgins  of  both  sexes,  as  the 
peculiar  glory  of  the  Faith,  and  "  Virgins  of  both  sexes  " 
are  enumerated  by  Tertullian  as  a  grade  having  rank  in 
the  Christian  Ecclesia.*  The  primitive  Church  sanctioned 
and  encouraged  perpetual  virginity,  following  Matt.  xix. 
II,  12,  but  this  Catholic  institution  was  objected  to  by 
the  Arians,  who  likewise  condemned  monasticism.  The 
Eastern  bishop  Methodius  (circa  300)  is  the  first  ecclesi- 
astic who  extolled  virginity  as  the  special  means  of  mystic 
union  with  the  divine  Being,  as  the  destined  end  of  the 
Incarnation.  He  taught  that  the  old  mankind  was  Adam  ; 
the  new  mankind  as  a  whole  is  a  type  of  the  Second 
Adam.  Everyone  should  become  Christ,  and  this  comes 
to  pass  through  virginity  and  asceticism.  The  cult  of 
virginity  was  one  of  the  most  startling  of  all  the  unlike- 
nesses  between  the  new  Christian  and  the  old  Pagan 
society  :  Gibbon,  in  his  15'!'  chapter,  refers  to  the  difficulty 
which  was  experienced  in  recruiting  6  vestals  for  the  service 
of  Vesta  —  among  the  Christians,  however,  first  in  Africa 
and  the  East,  then  in  the  West,  groups  of  voluntary  com- 
munities of  virgins  established  themselves  from  very  early 
times. t  Antony  when  he  fled  to  the  desert  in  270  left 
his  sister  in  a  House  of  Virgins,  TrapOevm',  and  there  he 
found  her  several  years  after  ruling  the  same  community. 
In  Africa,  especially,  they  were  held  in  honour,  and  Am-  Ambrose 
brose  laments  that  what  was  so  honoured  there  was  hardly 
known  in  Europe.  At  the  request  of  his  sister  Marcellina 
he  wrote  the  treatise  "  On  Virgins,"  and  preached  this 
institution  in  the  West  with  so  much  success  that  during 
3  solemn  days  800  virgins  were  consecrated  by  him  at 
Milan. 

*  Cf.  also  Tertullian  De  Velandis  Viri;ijiuin  x.,  and  the  Ignatian 
F.p.  to  Polycarp,  ii.  g. 

t  Though  the  Jews  at  no  period  of  their  history  honoured  virginity, 
the  TherapeutLe  under  Egyptian  influence  boasted  (jf  women  who 
had  "  embraced  chastity  not  out  of  necessity  Ijut  out  of  a  desire  for 
wisdom  and  an  immortal  offspring,  such  as  the  God-loving  soul  can 
bring  forth  unaided."  The  celibate  communities  attached  to  the 
Egyptian  temples  were  of  both  sexes. 


and  Mar- 
cellina. 


i6        CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 

The  rank  of  ecclesiastical  virgin  was  an  hierarchical 
grade,  but  its  subsequent  history  belongs  rather  to  mon- 
asticism,  because  it  is  certain  that  a  nun  is  the  lineal 
descendant  of  the  Ecclesiastical  Virgin,  and  that  this  rank, 
which  originally  was  shared  by  both  men  and  women,  exists 
nowhere  to-day  but  in  the  consecrated  nun.  To  trace  the 
causes  which  joined  these  two  vocations  in  one  would  be  of 
great  interest  —  but  whatever  the  cause,  the  earliest  of  all 
Religious  Houses  were  not  those  of  hermits  or  ascetics,  but 
those  of  virgins,  of  women  professing  canonical  virginity. 
As  such,  these  communities  were  communities  of  regular 
clergy,  and  these  women  were  canonesses  *  rather  than 
nuns. 

The  social  forces  at  work  in  the  Empire  and  in  the 
Church  must  be  taken  into  account  in  order  to  rightly 
place,  not  the  woman  hermit,  but  the  ecclesiastical  virgin 
of  Asia  Minor  and  Africa,  and  the  first  nuns  of  the  West. 
Christianity  irresistibly  suggested  a  new  life  for  women, 
a  new  place  for  women.  The  belief  of  barbarous  peoples, 
and  the  general  belief  of  pagan  peoples,  was,  and  is,  that 
women  have  no  place  or  dignity  outside  of  marriage.  It 
was  the  profession  of  virginity  which  first  destroyed  this 
conception.  The  life  of  the  ecclesiastical  virgin  led 
publicly  before  the  Church  t  differed  in  importance  and 
significance  from  that  ascetic  life,  that  orgy  of  individual- 
ism and  solitary  liberty  in  which,  from  the  first,  women  par- 
ticipated like  men.  One  striking  exception,  that  of  the 
Vestals,  had  been  offered  by  imperial  Rome  to  the  absence 
of  all  role  for  unmarried  women  :  but  it  was  the  coexist- 
ence in  early  Christian  society  of  the  new  dignity  borne  by 
the  ecclesiastical  virgin  with  the  social  preeminence  of  the 
Roman  Matron,  which  defined  in  Rome  and  elsewhere 
the  freedom  and  importance  of  women  in  monasticism. 
The  The  Roman  Matron  was  neither  wife  nor  single ;  she 

Matron.  ^yg^g  a  lady  who  had  entered  into  a  free  contract  with  her 
husband,  which  reserved  to  her  her  own  independence, 
her  own  property,  and  her  own   name.     According  to 

*  vSee  p.  203.  t  See  Part  I\'.,  p.  526. 


ORIGIN  OF  MONASTICISM 


17 


Roman  jurisprudence  the  only  valid  Patrician  marriage 
was  the  confarreatio  which  made  of  the  wife  a  chattel  in 
the  hands  of  her  husband,  whose  adopted  child  she 
became :  "  a  fiction  of  the  law  neither  rational  nor 
elegant  bestowed  on  the  mother  of  a  family  the  strange 
characters  of  sister  to  her  own  children  and  of  daughter 
to  her  husband  or  master,  who  was  invested  with  the 
plenitude  of  paternal  power."  *  To  evade  this  state  of 
things,  the  women  of  great  and  wealthy  families  "declined 
the  solemnities  of  the  old  nuptials"  and,  after  the  Punic 
wars,  adopted  the  title  of  Matron,  previously  used  to 
designate  a  lady  or  woman,  but  seldom  a  married 
woman,  and  ceased  to  be  a  mater  familias,  who  was  a 
wife  /«  manu.  Moral  and  social  dignity  soon  attached 
to  the  word,t  and  it  will  be  remembered  with  interest 
that  it  was  such  summates  matronce,  exalted  matrons, 
who  helped  to  establish  Christianity  in  Rome  ;  that  the 
great  names  of  Christian  history,  Lucina,  Priscilla, 
Cyriaca,  Proba,  Marcella,  Paula,  belonged  not  to  those 
in  the  servile  position  of  the  legal  wife  of  that  time,  but  to 
women  enjoying  an  absolute  and  complete  independence. 
How  they  used  this  independence  the  story  of  the  prim- 
itive Church  shows  ;  they  eagerly  accepted  the  new  Faith 
which  held  out  hope  of  a  better  and  purer  world,  they 
dedicated  to  it  their  fortunes  and  their  social  pre- 
eminence, they  educated  their  children  to  love  and  follow 
the  new  light. 

Athanasius,  who  had  best  understood  the  spirit  of  the 
great  monk  Antony,  must  rank  as  the  "  Sponsor,"  the 
spiritual  father  of  monasticism,  which  he  lifted  into  the 
public  life  of  the  Church.  He  desired  to  save  Christianity 
from  the  secularisation  that  would  have  ensued  had  it 
merely  represented  one  of  those  philosophical  systems 
which  strove  for  the  predominence  in  his  time  ;  and  he 
doubtless  saw  in  monasticism  a  means  of  establishing:  that 


Athana- 
sius, Mar- 
cella, 
Jerome ; 
reception 
of  Monas- 
ticism in 
Rome. 


*  Gibbon,  Chap.  XLIV.  See  also  Maine,  Ancient  Laiv, 
Chap.  V. 

t  By  decree  of  Aurelian  270-275,  purple  dalmatics,  an  imperial 
privilege,  were  extended  to  all  matrons. 


i8 


CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 


Marcella. 


Founds 
the  first 
monastery 
in  Rome. 


religious  piety,  that  birth  of  the  world  to  the  redemption 
of  a  divine  life,  which  he  cared  for  as  the  true  riches 
brought  by  Christ. 

The  Roman  temperament  has  never  been  ascetic.  The 
life  of  the  Eastern  solitaries  was  not  only  distasteful  to 
the  Roman,  it  was  loathsome  and  immoral.  "  When  will 
this  detestable  race  of  monks  be  hunted  out?"  asked  the 
Roman  Christians  on  the  death  of  the  young  Blesilla  in 
384  of  overmuch  fasting  and  austerity ;  while  a  pagan 
poet  of  Gaul  tells  of  a  Christian  friend  so  unhappy  as  to 
believe  that  he  would  feed  on  celestial  joys  in  the  midst 
of  his  voluntary  filth.  Jerome  himself  tells  us  that  in  the 
African  cities,  and  in  Carthage  especially,  if  a  monk  be 
seen  he  is  overwhelmed  with  curses.  If  one  come  into 
the  town  to  accomplish  some  pious  work,  the  people 
pursue  him  with  outrage,  bursts  of  laughter,  detestable 
hissing. 

The  conditions  indeed  of  the  Christian  West  differed 
profoundly  from  those  of  the  Christian  East.  The  general 
habits  of  life  of  the  West  had  not  been  modified  by 
Christianity ;  in  the  East,  on  the  contrary,  one  aspect  of 
the  Faith  had  been  favoured  by  the  temperament  of  the 
people  to  the  exclusion  of  all  others  ;  the  dishevelled  and 
dirty  Eastern  solitary  who  was  at  home  in  Syria  and  Egypt, 
was  for  centuries  a  monster  in  Western  eyes.  When 
Monasticism  invaded  Rome  it  portended  the  invasion  of 
Western  society  by  those  manners  which  had  come  to  be 
honoured  as  distinctively  Christian. 

But  if  the  account  of  Monasticism  brought  by  Athana- 
sius  and  the  monks  of  Pachomius  (in  340  and  374)  was 
ill  received  in  Rome  generally,  it  was  eagerly  listened  to 
by  Marcella,  whose  ear  they  gained,  and  who  determined 
to  put  this  life  into  practice.  The  first  example  of 
monastic  life  in  Rome  occurred  when  she  converted  her 
house  into  a  monastery ;  and  Jerome  writes  of  "  Rome 
become  Jerusalem,"  Romam  factain  Jerosolymam,  under 
the  influence  of  Marcella.  It  was  not  till  late  in  life,  382, 
that  she  made  the  friendship  of  Jerome,  whom  she  sought 
on  his  arrival,  and  who  became  thenceforth  her  constant 


ORIGIN   OF  MOXASriCISM  19 

companion.  "Jerome  found  himself  in  the  presence  of 
a  judge  rather  than  of  a  disciple."  *  He  wrote  for  her 
some  15  treatises  on  different  biblical  questions  and 
ecclesiastical  history.  Of  this  learned  woman  Jerome  Her  learn- 
writes  :  "  All  that  I  learnt  with  great  study  and  long  '"S- 
meditation  the  blessed  Marcella  learnt  also,  but  with  great 
facility  and  without  giving  up  any  of  her  other  occupa- 
tions or  neglecting  any  of  her  pursuits."  "As  often  as  I 
set  before  myself  her  diligence  in  holy  reading,  I  cannot 
refrain  from  condemning  my  own  slothfulness."  Difili- 
culties  of  interpretation  and  translation  were  referred  to 
her,  and  Jerome  tells  us  that  when  they  were  not  unani- 
mous on  any  question  "  we  consulted  Slarcella  by  word 
of  mouth  or  letter,  and  always  had  occasion  to  admire 
the  correctness  of  her  decision."  When  Jerome  left 
Rome  bishops  and  priests  came  to  her  with  dubious 
passages  of  Scripture  for  explanation  :  Sic  ad  interrogata 
7-espondebat,  ut  etiavi  sua,  non  sua  diceret,  sed  vel  mea, 
vel  cujuslibet  alterius,  ut  in  eo  ipso  quod  docebat  se  dis- 
cipulam  fateretur  ...  ne  virili  sexui,  et  interdum  Sacer- 
dotibus,  de  obscuris  et  avibiguis  sciscitantibus,  facere 
videreiur  iujuriain.j  ^\'hich  means  to  say  that  being  thus 
questioned  Marcella  answered  in  such  a  way  that  though 
her  arguments  were  her  own,  she  called  them  Jerome's  or 
some  one  else's  ;  so  that  where  she  was  actually  the 
instructor  slie  pretended  to  be  the  disciple,  in  order  that 
in  thus  enquiring  of  her  about  obscure  and  ambiguous 
subjects,  the  virile  sex  and  bishops  should  not  appear  to 
suffer  injury.  Jerome  might  have  spared  us  this  ludicrous 
spectacle  of  the  strong  woman  sustaining  the  self-respect 
of  her  interlocutors  by  means  so  childish. 

When  Origen's  Principia,  translated  by  Rufinus,  reached   Marcella 
Rome,  Marcella  in  concert  with   Jerome   combated  his   ^ndOngen. 
theories ;  and  it  is  an  unpleasing  incident  in  her  life  that 
she  procured  his  condemnation.     Pope  Siricius  had  fa- 

*  She  rebuked  the  invectives  in  which  Jerome  habitually  indulges 
when  stalking  a  theological  adversary,  but  was  not  herself  free  of 
the  odium  theologiciini . 

t  Jerome,  Marcella  ad  Principiavi.     Epist.  127. 


20        CHRISTIAN  AND   ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 

voured  Origen,  and  his  successor  Anastasius  hesitated  to 
condemn  him  ;  but  Marcella  went  to  him  and  pointing 
out  the  passages  she  urged  were  erroneous,  became  in 
Jerome's  words  "  the  cause  of  the  condemnation  of  here- 
tics "  (dainnationis  hceriticorum  Marcella  priticipium  fiiit). 
She  is  connected  with  another  doctrine  :  she  invited  the 
pope  to  declare  the  perpetual  virginity  of  Mary,  against 
which    Helvidius  had  written  ;   since  which  time  it  be- 
came the  usage  to  recite  :  "  Post  partuvi  virgo  inviolata 
permansistiy 
Marcella  in        During  the  sack  of  Rome  in  410  Marcella  was  thrown 
theSackof    to  the  ground  and  beaten  in  the  barbarians'  efforts  to 
Rome.  discover  hidden  treasure.     She  clasped  her  tormentors' 

knees,  showing  them  her  humble  monastic  dress,  and  be- 
sought them  to  spare  the  virtue  of  her  adopted  daughter 
Principia.  The  Goths,  often  magnanimous,  thereupon 
led  the  two  women  to  S.  Paul's,  but  Marcella  died  in 
Principia's  arms  a  few  days  later,  leaving  all  she  had  to 
the  poor. 
"The  Marcella  was  not  only  at  the  head   of  all  works  of 

School  of  religion  and  charity,  but  also  chief  of  the  society  of  able 
jeiome.  ^Qj^-,e,-,  ^y^Q  J,-,  the  Rome  of  her  day  effected  so  much, 
and  which  owed  its  existence  to  Jerome.  The  names  of 
these  women,  of  most  of  whom  Jerome  wrote  a  life,  and 
whose  fame  he  declared  could  never  perish,  are  Paula, 
with  her  daughters  Eustochitim  and  Blesilla  ;  the  great 
Proba's  daughter  Lata,  and  granddaughter  Demetrias. 
Marcella's  sister  Asella,  and  friend  and  adopted  child 
Principia.  Fabiola,  Lea,  Melania,  Albina,  Turia,  So- 
Paula.  phronia,  Salvira,  Piniana.     Paula,  the  most  distinguished 

of  these,  came  to  know  Jerome  through  Epiphanius  who 
had  visited  Rome  when  Damasus  in  382  summoned  the 
bishops  thither.  On  the  death  of  her  husband  Julius 
Toxotius  she  retired  broken  hearted  to  Marcella's  house 
on  the  Aventine.  She  was  one  of  the  most  learned  women 
of  her  age,  a  Hebrew  scholar,  and  Jerome's  referee  for 
the  difficult  points  arising  in  his  translation  and  com- 
mentary of  Ezechiel.  Daughter  of  the  (iracchi  and  the 
Scipios,  of  the  line  of  Agamemnon,  her  possessions  in- 


ORIGIN  OF  MONASTIC  ISM  21 

eluded  the  city  of  Necropolis  built  by  Augustus.  This 
great  wealth  she  despised,  and  eventually,  urged  thereto 
by  Jerome's  description  of  the  beauties  of  the  solitary 
life,  she  founded  a  monastery  at  Bethlehem,  and  a  second 
where  Jerome  himself  died.  Born  in  347  she  died  in 
Bethlehem  in  404,  in  her  57'!^  year;  and  to  Jerome's 
question:  '-Why  do  not  you  speak,  are  you  troubled?" 
answered  :  "  By  no  means,  all  within  me  is  peaceful." 
Eiistochium,  the  most  gifted  of  Paula's  daughters,  was  the 
recipient  of  some  of  his  most  interesting  letters,  and  of 
his  complaints  against  the  clergy  of  Rome,  old  and  young. 
She  is  sometimes  represented  in  art  learning  at  his  knee. 
Blesilla  was  a  widow  at  19,  her  austerities,  which  led  to 
her  death,  did  not  prevent  her  being,  with  her  mother 
and  sister,  a  Hebrew  scholar,  and  Jerome  who  recounts 
her  unusual  talents  says  she  had  great  grace  in  speaking. 
LcBta  was  Paula's  'daughter-in-law,  and  shared  Proba's 
exile  in  410  ;  she  founded  a  monastery.  Demetrias  ded- 
icated herself  to  the  religious  life  while  quite  young,  giv- 
ing up  everything  with  which  this  world  had  endowed 
her;  she  became  a  "prodigy  of  sanctity";  she,  also, 
shared  her  grandmother's  exile  in  410.*  Asella  was 
made  the  head  of  a  Religious  house,  and  spread  Christian- 
ity in  Rome.  Fabiola  Jerome  calls  the  "  wonder  of  all 
ages."  She  was  the  first  person  to  found  a  hospital  for 
the  sick  in  Rome,  and  was  its  chief  nurse.  She  did  much 
to  further  Western  monasticism,  travelling  through  Italy 
and  seeking  out  the  solitaries  and  the  new  monasteries. 
The  dramatic  scene  outside  the  Lateran  on  Easter  Eve  in 
390  when  Fabiola  stood  in  the  porch  of  the  basilica  with 
tears  and  cries,  barefoot,  bareheaded,  and  in  torn  gar- 
ments, as  a  public  penance  for  the  divorce  of  her  first 
husband,  filled  Rome  with  wonder.  In  395  she  joined 
Jerome  and  Paula  at  Bethlehem  ;  but  died  in  Rome. 
Jerome  describes  her  death  and  her  burial,  at  which  all 
Rome  gathered,  and  which  was  ''  grander  than  had  been 
the    triumphal   processions   of  her   ancestors."      Lea    a 

*  Augustine  dedicated   his  book    on    Holy  widowhood    to    her 
mother  Juliana,  and  the  book  on  Prayer  to  Proba. 


22        CHRISTIAN  AXD   ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 

Roman  Matron,  was  also  head  of  a  Religious  house. 
Alelania  (nat.  350)  had  a  convent  of  50  virgins  on  the 
Mount  of  Olives,  where  she  reconciled  heretics.  She 
knew  Jerome  and  Paula  in  Bethlehem,  and  on  her  return 
to  Rome  in  397  was  received  by  Paulinus  of  Nola  with 
great  honour ;  and  was  the  bearer  of  his  letter  to  Augus- 
tine in  400.  She  was  the  friend  and  supporter  of  Rufi- 
nus ;  and  Palladius  stayed  at  her  house  when  he  came  to 
Rome  to  plead  the  cause  of  Chrysostom.  Her  son  Pub- 
licola  married  Albina,  and  their  daughter  Melania  the 
Younger  was  married  to  Pinianus.     She  died  in  410. 

Thus  the  principle  of  the  monastic  life  was  introduced 
into  Rome  through  the  labours  of  these  gifted  women,  in 
the  midst  of  the  corruption  of  clergy  and  laity.  In  that 
gorgeous  society,  and  possessed  of  immense  wealth  and 
social  importance,  they  oftered  the  spectacle  of  a  com- 
plete contempt  for  such  things,  a  voluntary  renuncia- 
tion of  pleasures.  Ardent  searchers  of  the  Scriptures, 
lovers  of  learning  and  of  education  on  the  very  eve  of 
the  decay  of  learning,  we  find  Jerome  writing  for  them  a 
work  on  the  education  of  girls.  Lovers  of  purity,  poverty, 
sohtude,  and  study  in  a  period  of  vice  and  splendour  and 
distraction,  it  is  such  people  who  adapted  the  asceticism 
of  the  East  to  meet  the  evils  around  them  in  the  first 
Christian  city  of  the  West. 
Jerome.  From  the  date  of  his  arrival  in  Rome  Jerome  became 

the  sponsor  of  Roman  monasticism.  Eusebius  Hierony- 
mus  Sophronius,  or  Jerome,  is  of  all  the  Latin  Fathers 
the  most  popular  and  the  most  often  represented  in  art. 
He  was  also  the  most  learned.  Born  at  Stridon  in  Dal- 
matia,  340-342,  the  son  of  rich  parents,  he  was  sent  to 
Rome  to  study,  and  there,  led  astray  by  bad  companions, 
was  saved  by  his  love  of  virtue  and  of  learning.  He  then 
studied  law  becoming  famous  as  a  pleader.  Between  his 
visits  to  the  schools  of  Gaul  and  to  the  East  (373)  he 
was  baptised,  some  say  in  Rome.  It  is  of  4  years 
passed  in  a  desert  of  Chalcis,  that  he  gives  us  such  a 
vivid  description,  when  his  companions  were  scorpions 
and  wild  beasts,  and  awful  temptations  assailed  him.     He 


ORIGIN  OF  MONASTICISM  23 

became  a  great  Hebrew  scholar,  drawn  to  that  language  by 
his  Christian  interests,  but  having  to  overcome  the  strong 
disgust  the  study  caused  to  a  lover  of  Plato  and  Cicero. 
After  10  years  absence  he  returned  to  Rome,  wearied 
by  the  religious  controversies  which  then  as  since  agi- 
tated the  East.  In  Rome  he  upheld  the  practice  of 
penance  and  the  virginity  to  which  he  had  vowed  him- 
self at  his  baptism.  He  vehemently  reproached  the  eccle- 
siastical world  at  Rome  for  its  vices,  and  was  repaid  by 
the  undying  enmity  of  the  Roman  clergy,  who  had  no 
names  too  bad  for  him.  At  this  juncture,  when  Valen- 
tinian  had  issued  laws  against  the  greed  of  the  clergy, 
Damasus  made  Jerome  his  secretary,  and  the  latter  com- 
posed the  Letters  by  which  the  pope  sought  to  redress 
their  excesses.  He  induced  the  band  of  noble  and 
learned  women  known  as  his  '  School '  to  adopt  his 
views  regarding  a  life  of  penance,  chastity,  and  solitude, 
which  were  indeed  the  moral  passions  of  Jerome's  life, 
despite  the  scandalous  reports  of  the  Roman  clergy, 
which  eventually  led  to  his  being  sent  out  of  Rome  by 
Pope  Siricius,  who  did  not  view  him  with  favour.  He 
died  at  a  great  age  ;  the  picture  now  in  the  Vatican  rep- 
resents his  last  communion  in  the  Chapel  of  Bethlehem 
shortly  before  he  breathed  his  last,  a.d.  420.  His  body 
was  moved  from  Bethlehem  to  S.  M.  ISIaggiore.  His 
great  work  is  the  translation  of  both  Testaments  into 
Latin  forming  the  "  Vulgate  J'  Besides  lives  of  the  elder 
Christian  fathers,  and  of  members  of  his  '  School,'  and 
Commentaries  on  books  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament, 
he  has  left  some  150  letters. 

While  the  other  three  Latin  Fathers  are  represented    in  .Art. 
two  as  bishops  and  one  as  pope,   Jerome   is  depicted 
either  half-clad  as  a  penitent  in  the  desert,   or   long- 
bearded  and  mantled,  holding  a  church  or  a  book.     A 
lion  is  also  his  proper  and  ancient  emblem,  as  a  solitary, 
and   in  allusion   to   his   fiery  temperament.      It  is  also 
usual  to  represent  him  with  a  cardinal's  hat  on  his  head  As  a  Car- 
or  at  his  feet,  and  even  a  scarlet  mantle.     There  were  no   dinal. 
cardinals  in  the  present  sense   in  Jerome's  time,  but  it 


24        CHRISTIAN  A  AW  ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 


Early  Mo- 
nasticisin 
in  the 
West. 

S.  Martin 
of  Tours, 
316-397- 


is  alleged  that  he  fulfilled  during  the  3  years  of  his 
second  sojourn  in  Rome  the  offices  which  fell  to  the 
pope's  first  deacon,  and  hence  work  similar  to  that  of  the 
future  cardinals  of  the  Roman  Church.  But  Jerome  had 
no  ecclesiastical  dignity.  He  had  indeed  acceded  about 
the  year  380  to  the  wish  of  Paulinus,  and  become  a 
priest,  but  he  steadily  refused  all  rank  and  his  presby- 
terate  never  affected  the  layman  and  the  monk  which 
Jerome  always  remained.*  He  was  in  fact  the  first  in 
the  line  of  lay  apostles  of  Christian  Rome  —  Jerome, 
Catherine  of  Siena,  Frances  of  Rome,  Bridgid  of  Sweden, 
ending  with  Philip  Neri ;  all  of  whom  the  Roman  Church 
has  canonised.  No  one  lashed  the  Church  harder  or 
loved  it  more  —  he  is  represented  with  a  church  in  his 
hand  as  its  luminary  and  upholder  —  and  in  nothing 
surely  has  Rome  been  greater  than  in  her  reception  of 
such  apostles,  and  her  exaltation  of  them.  In  the  worst 
ages  these  are  the  men  she  has  held  up  before  her  chil- 
dren, not  the  panderers  to  her  vices,  and  the  fact  has 
hardly  been  sufficiently  remarked. 

The  earliest  monastic  communities  in  the  West  were 
founded  by  Martin  of  Tours,  first  at  Milan  before  371, 
and  then  in  Gaul.  S.  Martin  is  one  of  the  greatest  of 
the  early  saints.  He  was  mainly  instrumental  in  over- 
throwing the  remnants  of  paganism,  and  no  contemporary 
exercised  a  greater  influence  on  his  age.f 


*  He  never  consecrated  the  sacrament,  or  performed  any  other 
office  of  a  presbyter. 

t  He  was  born  in  Hungary  of  pagan  parents,  his  father  being  a 
Roman  tribune.  At  15  he  was  moved  to  become  a  catechumen, 
but  before  his  baptism  he  was  sent  into  Gaul  with  a  cavalry  regi- 
ment, where  he  was  the  admiration  of  all  men  for  his  boundless 
charity  and  the  mildness  of  his  manners.  He  was  in  army  quarters 
in  Amiens  in  332  when  the  cold  was  so  great  that  people  died 
in  the  streets,  and  it  was  then  that  meeting  a  naked  beggar  he 
shared  his  cloak  with  him;  and  that  night  he  dreamed  of  Jesus 
Christ.  He  now  hastened  to  receive  baptism.  At  40  years  old 
he  left  the  imperial  army,  and  spent  many  years  in  retirement,  until 
in  371  he  was  elected  bishop  of  Tours  by  acclamation  of  the  people. 


ORIGIN  OF  MONASriCISM 


25 


Cassian  followed  S.  Martin  as  a  creator  of  Western 
monachism  ;  he  had  visited  the  monasteries  of  Egypt 
and  Palestine,  a  sack  on  his  back  and  a  staff  in  his  hand, 
and  on  his  return  described  the  practices  of  the  Eastern 
monks,  about  which  there  was  a  growing  curiosity  in  the 
West ;  publishing  at  Marseilles  in  420-440  his  two  works, 
the  Institutes  and  the  Conferences  or  Collations.*  The 
Eastern  customs  were  adapted  for  Western  monasteries, 
Cassian  himself  recognising  the  modifications  necessary. 
From  now  onwards  the  chief  monastic  centre  was  Gaul. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  v.  century  the  principal  monas- 
teries were  erected  \  but  the  great  impulse  was  given  to 
monastic  life  by  the  Rule  of  Caesarius  in  508.  Caesarius, 
Bishop  of  Aries,  the  most  illustrious  of  the  bishops  of  his 
time,  was  born  in  470  and  died  in  542.  He  first  founded 
a  convent  of  women  with  his  sister  Caesaria  at  their  head. 
Her  rule  joined  with  that  of  Cfesarius  was  adopted  by 
Radegund,  Queen  of  Clothair  I.  and  abbess  of  Sainte- 
Croix,  Poitiers.  It  was  sent  to  her  by  Caesaria  Junior  f 
in  an  epistle  which  has  been  declared  to  be  one  of  the 
ablest  literary  monuments  of  the  age.  In  it  she  insists 
on  learning  and  on  a  knowledge  of  literature  ;  and  while 
recommending  pious  lections  and  fidelity  to  all  duties, 
counsels  great  moderation  in  austerities  and  fasts.  Rade- 
gund Abbess  of  S'5  Croix  was  a  still  more  remarkable 


i^^assian, 
350-447- 


Monastic 
activity  in 
Gaul. 

Cfesarius 
and  Cassa- 
ria  of  Aries. 


Radegund, 
519-587- 


Desiring  to  escape  their  importunities  and  veneration,  he  after- 
wards retired  to  a  cell  near  Tours,  where  he  built  the  Abbey  of 
Alarmoiitier  and  gathered  Religious  round  him.  He  is  not  only  a 
great  saint  in  France,  but  was  venerated  very  early  in  Rome,  and 
by  Benedict  himself.  He  is  the  Patron  of  soldiers.  In  Art  he 
appears  either  haljiled  as  a  bishop,  an  abi)ey-church  in  his  hand; 
or  as  a  soldier  on  horseback,  halving  his  cloak  with  a  sword,  a 
beggar  at  his  feet :  sometimes  he  is  clothing  a  poor  man  with  his 
sacerdotal  robe.     His  feast  day  is  November  11. 

*  There  were  as  many  rules  in  the  East,  he  said,  as  monasteries 
or  even  as  monks'  cells.  Cassian  was  made  a  deacon  by  Chry- 
sostom.  He  founded  the  .Vbbey  of  S.  Victor,  in  which  the  Uni- 
versity of  Paris  may  be  said  to  have  taken  its  rise;  that  great 
abbey-school  where  Abailard  and  William  of  Champeaux  held  their 
controversy.     The  site  is  now  the  Ilallcs  aiix  vins  in  Paris. 

f  Caesaria's  successor. 


26        CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 


Donatus,  a 
disciple  of 
Caesarius, 
Ferreolus, 
Aurelian  of 
Aries. 

Patrick, 
Bridget, 
Columba. 


Columban. 


nun.*  Her  great  talents  had  been  fostered  at  the  royal 
villa  of  Aties  where  she  received  her  education.  In  her 
monastery  study  came  next  to  prayer ;  even  at  night  a 
lectrice  read  to  her.  Each  day,  writes  one  of  her  chil- 
dren, she  gave  them  lectures,  showing  great  solicitude 
that  they  should  understand  and  that  none  should  have 
an  excuse  for  pleading  ignorance.  The  fjoet  and  bishop 
Venantius  Fortunatus  was  a  monk  of  the  double  monas- 
tery she  governed,  and  has  recorded  how  richly  her  spirit 
was  stored  with  knowledge,  so  employed,  that  a  promi- 
nent place  in  the  literary  history  of  the  vi.  century  must 
be  assigned  to  her. 

Donatus  of  Besan^on  introduced  the  Rule  of  Caesarius 
into  his  diocese  in  532,  combined  with  that  of  Benedict; 
and  the  Rule  spread  rapidly  in  Gaul.  Other  legislators 
were  Aurelian  of  Aries  (499-553),  and  Ferreolus  Bishop 
of  Uzes  in  Languedoc  (521-581). 

But  the  Celtic  people  were  not  behindhand ;  Patrick 
founded  monasteries  in  Ireland  and  Scotland  in  the  v. 
century,  and  Bridget  (Abbess  of  Kildare)  founded  and 
ruled  houses  in  Ireland  at  the  end  of  the  v.  or  beginning 
of  the  vi*^.     Columba  founded  lona  in  563.t 

But  it  is  Colu7nban  who  for  some  time  rivalled  Benedict 
as  a  monastic  legislator  :  born  in  Leinster  the  year  of 
Benedict's  death,  543,  he  devoted  his  life  to  an  uncom- 
pjromising  reform  of  manners,  and  met  with  opposition 
on  all  hands.  He  founded  a  monastery  at  Bangor  in 
Wales,  and  in  585  crossed  to  France  with  12  monks, 
founding  Luxeuil  in  590,  and  Bobbio  in  Lombardy  later. 
At  both  these  great  monasteries  his  Rule  was  afterwards 
combined   with    Benedict's.      Columban    also    founded 


*  Radegund  and  Agnes  of  Poitiers,  and  Ingetrud  of  Tours  were 
the  first  rulers  of  Frankish  nuns.  The  former  was  ordained  a 
deaconess  by  S.  Medard. 

t  Columba  is  the  Columkille  of  Oswy's  dispute  between  the 
Scottish  Church  and  Rome,  held  at  the  instigation  of  Wilfrid  of 
York.     There  is  a  distich  about  the  3  Irish  apostles  which  runs : 

"  Three  saints  one  grave  do  fill, 
Patrick,  Bridget  and  Columkille." 


UKIGIN   OF  MONASTICISM  27 

houses  in   Ireland,  Scotland,  and  the  Isles,  and  one  in 
I'Jif^land  in  563.      in  I'jij^'land,  in  the  next  century  Hieu,    England 
fcHlowed  ])y  llild,  or  Hilda,  f^ujvcrned  a  double  monastery 
of  men  and  women  at  Whitby  in  Yorkshire  :    John  of 
IJeverley  and  the  most  remarkable  bishops  of  her  time 
were  among  Hild's  scholars  here,  and  it  is  she  who  took 
the  peasant  Caedmon  into  the  monastery,  and  made  of 
him  the  first  I'jiglish  poet.      It  is  from  this  monastery 
als(j  that  Wilfrid  of  York  went  forth.     The  monasteries 
and  sch(jols  of  Whitby,  under  Hild's  rule,  were  an  exam- 
ple of  the  Celtic  clan  system  ;   the  Ik'nedictine  rule  was 
not  adopted  till  later.      In  the  vn.  century  Isidore  of    Spain  and 
Seville,  and   Fructuosus,  Archl)ishop  of  Braga,  legislated    I'^rt'igai- 
for  S|)anish  and   Portuguese   monasteries.     Monasticism 
in  (icrmanywas  introduced  entirely  by  the  English  liene-   Germany, 
dictines  in  the  viii.  century. 

WHien  the  great   impulse  towards  monasticism  began    Differences 
ill  Southern  (Jaul  lOastern  monasticism  was  already  fully   '"^'ween 
d(;veioped,  and  its  evil  tendencies  served  as  an  object   and  i-'ast- 
lesscm  for  tlie  West.     Indeed  the  uKjtive  power  of  monas-   ern  Mo- 
tic  activity  in  the  West  was  the  very  opposite  of  that  in   "^s"^'^'"- 
the  l''ast  —  it  was  nijt  the  desire  for  isolation  but  for  com- 
binati(jn.    The  men  of  peace  and  of  ideas  felt  the  need  of 
conversation,  intellectual  and  religious  :    the  age  offered 
no  facilities  for  this  ;    and  the  monastic  life,  by  drawing 
men  together,  defmed  their  thoughts,  and  afforded  mut- 
ual support  and  edification.     Not  isolation  and  repres- 
si(jn,    but   combination    and   an    instinct   of  civilisation 
therefore    lay  at    the    root   of  the   Western   movement. 
The  Rules  indited  at  this  period  give  evidence  of  this  : 
—  'i"he    Rule   of  ('aesarius    for  nuns,   the   earlier  rule,    Early  Mo- 
remains  one  of  the  most  im|)ortant  monuments  of  early    "astic 
monastic  discipline.      It  embodies  the  rule  of  Augustine  ;    the  West, 
liiere  is  to  be  no  property,  the  keeping  of  waiting  women 
IS  prohibited  even  to  the  abbess,  and  ail  save  the  abbess 
must  employ  themselves,  in   rotation,  in  the  labours  of 
the   house.      The    nuns   are   reipiircd    to  study   2    hours 
each   morning,  ami  a  nun   is  to  read   aloud  during  work 
\mlil  9  A.M.,  and  ai^.o  during  meal*;.     One  of  the  depart- 


28        CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 

ments  of  the  monastery  is  the  MS.  room.  The  nuns  are 
to  be  lettered,  and  though  httle  girls  of  6  and  7  may  be 
received  and  educated,  no  child  is  to  be  admitted  who 
cannot  already  read.  Those  outside  the  convent  are  not 
to  be  entertained,  and  banquets  to  distinguished  women 
visitors,  to  bishops  or  abbats,  must  be  very  rare.  With 
this  exception,  neither  Churchmen  nor  laymen  were  al- 
lowed inside.  Silver  plate  was  to  be  used  in  the  oratory 
only.  Thus  the  life  of  these  Religious,  none  of  whom 
might  be  there  unless  of  her  own  free  will,  was  passed  in 
mental  and  manual  work,  in  educating,  in  listening  to 
reading,  in  chanting  the  divine  praises.  The  Rule  for 
monks  forbids  presents  to  be  received,  directs  that  there 
should  be  community  of  goods,  and  that  the  tasks  are  to 
be  chosen  by  the  Superior.  One  of  the  penalties  is  for 
late  comers  to  service,  who  are  to  be  caned  on  the  hand. 
The  Rule  of  Columban  (543-615)  is  one  of  the  most 

Of  S.  isi-      austere  of  Western  rules  ;   that  of  Isidore  of  Seville  (ob. 

dore  of  6^6)  is  One  of  the  mildest.  It  is  chiefly  interesting  for 
its  list  of  officers :  under  the  abbat  are  the  provost, 
dean,  sacrist,  doorkeeper,  cellarer,  hospitaller,  hebdoma- 
dary,  schoolmaster.  The  monks  sleep  lo  in  a  room,  in 
charge  of  the  dean ;  a  monk  with  administrative  ability 
is  to  be  hospitaller,  and  have  charge  of  the  sick  ;  another 
is  to  be  set  apart  to  teach  the  boys.  The  monk's  dress 
shall  be  neither  splendid  nor  mean,  but  sufficient  for 
warmth  ;  he  must  not  wear  linen,  which  was  costly  in  the 
West ;  he  is  to  have  3  tunics,  3  capes  {pallia)  and  a 
hood,  hose  and  shoes.  Meat  is  allowed  on  festivals ;  but 
baths  are  permitted  only  to  the  sick.  Absence  from  the 
convent  is  prohibited,  except  with  the  license  of  the 
Superior. 

Mabillon  cites  a  law  that  no  bishop,  even  if  invited  to 
do  so,  was  suffered  to  enter  the  more  private  portions 
of  a  nuns'  monastery,  or  to  interfere  with  the  abbess  in 
her  correction.  The  rule  of  C?esarius  orders  that  con- 
fessions to  the  bishop  must  be  made  through  the  abbess  ; 
and  Marcella  made  a  nile  never  to  have  speech  with 
bishops,  clergy,  or  monks  without  having  in  her  company 


ORIG/X  OF  MOXASTTCISM 


29 


"  grave  women,  virgins  and  widows."  Bishops  and  priests 
were  the  persons  principally  excluded  from  the  first  mon- 
asteries of  women. 

In  397  when  Martin  of  Tours  was  followed  to  the 
grave  by  2000  monks,  Jerome  was  writing  to  Pamma- 
chius  in  Rome,  congratulating  the  city  on  now  possess- 
ing the  monastic  life  of  which  till  then  it  had  been  in 
ignorance.  It  is  certain  that  until  the  closing  years  of 
the  IV.  cej.'-ury  the  only  monks  known  in  Rome  were 
men  of  the  type  of  vagabond-monk  *  like  Rufinus,  Pela- 
gius,  and  Jerome  himself.  But  communities  of  con- 
secrated virgins  dwelt  by  the  Roman  basilicas  earlier 
still.  It  is  not  known  where  Marcella  retired  when  she 
left  her  mother's  palace  on  the  Aventine  in  387.  Jerome 
says  she  went  outside  the  walls,  and  it  has  been  surmised 
that  she  retired  to  the  Ager  Veranus  (Basilica  of  S. 
Lorenzo).  As  she  and  Principia  were  found  near  the 
basilica  of  S.  Paul  during  the  Sack  it  appears  hkely  that 
this  was  the  site  of  her  monastery.  A  community  of 
Virgines  sacrcB  was  to  be  found  beside  S.  Lorenzo  in  the 
IV.  century,  and  another  in  the  latter  half  of  the  v';'. 
Similarly  early  ccenobia  were  to  be  found  by  S.  Agnese ; 
and  in  the  v.  century  Basilian  monks  lived  by  S.  Paul's, 
and  by  the  Lateran  ;  Leo  I.  built  the  monastery  of  S. 
Peter  by  that  basilica  and  Sixtus  III.  erected  one  by 
S.  Sebastian.  The  Aventine,  t  the  Ager  Veranus,  the 
Nomentana  by  S.  Agnese,  the  Appia  by  S.  Sebastian, 
the  Lateran,  and  the  Vatican,  are  therefore  the  6  earliest 
monastic  sites  in  Rome,  i  In  the  Campagna,  Paulinus 
of  Nola  built  a  "  monastery "  in  the  early  v.  century. 
By  the  end  of  the  vi.  century  S.  Gregory  the  Great 
speaks  of  ///('  3000  nuns  of  Rome. 


Earliesi 
Ccenobia 
in  Rome, 
before 
Benedict. 


The  system  of  double  monasteries  in  which  the  abbess 
was  Superior  of  related  houses  of  nuns  and  monks,  rose 
almost  contemporaneously  with  monasticism.  In  the 
VI.  century  the  Prankish  Radegund  ruled  the  first  such 

*  Called  by  Cassian  circiimcelliones. 

t  See  p.  20,  X  Cf.  Chap.  II.  p.  65,  91. 


Double 
monaster- 
ies. 


30        CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 

double  monastery  at  Poitiers,  the  Irish  Columban  propa- 
gated them  in  Gaul,  Hild  in  the  early  vii.  century  ruled 
a  related  house  of  men  and  women,  and  the  Anglo  Saxon 
nunneries  were  nearly  all  instituted  on  this  principle, 
which  was  introduced  with  Christianity  into  Germany 
and  Belgium.*  The  Gilbertines,  the  only  Order  of  Eng- 
lish origin,  were  founded  on  this  system.  S.  Fructuosus 
in  the  vii.  century  introduced  it  into  Spain.  Muratori 
says  that  there  were  never  double  monasteries  in  Italy  ; 
l)ut  Bede  mentions  one  in  Rome  itself  in  the  vi.  century, 
when  a  monk  "from  the  monastery  of  virgins"  was  one 
of  the  persons  selected  as  archbishop  of  Canterbury 
before  the  election  of  Theodore. f  The  case  of  Paulinus' 
and  Terasia's  monastery  would  seem  to  be  another  in 
point.  They  were  however  never  in  vogue.  The  last 
double  monastery  was  Fontevrault.J 

The  problem  of  double  monasteries  is  obscure  ;  Mon- 
talembert  drops  a  hint  of  its  meaning  when  he  speaks  of 
maternity  as  "  the  natural  form  of  authority."  No  doubt 
the  fact  that  this  is  so,  that  the  father's  authority  is  de- 
rived from  the  law,  is  created  by  the  law,  partly  accounts 
for  primitive  matriarchy.  But  barbarous  tribes  and  ancient 
civilisations  as  well  as  modern  have  experienced  the  powers 
of  administration  possessed  by  female  sovereigns,  and 
it  may  fairly  be  supposed  that  this  formed  a  further  excuse 
for  all  matriarchal  institutions.  It  is  a  fact  that  may  be 
noted  every  day  in  mixed  societies  of  men  and  women, 
that  whether  it  be  for  a  game  or  for  work  of  more  im- 
portance, a  woman  is  a  more  successful  leader  of  men 
and  women  than  a  man  ;  that  she  can  bring  out,  knit 
together,  and  employ  the  elements  distributed  in  a  mixed 
society,  as  men  cannot  do.  Given  then  an  initial  advan- 
tage in  dual  monasteries,  the  origin  of  the  rule  of  the 
abbess  is  not  far  to  seek.     Lastly  if  one  system  was  tested 

*  The  An<:;lo  Saxon  nuns  had  found  it  prevailing  in  the  Gallican 
monasteries  where  they  received  their  education,  and  which  had 
been  under  the  influence  of  Columban  —  such  were  the  abbeys  of 
Clielles,  Faremoutier,  Jouarre. 

t  Hist.  Eccl.  iv.  I.  +  vide  p.  119. 


ORIGIN  OF  MOXASTICISM  3 1 

with  success,  the  opposite  system  met  everywhere  with 
failure.  It  is  certain  that  communities  of  women  gath- 
ered round  religious  founders,  or  round  some  saintly  per- 
sonage, in  Egypt,  in  Ireland,  and  elsewhere ;  but  if,  as  is 
suggested,  double  monasteries  at  first  existed  as  a  meas- 
ure of  safety  in  lawless  times,  and  the  abbat  was  given 
the  principal  authority,  no  such  communities  flourished 
or  survived.  In  the  present  day  the  government  of 
female  Orders  by  male  Orders  has  been  found  an  obstacle 
to  the  due  development  of  the  former,  and  relief  from  it 
is  frequently  sought  of  and  granted  by  the  Holy  See. 
There  is  a  further  confirmation  of  a  rule  so  consistently 
operative.  At  Messines  the  Abbess  and  her  community 
of  Benedictines  went  in  state  on  certain  days  to  recite 
the  Divine  Office  in  the  Capitular  church  of  the  town  : 
all  the  canons  were  not  only  appointed  by  the  Abbess 
but  subordinate  to  her,  and  occupied  the  stalls  to  the 
left,  the  nuns  the  stalls  to  the  right.  In  secular  Chapters, 
also,  where  there  were  often  joint  choirs  of  canonesses 
and  canons,  the  canons  were  subordinate  ;  nor  did  the 
canonesses  always  desire  to  retain  the  double  choir ;  for 
instance  at  Mons  they  dismissed  the  canons  retaining 
themselves  the  Collegiate  church,  the  canons  only  nomi- 
nally retaining  their  prebends. 

DRESS   OF   MONTCS. 

The  garb  adopted  by  the  first  solitaries  indicates  the   Dress  of 
2  influences  acting  in  Egyptian  monachism  :    for  while   ™t)n-'^s. 
some  assumed  a  mantle  of  goat's  hair  or  sheepskin,  called 
the  melote,  in  imitation  of  a  hermit  of  the  type  presented 
by  the  Baptist,*  others  wore  the  philosopher's  pallium. 
In  the  West  close  cut  hair  and  the  pallium,  or  mantle,    Dress  of 
mentioned  by  Jerome,  were  the   distinguishing   badges.   ^^^^  first 
The  Eastern  monk's  "  little  frock  or  thin  mantle  of  goat-  andmonks. 
skin  "  were  fitted  to  cause  laughter  rather  than  edifica- 
tion  in  the  cold  climate   of  the  West,  writes  Cassian. 

*  Cf.  I.  Clement  to  the  Corinthians  17. 


CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 


CucuUus, 
or  hood. 


The  Bene- 
dictine 
cowl,  or 
mantle. 


The  Scapu- 
lar. 


This  "  little  frock  "  was  the  sleeveless  tunic  called  colobio  or 
tonaca  mozza.  S.  Martin  of  Tours  wore  a  "  dark  tunic  "  ; 
and  such  a  tunic  to  the  ankles  with  a  mantle  of  some 
dark  colour  (sometimes  of  skins)  appears  to  have  been 
the  usual  dress  of  monks  from  the  iv.  century  to  the  time 
of  Benedict,  and  is  mentioned  in  the  v.  century  as  "  the 
habit  of  religion."  It  was,  like  the  pallium,  the  simplest 
and  least  fashionable  dress  of  the  time.*  We  find  several 
allusions  to  the  shabby  simplicity  of  monastic  dress : 
Syncletica's  nuns  wore  "  a  poor  habit  "  ;  in  the  iv.  century 
the  monk  is  described  as  "  barefoot  and  in  a  dirty  black 
habit,"  while  the  Roman  nun  of  the  same  period  is  de- 
scribed as  wearing  "  an  ample  tunic  "  which,  says  Jerome, 
was  dark  and  coarse.  With  cenobitism  a  new  item  of 
costume  appears,  the  cowl,  cuciillus,  a  cape  or  hood, 
with  which  at  will  the  face  could  be  concealed.  It  was 
worn  by  peasants  and  infants,  and  was  intended  to  teach 
the  monk  humility  and  perhaps  custody  of  the  eyes. 
The  monks  of  Tabenna  wore  it  at  the  Liturgy.  Cassian 
speaks  of  it,  as  a  hood  reminding  the  monk  of  a  child's 
simplicity.  The  cowl  plays  an  important  part  in  Bene- 
dictine dress  ;  with  them  it  is  a  very  ample  cloak,  reach- 
ing to  the  ankles,  with  wide  sleeves,  and  is  always  worn, 
according  to  the  founder's  direction,  in  choir.  To  the 
v.  century  outfit  of  the  Egyptian  monk  mentioned  by 
Cassian,  colobio,t  melotej,  hood,  girdle,§  and  sandals, 
which  were  only  however  to  be  worn  as  a  luxury  and  not 
at  divine  worship, ||  Benedict  added  a  special  item  of 
monastic  costume,  the  scafu/ar,  to  be  worn  when  the 
monk  was  at  work.    The  scapular  is  a  long  strip  of  cloth, 


*  Tertullian,  De  pallio,  v.,  vi. 

t  Signifying  self-niortilication,  it  was  of  linen. 

j  Cassian  condemns  the  wearing  of  the  melote  outside  the  dress, 
as  too  conspicuous;  he  would  have  it  worn  round  the  waist  and 
thighs,  as  it  may  be  seen  to  this  day  on  peasants  of  the  Roman 
Campagna. 

§  To  remind  the  monk  that  his  loins  must  be  girded  up  as  a 
good  soldier. 

II  The  melote  and  girdle  which  the  monks  of  Pachomius  wore 
over  the  tunic,  were  both  removed  to  receive  the  Eucharist. 


ORIGIN  OF  MONASTICISM 


33 


generally  of  the  colour  of  the  habit,  which  is  passed  over 
the  head  and  hangs  down  the  whole  length  of  the  habit, 
back  and  front.  It  may  be  regarded  as  an  apron  to  pro- 
tect the  monk  while  working,  extending  the  length  of  the 
dress  behind  and  before  ;  or  as  a  mutilated  tunic,  of 
which  the  sides  and  arm-pieces  are  wanting.  This  work- 
a-day  item  has  become  the  sacred  garment  of  Western 
monachism,  a  parable  of  the  dignity  of  work  which  its 
founder  would  have  loved,  a  continual  remembrance  that 
"  to  work  is  to  pray,"  laborare  est  orarc.  S.  Benedict 
also  required  his  monks  to  wear  stockings,  an  item  un- 
known to  Egyptian  monachism.  He  forbade  the  wear- 
ing of  skins.  The  habit  worn  by  the  first  Benedictines 
was  of  unbleached  wool,  though  they  later  became  known 
as  "  the  black-robed  monks."  All  Benedictine  reforms 
have,  however,  adopted  a  white  habit,  and  it  is  probable 
that  the  habit  of  S.  Benedict  resembled  that  of  the  Cis- 
tercians, a  white  tunic  and  cowl  and  a  dark  scapular 
for  work.  In  contradistinction  to  previous  directions, 
S.  Benedict  prescribed  the  wearing  of  the  more  decent 
and  dignified  of  the  monks'  garments  in  church  and  at 
the  Liturgy  ;  the  ample  cloak  was  intended  to  cover  the 
semi-nudity  of  the  sleeveless  tunic,  and  to  provide  a  clean 
and  special  garment  for  the  opus  divimim,  the  Divine 
ofifice  in  choir. 

In  addition  to  the  tunic,  girdle,  scapular,  and,  on  occa- 
sion, cowl,  the  Carthusians  and  Camaldolese  wear  a  cloak 
out  of  doors  (the  colour  of  the  habit)  which  is  called  by 
Italians  capperitzzio.  The  Franciscans  and  Carmelites  do 
the  same.  The  cappa  is  now  distinctively  Dominican 
(see  p.  175).  The  ancient  sleeveless  tunic  has  developed 
into  a  garment  with  wide  sleeves,  used  as  pockets.  The 
hood,  which  all  monks  and  friars  wear,  is  attached  to  a 
shoulder-cape  called  the  capuce  {caputiiim)  .* 

The  scapular  is  worn  by  all  Western  monks  including 
Western  Basilians,  and  by  all  friars  except  the  Franciscans. 

*  See  Mozzetta,  Part  IV.,  p.  335.     The  shape  and  size  of  the 
hood  and  the  length  of  the  cape  attached,  vary.     For  figures  of  the 
scapular  see  plates  at  pp.  92,  175,  and  of  the  capuce  pp.  175,  197. 
D 


Colour  of 
the  Bene- 
dictine 
habit. 


The  cloak. 


The  later 
tunic  and 
hood. 


By  whom 
the  scapu- 
lar is  worn. 


34        CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 


Shoes  and 
sandals. 


Rosary. 


Hair. 


Dress  of 
Nuns. 


The  crown. 


Ring. 


All  Benedictines,  Canons,  and  Dominicans  wear  shoes 
and  stockings.  There  are  both  '  discalced  '  and  '  calced 
(barefoot  and  stockinged)  Carmelites  and  Augustinians  ; 
but  all  Franciscans  except  the  conventuals  are  *  dis- 
calced.' Discalced  friars  and  nuns  wear  sandals,  either 
of  wood  or  hempcord,  strapped  over  the  foot.  The  Men- 
dicant Orders  wear  a  rosary,  and  so  do  the  lay  brethren  of 
monastic  Orders.  For  the  hat  see  p.  485.  For  the  dress 
of  Clerks  Regular  and  of  the  modern  active  Orders  of 
women,  see  Chap.  V. 

All  monks  and  friars  now  wear  the  Roman  or  coronal 
tonsure ;  in  the  iv.  century  the  monk  used  to  have  his 
hair  cut  short,  it  was  Paulinus  of  Nola's  custom  in  the  v')\ 
and  hair  cut  short  on  one  pattern  is  ordered  in  Isidore  of 
Seville's  vii.  century  Rule.  For  the  rule  as  to  the  beard 
of  monks  and  friars  see  Part  IV.,  p.  489. 

The  women  solitaries  certainly  dressed  in  much  the 
same  way  as  the  male  hermits  ;  but  the  ecclesiastical  vir- 
gins had  apparently  from  the  first  distinguishing  points  of 
dress,  quite  distinct  from  that  of  the  ascetics.  The  pres- 
ent nuns'  costume  is  the  heir  of  both  of  these.  All  nuns 
wear  a  robe  or  tunic,  called  the  habit,  tied  with  a  girdle. 
Over  this  is  generally  worn  a  scapular.  On  the  head  is  a 
veil  worn  over  the  whimple  (ox  guimpe'),  which  is  a  close- 
fitting  linen  cap  encircling  the  face  and  chin,  and  termi- 
nating in  a  bib  ;  with  a  piece  for  the  forehead,  called  the 
fillet  (or  bandeau^.  The  veil  is  most  usually  worn  over 
an  under  veil,  called  the  veilette.  When  the  nun  makes 
her  final  profession  she  is  given  a  ring  which  she  wears 
always,  and  a  crown  which  she  now  wears  only  on  the  day 
of  her  profession.  Of  these  items  of  costume  the  tunic, 
girdle,  and  scapular  are  monastic,  the  crown,  ring  and 
veil  belong  to  the  canonical  virgin. 

In  Rome  the  earliest  mark  of  the  consecrated  virgin 
seems  to  have  been  the  crown,  a  gold  fillet  symbolising 
the  crown  of  virginity,  or  as  Optatus  says,  of  victory. 
This  earliest  headdress  was  called  mitra  or  mitella.  At 
a  much  later  date  a  ring  and  bracelet  were  added,  emblems 
of  betrothal  to  Christ.     From  the  111.  century,  at  least,  it 


ORIGIN  OF  MONASTICISM  35. 

was  the  custom  in  some  places  to  giv^e  a  white  veil  to  vir-  Veil, 
gins  ;  Athanasius  says  it  is  the  sign  of  belonging  to  Christ 
alone,  and  this  is  the  meaning  given  in  the  rite  of  conse- 
cration to-day.*  The  Church  of  x-\frica  did  not  think  it 
fitting  to  veil  a  virgin  who  was  the  glory  of  the  Church  in 
which  she  held  a  preeminent  place,  and  Tertullian  wrote 
a  Treatise  "  concerning  the  veiling  of  virgins,"  in  which  he 
attempted  by  quaint  arguments  to  persuade  that  Church 
to  veil  Ecclesiastical  Virgins.!  The  custom  introduced  by 
S.  Paul,  and  advocated  by  Tertullian,  was  not  accepted 
by  large  bodies  of  Christians,  but  it  met  those  views  of  the 
Gentile  world  which  suffered  a  constant  infringement  by 
Christian  manners  and  the  Christian  worship,  to  the  point, 
probably,  in  a  dissolute  city  like  Corinth,  of  thereby  seri- 
ously endangering  the  success  of  the  Gospel. 

It  must  however  be  remembered  that  the  principle  of 
veiling  the  face  of  women  —  which  has  prevailed  in  iMus- 
ulman  countries  —  though  repugnant  to  the  Christians 
who  hoped  to  forge  a  better  world  with  quite  other  weap- 
ons—  was  not  wholly  absent  even  in  the  primitive  Church, 
large  numbers  of  whose  converts  were  heirs  of  the  corrup- 
tion of  Greece  and  Rome.  "  Dans  certaines  parties  de  la 
communaute  chretienne,  on  vit  paraitre  a  diverses  reprises, 
I'id^e  que  les  femmes  ne  doivent  jamais  etre  vues,  que  la 
vie  qui  leur  convient  est  une  vie  de  reclusion,  selon  I'usage 
qui  a  prevalu  dans  I'Orient  Musulman.  ...  II  s'agissait 
de  savoir  si  le  Christianisme  serait,  comme  le  fut  plus  tard 
I'islamisme,  une  religion  d'hommes  d'ou  la  femme  est  a 
peu  pres  exclue."J     Now,  the  veil  takes  the  place  of  the 

*  Jerome  calls  \\.  flammcum  Christi ;  the  flammeum  was  the  red 
veil  of  the  Roman  bride. 

t  In  the  mosaics  of  S.  Zeno  in  S.  Prassede  the  distinction  approved 
by  the  African  Church  is  made :  the  virgins  are  crowned  with  the 
mitella,  while  the  Madonna  and  Theodora  are  veiled  as  matrons 
{niulieres). 

X  Renan,  Marc-Aurek  et  la  fin  du  Monde  Antique.  A  pa- 
gan lady  veiled  herself  as  a  sign  of  distinction,  of  apartness  — 
the  veil  being  a  fiction  which  enabled  her  to  be  in  the  street  and 
yet  never  be  in  the  street.  Amongst  her  peers  she  was  always 
unveiled.     At  the  inception  of  Christianity  the  uses  of  the  veil  in 


36        CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCIESIASTICAL   ROME 

monk's  hood  which  when  worn  over  the  head  has  a  very 
similar  appearance.  Irish  sisters  of  Mercy  wear  the  veil 
down  over  the  face  in  the  streets,  and  regard  it  as  a  sign 
of  retirement  from  the  world.  In  this  sense  the  monk's 
cowl  has  always  been  used,  at  prayer  and  meditation. 
Hair.  The  consecrated  virgin,  unlike  the  Roman  bride  who 

wore  her  hair  loose,  had  her  hair  gathered  up  and  tied. 
Ambrose,  Optatus,  and  a  Council  held  in  325  prohibit 
shaving  the  head,  but  Jerome  and  Augustine  both  speak 
of  it  as  the  custom.  It  was  done  in  Egypt  and  Syria  for 
cleanliness,  but  amongst  the  Teutons  was  not  viewed  with 
Present  favour,  as  it  was  their  custom  to  shave  an  adulteress.  To- 
tiay.  day  a  nun's  hair  is  cut  o.^  with  the  same  ceremonies  as 

tonsure  at  her  "  clothing."  To  be  both  shorn  and  cov- 
ered, as  nuns  are  to-day,  appeared,  it  will  be  remembered, 
a  self-evident  anomaly  to  S.  Paul.* 

The  habit  of  monks  and  nuns  and  of  the  Superior  or 
other  officers  in  a  monastery,  is  the  same  in  all  respects  : 

the  civilised  world  all  suggest  apartness  or  dedication  —  the  taking 
part  in  something  which  for  the  moment  or  permanently  separates 
you  from  others.  Thus  the  Roman  Emperor  was  veiled  when  he 
offered  sacrifice  as  Pontifex  Maximus,  a  veil  was  placed  over  the 
new  bride  and  bridegroom,  the  Vestal  Virgins  were  always  veiled, 
while  women  of  the  upper  classes  in  Greece  and  Rome  did  not  ap- 
pear in  the  streets  unveiled.  But  the  fact  that  "  not  many  mighty, 
not  many  noble  "  were  to  be  found  in  the  first  Christian  assemblies 
(I.  Cor.  i.  26)  made  such  a  custom  the  less  natural  and  welcome  to 
them.  Nevertheless  the  very  fact  that  it  imposed  a  sort  of  distinc- 
tion on  the  women  of  the  poor  Ecclesia  Fratrum  not  possessed  by 
their  sisters  outside  the  Ecclesia  —  a  distinction  which  would  have 
been  valued  by  them  as  a  moral  not  a  social  one  —  may  have  insured 
its  permanence. 

With  the  Jews  the  veil  was  a  praying  veil,  and  as  this  scarf  or  as 
a  mantle — for  it  is  called  the  virgin's  pa/Hum  long  before  it  is 
called  velanien — the  veil  may  have  originated.  It  may  be  pre- 
sumed that  the  first  Christians  refused  to  adopt  the  veil  in  the  sense 
of  the  pagan  world  around  them;  that  they  neither  veiled  the  face 
of  the  Christian  virgin  as  did  the  vestals,  nor  adopted  for  presbyters 
the  sacrificial  veil  of  the  Roman  priest. 

*  Tertullian  also  violently  objects  to  cutting  the  Virgins'  hair  short, 
and  intelligently  proposes  it  as  a  work  "  of  the  world,  the  rival  of 
God ! " 


ORIGIN  OF  MONASTICISM  37 

there  is  no  difference  of  dress  except  sometimes  between  Dress  of 
choir  and  lay  brethren,  and  that  between  professed  ReH-  prof^sed 
gious  and  novices  ;  and  this  latter  distinction  only  exists  and 
in  convents  of  nuns.  The  monastic  dress  was  not  rigidly  novices, 
adhered  to  in  early  times.  When  Charlemagne  made 
inquiries  regarding  monastic  costume,  it  was  found  that 
neither  cuculla  nor  scapular  were  worn  at  Monte  Cassino. 
The  former  was,  however,  in  use  ainong  the  French 
Benedictines,  but  the  Cassinese  wore  instead  a  cappa 
over  a  melota.  At  the  close  of  the  x.  century  the  sainted 
Abbess  Etheldrytha  is  represented  in  splendid  coloured 
robes,  and  her  veil  and  shoes  are  cloth  of  gold.  At  this 
time  the  dress  of  nuns  in  nowise  differed  from  lay  costume  ; 
the  dress  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  royal  nuns  was  often  gor- 
geous, and  caused  Bishop  Aethehvold  when  he  saw 
Abbess  Editha  at  the  court  of  her  father  King  Edgar  to 
thus  accost  her :  "  Daughter,  the  Spouse  whom  you  have 
chosen  delights  not  in  external  pomp.  It  is  the  heart 
which  He  demands."  "  True,  Father,"  she  replied,  "  and 
my  heart  I  have  given  Him.  While  He  possesses  it  He 
will  not  be  offended  with  external  pomp." 

For  the  ceremony  of  Clothing  monks  and  nuns,  see 
P-  135. 

The    earliest  names  for  the   monks  show,   like   their   Names  for 
dress,  the  combination  in  the  early  ascetic  character  of  "^on^s. 
disciple  of  the  Alexandrian  Schools,  and  descendant  of 
the   Hebrew  prophets.     They  were  known  not  only  as 
'  philosophers  '  and  '  Friends  '  or  '  Lovers,'  '  of  Ciod  '  but 
as   Servants  of  God,*    and   Seers.      '  Rcnouncers '    and 
'athletes  of  Christ'  betoken  their  character  of  ascetic, 
which  is  Basil's  name  for  them.     From  the  iv.  century 
they   were    known   as    monazontes,    monachos,    asketes 
(monk,  ascetic)  in  the  East.     In  the  West  in  the  iv.  and 
v.  centuries  an  isolated  monk  was  known  as  a  confessor, 
and  the  term  religiosus  was  introduced.     This  term  as   KcUgwus. 
confined  to  monks  and  nuns  is  an  outcome  of  cenobitism  ; 

*  Jerome. 


38        CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 

admission  to  a  monastery  was  called  conversion,  and  in 
the  III.  and  iv.  centuries  religion  came  to  mean  the  pro- 
fession of  monasticism,  and  hence  the  monks  became /ar 
excellence  the  religious.  From  the  v.  century  the  names 
Nun.  nonna   and    nonnus   appear,*    grandmother  and    grand- 

father, as  a  title  of  respect,  still  retained  in  the  word  nun. 
Much  earlier,  religious  women  were  designated  by  the 
various  titles  for  consecrated  virgins  (Part  IV.  p.  526). 
A  very  usual  name  was  tnonastria,  the  inmate  of  a  monas- 
tery ;  then  we  find  velala,  sanciiinonialis,'\  castinionialis, 
and  the  later  abbreviation  monialis.  In  the  beginning  of 
the  VI.  century  nuns  were  known  as  asketriai  (do-Kiyrptai), 
and  asceteria  ;  and  their  houses  were  called  ascitaria. 
New  name  All  monks  and  nuns  take  a  new  name  on  their  profes- 
on  piofes-  sion,  that  of  some  saint,  usually  of  their  Order,  and  some- 
times with  the  prefix  S.  The  Benedictines  retain  their 
surname  after  this  saint's  name,  so  do  Canons  Regular, 
Basilians  and  other  Eastern  Orders,  Augustinian  Romites, 
Dominicans,  Servites,  all  Tertiaries,  and  nearly  all  modern 
Congregations  of  women.  Carmelites  lose  the  surname, 
and,  like  the  discalced  Augustinians  and  Trinitarians, 
add  a  saint's  name  to  their  own  Christian  name  only. 
Franciscans  though  they  retain  the  surname  are  usually 
called  by  the  saint's  name. 

Vows.  Three  vows  are  taken  in  every  Religious  Order  and 

Congregation,  and  the  '  profession  of  Religion '  primarily 
means  the  profession  of  these  3  vows.  They  are  pov- 
erty, chastity,  and  obedience.  Poverty  is  understood 
to  mean  the  renunciation  of  all  personal  property,  but 
among  Franciscans  corporate  poverty  also  is  intended. 
Benedict  added  as  a  4"'  vow  stability  ;  and  many  religious 
congregations  add  a  vow,  expressing  the  special  scope  of 
the  Order,  as  hospitality,  care  of  the  sick,  the  redemption 
of  captives,  missionary  work. 
The  vow  of  Although  the  obligation  of  obedience  now  looms  so 
obedience,    \xxQe:  in  the  monk's   horizon,  it  is  the  latest  of  the   3 

and  order.  ° 

*  Palladius,  vi)vi%.  \  The  term  used  by  Gregory  the  Great. 


ORIGIN  OF  MONASTICISM 


39 


in  order  of  time ;  the  primitive  ascetic  rule  being  confined 
to  a  life  of  poverty  and  chastity.  The  cohesiveness  and 
orderliness  brought  by  the  vow  of  obedience  into  monas- 
ticism,  has  been  said  to  be  the  result  of  the  influence  of 
the  clergy  ;  but  it  seems  more  natural  to  assume  that  it 
was  simply  because  the  great  lawgivers  distrusted  the  law- 
lessness of  anchoritism  that  the  observance  of  a  rule  under 
vows  which  is  in  fact  the  characteristic  not  of  the  clergy 
but  of  the  monks,  was  introduced  by  them.*  The 
observance  of  a  rule  by  the  clergy  —  the  true  principle  of 
regular  clei'gy  —  was  rather  borrowed  from  monasticism 
than  vice  versa.  The  organisation  which  existed  in  the 
hierarchy  of  the  iv.  century  was  something  entirely  distinct 
from  that  brought  about  by  the  vow  of  obedience  imposed 
on  monks :  nor  did  any  vow  form  part  of  primitive 
ordination.  Religious  obedience  was  insisted  on  by 
Benedict  partly  as  a  bulwark  against  the  fanatic  lawless- 
ness of  the  Eastern  monks,  but  perhaps  partly  also  as  a 
contribution  to  monachism  of  the  Roman  sense  of  law 
and  order  by  the  great  Western  legislator. 

The  distinction  now  recognised  between  simple  and 
solemn  vows,  is  not  original.  Solemn  vows  are  vows 
taken  publicly,  coram  ecclesia ;  but  the  form  in  either 
case  is  the  same.  The  theory  at  the  present  day  is  that 
only  nuns  with  papal  enclosure,  and  who  have  renounced 
their  power  of  inheriting  property,  may  take  solemn  vows. 
This  obviously  implies  the  concurrence  of  the  civil  and 
ecclesiastical  powers,  such  as  is  implied  in  canon  law  but 
exists  nowhere  in  modern  States.  Monks  may  and  do 
take  solemn  vows  without  anv  of  these  disabilities. 

Solemn  vows  are  perpetual  ;  so  are  simple  vows  unless 
the  contrary  is  expressed.  Several  modern  congregations 
take  the  vows  for  one  year,  renewing  them  on  the  same 
day  annually  ;  these  are  called  temporal  vows. 

It  used  to  be  very  difficult  to  obtain  a  dispensation 
from  perpetual  vows  ;    but  at  the  present  day  it  is  not  so 

*  On  the  other  hand  at  the  beginning  of  the  W.  century  Cassian 
represents  obedience  as  the  chief  virtue  among  the  Egyptian  monks; 
certainly  among  them  a  principle  uf  servility  not  of  orderliness. 


Benedict 
and  obedi- 
ence. 


Simple  and 

solemn 

vows. 


Renewable 
and  per- 
petual 
vows. 

Dispensing 


40        CHRISTIAN  AND   ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 


Irrevoca- 
bleness  of 
the  vow  of 
Virginity. 


Relation  of 
the  civil 
power  to 
the  vows. 


How  taken. 


difficult.  The  vow  of  Chastity,  however,  is  never  dis- 
pensed, and  no  one  who  has  taken  perpetual  vows  may 
ever  marry,  even  though  he  be  dispensed  from  the  other 
two,  and  so  cease  to  be  monk  or  nun. 

S.  Basil  regarded  the  marriage  of  a  nun  as  adultery  ;  in 
Southern  Gaul  the  married  nun  was  sentenced  to  a  long 
excommunication.  But  Epiphanius  draws  a  distinction 
between  marriage  and  profligacy  ;  in  the  former  case,  he 
declares,  the  excommunication  should  be  removed  after 
penance  done.  Leo  I.  allowed  of  no  reinstatement ; 
S.  Augustine  says  that  though  marriage  is  very  culpable, 
it  is  not  invalidated  by  her  profession  ;  *  and  the  council 
of  Chalcedon  recommends  the  married  nun  to  mercy. 
The  Theodosian  Code  allowed  the  ecclesiastical  virgin  to 
return  to  the  world  any  time  before  she  attained  40 
years.t  It  is  not  till  Benedict's  rule  was  completely 
established  that  the  vow  of  virginity  was  finally  regarded 
as  irrevocable.  J 

No  modern  government.  Catholic  or  Protestant,  recog- 
nises any  of  the  vows  as  binding  ;  and  by  the  civil  law  of 
all  countries  no  one  can  be  "  enclosed,"  everyone  may 
legally  marry,  and  no  one  may  legally  divest  himself  of 
the  power  of  inheriting.  The  vows  are  therefore  volun- 
tary and  in  the  strictest  sense  religious  only. 

Vows  are  always  taken  in  the  hands  of  the  Superior. 
The  ceremony  of  profession  differs  in  different  Orders 
and  Congregations  :  sometimes  it  takes  place  privately 
in  the  Chapter  Room,  sometimes  in  church  during  mass, 
in  which,  after  the  vows  have  been  taken,  the  newly  pro- 
fessed person  communicates.     [See  pp.  130,  134,  173.] 


Enclosure.  AH  nuns  living  under  solemn  vows  are  now  enclosed; 
that  is,  they  can  never  leave  the  precincts  of  the  monas- 
tery where  they  live.     Enclosed  nuns  do  not  ever  speak 

*  De  bono  viduaiate,  viii.  9,  10. 

t  Cf.  p.  63. 

X  S.  Gregory  alludes  to  one  of  his  three  aunts  who  abandoned 
her  profession  and  married,  in  the  words  oblita  consecrationis  sui, 
"  forgetful  of  her  consecration." 


ORIGIN  OF  MOXASTICrSM  41 

with  the  outside  world,  except  through  a  grate,  called  in 
French  the^/77/<?.*  A  double  grille,  used  by  Dominican 
nuns,  and  even  in  some  modern  Benedictine  houses, 
consists  of  two  gratings  set  a  few  feet  one  from  the 
other ;  the  nun  stands  behind  the  further  grating,  and 
sometimes  speaks  with  her  veil  drawn  over  the  face, 
or  with  the  grille  curtained.  Enclosed  nuns  have  no 
locutory  ox  parloir,  the  room  set  apart  in  other  religious 
Orders  in  which  persons  from  outside  are  received. 
Letters  or  other  objects  delivered  at  an  enclosed  monas- 
tery are  placed  on  a  revolving  cylinder,  called  the 
toin-elle.  The  grille  is  Dominican,  and  was  introduced 
by  S.  Dominic.  What  is  described  above  is  papal  en-  papal  en- 
closure.  It  is  however  certain  that  the  custom  is  not  closure, 
ancient;  indeed  it  was  never  ordered  till  Boniface  VHI. 
issued  the  Bull  Pericidoso  ordaining  the  enclosure  of 
nuns.  The  order  was  however  systematically  evaded, 
and  the  custom  was  finally  established  in  1545  by  the 
Council  of  Trent  (Session  25).  Both  Boniface  and  the 
Council  of  Trent  appealed  to  civil  magistrates  to  compel 
enclosure  by  force,  under  pain  of  excommunication  if 
they  refused.  Historically,  however,  enclosure  formed 
no  part  of  the  life  of  the  canonical  virgins  in  the  primi- 
tive Church,  or  of  the  first  cenobites,  or  of  the  great 
nuns  after  Benedict ;  indeed  the  life  led  by  all  these 
made  such  a  custom  utterly  impossible.  It  is,  in  fact, 
precisely  in  those  Orders  for  women  which  did  not  arise 
till  the  XIII.  century,  that  enclosure  was  accepted  \vith 
most  fervour.f  In  German  Switzerland  it  may  be  said 
that  papal  enclosure  has  never  existed  in  Benedictine 
abbeys,  4  of  which  still  exist  without  it ;  and  in  Aus- 
tria it  has  never  been  accepted  by  some  of  the  great 
abbeys.  In  so  celebrated  an  abbey  as  S.  Pierre  at 
Rheims  there  was  no  enclosure  till  1 602-1 626,  when  the 
then  abbess  restored  it  "  according  to  the  norm  of  the 

*  There  may  be  a  grate  without  papal  enclosure,  but  not  vice 
versa. 

t  See  Franciscans  p.  149.  Dominicans  p.  173.  Carmelites  p. 
189. 


42        CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCIESIASTICAL  HOME 

sacred  canons."     In  the  new  world,  America  and  Aus- 
tralia, Benedictine  enclosure  is  non-existent. 
Nunsgoing       Though   a   French   Council   in    755  says  that  "nuns 
forth.  must  not  go  forth,"  the  whole  authoritative    history  of 

nuns  shows  us  that  they  did  go  forth.*  At  the  end  of 
the  VI.  century,  the  order  for  the  procession  during  the 
great  plague  runs  :  AH  the  Abbesses  with  their  commirni- 
iies  (to  start) /re*///  the  church  of  SS.  Peter  and  Marcel- 
line,  with  the  presbyters  of  the  first  region.  In  800 
Pope  Leo  III.  was  met  on  his  arrival  in  Rome,  "  by  the 
nuns  and  deaconesses,"  and  Cancellieri  remarks  that 
virgins  had  then  no  enclosure.  In  11 12,  Paschal  II.  sent 
the  nuns  to  meet  the  Empeior  Henry  V.  Chaucer  shows 
us  Prioresses  and  nuns  joining  the  common  pilgrimage  to 
Canterbury  in  the  xiv.  century,  as  they  had  pilgrimaged 
to  Rome  in  the  viii'.'\  Until  the  last  few  years  a  vestige 
still  remained  of  the  old  usage  ;  for  on  the  Feast  of  Cor- 
pus Christi,  the  nuns  of  Nonburg  used  to  walk  in  the  pro- 
cession ;  a  custom  which  emulated  in  the  xix.  century  the 
VI.  century  procession  of  S.  Gregory,  to  honour  a  festival 
which  was  entirely  due  to  a  Benedictine  nun  of  the  xiii'!*. 
Enclosure  As  enclosure  attaches  to  nuns  in  their  character  of  con- 
and  the  secratcd  virgins,  it  is  interesting  to  see  that  in  the  early 
virgins.  Church'  the  consecrated  virgins  lived  at  home.  The 
Council  of  Carthage  in  the  iv.  century  still  speaks  of  them 
as  living  with  their  families  ;  S.  Jerome  says  some  con- 
tinued to  dwell  at  home,  and  some  left. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  at  the  time  when  enclosure 
was  enforced  by  the  Council  of  Trent  none  of  the  modern 
teaching  and  charitable  Orders  existed,  and  when  Mary 
Ward  in  the  xvn.  century  proposed  to  institute  an  Order 
without  enclosure,  the  reason  the  pope  gave  when  con- 
demning it,  was  that  she  had  undertaken  a  matter  beyond 
the  powers  at  the  disposition  of  her  sex.  It  may  be 
safely  affirmed  that  no  action  initiated  by  Catholics  since 
the  Reformation  has  done  so  much  to  show  the  resources 
and   spirit   of  Christian  charity,  or   to   win  respect  for 

*  Similar  decrees  say  that  abbats  must  not  go  forth,  and  they 
must  not  be  taken  as  implying  enclosure  in  the  modern  sense. 


ORIGiy  OF  iMOXASTICISM 


43 


Catholicism,  as  the  institution  of  the  unenclosed  congrega- 
tions for  women.  It  is  indeed  in  part  because  the  hands 
of  the  nuns  of  the  West  were  tied  by  enclosure,  that  the 
modern  congregations  multiplied  apace. 

Among  monks  the  Carthusians  and  Trappists  are  en- 
closed, and  never  leave  the  precincts  of  the  monastery 
except  when  ordered  to  journey  from  one  monastery  to 
another.  Otherwise  enclosure  among  men  principally 
refers  to  the  absolute  prohibition  to  receive  members' 
of  the  other  sex  into  the  monastery.  Men  can  easily 
obtain  permission  to  visit  the  monks  in  the  enclosed 
portions  of  the  house. 

Every  religious  house  is  enclosed  ;  that  is  persons  from 
outside  may  not  enter  certain  portions,  which  are  the 
dormitory  and  refectory,  with  their  precincts,  and  the 
choir,  without  permission  from  the  competent  authority. 
This  enclosure  is  a  disposition  made  by  the  Diocesan. 
But  the  only  canonical  enclosure*  is  the  papal  enclosure 
described  above,  which  brings  the  subject  of  it  under 
canon  law. 

Against  princes  and  princesses  of  the  blood  there  is  no 
enclosure. 

A  '  canonically  erected  house '  means  one  that  is 
recognised  by  the  Church  as  under  an  acknowledged 
rule. 

Where  there  is  no  enclosure,  nuns  and  monks  may  go 
out  when  necessary,  and  in  obedience  to  the  superior. 

For  the  form  of  strict  enclosure  which  has  always  existed 
in  hermit  Orders,  see  p.  102. 

The  rules  regarding  the  property  of  intending  monks 
and  nuns  vary  slightly  :  all  make  a  will  before  their  final 
profession,  and  they  may  leave  their  property  as  they  like. 
But  by  canon  law  a  nun  is  bound  to  bring  a  dozviy  with 
her  to  the  monastery.  In  England  the  sum  usually  re- 
quired, but  with  so  many  exceptions  as  not  to  form  a  rule, 
is  ^1000,  in  Italy  5000  francs,  or  even  so  small  a  sum 
as  1000  francs  (;^4o)  is  accepted.  The  rest  of  her  prop- 
erty she  may  dispose  as  she  likes,  but  in  many  cases  the 
natural  interest  of  monk  or  nun  in  their  monastery  leads 


Enclosure 
among 


"  Episcopal 
enclosure." 


Canonical- 
ly erected 
monastery. 

Monks  and 
nuns  with- 
out en- 
closure. 

Hermits. 

Property 
and  dowry. 


44 


CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 


them  to  bequeath  all  they  have  to  it.  At  first,  neverthe- 
less, when  a  monk  and  nun  divested  themselves  of  their 
property,  it  usually  went  to  benefit  their  relations  or  the 
poor. 

No  dowry  is  required  of  men,  and  the  dowry  for  women 
ia  designed  as  a  means  of  support  for  the  enclosed  nun. 
In  self-supporting  congregations,  such  as  tuitional  Orders, 
no  dowry  is  necessary,  the  work  of  the  Religious  is  the 
dowry  she  brings  to  the  House.  Poverty  is  not,  however, 
a  barrier  to  the  admission  of  a  Benedictine  nun. 


Govern- 
ment of 
Orders. 

By  an 
A'bbat. 


By  a 
General. 


The  earliest  form  of  government  is  that  by  an  abbat, 
the  ruler  of  a  house  of  monks  ;  the  Rule  of  Benedict  did 
not  contemplate  an  abbat  ruling  in  chief  over  several  mon- 
asteries. Benedictine  Congregations  are  now  governed 
by  an  abbat  general,  separate  abbeys  by  an  abbat.  Each 
congregation,  until  recently,  was  divided  into  provinces, 
all  the  houses  in  a  province  being  under  a  Provincial. 
Benedictine  nuns  are  ruled  by  an  abbess,  each  house  being 
entirely  independent,  even  though  possessing  identical 
statutes  ;  there  are  no  Provincials. 

Carmelites,  Franciscans,  and  Dominicans  have  always 
been  governed  by  a  Father  General,  who  is  superior  in 
chief  over  the  whole  Order  ;  the  Order  being  divided  into 
provinces  under  Provincials.  Modern  congregations,  like 
the  Jesuits,  are  also  governed  by  a  General.  A  "  Mother 
General  "  is  a  modern  title  ;  nearly  all  modern  congrega- 
tions of  women,  including  regular  Tertiaries,  are  governed 
by  a  Mother  General.  The  head  of  the  separate  houses  of 
unenclosed  communities  are  called  Superiors.  Augustin- 
ians  (men)  are  governed  by  a  Prior  General,  or  other 
Superior  General;  the  nuns  are  ruled  by  an  abbess,  a 
prioress,  or  a  Superior.  Regular  Canons  are  ruled  by  a 
Prior  General  and  Provincials.  As  a  general  rule,  there- 
fore, monks  and  nuns  (Benedictines)  \wQ\n  abbeys  ;  friars 
and  Canons  Regular  (men  and  women)  \vi  priories.  But 
there  are  abbeys  of  Franciscan  and  of  Augustinian  nuns  ; 
and  there  are  no  Franciscan  priories.  The  houses  of  Terti- 
aries and  Oblates  have,  properly,  no  designation. 


ORIGLV  OF  MONASTICISM  45 

A  certain  amount  of  control  has  always  been  exercised  Episcopal 
over  the  abbat  or  other  superior  and  over  the  monastery,  '^°"''"°'- 
by  the  bishop.  Hormisdas  (514)  restricted  their  power 
to  that  of  simple  visitation*  The  attempt  to  consolidate 
episcopal  jurisdiction  over  the  monks  was  made  during 
the  V.  and  vi.  centuries.  In  the  vii.  century  there  was  a 
settled  formula  of  compact  with  the  bishop,  designed  to 
limit  his  interference  and  cupidity  :  tJie  bishop  was  to  be 
anathema  and  excommunicate  for  3  years  if  he  broke  the 
compact.  S.  Boniface  was  one  of  the  first  to  remove  a 
monastery,  that  of  Fulda  in  Germany,  from  episcopal  con- 
trol, and  place  it  under  direct  papal  jurisdiction.!  Char- 
lemagne's policy  was  to  diminish  ecclesiastical  authority, 
and  he  substituted  the  emperor  for  the  pope  in  final 
appeals.  In  England  the  bishop's  authority  was  never 
more  than  nominal.  The  exemption  of  the  religious  Orders 
from  episcopal  control  in  the  late  middle  ages  caused 
much  heart  burning.  Especially  were  the  Mendicant 
Friars  free  of  this  control. 

In  the  West  the  centralising  authority  of  the  papacy 
took  the  place  to  a  certain  extent  of  that  episcopal  con- 
trol which  was  lacking  in  both  East  and  West.  Certain 
Benedictine  Congregations  are  exempt  from  the  bishop's 
authority,  a  distinction  noted  in  the  form  of  the  vow. 
Benedictine  nuns  are  under  the  supervision  of  the  Diocesan 
unless  exempted.  The  example  of  S.  Boniface  has  been  Papal juris- 
frequently  followed  since,  and  adopted  by  many  congre-  'J'ct'o"- 
gations  ;  so  that  over  some  the  bishop  has  only  the  right 
of  simple  visitation,  and  the  congregations  are  directly 
subject  to  the  Holy  See, 

Abbats,  but  not  Abbesses,  aj-e  bound  to  pay  the  visit  Abbat's 
ad  limiua.     The  Abbat  of  S.  Alban's  in  the  time  of  Inno-   V""' '"'' 
cent  111.  had  to  pay  this  visit  every  3  years,  which  en- 
tailed much  disorder  and  expense  on  the  monastery. 

Orders  are  governed  not  only  by  the  Superior  General,   Chapter. 

*  This  exemption  was  obtained  by  S.  Cesarius  fur  the  Nunnery 
at  Aries. 

t  A  double  monastery  at  Vienne  obtained  exemption  in  the  middle 
of  the  VII.  century. 


46        CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 


Procura. 


Generals 
to  reside 
in  Rome. 


but  by  means  of  General  Chapters.  The  first  Chapter 
General  was  held  at  Citeaux  in  1119.  The  Carthusians 
in  1 141  held  one  in  imitation.  In  12 15  the  Lateran 
Council  made  the  convocation  of  Chapters  General  obli- 
gatory on  all  Orders.  They  are  generally  held  at  the 
Mother  House  of  the  Order. 

Every  integral  Order  has  a  Procurator  General  who 
represents  its  interests,  and  resides  at  a  Procura  of  his 
Order  in  Rome  ;  and  a  Secretary  General  for  the  affairs  of 
the  whole  Order.  The  present  pope  has  required  the 
Generals  of  men's  Orders  to  reside  in  Rome ;  but  this 
does  not  include  all  the  Clerks  Regular,  or  the  Generals  of 
Ecclesiastical  Congregations. 


Legal 
status  of 
the  monas- 
teries. 


On  June  19,  1866,  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  at  Flor- 
ence (which  was  then  the  capital  of  United  Italy)  passed 
a  law  suppressing  the  monasteries.  By  this  law  every 
monastery  in  Italy  was  to  cease  to  exist  as  a  corporate 
body,  all  its  property  was  confiscated,  the  more  celebrated 
houses  were  declared  national  monuments,  *  and  others 
were  to  be  converted  into  hospitals,  infant  asylums,  and 
schools.  If  they  were  not  so  appropriated  at  the  expira- 
tion of  one  year,  their  revenue  was  to  form  part  of  the 
fondo  per  il  culto,  or  fund  for  public  worship.  The  monks 
and  nuns  were  in  many  cases  allowed  to  remain  for  a 
term  of  years,  or  until  they  dwindled  to  a  specified  num- 
ber, f  on  condition  always  that  no  new  novices  were 
accepted  ;  a  law  which  was  evaded  by  sending  for  Re- 
ligious from  other  houses.  The  monks  and  nuns,  whether 
turned  out  from  their  monasteries  or  remaining  there 
conditionally  were  to  be  pensioned  at  rates  varying  from 
150  to  600  francs  (^6-^24)  a  year  :  the  lay  brethren  of 
Mendicant  Orders  receive  150,  priests  300;  lay  brethren 
of  monastic  Orders  300,  choir  monks  600.  Nuns  in  en- 
closed Orders  600,  lay  sisters  300.     The  pensions  only 

*  No  voice  was  raised  to  preserve  even  Monte  Cassino,  or  the 
Certosa  at  Pavia. 

t  Since  the  suppression  some  300  have  iieen  abandoned,  in 
many  cases  by  concentrating  the  Religious  in  one  monastery. 


ORIGIN  OF  MONASTICISM  47 

apply  to  those  who  were  in  the  convent  before  1870  ;  and 
are  therefore  a  continually  diminishing  sum.*  The  entire 
revenues  escheated  to  the  Crown,  part  going  to  form  the 
*  Fund  for  public  worship  '  out  of  which  the  pensions  of 
monks,  income  of  incumbents,  revenues  of  diocesans, 
repair  of  ecclesiastical  fabrics,  and  similar  expenses  are 
paid,  t  Exemption  from  confiscation  was  urged,  but  in 
vain,  in  favour  of  the  historic  Camaldoli  in  Tuscany,  the 
Sisters  of  Charity,  and  the  Fate-bene-Fratelli.  By  this 
law  "  Religious  Orders,  corporations,  and  congregations, 
regular  and  secular,  as  also  conservatories  and  asylums 
which  maintain  the  community  life,  and  have  the  ecclesi- 
astical character,  are  no  longer  recognised  in  the  State." 
They  have  no  legal  tenure,  it  is  illegal  to  profess  a  monk 
or  nun  in  any  House  which  falls  under  this  law,  and  new 
monasteries  can  no  longer  be  held  in  the  name  of  the 
community.  %  Some  Religious  stay  on  in  charge  of 
schools  and  asylums,  others  as  custodians  of  Houses 
declared  national  monuments.  The  Archives  however 
have  been  removed  to  the  public  libraries. 

Religious   communities    have    multiplied    enormously    increase  of 
since  the  Suppression.     There  is  scarcely  a  street  of  im-    Religious 
portance  in  Rome  without  a  convent,  and  this  applies  to   ties  in  " 
the  new  quarter  as  well  as  to  the  well  known  monasteries    Rome. 
in  the  old  quarters.     The  number  indeed  is  a  constantly 
increasing  one. 

The  old  Orders  have  some  100  monasteries,  72  of  men.    Numbers, 
and  28  enclosed  houses  of  nuns.  §     The  active  Sister- 

*  These  pensions  amount  (1899)  to  4,412,000  francs  a  year; 
distributed  among  13,875  Religious. 

t  This  Fund  is  disbursed  through  the  Ministry  di  Grazia,  Gitis- 
tizia  e  Culio. 

\  They  are  therefore  always  purchased  in  the  name  of  a  private 
person. 

§  Men:  Benedictines  ('White'  and  'Black,'  Monks  and  Her- 
mits) 16.  Canons  4.  Eastern  Monks  (3  Basilian)  5.  Francis- 
cans 23.     Dominicans  II.     Augustinians  5.     Carmelites  8. 

For  Enclosed  nuns,  refer  to  Chaps.  II.,  III.,  and  IV.  For 
the  semi-enclosed  communities,  refer  to  Chap.  V.,  p.  285  and 
p.  286;  and  Chap.  IV.,  Oblates. 


Rome. 


48        CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 

hoods,  with  Franciscan  and  Dominican  Tertiaries,  have 
130  houses,  including  their  residences  at  8  pubhc 
hospitals  of  which  they  have  the  charge  ;  while  semi- 
enclosed  Communities  and  Oblates  have  18  houses 
more.  Regular  Clerks  and  other  ecclesiastical  congre- 
gations have  70  houses  in  Rome.  A  total  of  some 
336.  These  336  represent  191  monastic  and  Religious 
congregations,  and  175  Orders,*  100  of  women  and  75 
of  men  —  or  175  different  Religious  habits  to  be  dis- 
tinguished in  the  streets.  Some  18  of  these  are 
however  never  seen,  because  they  are  worn  by  strictly 
enclosed  nuns ;  and  some  34,  being  Congregations  of 
Clerks,  wear  a  dress  hardly  distinguishable  from  that  of 
ordinary  secular  priests.  Fifteen  more,  observing  a  semi- 
enclosure,  virtually  never  go  out  t  —  thus  leaving  about 
108  habits  constantly  to  be  met  with  in  the  streets  of  Rome. 
Corners  of  Of  the  monasteries  in  which  the  historic  Orders  live,  53 
D  °"^i'''^  of  the  old  Houses  are  still  occupied  by  monks  and  friars  ; 
and  the  nuns  have  19  old  monastic  sites,  most  of  which 
date  from  the  xvi.  century.  The  rest  are  new.  Several 
Communities  of  women,  also,  occupy  one  ancient  build- 
ing :  S.  Pudenziana  3  ;  S.  Bernardino  da  Siena  3 ;  S. 
Cecilia  2  ;  SS.  Quattro  Incoronati  2. 

Some  of  the  old  quarters  of  Rome  are  nests  of  monas- 
tic dwellings  —  such  is  the  Suburra,  between  the  slopes 
of  the  Quirinal  and  the  Esquiline  ;  some  portions  of  Traste- 
vere,  and  the  Celian  hill :  while  clusters  of  monasteries 
were  grouped  round  the  Lateran,  S.  Maria  Maggiore,  and 
the  Vatican,  many  of  which  still  remain.  As  a  rule  noth- 
ing conveys  to  the  visitor  their  monastic  importance  ;  a 
small  unpretentious  door,  in  a  narrow  vicolo,  is  often  the 
only  entrance  to  one  of  these  old  busy  centres  of  life. 
If  you  are  privileged  to  ring  the  bell,  the  door  is  jerked 
open  from  above,  and  you  find  your  way  upstairs  to  the 
tourelle,  and  thence  after  inquiries  made,  to  \\\t  grille. 

*  There  are  34  congregations  of  enclosed  nuns,  living  in  28 
monasteries,  and  representing  18  Orders,  though  the  congregations 
are  not  interdependent.     See  pp.  90,  216. 

t  S&t  footnote  §  to  the  last  page. 


OR  I G IX   OF  MOXASTTCrSM  49 

The  initials  of  the  Benedictine  Order  are:  —  Black  initials  of 
Benedictines  O.  S.  B.  {Order  of  ?>.  Benedict)  ;  Cistercians  ^'o^^r^tl^ 
O.  Cist. ;  Trappists  O.  C.  R.  (Order  of  Reformed  Cister-  tions. 
cians).  Other  monks  write  the  first  letters  of  their  Order, 
as  Cart.  Carthusian  ;  Vall.  Vallambrosan.  Franciscans  : 
O.  M.  {Ordo  Minorum,  recently  changed  from  O.  S.  F.)  ; 
Capuchins  O.  M.  Cap.  (from  O.  S.  F.  C.) ;  Conventuals 
O.  M.  Conv.  Dominicans  :  O.  P.  (  Order  of  Preacliers. 
Ordo  Praedicatoruni)  and  O.  S.  D.  (the  latter  usually 
for  women)  ;  Carmelites  :  Carin.  Calc.  and  Carm.  excal. 
('  Calced '  and  '  Discalced  ')  ;  Augustinians  :  O.  S.  A. ; 
Servites  :  O.  S.  M.  (Order  of  the  Servites  of  Mary)  ;  Lat- 
eran  Canons  Regular  :  C.  R.  L. ;  Premonstratensian  Can- 
ons :  C.  R.  P.;  Jesuits:  S.  J.  {Society  of  Jesus,  Societas 
Jesii)  ;  Redemptorists  :  C.  SS.  R.  (Congregation  of  the 
Most  Holy  Redeemer)  ;  Passionists  :  C.  P.  (Congregation 
of  the  Passion) ;  Marists  :  S.  M.  {Societas  Mariae)  ;  Ob- 
lates  of  Mary  Immaculate  :  O.  M.  I.  Congregation  of 
the  Mission  (Vincentians)  :  C.  M.  ;  Sulpicians  :  P.  S.  S. 
(priest  of  S'.  Sulpice) ;  Pious  Society  of  Missions  (Pal- 
lottini)  :  P.  S.  M. ;  Rosminians  :  Inst.  Ch.  (Institute  of 
Charity).  Several  congregations  add  the  entire  word  to 
their  name,  ex.  gr.  '  A.  B.  Barnabite.' 


A  consecrated  Abbat  or  Abbess  is  addressed  with  the   Style  and 
episcopal  style  of  Right  Reve?'end.     Abbats  and  Abbesses   titles  of 

1  V  /-  -1  rr  7^  7         .  .1     monks  am 

elected  for  a  period  are  Very  Reverend.  A  consecrated  Religious. 
Abbat  is  Loi'd  Abbat,  but  some  abbats  prefer  the  title 
Father.  A  consecrated  Abbess  is  Lady  Abbess  (Madarne 
I'Abbesse)  ;  an  abbess  elected  for  a  period  and  Franciscan 
abbesses  are  Mother  Abbess.  An  abbat  elected  for  a 
period  is  Father  Abbat. 

A  Prioress  of  Dominican  nuns  is  Lady  Prioress  (Sig- 
nora  Priora),  oftener  Mother  Prioress  (Madre  Priora)  ;  a 
Prior  is  Father  Prior.  Other  Prioresses  are  Mother 
Prioress. 

The  Superior  General  of  any  Order  or  Congregation  is 
Very  Reverend ;  but  in  Italy  he  or  she  is  Reverendissi- 
nius,  a.  Most  Reverend,  a  distinction  not   rendered    in 


5° 


CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 


Oom  and 
Uame. 


Fra. 


English.  The  style  Molto  Reverende,  Very  Reverend,  is 
that  of  superiors  below  the  Superior  General,  as  the 
Superior  of  a  house.  Prior  under  an  abbat,  etc.  The 
Franciscans  have  an  intermediate  title  Mo/to  Reverende 
Molto.     All  these  titles  apply  to  both  men  and  women. 

Benedictine  monks  are  always  addressed  as  Dom, 
Benedictine  nuns  as  Dame  (Italian  Donna),  in  all  houses 
ruled  by  an  abbess.  Domnus,  Dojnna,  used  to  be  the 
title  of  the  abbat  and  abbess  only,  later  of  all  monks  and 
nuns  ;  and  this  prefix,  an  abbreviation  of  Domnus,  is  the 
proper  and  exclusive  title  of  all  Benedictines,  the  only 
monks  of  the  West.  In  Gregory  the  Great's  letters  he 
styles  laymen  domnus,  and  women  domna.  All  friars 
and  monks  in  ecclesiastical  orders  are  Reverend.  The 
proper  style  of  Augustinians,  Franciscans,  Dominicans, 
Carmelites,  Trinitarians,  Servites  —  of  all  Mendicants  * 
—  is  Fra;  but  the  fact  that  the  friars  are  nearly  all 
priests  has  made  it  usual  to  call  them  padre.  Father, 
and  to  retain  fra  for  lay  brethren.  All  simple  nuns, 
other  than  Benedictine,  as  Franciscans,  Carmelites,  Do- 
minicans, Augustinians,  Servites,  as  well  as  the  Sisters  of 
all  other  Congregations  are  called  Sister  (Suora).  Friars 
of  the  above  5  Orders,  are  Brother  {Fra),  but  if  priests. 
Father.  And  Father  is  the  proper  title  of  all  Clerks 
Regular.  In  some  modern  Congregations  not  only  the 
Superior,  but  all  the  Religious,  have  the  title  of  Mother; 
this  is  the  case  especially  in  Congregations  having  the 
Jesuit  Rule. 


Prelate- 
deputy  of 
the  Roman 
monaster- 
ies. 


The  monasteries  have  a  deputato  ecclesiastieo,  not  a 
member  of  their  Order,  who  represents  them  at  the 
Vatican.  Any  prelate  may  be  nominated  to  represent 
one  or  more  Religious  houses.  The  larger  number  of 
Roman  monasteries  were  represented  by  Monsignor  Ac- 
coramboni.  Archbishop  of  Heliopolis  and  Canon  of  the 
Lateran,  who  died  in  May,  1899. 


*  Of  all,  that  is,  described  in  Chap.  III.  and  in  Chap.  IV.  from 
p.  214. 


ORIGIN  OF  MONASTICISM  51 

Every  great  Order  of  men  has  its  Secreiaiy  General  for   Officers  for 
the  affairs  of  the  whole  order,  its  Defiiiitors  who  form  the   ti]e external 

^  -irio  -^1  1-n         7  1        affairs  of 

Council  01  the  Superior  General,  and  its  Fosticlafor  who   Orders. 

*  postulates '  the  cause  of  its  saints,   and  whose   special 

field  therefore  is  its  hagiography. 

An  Order  has  besides  its  Procurator,  who  upholds  its    Procurator, 
interests  in  Rome,  where  each  Order  has  a  General  Pro- 
cura,  the  residence  of  this  officer. 

Every  Order  of  men,  except  the  Black  Benedictines, 
has  a  Superior  General  who  rules  the  whole  Order:  most 
great  Orders  are  distributed  in  Provinces,  or  national 
centres,  ruled  by  Provincials. 

Cloistered  nuns,  as  the  Franciscans,  Carmelites,  and 
Dominicans  have  no  Superior  General,  and  in  conse- 
quence no  Mother-house  :  in  the  case  of  the  Dominicans 
the  nuns  are  under  the  Order  of  Friars  Preachers;  in  the 
case  of  abbeys  of  Black  Benedictines  and  of  Cistercians, 
the  houses  are  each  separate  and  independent ;  the 
abbess  being  the  sole  Superior. 

There  are  only  4  Rules  in  the  Church  :  {a)  the  Rule  The  Rules 
of  S.  Basil,  (F)  of  S.  Benedict,  {/)  of  S.  Augustine,  {d^  of 
S.  Francis.  All  Religious  Orders  must  follow  one  of  these 
four  rules.  The  5  great  Orders  in  the  Western  Church 
(excluding  the'  Basilians)  are:  (i)  The  Augustinian, 
(2)  Benedictine,  (3)  Carmelite,  (4)  Franciscan,  (5)  Do- 
minican. These  are  divided  into  an  Order  of  Monks  and 
Orders  of  Friars,  or  Monastic  and  Mendicant  Orders. 
The  only  Monastic  Order  of  the  West  is  the  Benedic- 
tine. Since  the  Council  of  Trent  there  have  been  no 
new  Orders,  all  other  religious  bodies  being  simply  Relig- 
ious Congregations.  But  there  are  other  Foundations 
long  previous  to  the  Council  of  Trent,  which  are  also 
Orders,  and  are  affiliated  to  i  of  the  4  great  Rules  : 
Thus  there  is  the  Trinitarian  and  Servite  Order.  The 
divisions  of  great  Orders  like  the  Benedictine,  Augustin- 
ian, Franciscan,  are  also  Orders :  '  The  Cistercian 
Order,'  '  Order  of  Capuchins,'  '  Order  of  S.  Clare.' 


of  the 
Church. 


CHAPTER   11. 

MONKS. 
S.  Benedict  and  the  Benedictines— the  Monastery,  how 

built  and  governed — Rule  of  S.  Basil — Basilians  and  Anto- 
nians  —  the  Rule  of  S.  Benedict — the  noviciate  —  lay  brethren 

—  Oblates — greatness  of  the  Benedictines — Benedictine  nuns 

—  Benedictine  canonesses — the  laus  perennis — the  Black  Bene- 
dictines—  Branches  of  the  Benedictines  :  Cliiny,  Cistercians, 
Camaldolese,  Valloinbrosans,  Carthusians,  Syh'estrians,  Olivet- 
ans,  Oblates  of  S.  Francesca  Roniana,  Trappists,  Bridgettines 

—  Extinct  Benedictine  congregations  —  Saints  of  the  order  and 
their  Emblems. 

Consecration  of  an  abbat  and  abbess  —  Profession  of  nun  and  monk. 

The  word  monastery*  rightly  denotes  the  dwelHng  house 
of  monks  and  nuns,  the  word  convent  the  community 
itself.  In  Italy  nunneries  are  always  called  monasteria, 
while  convent  is  more  usually  employed  for  the  dwellings 
of  monks  ;  the  reverse  is  the  case  in  France  and  Eng- 
land. The  idea  of  a  Benedictine  monastery  is  that  every- 
thing essential  should  be  contained  within  its  enclosure ; 
well,  mill,  bakehouse,  workshops.  One  great  wall  sur- 
rounded the  buildings,  and  one  gate  gave  access  to  them. 
The  first  consideration  of  a  monastic  dwelling  was,  and 
is,  the  church,  which  lay  to  the  north  and  protected  the 
cloister  built  on  the  south  side.  Round  the  church  were 
grouped  the  monastery  buildings.     These  consisted  of  a 

*  The  abode  of  a  solitary;  ixbvo^,  alone.  Among  the  Therapeutae 
it  was  the  name  of  each  sohtary  cell;  and  Cassian  recortls  this 
meaning.  Ca'nobium  on  the  contrary  is  the  name  for  the  dwelling 
of  several  monks  or  nuns,  and  denotes  the  manner  of  life,  while  the 
former  word  signifies  the  place  only. 

52 


MONKS 


53 


dormitory,  refectory,  cloister,  chapter  house,  and  grounds, 
with  other  rooms  and  offices  ;  the  cellar,  wardrobe,  infirm- 
ary, and  guest  house,  all  of  which  are  mentioned  by  S. 
Benedict. 

The  dormitory  was  a  long  room  in  which  all  the  Relig-  Dormitory, 
ious  slept.  It  was  not  till  the  xiv.  century  that  separate 
cells  were  generally  introduced,  and  a  dormitory  now 
consists  of  a  wide  corridor  on  either  side  of  which  open 
the  cells  of  the  monks.  Separate  cells  were  adopted  at 
Lerins  as  early  as  the  vi.  century  ;  but  the  Cistercians 
have  a  common  dormitory  to  the  present  day. 

The  refectory  is  the  dining  hall ;  narrow  wooden  tables  Refectory, 
run  along  3  sides  of  it,  the  parallel  tables  for  the  Religious, 
the  transverse  table  for  the  superior,  his  or  her  abbatial 
or  episcopal  guests,*  and  perhaps  the  Prior  or  Prioress. 
A  pulpit  placed  on  one  side  serves  for  the  lector  who 
reads  during  the  refection. 

The  cloister  is  a  quadrilateral  roofed  portico,  built  Cioibter. 
round  an  open  space,  or  grass  courtyard,  in  the  centre 
of  which  is  the  convent  well.  The  original  courtyard 
was  utilised  by  roofing  in  this  running  portico,  thus 
affording  space,  light  and  air,  where  the  monks  could 
see  to  work,  and  where  exercise  could  be  taken  in  bad 
weather.  The  life  of  the  monastery  centres  in  the  clois- 
ter, it  is  the  cominon  workroom,  and  work  is  the  great 
business  of  the  monk.  Here  was  carried  on  the  studious 
activity  of  the  later  middle  ages,  here  MSS.  were  copied, 
repaired,  and  studied,  and  here  the  wonderful  examples 
of  illuminated  vellums  were  wrought.  Important  as  it  is, 
the  cloister  did  not  appear  till  late ;  y^ithelwold's  Con- 
cordia (x.  century)  says  monks  are  to  sit  here  and  read 
after  terce  and  mass  ;  but  in  Rome  the  earliest  are  of  the 
XII.  century.  The  work  of  a  monastery  before  this  was 
done  in  the  monks'  common  room,  in  the  scriptorium 
attached  to  every  abbey,  or  in  the  codex-room  or  library, 
which  is  mentioned  as  part  of  a  iv.  century  monastery  in  Lib'ivy. 
Africa,  and  as  part  of  a  vi.  century  monastery  in  GauLj 

*  At  an  abbess's  table,  none  but  another  abbess. 

t  See  pp.  28,  217.  • 


Scripto- 
rium. 


54        CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 

The  cloister  was  often  beautifully  decorated  with  twisted 
pillars,  inlaid  with  mosaic  work,  forming  arches  or 
unglazed  windows,  underneath  which  ran  a  continuous 
stone  seat.  It  is  these  lovely  cloisters  which  can  still 
be  admired  all  over  Europe,  in  Spain  at  the  Escurial, 
in  Rome  at  the  Lateran  and  S.  Paul's  outside  the 
walls. 
Chapter  The  Chapter  house  is  a  room  or  hall  —  not  to  be  con- 

iiouse.  founded  with  the  chapter  house  of  secular  canons  adja- 

cent to  their  cathedral,  though  their  origin  is  the  same  — 
in  which  the  Rule  is  read,  and  where  the  community 
assembles  to  transact  all  monastic  business,  such  as  nomi- 
nations and  elections.*  The  martyrology  and  rest  of 
Prime  is  recited  in  the  Chapter  house.  Here,  too,  the 
monks  meet  once  a  week  for  the  '  Chapter  of  faults ' ;  a 
painting  over  the  abbat's  seat  in  the  Chapter  house  of 
Mont'  Oliveto  alludes  to  this  in  the  scene  of  Christ's  judg- 
ment :  "  Let  him  that  is  without  sin  among  you  first  cast 
a  stone  at  her." 

Besides  these  rooms,  there  is  a  common  room  for  the 
monks,  apartments  for  the  abbat  and  past-abbat  leading 
from  the  dormitory,  a  room  where  guests  are  received 
called  locutory  or  parlour,  the  wardrobe,  mentioned  by 
both  Augustine  and  C?esarius  of  Aries,  the  offices  — 
kitchen,  pantry,  and  cellarer's  offices  —  and,  not  least 
important,  the  wing  set  apart  for  guests,  called  in  Italy 
i\\Q  fores  teria. 

Early  ^Vestern  monasteries  were  far  less  magnificent 
and  complete  than  those  in  the  East :  it  is  said  that  the 
'  monastery '  built  by  Paulinus  of  Nola  in  the  early  v. 
century  had  its  walls  decorated  with  biblical  subjects,  but 
in  England  Wearmouth  and  Jarrow  were  probably  the 
first  monastic  houses  built  of  stone,  and  with  sacred  art 
adornments  ;  and  the  first  glass  introduced  into  England 
was  sent  for  to  Italy  by  Benedict  Biscop  to  decorate  these 
monasteries. t 

*  The  election  of  life  abbats  and  abbesses,  however,  takes  place 
in  the  choir  of  the  church. 

t  IVearinoiit/i :  "  the  monastery  of  Blessed  Peter  the  Apostle,  by 


MOXKS 


55 


Very  different  was  the  great  monastery  of  Etchmiadzin, 
founded  in  302  by  Gregory  the  Illuminator,  the  Apostle 
of  Armenia,  and  surrounded  by  a  battlemented  wall,  one 
mile  in  extent.  It  formed  a  veritable  township  of  work- 
shops, and  included  a  bazaar  where  the  monastic  produce 
was  sold.  The  Armenian  Patriarch  and  other  dignitaries 
had  apartments,  each  monk  his  cell,  and  a  guest  house 
opened  on  a  separate  courtyard.  The  summer  and  winter 
refectories  were  constructed  with   a  long   narrow  table 


Guest  House 


School 


Abbat's  Lodging 


>^ 


Church 


Dormitory 


Great 
Court 


Over  it 
Vestiarianv 


or  Wardrobe- 


which  ran  between  2  stone  benches ;  a  throne  for  the 
Patriarch,  a  pulpit  for  the  reader.*  Ancient  monasteries 
on  the  Nitrian  Lake  still  show  us  high  walls  of  immense 
thickness,  with  only  one  entry,  and  no  windows,  enclos- 
ing gardens,  orchards,  and  several  churches.  The  Day'r 
Antonias,  or  Monastery  of  S.  Antony,  built  over  his  cave, 
is  the  largest  in  Egypt,  and  contains  4  churches ;  the 
refectory  is  arranged  as  at  Etchmiadzin. 

In  the  West  a  perfect  specimen  of  early  monastic 
architecture  was  the  monastery  of  S.  Gall  as  it  existed  in 
the  IX.  century.  Its  arrangement  can  be  seen  from  the 
annexed  diagram.      On  the  further  side  of  the  church 

the  mouth  of  the  river  Wear;  "  Jarro'ti  :  Bede's  monastery.  Both 
VII.  century  foundations. 

*  The  antiquity  of  the  custom  of  observing  strict  silence  during 
meals  —  enforced  by  another  custom,  the  pious  lection  —  is  shown 
by  these  early  refectories,  and  is  mentioned  by  Pachomius,  Augus- 
tine, and  Cassian,  who  traces  it  to  Cappadocia. 


56        CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 

was  the  school,  on  either  side  of  which  were  the  abbat's 
lodging,  and  the  guest  house.  Dom  Pitra  has  shown 
that  besides  the  school  for  externs,  there  was  a  second 
school  within  the  monastery  for  the  young  monks.  The 
principal  duty  of  monks  and  nuns  being  the  recitation  of 

Monastic      the  Divine  office,  the  necessities  of  the  monastic  choir 

church         modified  church  architecture  to  a  considerable  extent. 

ture.  The  choir  is  much  longer  in  proportion  to  the  nave ;  an 

arrangement  which  resembles  the  ancient  basilica!  divi- 
sion of  the  upper  end  of  the  church  into  bema  and 
scho/a*  In  a  Gothic  church  the  monks'  stalls  extend 
along  each  side  of  the  presbytery,  but  in  many  basilicas 
these  stalls  are  placed  behind  the  high  altar.  In  the 
Abbey  aux  Dames  at  Caen  the  church  is  divided  into 
two  by  the  great  altar,  the  nave  stretches  in  front,  the 
choir  of  the  nuns  behind. t  The  word  Chorus  is  hung 
up,  in  alternate  weeks,  on  one  or  other  side  of  the  choir, 
and  indicates  which  side  the  hebdomadary  sits,  and  the 
Office  is  to  commence. 

The  aWo'.  The  abbey  is  special  to  Benedictine  foundations,  the 
abbeys  of  Franciscan  and  Augustinian  nuns  being  named 
in  imitation  of  these.  The  life  of  the  convent,  it  must  be 
remembered,  was  substituted  for  that  of  the  family,  and 
the  convent  is  God's  family.  The  monastery  is  the  house 
of  God,  and  even  its  commonest  utensils  are  holy  things. 
The  head  of  the  religious  family  is  the  abbat  {Abba, 
father,  Latin  abbas). X      Under  him  is  the  Prior.     The 

Its  officers,  other  officers  are  the  subprior,  master  of  novices,  cellarer, 
gate  keeper,  and  sacrist.     Each  of  these  officers,  even 

*  Accordiiij;  to  Ducanj^e  it  is  the  tiarlhex  which  has  been  differ- 
ently treated  in  monastic  churches.  Here,  he  says,  the  church  was 
divided  into  a  screened-off  hevia  ;  a  iiavc,  again  railed  off  as  the 
monks'  choir;  and  a  narthcx  which  was  within  the  portals  of  the 
church,  and  intended  for  the  people. 

t  Dominican  churches  are  distinguished  by  the  width  of  the  nave 
and  the  smallness  of  the  transepts;  to  ailmit  of  large  crowds  assist- 
ing at  the  oratory  of  the  Friars  Preachers. 

%  An  abbat  may  also  be  Aiibat-general  of  a  Congregation  and 
its  branches,  or  of  an  al)bey  and  its  dependencies.  See  p.  44. 
The  dependencies  were  sometimes  called  cells  of  an  abbey. 


A/OXA'S 


57 


as  early  as  the  vi.  century,  receiv^ed  the  keys  of  their 
dei)artment  on  the  Gospels. 

Though  Antony  and  Pachomius  were  both  called  abbat,  The  abbat. 
the  final  form  of  the  office  was  impressed  on  it  by  Bene- 
dict. The  abbat  is  elected  by  the  community,  who  there- 
after owe  him  absolute  obedience.  He  is  himself  the 
subject  of  the  Rule  which  he  in  common  with  his  monks 
professes.  Where  the  rule  does  not  provide,  the  abbat 
himself  is  the  rule  ;  he  is  also  the  arbiter  of  the  daily  life 
of  each  single  monk  —  where  he  shall  go,  how  long  he 
shall  remain,  in  what  occupations  he  shall  be  employed. 
As  the  office  grew  in  importance,  further  powers  were 
exercised.  The  abbat  excommunicated  (a)  from  the 
table  {/>)  from  the  church.  He  conferred  minor  orders 
not  only  on  his  monks  but  on  laymen  ;  and  faculties 
for  conferring  minor  orders  were  confirmed  to  abbats 
by  the  Council  of  Trent.  It  is  about  the  time  that  the 
latter  function  was  first  exercised,  that  a  Roman  council, 
827,  requires  the  abbat  to  be  in  priest's  orders.  Abbats 
were  not  only  convoked  to  ecclesiastical  synods,  but  in 
the  IX.  century  were  the  predominating  element.  The 
first  abbatial  signature  to  a  church  council  is  of  .\.d  653.* 
In  some  places  the  abbatial  dignity  carries  with  it  episco- 
pal jurisdiction  :  the  abbat  of  Monte  Cassino  is  ex  officio 
Bishop  of  Monte  Cassino,  though  he  receives  no  episco- 
pal consecration.  He  has  the  style,  dignity  and  jurisdic- 
tion of  a  bishop,  but  cannot  confer  the  major  orders. 

Like  the  abbat  the  abbess  is  the  first  subject  of  the  The 
Rule,  and  is  expected  to  be  its  most  literal  exponent,  ^^i^^^s. 
Her  will  is  law ;  and  after  she  is  elected,  there  is  no 
appeal  from  her  within  the  community.  She  however  is 
expected  to  seek  the  counsel  of  her  nuns,  a  provision 
already  made  by  S.  Benedict  for  abbats.  In  the  vii.  viii. 
and  following  centuries  abbesses  attained  a  very  eminent 
position.  They  attended  ecclesiastical  synods  and  at- 
tested their  decrees.     The  first  of  these  synods  at  which 

*  Abbats  having  episcopal  jurisdiction  are  still  summoned  to 
oecumenical  Councils.  P'or  abbatial  signatures  cf.  also  infra  p.  58, 
footnote. 


58        CHRISTIAN  AND   ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 

abbesses  assisted  is  said  to  have  been  Beckenham  in  Kent 
in  694.*  Tliey  were  summoned  to  the  diet  of  their 
country,  as  holders  of  baronial  fiefs  and  "  Lords  Spirit- 
ual "  ;  t  ^'""^^  that  they  usually  performed  this  duty  in 
person  results  from  a  clause  in  an  vni.  century  Prankish 
council  which  says  that  the  abbess  shall  not  quit  the  pre- 
cincts of  the  abbey,  except  once  a  year  when  summoned 
by  the  sovereign.  In  the  vii.  century  they  issued  sen- 
tences of  excommunication  ;  and  the  prohibition  made 
by  Charlemagne  at  the  end  of  the  viii'!'  shows  that  some 
abbesses  then  ordained,  and  imparted  the  blessing.  Some 
Spanish  abbesses  claimed  to  hear,  and  habitually  heard, 
the  confessions  of  their  subjects.  The  jurisdiction  of  an 
abbess  at  times  extended  over  as  many  as  1 2  other  mon- 
asteries, and  in  such  cases  she  convened  and  presided 
over  General  Chapters.  In  England  she  was  present  at 
all  national  solemnities ;  and  abbat  and  abbess  shared 
alike  with  the  King  the  w'er  of  the  murdered  foreigner. 
In  the  X.  and  xi.  centuries  the  abbesses  of  the  great 
Anglo-Saxon  houses  were  not  only  in  constant  contact 
with  the  Court  but  exerted  their  influence  on  the  politics 
of  the  country.  Indeed  the  power  of  the  abbesses  was 
almost  regal ;  they  treated  with  kings  as  equals,  and  "  had 
an  authority  rivalling  that  of  the  most  venerated  bishops 
and  abbats."!  At  the  same  epoch  the  abbess  of  Qued- 
linburg  held  for  some  time  the  reins  of  government  for 
her  nephew  Otho  III.,  and  summoned  a  diet  of  the 
kingdom  in  the  year  999. 
Conse-  A  consecrated  abbat  or  abbess  is  thereby  constituted 

crated  and    ^y^  abbat  or  abbess  for  life,  they  have  the  style  and  titular 

mitred  ...  r  i  •  1  r.^i  1  •  ,  1 

abbats.         privileges  of  bishops.     1  hey  wear  the  episcopal  cross  and 

*  Montalembert  cites  the  signatures  attached  to  these  decrees, 
which  guarantee  the  inviolability  of  the  property  and  liberties  of 
the  Church:  the  King,  (^ueen,  Archl)islii)p,  bishops,  2  nobles,  and 
7  priests,  with  5  abliesses,  sign;  there  are  no  abliats.  The  abbesses 
are  Milch-ed,  Etheldrid,  Acta,  Wihioda,  Ilereswida. 

t  In  England  the  4  abbesses  of  Barking,  Shaftesbury,  Winchester, 
and  Wilton,  were  summoned  to  Parliament  as  Peers  in  the  reigns  of 
Henry  III.  and  Edward  II. 

X  ^lonLalembert. 


MOXKS 


59 


ring,  and  cany  the  pastoral  staff.  The  staff  is  borne  with 
the  crook  turned  inwards  instead  of  outwards,  to  signify 
that  their  jurisdiction  extends  only  over  their  own  flock. 
Any  abbat  may  wear  a  mitre,  but  a  mitred  abbat,  or  abbas 
de  mitrd,  technically  means  an  abbat  with  episcopal  juris- 
diction.* It  is  disputed  whether  there  were  ever  mitred 
abbesses,  but  as  at  the  time  when  mitres  were  first  worn 
the  Countess  Matilda  and  other  great  personages  wore 
them,  it  is  more  than  probable  that  the  great  abbesses 
did  also.  A  mitre  was  first  granted  to  the  Abbat  of 
Cluny  by  Bull  of  Urban  II.  in  1088. t  In  1049  the  Abbat 
of  ISIonte  Cassino  wore  dalmatic,  buskins,  and  gloves,  at 
solemn  mass,  and  this  was  also  the  rule  at  Cluny  for  the 
5  great  festivals  of  the  year.  The  privilege  of  the  buskins 
is  still  confined  to  certain  abbats.  An  abbat  or  abbess, 
though  not  consecrated,  may  have  the  crozier,  cross  and 
ring.  The  office  is  generally  triennial  in  the  case  of  non- 
consecrated  abbats  and  abbesses. 

The  prior  is  appointed  by  the  abbat,  whose  lieutenant 
he  is;  he  rules  the  house  as  the  abbat  rules  the  com- 
munity. He  watches  over  the  conduct  of  the  monks, 
and  has  charge  of  their  temporal  concerns  ;  he  superin- 
tends their  field  labour  and  recreation,  and  can  enforce 
the  lesser  excommunication  '  from  table.'  He  is  the  first 
to  rise,  the  last  to  retire  to  the  dormitory.  The  claustral 
prioress  had  to  whip  disobedient  nuns.  The  convetitual 
Prior  or  Prioress  is  an  officer  of  later  date  than  the  last- 
named  :  he  or  she  is  the  independent  ruler  of  a  priory, 
or  branch  house  founded  from  an  abbey.  Under  them 
is  a  subprior  or  subprioress,  appointed  by  themselves,  who  Subpnor, 
acts  as  their  lieutenant.  The  title  of  Prior  succeeded  that 
of  Provost  {Fracpositiis,  Praeposita),  and  was  not  used 
before  the  time  of  Celestine  V.  (1294). 

For  the  Master  of  Novices  see  infra  p.  76. 

Next  in  importance  is  the  cellarer,  who  not  only  has   Cellarer, 
charge  of  the  pantry  and  cellar,  but  controls  all  secular 
affairs,  under  the  abbat. |     The  gatekeeper's  business  is 

*  See  p.  126.  t  See  mitre.  Part  II.  p.  no. 

J  The  cellarer  is  mentioned  in  the  iv.  century  by  Augustine. 


Prior  and 

Prioress 

(claustral). 


Conventual 
Prior. 


Gate- 
keeper. 


6o        CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL  HOME 


Sacrist. 


Hebdoma- 
dary. 


The  simple 
monk  and 
nun. 


Food. 


to  prevent  monks  issuing  forth,  and  to  admit  strangers. 
S.  Benedict  says  he  is  to  have  his  cell  by  the  gate.  He 
was  the  link  between  the  monastery  and  the  world,  and 
was  a  personage  always  carefully  chosen.  Curiously 
enough  in  the  Thebai'd  this  lowly  and  semi-secular  office 
was  filled  by  a  presbyter  ;  it  is  now  held  by  a  lay  brother. 
Among  nuns  the  gatekeeper  was  called  the  ostiaria.  The 
Sacrist  has  charge  of  the  church  vessels  and  vestments, 
prepares  the  church,  and  sees  that  the  bell  is  rung  for 
the  Offices.  He  also  superintends  the  tailors  and  indoor 
workpeople,  and  sees  to  the  repairing  of  the  monks' 
clothes.  A  periodical  officer,  the  hebdomadary,  is  ap- 
pointed for  a  week,  and  his  charge  is  to  prepare  the 
books  for  the  Divine  Office  and  commence  the  Office 
each  day.  The  monk  who  took  his  turn  as  cook  for  a 
week,  had  the  same  title.  In  the  vi.  century  Rule  of 
Ferreolus  the  abbat  himself  is  required  to  cook  the  dinner 
on  Christmas  day,  Pentecost,  and  the  Founder's  day. 
The  lector  who  reads  during  meals  is  also  called  heb- 
domadary ;  in  fact  this  is  the  name  of  all  offices  dis- 
charged for  a  week  in  rotation. 

Besides  these  offices,  there  are  also  those  of  iufirma- 
rian  or  hospitaller,  and  of  Dean;  in  the  great  feudal 
monasteries  the  granatarius  received  the  yearly  corn 
harvest  and  kept  the  farm  stock.* 

The  monk  having  freely  elected  his  superior  falls  com- 
pletely under  his  will.  He  possesses  nothing  of  his  own, 
not  even  his  clothes,  which  are  given  out  to  him  by  a 
monk  set  over  this  duty.  The  Rule  of  Columban  orders 
6  lashes  for  the  offence  of  calling  anything  meum  or  tuum. 
The  monk  may  receive  no  presents,  the  letters  he  receives 
are  presented  to  him  open,  and  he  places  the  letters  he 
writes  open  into  the  monastery  postbox.  The  superior, 
however,  is  bound  to  be  the  recipient  of  his  complaints 
and  to  transmit  these  to  the  ecclesiastical  superior,  to 
whom  also  the  monk  may  always  address  a  sealed  letter. 
The  diet  of  monks  is  chiefly  vegetable,  and  two  meals  a 

*  See  p.  28  and  Pt.  IV.;  for  Provost  pp.  28,  206;  and  for  the 
monk  or  nun  set  over  the  wardrobe  p.  482. 


MONKS  6i 

day  are  allowed.  The  early  solitaries  probably  ate  one 
meal  only,  a  rule  of  the  Therapeutae  and  of  Pachomius. 
In  the  laiiras  bread  (really  a  biscuit  cake)  and  water  was 
the  sole  diet.*  Most  Rules  forbid  flesh  meat,  some  ob- 
serve a  fast  the  greater  part  of  the  year,  and  some  fast 
the  whole  year  round.  As  a  rule  no  meat  may  come  into 
the  refectory.  Benedict  sanctioned  a  better  diet,  and 
both  he  and  Basil  permit  the  use  of  wine.  Benedict  of 
Aniane's  reform  in  the  viii.  century  prescribes  that  only 
uncooked  food,  as  fruits  and  salad,  be  eaten. 

As  the  use  of  the  bath  was  habitual  at  the  time  when  Washing 
monachism  had  its  rise,  it  must  be  supposed  that  the  as- 
cetics from  the  first  set  themselves  against  cleanliness,  and 
the  great  nun  Sylvia  (sister  of  Rufinus  the  minister  of 
Arcadius)  expresses  a  general  state  of  things  when  she 
tells  us  that  she  had  not  washed  for  60  years,  except  the 
tips  of  her  fingers  in  order  to  take  the  Eucharist.  In  the 
middle  ages  the  extravagances  of  the  cult  of  dirt  abound, 
and  Isaac  Disraeli  has  some  quaint  instances  in  the  "  Cu- 
riosities of  Literature."  In  the  last  century  S.  Benedict 
Joseph  Labre  sublimated  the  cult,  was  in  fact  dirty  in 
an  heroic  degree.  Bathing  for  women  is  denounced  by 
Jerome,  doubtless  at  a  time  when  such  a  practice  had  long 
been  unfamiliar  to  monks  ;  at  the  same  date  S.  Augustine 
mentions  a  bath  once  a  month  as  customary  for  nuns  in 
Africa.  By  Benedict  of  Aniane  the  matter  is  left  to  the 
discretion  of  the  prior ;  while  by  other  Rules  it  is  only 
permitted  to  the  sick.  But  Radegund  is  said  to  have  built 
baths  at  her  monastery  of  S'.^  Croix  in  the  vi.  century. 
The  only  Order  which  enforces  cleanliness  is  the  Carmel- 
ite, S.  Theresa  having  enjoined  it  in  her  Constitutions.! 
It  is  remarkable  that  none  of  the  great  founders,  save  her- 

*  Hilarion  declined  to  eat  a  fowl  at  the  talile  of  the  Bishop 
Epiphanius,  because  he  had  never  tasted  aught  with  life.  "And 
I,"  said  Epiphanius,  "  have  never  suffered  anyone  to  retire  to  rest 
with  aught  against  me  in  his  heart,  or  laid  down  to  sleep  in  discord 
with  anyone."  "  Forgive  nie,"  said  the  great  solitary,  ".  .  .  thou 
hast  followed  a  better  rule  than  I." 

t  It  is  not  however  the(."arnielites  who  are  foremost  at  the  present 
day  in  its  practice. 


Penalties. 


The  venia. 


The  disci- 
pline. 

Monks  and 
the  loosing 
power. 


62        CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 

self,  recognised  the  civilising  effects  of  perional  cleanli- 
ness, and  its  value  as  a  tutor  of  self-respect ;  the  paralysing 
relation  between  early  monasticism  and  manichaeanism 
led  them  astray,  and  they  never  advocate  such  a  treatment 
of  the  body  as  should  teach  it  to  be,  not  the  unworthy 
slave,  but  in  S.  Catherine's  words,  "  the  disciple  of  the 
soul." 

The  usual  penalty  for  default  was  flogging,  the  ex- 
treme penalty  expulsion.  Columban  orders  100  lashes 
for  comparatively  small  offences.  Imprisonment  in  the 
cell  and  fasting,  and  a  slap  or  buffet  were  penalties  for 
both  men  and  women.  The  Rule  of  Ferreolus  orders 
30  days'  silence  for  the  sin  of  railing ;  and  idleness, 
thoughtless  words  and  murmuring  are  pimished  with 
imprisonment  and  stripes.  Cassian  says  that  for  slight 
offences,  as  being  late,  the  monk  is  to  prostrate  or  make 
genuflections  till  ordered  to  stop.  The  prostration,  or 
venia,  is  the  most  frequent  penance  now. 

Monks  and  nuns  have  grown  up,  and  are  no  longer 
slapped  and  beaten  ;  but  about  the  xi.  century  voluntary 
scourging  as  a  part  of  monastic  discipline,  was  introduced, 
it  is  said  by  Peter  Damian.  From  the  constant  use  of  the 
scourge,  discipline  came  to  mean  flogging,  and  to  "  take 
the  discipline  "  still  has  this  meaning. 

The  monks,  curiously  enough,  enjoyed  in  an  extra- 
ordinary degree  the  loosing  power.  John  Damascene 
in  the  viii.  century  had  maintained  that  '  high  priests ' 
{i.e.  bishops)  had  alone  possessed  the  power  to  bind  and 
loose,  in  succession  from  the  apostles ;  but  as  time  went 
on  "  the  power  descended  to  the  elect  people  of  God, 
I  mean  the  monks."  Hence  Mabillon  cites  instances  of 
monks  excommunicating  lay  persons ;  and  in  Chaucer's 
time  reserved  cases  *  were  in  the  hands  of  monks  and 
friars  in  England. 

"  For  he  had  power  of  confessioun, 
"  As  seyde  himself,  more  than  a  curat, 
"  For  of  his  Order  he  was  licenciat." 


*  See  Part  II.,  p.  308. 


MONKS 


63 


The  age  at  which  monks  and  nuns  could  be  received  Age  for 
varied.  In  the  vi.  and  vii.  centuries  children  under  10  P^'o^^sion, 
and  12  were  admitted.  Leo  IX.  required  that  the  monk. 
be  of  years  of  discretion,  and  Urban  II.  forbade  a  man 
to  be  professed  under  20  years  of  age.  S.  Basil  does  not 
allow  a  nun  to  be  professed  till  she  is  16  or  17.  Bene- 
dictine monks  in  the  xiii.  century  could  be  professed  at 
15,  but  the  age  was  raised  later  to  19.  The  age  for  both 
nun  and  monk  now  is  16.  Old  age  is  no  barrier;  except 
in  some  of  the  active  Orders. 

A  provision  of  the  Theodosian  code  shows  that  it  was 
not  unknown  for  parents  to  compel  a  child  to  vow  virgin- 
ity ;  the  code  allows  her  to  return  to  the  world  any  time 
before  she  is  40  years  old.  The  forcible  enclosure  of 
nuns  in  later  times  was  unfortunately  not  an  imaginary 
evil.  An  viii.  century  council  held  in  the  presence  of 
Pepin  forbids  the  veiling  of  a  woman  against  'her  will. 
Justinian  requires  the  degradation  from  his  civil  rights  of  A  monk 
a  monk  returning  to  secular  life,  and  he  is  to  be  sent  back,  fn<^his°" 
with  his  property,  to  the  monastery, 
he  is  to  be  enrolled  as  a  soldier  ! 


Veiling  by 
force. 


If  he  desert  again,  profession. 


S.  Basil,  one  of  the  4  Greek  Fathers,  belonged  to  a 
family  of  saints,  of  whom  the  best  known  are  his  sister 
S.  Macrina,  and  his  brother  S.  Gregory  of  Nyssa.  In  the 
Eastern  Church  he  is  known  as  "  the  Great,"  and  ranks 
after  S.  John  Chr}-sostom.  Born  about  329  in  Cappado- 
cia,  his  first  education  was  received  from  his  grandmother 
the  elder  Macrina,  a  woman  of  great  attainments.  At 
Athens,  where  he  studied,  he  made  the  lifelong  friendship 
of  S.  Gregory  Nazianzen.  There  too  he  was  acquainted 
with  Julian  afterwards  the  Apostate.  His  great  eloquence 
and  success  were  filling  him  with  pride,  and  withdrawing 
him  from  heavenly  things,  when  his  sister  Macrina  turned 
his  thoughts  entirely  to  religion  ;  and  at  about  28  years 
old  he  retired  to  the  hermits  of  the  desert,  where  he 
permanently  enfeebled  his  health.  In  362  he  was  or- 
dained a  priest  by  Eusebius  of  Csesarea,  and  in  370  was 
chosen  his  successor  in  the  archbishopric.     He  continued 


S.  Basil 
and  the 
Basilian 
monks. 


64        CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 


Macrina. 


Rule  of  S. 
Basil. 


Eistern 
habit. 


the  controversy  against  the  Arians,  but  tempered  with 
charity  ;  and  led  the  frugal  and  humble  life  as  a  bishop 
which  he  had  led  in  the  desert.    S.  Basil  died  January  1,379. 

S.  Macrina  Thecla  was  the  elder  sister  of  S.  Basil. 
Beautiful  and  capable  from  a  girl,  she  brought  up  9 
younger  brethren  after  her  father's  death  in  342,  and 
managed  large  estates  in  Pontus,  Cappadocia,  and  Lesser 
Armenia.  She  founded  monasteries  on  her  own  estates 
in  the  desert  region  of  Pontus,  and  here  Basil  joined 
her  and  wrote  his  Rule  for  men.  Her  influence  over  her 
brothers  determined  their  great  career  ;  it  was  she  who 
when  Basil  was  26  years  old  awoke  him  "  as  out  of  a 
deep  sleep  to  the  true  light  of  the  Gospel."  Her  brother 
Gregory  wrote  her  life  and  describes  her  death  :  she 
spoke  to  him,  he  says,  of  "  the  dignity  and  destiny  of 
the  soul,"  and  his  treatise  on  the  "  Soul  and  the  Resurrec- 
tion "  was  composed  from  her  words.  When  they  had 
buried  her  body,  he  tells  us,  he  kissed  the  earth  of  her 
grave.     She  died  19  July,  379. 

The  Rule  of  S.  Basil  enjoined  for  the  first  time  those 
3  vows  which  have  been  common  to  every  religious  Rule 
since,  and  it  is  the  chief  Rule  obtaining  throughout  the 
East  at  the  present  day.  Gregory  Nazianzen  says  :  "  'I'he 
solitary  and  the  social  life  have  each  their  advantages  and 
disadvantages.  .  .  .  Basil  found  the  way  to  unite  them, 
to  mix  them,  placing  coenobia  near  to  habitations,  so  that 
the  contemplative  life  should  not  bring  about  removal 
from  all  communication  with  men,  nor  the  active  life 
impede  contemplation."  The  Rule  is  twofold  :  tlie 
Greater  Rule  containing  55  parts,  the  Little  containing 
313  decisions  in  the  form  of  replies  to  questions.  The 
division  of  the  day  among  Basilians  closely  resembles  that 
of  Western  monks.  The  Eastern  Basilians  wear  a  black 
habit,  more  ample  than  that  of  the  West,  with  no  scapu- 
lar; and  a  cape  marked  IC.  XC.  NC.  Jesus  Christ  con- 
quers*     All  the   monks  wear  beards,  but  the  head   is 

*  It  is  said  that  the  Armenian  bishop  Eustathius,  a  contemporary 
of  Basil,  was  the  first  t»  introduce  a  special  form  of  dress  for  monks 
—  the  robe  was  black.  Basilian  monks  and  nuns  are  kni)\vn  as 
Caloyers,  perhaps  derived  from  /cdXos  y^puiv. 


MONKS  65 

completely  shaven.  The  Armenian  Basilians  however 
wear  a  black  robe  with  ample  sleeves  over  the  tunic  and 
girdle,  a  mantle  with  a  pointed  hood,  and  a  turban. 
Basilian  nuns  in  the  East  dress  like  the  monks,  with 
the  addition  of  an  ample  robe  covering  them  from  head 
to  foot.  They  have  no  veil,  bandeau,  or  guimpe.*  The 
ruler  of  the  monastery  is  called  Archimandrite  ;  the  original 
dwellings  of  monks  in  the  East  having  been  termed  sheep- 
folds,  and  this  title  signifies  '  Ruler  of  the  sheepfold.' 
Hegianenos,  Hegutnene,  abbat  and  abbess,  more  properly 
designate  conventual  priors.  Later,  a  superior-General 
ruled  over  monks,  and  was  called  the  Exarch. 

The  Rule  of  S.  Basil  was  translated  into  Latin  by  Ru- 
finus,  and  after  Cassian  made  it  known  in  the  W^est  it  was 
very  generally  adopted  ;  so  that  he  speaks  of  it  as  the 
prevailing  Rule  in  Italy.  The  Monothelite  persecutions  in 
the  vn.  century  and  the  iconoclastic  disputes  in  the  viii''' 
and  ix"^  brought  many  Eastern  monks  to  Europe  ;  and 
companies  of  Basilians  settled  among  the  Greek  popula- 
tions of  Sicily  and  South  Italy.  The  monks  lived  in  clus-  Ancient 
ters  of  cottages  round  the  church,  resembling  the  eremo  at   Basiiian 

•  sites  in 

Camaldoli  ;  t  but  from  the  v.  century  monasteries  began   Rome, 
to  be  built  within  the  city  also.     In  Rome  the  monastery 
built  by  S.   Leo   at  S.  Peter's,   and   the   monastery  by   Outside  the 
S.  Paul's  were  both  Basilian.     Basilian  nuns  had  a  cele-   ^^'^I'S- 
brated  convent  in  the  Campus  Martins,  where  they  arrived 
in  the  viii.  century  bringing  with  them  the  body  of  Gregory 
Nazianzen.J     S.  Silvestro  in  Capite  was  in  their  hands  till 
the  XIII.  century.     S.  Sabba  on  the  Aventine  was  theirs.   On  the 
until  it  passed  in  1 141  into  Benedictine  hands,  and  counted   Aventine. 
as  one  of  the  "  20  privileged  abbeys  "  of  Rome.     On  the 
same  hill  S.  Prisca  was  Basilian  from  the  viii.  century  till 
X061  ;  and  S.  M.  del  Priorato,  another  of  the  privileged 
abbeys,  belonged  to  them  till  1320.     S.  Alessio  they  held 
conjointly  with  the    Benedictines  from  the  x.  century. 
Paschal  I.  placed  Basilians  at  S.  Prassede,  where  they 
remained  nearly  500  years. §     They  were  established  at 

*  See  p.  IT,6  fooOioU.  %  ^f.  Part  T.,  p.  272  and  p.  79. 

f  See  infra,  p.  102.  §  Part  I.,  p.  319. 

F 


66 


CHRISTIAN  AND   ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 


On  the 
Equiline, 
Palatine, 
and  Celian. 

On  the 
Appia. 

Basilian 
Salvatori- 
ani  (Greek- 
Melkites). 


Basiliar 
nuns  in 
Europe 


Western 
Basilians. 


Habit. 


Habit  of 
the  nuns, 
and  pro- 
fession. 


S.  Cesareo  on  the  Palatine,  and  S.  Anastasia  at  its  foot. 
In  the  XIV.  century  Basilian  monks  still  served  the  Sancta 
Sanctorum,  the  Lateran  chapel  of  the  popes.  In  the 
VIII.  century  S.  Apollinare  was  Basilian,  and  on  the  Appia 
they  possessed  S.  Cesareo.* 

The  Eastern  Basilians  are  to  be  found  among  the 
Greek-Melkites,  Armenians,  and  Georgians.  The  prin- 
cipal Congregation,  that  of  the  Most  Holy  Saviour  (in- 
cluding both  monks  and  nuns)  is  divided  into  the 
Aleppine  and  Baladite  Communities,  whose  members  are 
chiefly  Melkites.  Their  chef-lieu  is  Mount  Lebanon. 
Tlie  true  Basilian  nuns,  however,  are  not  to  be  found 
either  on  Mount  Lebanon,  or  in  Armenia  —  there  are  no 
nuns  either  among  Uniat  or  Orthodox  Armenians  —  but 
may  still  be  found  in  Europe,  in  the  Greek  colonies  in 
Sicily  and  in  Poland.  The  great  vionasiero  rcale  delle 
religiose  di  S.  Basilic  at  Palermo  used  to  admit  loo 
nobles.  Alexander  vi.  dispensed  them  from  reciting  the 
Office  in  Greek,  and  the  Greek  rite  was  only  preserved 
by  the  nuns  at  Messina.  The  Rule  of  S.  Basil  had  been 
abridged  by  Cardinal  Bessarion,  and  in  1579  the  Pope, 
Gregory  XIII.,  organised  the  Western  Basilians.  The 
lay  brethren  who  were  to  form  |  of  the  Order  now  number 
less  than  |.  The  monks  may  not  ask  alms,  preach  out 
of  their  churches,  hear  the  confessions  of  seculars,  keep 
schools,  or  send  their  students  to  the  universities.  Their 
habit  is  a  black  serge  tunic  and  a  wide  scapular,  to  which 
a  pointed  hood  is  attached,  a  leathern  girdle,  shoes,  and  a 
simple  mantle  without  plaits  or  hood.  A  beard  is  gener- 
ally worn.  They  are  not  entitled  to  the  cowl.  The  nuns 
dress  like  the  monks,  without  the  scapular,  but  with  the 
addition  of  a  mantle  reaching  from  head  to  foot,  and  a 
cowl  worn  at  ceremonies.  They  wear  a  black  linen 
guimpe.  They  are  established  at  the  papal  Palace  of 
Castel  Gandolfo.  They  have  2  or  3  months  noviciate 
in  the  secular  habit;  after  which  they  take  the  habit  and 
make  the  profession  at  one  and  the  same  time.     This, 


Cf.  Part  I.,  pp.  183,  213. 


MONKS  67 

which  is  the  ancient  rule,  is  observed  throughout  the 
East,  and  in  the  West  it  is  only  among  nuns  that  both 
are  public  ceremonies.  Many  Italians  in  the  Greek 
colonies  of  Sicily  are  born  and  baptised  in  this  Greek 
Rite,  and  speak  the  Albanian  language.* 

Another  Rule,  that  '  of  S.  Antony,'  is  followed  by  the  Antonian 
Maronites,  Copts,  and  a  few  Armenians.     The  Rule  is   '"oni^s- 
beautiful  though  not  authentic.     The  Antonians  cannot 
quit  their  monastery,  but  the  Basilians  are  free  to  do  so. 
The  nuns  inhabit  Mount  Lebanon.     They  dress  like  the  Antonian 
monks,  the  usual  Antonian  habit  consisting  of  a  brown   """^  °" 
serge  tunic,  black  leather  belt,  and  a  coarse  goat's  hair  -Lebanon. 
mantle,  with  no  hose.     The  monks  wear  a  black  hood,   Antonian 
the  nuns  the  large  mantle  reaching  from  head  to  foot,   habit. 
The  habit  of  the  Armenian  Antonians  is  coarser  than  that 
of  the  Armenian  Basilians,  and  consists  of  one  tunic  with 
narrow  sleeves,  and  a  mantle. 

There  are  5  Congregations  of  Antonians,  I  the  Chal- 
daean  of  S.  Hormisdas,t  II  the  Aleppine  Maronite,  III  the 
Baladite  Maronite,  IV  the  Congregation  of  S.  Isaiah,]: 
V  the  Congregation  of  S.  Ephrem.§  The  Maronite  nuns 
of  Aleppo  live  in  their  families,  observe  the  Franciscan 
Rule  and  wear  the  Capuchin  habit. 

Many  Eastern  nuns  do  not  live  in  monasteries,  but  are 
mendicant ;  they  may  be  seen  in  Jerusalem,  where  a  blue 
linen  cloth  round  the  head  replaces  the  hood.  In  Persia 
and  other  places  the  habit  and  hood  of  monks  and  nuns 
are  precisely  similar,  and  only  the  beard  of  the  former 
distinguishes  them. 

*  The  liturgical  vestments  resemble  the  Latin,  they  consecrate  in 
unleavened  bread  and  add  \.\\^  filioqiie  to  the  creed. 

t  An  ascetic  of  Malabar;  he  was  to  India  what  Antony  was  to 
Eg}'pt.  Helyot  says  that  all  the  Ethiopian  monasteries  obeyed  the 
Rule  '  of  Antony,'  the  Ethiopian  Antonians  being  reformed  byTekla- 
Haimanoth  in  the  vii.  century.  The  "  Rule  of  Antony  "  was  fol- 
lowed by  some  monks  in  Orleans. 

%  Isaiah,  a  Syrian  abbat. 

§  Ephrem,  "  the  Teacher,"  one  of  the  Syrian  solitaries,  circa 
308-373,  deacon  of  Edessa  {Or/ah).  He  was  called  "the  Harp 
of  the  Holy  Spirit,"  and  was  the  greatest  orator  and  poet  of  the 
Syrian  Church.     He  was  persuaded  by  Basil  to  accept  the  diaconate. 


68 


CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 


Antonians 
in  Rome. 


Basilians 
in  Rome. 


•  Grotta- 
terrata. 


S.  Nilus. 


Badge  of 
the  Basil- 
ians. 


The  Antonian  (Maronite)  monks  of  the  Aleppine  Con- 
gregation reside  at  S.  Antonio,  piazza  S.  Pietro  in  Vincoli. 
They  moved  here  from  SS.  Marcellino  e  Pietro  near  the 
Lateran,  which  had  been  given  to  them  in  1707.  The 
Syrian  Congregation  of  S.  Ephrem  (from  Mesopotamia) 
are  in  Via  della  Consulta  11.  The  Salvatorians  (Greek- 
Melkites)  have  their  monastery  and  Prociira  at  S.  M.  in 
Carinis,  Via  del  Colosseo  62.  The  Aleppine  and  Bala- 
dite  Congregations  are  at  S.  M.  in  Domnica  on  the 
Celian  ;  where  each  has  a  resident  Procurator-general. 
The  Basilians  of  the  Greco-Sicilian  Congregation  live  in 
Via  di  S.  Basilio  51  A  ;  they  are  united  to  the  Congrega- 
tion at  Grottaferrata,  where  they  reside  in  summer.  This 
monastery  near  Fascati  is  a  little  castellated  township, 
founded  by  S.  Nilus  in  1004.  It  has  the  pure  Greek  Rite, 
and  is  celebrated  for  its  paintings  by  Domenichino,  who 
was  the  guest  of  the  monks.  The  history  of  the  Calabrian 
abbat  Nilus  is  bound  up  with  that  of  mediaeval  Rome. 
He  lived  at  S.  Alessio  and  was  the  friend  of  John  XVI. 
But  the  horrors  perpetrated  in  the  city  during  the  pon- 
tificate of  the  German  pope  Gregory  V.,  caused  him  to 
retire  to  Grottaferrata,  where  he  died.*  The  Basilians 
have  as  a  device  a  white  column  in  the  midst  of  flames, 
on  a  blue  field,  with  the  motto  :  Talis  est  magmis  Basilius. 


S.    BENEDICT    AND    THE    BENEDICTINES. 


S.  Bene- 
dict. 


Benedict  of  Nursia  in  the  Duchy  of  Spoleto,  was  born 
of  noble  parents  in  480.  As  a  boy  he  was  sent  to  Rome 
to  study,  and  there  stayed,  it  is  believed,  at  his  paternal 


*  Nilus  had  demanded  mercy  for  Philagathus,  who  had  been  put 
forward  by  Crescentius  as  antipope  to  Gregory.  He  was  to  be 
given  up  to  the  saint  on  condition  that  Nilus  resided  at  S.  Anastasia; 
but  after  the  compact,  the  pope  had  the  unhappy  man  dragged 
through  Rome  sitting  backwards  on  an  ass,  and  in  torn  papal  vest- 
ments, his  eyes  and  tongue  torn  out  and  his  nose  cut  off.  Nilus 
wrote  to  the  pope:  "As  you  have  had  no  mercy  on  him  whom  God 
delivered  into  your  hands,  your  heavenly  P'ather  will  have  no  mercy 
towards  you  for  your  sins."     Philagathus  was  Bishop  of  I'iacenza. 


MONKS 


69 


Monte 
Cassino. 


house,  the  site  of  the  present  Httle  church  of  S.  Benedetto 
in  Piscinula.  Repulsed  by  the  corruption  lie  saw  in 
Rome,  Benedict  fled  to  Subiaco,  and  took  refuge  in  an 
inaccessible  ravine  where  he  was  fed  for  3  years  by  a 
monk  called  Romanus.  This  spot,  above  Subiaco,  is 
known  as  the  Sagro  Speco.  After  his  discovery  by  some 
shepherds,  his  solitude  ceased  ;  and  he  was  besought  by 
some  monks  to  come  and  rule  thein.  His  efforts  at 
reform,  however,  were  so  displeasing  to  them  that  they 
attempted  to  poison  him  :  Benedict  discovering  it,  left 
them  without  rancour  and  returned  to  his  solitude.  But 
his  fame  had  spread,  and  in  528  he  gave  his  Rule,  and 
undertook  the  foundation  of  the  Monastery  of  Subiaco  Subiaco. 
with  12  others  in  the  Sabine  hills,  near  Rome.  After 
many  persecutions  he  removed  with  a  few  monks  to 
Monte  Cassino,  situated  between  Rome  and  Naples, 
where  the  Mother-house  of  all  Cassincse  Benedictines 
still  exists.  Benedict  found  there  a  temple  dedicated  to 
Apollo,  the  last  stronghold  of  paganism  :  on  this  site  he 
erected  two  oratories,  one  dedicated  to  the  Baptist,  the 
other  to  Martin  of  Tours.  He  died  "  standing,"  a  spiritual 
conqueror,  in  543. 

The  spirit  of  S.  Benedict  is  important  because  his  great 
personality  has  impressed  itself  on  the  greatest  religious 
society  of  Christendom  :  it  was  large  and  serene,  but  he 
never  lost  sight  of  the  moral  value  of  stable  resolve,  and 
the  importance  of  a  disciplined  spirit  to  fulfil  this  ;  and 
in  himself  were  united  greatness  of  soul  and  the  spirit  of 
discipline.  He  loved  peaceableness  and  charity  —  the 
watchword  of  his  children  is  Pax  —  he  loved  diligence, 
the  spirit  of  service.  He  loved  the  spirit  of  work  —  he 
honoured  work  for  its  own  sake,  work  with  the  hands, 
work  with  the  head.  He  loved  goodness,  the  adhesion  to 
charity,  the  dismissal  of  self;  he  had  the  scorn  of  petty 
and  personal  revenge,  the  reverence  for  broad  lines, 
strong  lines,  lines  founded  in  charity.  No  verse  of  the 
Psalms  he  so  loved  could  fit  his  temper  better  than  this 
which  he  often  repeated  at  the  third  hour  :  "  Teach  me 
goodness  and  discipline  and  knowledge." 


70        CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 

And  the  history  of  his  Order  has,  on  the  whole,  fulfilled 
the  promise  of  the  Founder  in  its  influence  on  Europe  : 
it  has  been  what  all  great  ideas  are,  missionary  ;  what  all 
broad  things  are,  tolerant ;  it  has  cared  for  the  essential 
rather  than  the  detail,  has  understood  Benedict  to  require 
strenuousness  rather  than  self-annihilation,  has  not  been 
afraid  of  the  liberal  arts  —  in  the  same  spirit  in  which  he 
in  more  than  one  particular  deliberately  chose  accessories 
of  civilisation  and  health  which  would  make  his  monks 
workers  before  all  else  ;  chose  things,  even,  just  because 
they  were  seemly. 
The  Rule.  Benedict  had  before  him  the  Rule  which  he  was  ac- 
customed to  call  '  the  rule  of  our  holy  Father  Basil,'  when 
he  indited  his  own.  The  Benedictine  Rule  well  called 
by  Councils  "  the  holy  rule,"  and  by  S.  Gregory  the  "  first 
and  foremost  in  discretion,"  superseded  every  other, 
and  became,  as  it  is  to-day,  the  sole  monastic  rule  of  the 
West.  It  was  received,  says  Milman,  not  as  a  rival 
"  but  as  a  more  full  and  perfect  rule  of  the  monastic 
life."  The  Council  of  Aix  in  862  requires  it  to  be  uni- 
versally adopted. 

The  Rule  is  divided  into  72  chapters,  with  a  prologue 
and  epilogue,  and  opens  with  the  words  :  Hearken,  my 
son,  to  the  words  of  the  teacher,  and  open  the  ears  of 
thy  heart  to  them.  After  a  beautiful  and  moving  pro- 
logue, Benedict  tells  them  that  there  are  4  kinds  of 
monks:  the  cenobites,  ancliorites,  sarabites  —  monks 
who  do  the  works  of  the  world,  live  at  their  own  house, 
follow  their  own  will,  and  belie  their  tonsure  before  God 
—  fourthly,  the  wandering  monk,  in  every  way  worse  than 
the  disreputable  sarabite,  who  passes  three  or  four  days 
in  different  monasteries,  roaming  from  land  to  land,  always 
vagabond  and  never  stable.  Leaving  these  3  aside, 
he  will  with  the  help  of  God  regulate  for  them  the 
strong  type  of  cenobite  jnonasticistn. 
The  vow  of  The  life  of  the  solitary  had  been  the  apotheosis  of  inde- 
"  '  '^*  pendence  ;  even  the  Basilian  who  took  the  3  vows  did 
not  escape  from  a  species  of  vagabondage,  for  he  was 
free  to  go  and  come,  he  did  not  settle  in  one  place,  no 


MONKS 


71 


one  could  lay  on  him  settled  duties  —  Benedict  made 
the  monastic  life  the  school  of  obedience,  and  the  school 
of  order  ;  and  he  brought  this  about  by  adding  the  vow 
of  stability,  the  promise  to  remain  in  one  monastery.  Of 
the  72  Chapters,  some  46  are  devoted  to  regulating  com- 
munity life,  to  discipline,  the  duties  of  the  abbat  and 
other  officers.  For  slight  offences  the-  abbat  is  to  excom- 
municate the  monk  from  the  common  table  ;  for  grave 
offences  he  is  to  be  excommunicated  from  the  services 
of  the  church,  and  to  do  all  his  work  alone.  The  abbat 
is  to  have  special  care  of  these  excommunicated  children, 
for  "  those  that  are  whole  need  not  a  physician,  but  those 
that  are  sick."  He  is  to  send  to  them  as  so  many 
"  secret  consolers  "  the  wisest  brethren,  that  heavy  sad- 
ness may  not  oppress  them.  The  t^t^^  Chapter  abolishes 
all  private  ownership  ;  the  34'^  provides  that  every  one 
should  be  given  equally  all  necessary  things.  Silence  is 
enjoined  "at  all  times,"  but  it  is  absolutely  forbidden  to 
speak  after  compline  of  one  day  till  the  next.  Idleness, 
says  the  Rule,  is  the  enemy  of  the  soul,  and  the  brethren 
are  to  do  some  kind  of  manual  work  every  day.  Twelve 
chapters  of  this  great  Rule  refer  to  the  Divine  office,  the 
order  of  which  is  minutely  described.  S.  Benedict's  rule 
raised  the  quota  of  prayer  and  praise  which  had  always 
been  given  by  the  solitaries  and  cenobites,  to  the  work 
par  excellence  of  the  monk,  the  "work  of  God,"  opus 
Dei.  Hence  in  Benedictine  houses  the  Office  in  choir  is 
performed  with  great  solemnity,  and  occupies  several 
hours  a  day.  The  same  Office  is  said  which  their  founder 
prescribed  for  them  1350  years  ago.  After  treating  of 
the  Office,  which  with  reading  and  manual  labour  is  to 
form  the  monk's  occupation,  Benedict  treats  of  the 
reverence  to  be  observed  at  prayer  :  "  We  believe  that 
God  is  present  everywhere,  and  the  eyes  of  the  Lord 
seek  in  all  places  the  good  and  the  evil.  But  without 
doubt  we  should  believe  that  this  is  especially  so  when 
we  assist  at  the  divine  office."  Our  mind  then  must 
agree  with  our  voice,  and  we  must  remember  the  words 
"  Serve  the  Lord  with  fear"  and  "  I  will  psalm  Him  in 


Exco?n- 
munication. 


Benedictine 
poverty, 
and  silence. 


Afanual 

work. 


The  Divine 
office. 


Prayer. 


72 


CHRISTIAN  AND   ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 


the  sight  of  the  angels."  In  prayer  he  recommends 
"  purity  of  devotion,"  and  "  humihty  ";  he  wishes  prayer 
to  be  brief;  purity  of  heart  and  compunction  of  spirit, 
and  not  much-speaking,  being  heard  by  God. 

Tlieabbat.  May  God  forbid,  says  the  Rule,  that  the  abbat  should 
teach  establish  or  command  aught  but  what  agrees  with 
the  precepts  of  Christ ;  but  rather  should  his  teaching 
be  sown  in  the  minds  of  his  disciples  like  a  leaven  of 
righteousness.  "  Let  the  abbat  know  that  all  the  Divine 
Paterfamilias  shall  find  lacking  in  the  lambs  will  be 
ascribed  to  the  shepherd."  He  is  to  be  the  example  of 
all  in  word  and  deed.  "Thou  who  didst  see  the  mote  in 
thy  brother's  eye,  how  is  it  that  thou  didst  not  see  the 
beam  in  thy  own  ?  "  He  is  to  treat  and  to  love  all  equally  ; 
the  bond  and  free  are  all  equal  in  Christ ;  *  the  only  dis- 
tinction between  us,'  he  says,  '  before  Thee,  consists  in 
some  of  us  being  found  better  and  more  humble  in  our 
lives.'  The  abbat  is  to  be  careful  not  to  care  too  much 
about  transitory  things,  having  taken  on  himself  to  rule 
souls.  When  they  suffer  poverty  he  is  to  remember  the 
words  "Seek  first  the  Kingdom  of  God  and  His  justice  "  ; 
and  "  Nothing  is  lacking  to  those  who  fear  God."  It 
belongs  to  the  abbat  rather  to  help  than  to  dominate. 
He  is  to  be  elected  by  all  the  brethren,  or  by  those  of 
the  community  whose  counsel  is  better.  He  is  to  be 
elected  whose  life  is  hohest  and  wisdom  greatest,  even 
though  he  should  be  the  least  in  the  convent.  When 
anything  of  moment  is  to  be  considered,  the  abbat  is  to 
convoke   the  whole   community,   and   having   heard   the 

*^' ■  counsel  of  his  brethren,  he  is  to  think  the  matter  over, 

and  act  as  he  shall  deem  most  prudent.  With  that 
wonderfiil  liberty  of  spirit  which  characterises  the  whole 
of  this  remarkable  rule,  united  with  the  strongest  appro- 
bation of  order  and  ready  obedience,  he  adds  :  "  But  we 
said  all  should  be  called  to  the  council ;  for  the  Lord  often 
reveals  to  the  youngest  what  is  best."  In  matters  of  minor 
moment  the  abbat  is  only  to  consult  the  elder  brethren. 

Hospitality.  "All  the  guests  who  come  to  us  shall  be  received  as 
Christ  the  Lord  Himself;   for  one  day  He  will  say  to  us 


His  elec- 
tion. 


His  Coun- 


MOYKS 


73 


'  I  was  a  stranger  and  you  took  Me  in.'  "  When  a  guest 
is  announced,  the  superior  or  the  brethren  shall  go  to 
meet  him  with  every  expression  of  charity.  The  holy 
Scripture  is  to  be  read  "  to  give  him  edification,"  and 
then  he  is  to  be  treated  "  with  all  possible  humanity." 
The  Superior  is  to  break  a  fast  day  to  keep  his  guest 
company ;  he  gives  him  water  to  wash  his  hands,  and  all 
the  brethren  with  their  abbat  wash  his  feet.  But  when 
the  guests  are  poor  or  are  pilgrims,  Christ  is  more  espe- 
cially received  in  their  persons.  While  he  abides  with 
them  the  brethren  who  meet  a  guest  ask  for  his  blessing. 
If  the  guest  is  a  monk  he  shall  be  entertained  for  as  long 
as  he  desires,  so  that  he  contents  himself  with  what  he 
finds,  and  does  not  mean  to  disturb  the  community.  If 
reasonably,  and  with  charity  and  meekness,  he  should 
find  fault  with  anything,  the  abbat  "  shall  ponder  well  if 
perhaps  the  Lord  had  sent  him  for  that  ver)'  purpose." 

Of  obedience  Benedict  says  "  it  is  the  first  grade  of  Obedience, 
humility,"  and  is  to  be  rendered  with  a  good  will  "  for 
God  loves  a  ready  giver."  The  brethren  are  also  to 
obey  each  other.  And  as  '•'  there  is  an  evil  zeal  of  bitter- 
ness which  separates  from  God,  so  there  is  a  good  zeal 
which  separates  us  from  vice,  and  leads  to  God  and  eter- 
nal life."  This  zeal,  in  charity  for  each  other,  and  pa- 
tience, and  honour  given  to  each  other,  and  preference 
of  their  good  to  one's  own  wishes,  the  monks  are  to 
always  exercise  :   "never  preferring  anything  to  Christ." 

Priests,  it  was  supposed,  lived  near  their  churches  and 
their  bishop,  attending  to  their  duties  of  ministering,  while 
the  monk  sought  to  sanctify  himself  by  retirement  from 
the  world.  "If  anyone  of  the  sacerdotal  order"  there- 
fore "  should  supplicate  to  be  received  into  the  monas- 
tery, he  is  not  to  be  admitted  too  readily."  But  if  he 
nevertheless  persists  in  his  supplication,  he  is  to  observe 
every  point  of  the  Rule,  that  he  be  not  like  the  man  who 
appeared  at  the  marriage  feast  not  having  on  a  wedding 
garment.  If  the  abbat  commands  him  to  bless  or  cele- 
brate mass,  he  may  stand  next  to  him ;  but  otherwise  he 
shall  only  take  the  place  which  belongs  to  him  by  senior- 


Priests  who 
wish  to 
follow  this 
Rule. 


74 


CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 


Lent. 


Habit. 


Mass. 


Rules  of 
Morality. 


ity,*  nor  shall  he  ever  presume  to  do  any  sacerdotal  act 
whatever  without  he  is  commanded,  and  in  all  things  he 
must  give  an  example  of  humility  above  others.  If  the 
abbat  makes  a  priest  or  deacon  he  shall  always  keep 
the  place  he  had  when  he  came  into  the  monastery, 
unless  the  community  or  the  abbat  promote  him  on 
consideration  of  his  good  life.  If  he  disobey  the  Rule, 
he  is  not  to  be  treated  like  a  priest,  but  like  a  rebel. 

Though  the  monk  ought  at  all  seasons  to  follow  a 
Lenten  observance,  yet  as  not  many  are  so  fervent,  the 
days  of  Lent  are  to  be  observed  very  perfectly,  and  the 
monk  is  to  repair  during  this  season  the  faults  and  defects 
of  his  life.  Each  one  at  this  time  should  offer  to  God 
"  by  his  own  proper  will  and  with  joy  of  the  Holy  Spirit  " 
"  something  above  the  measure  of  what  is  enjoined "  : 
awaiting  in  this  way,  with  the  gladness  of  spiritual  desire, 
the  Holy  Pasch  of  Easter. 

The  clothes  to  be  worn  are  to  be  suitable  to  the  place 
and  the  climate.  "  Let  not  the  monks  find  fault  with 
the  colour  or  coarseness  of  these  things,"  which  are  to  be 
regulated  by  the  products  of  the  country  they  are  in,  and 
by  what  is  less  costly.     (See  Chap.  I.,  p.  t^t^^ 

The  Benedictine  Liturgy  does  not  differ  from  the 
Roman,  except  that  the  founder's  name  is  mentioned  in 
the  confiteor,  and  that  the  '  last  Gospel '  is  not  said. 

S.  Benedict  in  several  of  the  chapters  of  his  Rule 
denounces  murmuring  and  scurrility  and  other  offences  ; 
l)ut  in  his  4'^  Chapter  he  gives  73  short  sentences  which 
he  calls  instriitneufs  of  good  works.  They  consist  of  the 
10  commandments  and  the  works  of  mercy  ;  and  contain 
besides  the  following  :  —  To  detach  oneself  from  the  works 
of  the  world.  To  put  nothing  before  the  love  of  Christ. 
Not  to  fulfil  wrath,  or  to  keep  wrath  for  another  time,  or 
to  have  deceit  in  your  heart,  or  to  give  a  flilse  peace.  To 
carry  truth  in  your  heart  and  on  your  lips.  To  ascribe 
any  good  you  see  in  yourself  to  God,  but  the  evil  to 
yourself.      To  break  evil  thoughts  on  the  stone  of  the 

*  If  any  clerics  "  desire  to  be  admitted  among  the  monks,"  they 
shall  be  allotted  mediocre  places. 


MONKS 


75 


Cross  as  soon  as  they  spring  up.  To  fulfil  every  day  the 
divine  commandments  by  your  acts.  Put  your  hope  in 
God,  and  never  despair  of  His  mercy.  Such  "  weapons  " 
used  by  us  incessantly  day  and  night,  and  restored  by  us 
on  the  day  of  judgment,  will  bring  with  them  the  reward 
that  has  been  promised  ;  since  eye  has  not  seen  nor  ear 
heard  nor  has  the  heart  of  man  imagined  what  God  has 
prepared  for  those  who  love  Him. 

The  Epilogue  tells  us  that  the  Rule  has  been  written  The  Epi- 
that  by  its  observance  in  the  monasteries,  7ve  may  show  'og"^- 
that  we  at  least  have  some  righteousness  in  our  manners, 
and  as  it  were  a  beginning  of  a  good  life.  But  the  writ- 
ings of  the  Fathers  and  the  pages  of  the  Old  Testament 
and  the  Gospel  are  to  be  studied  if  we  would  go  along  the 
way  of  perfection.  S.  Benedict  here  introduces  a  great 
and  fruitful  principle  into  Monasticism,  the  reservation  of 
a  part  of  the  day  to  study.  Hence  we  may  say  of  his  Rule  Summary. 
that  to  the  cenobitism  of  Pachomius  and  the  vows  of 
Basil,  he  adds  {a)  stability  {b)  work  and  labour  {e)  the 
organisation  of  the  Divine  office  {d)  reading,  in  order  to 
enrich  the  religious  life.  In  spite  of  the  degrading  spec- 
tacles offered  by  Monasticism,  Benedict  saw  the  power 
and  beauty  of  the  religious  life,  and  distrusted  for  it  the 
type  of  the  vagabond  idle  solitary,  with  no  superior,  and 
no  stable  home  or  place  of  duty.  Stability,  labour,  a 
common  obedience  for  a  common  object,  prayer,  study. 
This  was  his  Rule. 

Finally,  he  introduced  the  Noviciate,  a  consequence  of   The  No- 
the  perpetual  vows  with  the  vow  of  stability,  which  Bene-   ^'^I'l^*^' 
diet  proposed  to  the  new  monk.     A  noviciate  is  a  period 
of  probation  which  the  monk  must  pass  through  before  he 
makes  his  profession.     This  period  of  trial  is  to  be  long 
and  rigorous.*     The  applicant  is  first  b.  postulant,  that  is   Postulant. 
one  who  asks  admittance.     He  may  remain  a  postulant 
for  a  few  days  or  a  few  months,  after  which  he  is  received 
as  a  novice  and  clothed.     The  noviciate  lasts  for  a  year   Novice. 
and  a  day,  at  the  end  of  which  the  vows  are  pronounced. 


*  Fule,  Cap.  LVIII, 


76 


CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCIESIASTICAL  ROME 


Master  o 
Mistress 
Novices. 


Mother- 
House 
{casa 
madre). 
I^ay 
brethren 


This  is  called  the  profession.  Postulants,  if  men,  wear 
a  simple  black  dress  and  cloak,  if  woiiien,  a  black  dress 
and  cape  and  a  small  black  veil.  Novices,  men,  wear  the 
complete  habit  of  the  Order  except  the  cowl,  the  women 
wear  the  same  with  a  white  veil.* 
r  S.  Benedict  said  that  the  novice  is  to  have  "  some  ex- 
of  pert  religious  to  look  after  him."  Thus  has  arisen  the 
office  of  master-  of  novices,  an  elder  monk  or  nun,  whose 
duty  it  is  to  train  the  young  religious.  He  lives  in  the 
novice's  quarter  of  the  monastery,  which  is  called  the 
noviciate ;  the  novice  may  not  enter  the  enclosure  nor 
speak  to  any  professed  monk,  and  the  noviciate  is  com- 
pletely isolated,  monks  and  novices  meeting  only  in  the 
church.  The  Superior  and  the  Master  of  novices  alone 
may  have  speech  with  the  latter. 

A  noviciate  is  now  required  in  every  religious  commu- 
nity, its  laws  being  the  same  as  among  Benedictines.  Each 
Benedictine  house  of  nuns  being  complete  in  itself,  the  no- 
viciate exists  in  each  house  ;  but  in  Provinces  of  Benedic- 
tine monks,  and  in  all  Congregations  under  a  General,  there 
is  one  house  called  the  Mother-House,  and  here  the  novici- 
ate is  established,  and  the  Superior-General  as  a  rule  resides. 
Lay  brethren //r/r  or  sceur  converse  (in  Italian  conversi) 
are  always  attached  to  Benedictine  monasteries,  although 
no  mention  of  them  is  made  by  S.  Benedict,  and  it  is  said 
the  first  to  admit  them  was  the  founder  of  the  Vallombro- 
sans  (1038).  They  made  their  appearance  early  at  Cluny, 
and  were  adopted  by  Citeaux  a  few  years  after  its  founda- 
tion ;  the  hired  labour  being  intended  to  set  the  monks 
free  to  discharge  day  and  night  the  precepts  of  the  Rule.f 
The  duties  of  the  lay  brother  are  those  of  a  servant  in  the 
monastery.  He  is  generally  professed  after  two  years' 
noviciate,  and  wears  the  monastic  habit,  but  the  lay 
sisters  wear  a  white  veil,  and  do  not  wear  the  cowl  the 
special  garment  of  cJioir  Religious.     Some  lay  bretJireii  ■ 

*  For  the  ceremony  of  clothing  and  profession  see  p.  129  et  seq. 

t  By  their  Rule,  lay  brethren  were  to  be  treated  in  life  and  in 
death  in  the  same  manner  as  monks,  except  in  what  pertains  to  the 
profession  of  a  choir  monk. 


MONKS  77 

wear  a  brown  gown,  and  retain  the  beard.  Lay  brethren 
do  not  assist  at  the  Div'ine  office,  but  recite  the  office  of 
the  Blessed  Virgin  or  the  rosary  instead. 

The  idea  of  the  oblate,  or  devout  layman  associated  to  Obiates. 
the  Order,  whose  objects  he  assists  and  in  whose  prayers 
he  participates,  appears  to  have  been  coeval  with  the 
Benedictine  Order ;  for  TertuUus  the  father  of  Placidus 
was  admitted  "  to  the  society  "  of  the  Order,  and  King 
Theodoret  requested  Maurus  to  inscribe  his  name  in  their 
fraternity.  In  the  x.  and  xi.  centuries  the  piety  of  the 
great  abbats  of  Cluny  drew  many,  who  are  alluded  to  as 
the  "  faithful  poor  and  rich  who  ask  for  brotherly  union 
with  us."  They  lived  in  their  own  homes,  paid  a  small 
annual  sum  to  the  Abbey,  and  gave  their  time  to  its 
business.  The  intention  was  to  unite  the  cloister  and  the 
world,  at  a  time  of  imperfect  civilisation,  when  those  who 
desired  to  lead  a  devout  and  retired  life  could  hardly  do 
so  without  the  support,  even  the  shelter,  of  one  of  the 
great  abbeys.  In  this  way  "  a  spiritual  intercommunion 
between  the  Religious  and  the  laic  was  established." 
From  the  time  of  S.  Benedict,  indeed,  the  influence  of 
the  monastic  life  was  great  over  all  with  whom  it  came  in 
contact.  By  permission  of  Charlemagne,  in  whose  time 
they  were  called  offerti,  the  obiates  bestowed  their  prop- 
erty on  the  monastery  and  could  live  under  its  roof. 
Among  nuns  the  system  of  obiates  was  always  encour- 
aged, and  under  the  various  names  of  oblate,  donat, 
enclosed  servant,  conversa,  familiara,  commissa,  Deo  de- 
vota,  Deo  sacrata,  they  were  found  in  England,  France, 
Belgium,  Italy,  Spain.  They  united  themselves  with  the 
life  of  the  monastery  either  outside  or  inside  its  walls. 
The  married,  the  single,  the  poor  and  the  rich  could  all 
offer  themselves.  In  109 1  Urban  II.  approved  of  the 
state  as  holy  and  catholic,  and  conformable  to  the  rule 
of  the  early  Church.  It  was  further  approved  by  the 
Lateran  Councils  in   11 79  and  1215;*  and  obiates  are 

*  Spicilegitttn  Betiedictiniim:  a  collection  of  unpublished  papers 
edited  by  the  nuns  of  S.  Benedict's,  Rome. 


Greatness 
of  the 
Benedic- 
tines. 


78        CHRISTIAN  AND   ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 

Still  attached  to  Benedictine  abbeys,  according  to  rules 
determined  by  each  community. 

For  600  years  the  Benedictines  were  the  scholars, 
the  thinkers,  the  agriculturalists,  the  farnners,  the  irri- 
gators, the  librarians,  the  schoolmasters  of  Europe.  Their 
great  monasteries  established  in  large  tracts  of  waste  land, 
which  they  hastened  to  drain  and  till,  became  so  many 
centres  of  light  and  assistance  to  the  wayfarer  and  the 
surrounding  populations.  Wherever  the  Benedictines 
carry  the  cross  they  carry  also  the  plough,  was  said  of 
them.  The  Benedictine  Rule  implied  that  it  was  part 
of  a  monk's  duty  to  make  himself  useful  to  others  :  to 
this  we  owe  the  reintroduction  of  learning  and  the  arts 
into  Europe.  To  the  habit  of  reading  and  conning  the 
Fathers,  encouraged  by  Benedict,  we  owe  the  literary 
and  philosophic  activity  which  prevented  the  influx  of 
barbarians  from  utterly  sweeping  away  Roman  civilisa- 
tion, which  preserved  for  us  the  classical  works  of 
antiquity,  and  resulted  in  giving  to  Europe  the  finest 
editions  of  the  classical  and  patristic  writings. 

Mabillon  says  with  justice  that  the  Benedictine  was  the 
pioneer  of  civilisation  in  England,  Germany,  Poland, 
Bohemia,  Denmark  and  Sweden.  To  their  missionary 
work  in  the  vi.,  vii,.  viii.  and  ix.  centuries  is  due  the  con- 
version of  the  greater  part  of  Europe  to  Christianity. 
From  the  vi.  to  the  ix.  century  Monte  Cassino  was  the 
one  seat  of  learning  in  Italy  ;  and  Subiaco  alone,  it  has 
been  said,  has  produced  work  to  rival  the  results  of 
Oxford  and  Cambridge.  The  Libraries  of  Marmoutier, 
Fontevrault,  and  S'  Maur  destroyed  at  the  Revolution, 
were  but  the  successors  of  Monte  Cassino,  of  the  vii. 
century  library  of  York,  the  largest  till  then  seen  in 
Britain,  of  Croyland  in  Kent  which  at  the  close  of  the 
XI.  century  numbered  3000  volumes,  and  of  Farfa  which 
at  the  same  period  possessed  a  collection  of  codices  which 
has  been  called  the  nucleus  of  modern  European  history.* 

*  Farfa,  founded  550,  by  S.  Laurence,  afterwards  Bishop  of 
Spoleto. 


MONKS 


79 


At  Subiaco  the  first  printing  press  was  erected ;  the 
first  press  in  England  was  placed  in  the  Benedictine 
abbey  of  Westminster.  Finally,  the  monks  were  the  great 
schoolmasters.  The  Schools  of  the  middle  ages  took 
their  rise  in  a  provision  of  Benedict's  enacting  that 
should  parents  offer  their  children  to  a  monastery,  they 
should  be  accepted  :  in  this  way  the  Venerable  Bede 
was  brought  up  by  the  Benedictines  from  7  years  old. 
and  became  the  Father  of  English  History.*  It  was  this 
rule  which  made  possible  the  strange  sight  of  little  chil- 
dren 6  and  7  years  old  inhabiting  the  great  monasteries. 
As  late  as  the  xvii.  century  an  i\bbess  of  Montmartre  had 
been  brought  as  an  infant  of  6  months  old  to  a  Bene- 
dictine house  ;  taking  her  vows  at  Jouarre  at  1 6,  and  eventu- 
ally becoming  abbess.  It  needed  but  this  provision  to 
give  to  Benedict's  rule  the  final  mark  of  that  humane 
spirit,  that  spirit  of  education,  which  enabled  his  monks, 
in  an  age  of  insecurity  and  violence,  to  extend  their 
salutary  influence  toward  every  portion  of  the  community. 

An  Order  for  women,  following  S.  Benedict's  Rule,  was   Benedic- 
instituted,  it  is  believed,  by  his  sister  S.  Scholastica  ;  f   ""'^  """^• 
and  nothing  could  be  more  distinguished  than  its  history. 
The  nuns  of  Gaul  initiated  the  distinguished  career  of 
women   in    Religion.      It   is   under  the  abbess  Cesaria 
Junior  at  Aries  in  the  vi.  century  that  we  first  hear  of    Copying  of 
that  distinctively  monastic  labour  the  copying  of  precious   ^^^^• 
MSS.,  which  at  ever}'  period  since,  in  the  hands  of  the 
Benedictines,  has  preserved  for  us  the  great  literary  treas- 
ures of  Europe,  classical  and  Christian.     This  work  was 
carried  on  in  the  nunneries  with  equal  care  and  equal 
ability  as  in  convents  of  monks. J     With  the  rise  of  the 

*  Cf.  the  Northumbrian  similar  custom,  p.  27.  Bede  never  left 
Jarrow,  a  fact  useful  to  keep  in  mind,  as  his  cell  is  erroneously 
shown  at  Subiaco. 

t  S.  Gregory,  Vita  S.  Benedicti,  cap.  33,  says  she  was  dedicated 
to  God  from  her  childhood. 

\  One  of  the  most  important  liturgical  treasures  has  come  to  light 
this  century  as  their  work  —  the  Ordo  Koiuaitiis,  written  by  the  nuns 
of  St.  Amand  at  Rouen  in  the  last  years  of  the  \\\\.  centurv.  [Part 
II.,  p.  82.] 


8o        CHRISTIAN  AND   ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 

Benedictines  the  greatness  of  the  nunneries  was  trans- 
ferred from  Gaul  to  England.  It  is  among  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  women  that  "  cloisters  rivalUng  in  number  and 
influence  the  monasteries  of  men,  and  the  most  impor- 
tant centres  of  Christendom,"  were  to  be  found.  The 
nuns  of  the  vii.  and  viii.  centuries  cultivated  letters  as 
did  the  monks,  "peut-etre,"  writes  Montalembert,  "  avec 
plus  d'entrainement  encore."  Every  community  of 
women  was  at  once  "  une  ecole  et  un  atelier."  They 
were  the  first,  perhaps,  to  interpret  the  word  tuork  to 
mean  study. 

The  evangelisation  of  F^urope  is  in  great  part  the  work 
of  Benedictine  nuns.  Mabillon  records  that  they  both 
taught  and  preached.  Germany  was  evangehsed  in  the 
VIII.  century  by  the  Anglo-Saxon  nuns  Lioba,  Walburga, 
and  Berthgytha,  chosen  by  Boniface  as  his  coadjutors  in 
the  civilisation  of  the  Teutons.  One  of  his  biographers 
tells  us  that  these  women  were  profoundly  versed  in  all  the 
liberal  sciences,  and  that  they  "  consoled  and  nourished  " 
Boniface's  exile,  "  by  the  abundance  and  beauty  of  the 
books  which  they  sent  him."  The  great  work  done  by 
them,  and  such  as  they,  makes  Montalembert  exclaim  at 
the  fact  that  an  ungrateful  posterity  remembers  but  their 
names  !  * 

In  the  same  century  which  saw  Hild  ruling  her  Celtic 
monasteries  in  Northumbria,  and  consulted  by  the  Bishops 
in  their  Synods,  the  great  abbess  Mildred,  at  the  other 
end  of  England,  founded  and  ruled  the  "  Minster-in- 
Thanet."  Her  great  fame  and  popularity  "^clipsa  celle 
de  Saint  Augustin  dans  la  contrive  meme  qu'il  avait  le 
premier  conquise  a  la  foi,"  and  the  very  rock  on  which 
Augustin  landed  was  known  as  S.  Mildred's  rock  until 

*  Walburga  was  27  years  a  nun  at  Wimborne,  then  abbess  at 
Mayence,  and  first  Abbess  of  Heidenheim  in  Bavaria.  She  was  so 
great  as  a  governor,  and  so  efficient  in  the  work  of  civilisation,  that 
she  was  called  to  rule  the  2  houses  of  nuns  and  monks  at  Eichstadt. 
Here  she  died  about  778.  She  was  sister  to  S.  Willibald.  Lioba 
was  consulted  by  Boniface  on  all  matters  of  importance,  in  a  corre- 
spondence which  continued  till  death;  and  he  asked  to  be  buried 
by  her.     She  died  about  779.     She  was  the  first  Abbess  in  Germany. 


MONKS  8i 

the  XVIII.  century.  Between  683  and  990  there  are  no 
less  than  28  sainted  abbesses  in  the  EngUsh  calendar 
alone. 

In  the  revival  of  learning  under  Charlemagne  the  nun-  At  the 
neries  again  bore  a  conspicuous  part.  The  continuity  of  [garn^ne 
this  tradition  of  learning  among  them  is  most  remarkable  : 
the  Anglo-Saxon  nuns  of  the  viii.  century  in  their  letters  to 
Boniface  cite  Virgil  as  Radegund  might  have  done  in  the 
vi"\  Under  the  two  Cesarias  at  Aries  at  the  latter  epoch, 
and  in  Bertile  of  Chelles,*  we  are  struck  with  the  same  pro- 
found and  intimate  knowledge  of  the  Scriptures  shown  5 
and  6  centuries  later  by  Hildegarde  and  Gertrude.  In  the 
darkest  moment  of  the  middle  ages,  the  x.  century,  the 
great  Abbey  of  Gandersheim  presents  us  with  a  nun 
who  read  Virgil,  Plautus,  Horace,  Terence,  and  Aristotle. 
Hrotswithawas  a  lay  sister  of  the  Abbey,  and  lived  between 
A.D.  935  and  1001.  She  entered  the  monastery  when  about 
23  years  old,  and  her  tutors  were  2  nuns  of  her  convent, 
the  Mistress  of  Novices  Richardis  and  the  Abbess  Ger- 
berg  II.  Her  dramas  were  given  to  the  hterary  world, 
in  a  French  translation,  by  M.  Magnin  in  1845,  and 
caused  profound  astonishment.  She  precedes  her  8 
poems  with  a  charming  little  preface,  in  which  she  tells 
us  that  her  only  aim  in  writing  had  been  to  prevent  the 
few  talents  the  Lord  had  given  her  from  getting  rusty  and 
perishing  from  want  of  use.  Of  her  prose  dramas  she 
says  that  she  had  wished  "  to  celebrate  the  triumphs  of 
Chastity,  especially  those  in  which  the  weakness  of  women 
may  be  seen  overcoming  the  brutality  of  men  :  she  de- 
sired "  to  present  these  feminine  victories  in  all  their 
splendour."  Her  diction,  says  Rohrbacher,  in  treating 
of  the  most  delicate  adventures  is  always  pure  ;  and  com- 
pares with  the  language  of  male  geniuses  v/ho  have  treated 
similar  subjects  ;  "  For  delicacy  of  sentiments,  fineness 
and  restraint  of  language,  religious  inspiration  and  moral 
elevation "  she  is  incomparably  the  superior.  While 
Rohrbacher  doubts  if  that  century  which  gave  us  Hrots- 

*  A  nun  of  Chelles  who  drew  large  audiences  of  men  and  women 
to  her  lectures  on  the  Scriptures  in  the  vi.  century. 


82        CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 

witha  can  any  longer  be  dubbed  an  age  of  ignorance  and 

barbarism,  Magnin  says  similar  words,  and  adds  :  "  Cette 

dixieme  muse,  cette  Sappho  Chr^tienne,  comme  le  pro- 

clamaient  a  I'envi  ses  compatriotes,  est  une  gloire  pour 

I'Europe  entiere  ;  dans  la  nuit  du  Moyen  age  on  signale- 

rait  difificilement  une  ^toile  po^tique  plus  pure  et  plus 

^clatante."     The   Abbey-church   was   converted   into   a 

theatre,  the  choir  was  the  stage,  the  bishop  was  present 

on  his  throne,  and  Hrotswitha's  plays  were  acted  by  nuns 

to   an   audience  of  nuns.      The  language  ready  to  her 

hand,  half  barbarous,  half  Latin,  is  so  skilfully  handled  as 

to  appear  an  imitation  of  her  favourite  Terence,  "  and 

the  precursor  of  Racine."     Her  6  comedies,  says  Magnin, 

give  her  a  right  to  an  eminent  place  in  the  literature  of 

the  middle  ages ;  "  ces  6  drames  sont  un  dernier  rayon 

de  I'antiquite  classique." 

Ganders-  The  monastery  of  Gandersheim,  in  Lower  Saxony  (Han- 

heim.  over)   was  the  principal   seat  of  civilisation,  piety  and 

the  arts  in  Northern  Europe  :*  while  in  the  xi.  century 

it  is  to  2  Benedictine  monasteries,  one  of  nuns  and  one  of 

Quedlin-       monks,  that  we  owe  the  revival  of  religion  —  Quedlinburg 

^"'"S-  and  Clairvaux.-j-     In  the  xii.  century  lived  Hildegarde, 

Hiide-  Abbess  of  Mont  S'  Robert, |  perhaps  the  very  greatest  of 

the  Benedictine  women.     She  was  born  about  1098  at 

the  castle  of  Bickelheim,  Mayence,     At  8  years  old  she 

was  confided  to  a  nun  named  Jutta  at  the  Benedictine 

monastery  of  S.  Disibode  of  which  she  became  abbess  in 

1 136.     "  Listructor  of  the  people,  counsellor  of  bishops 

and  of  monarchs,  restorer  of  piety  and  manners,  and  oracle 

of  the  Church,  she  was  among  women  that  which  S.  Ber- 

Her  writ-      nard  was  among  men,"  writes  Rohrbacher.     The  Scivias 

ings.  is  hgf  most  important  literary  work.§     It  was  written  be- 

*  A  chapter  of  secular  canonesses  (Lutherans)  still  have  their 
seat  at  Gandersheim. 

t  Harnack,  Dogmengeschichte.  Quedlinburg,  founded  930,  ac- 
cepted the  Confession  of  Augsburg  in  1539  and  became  a  Protestant 
Chapter. 

X  The  monastery  founded  by  her  near  Bingen. 

§  Sciens  z'ias,  knowing  the  ways,  or  Scientia  Viariim  {domini) 
the  knowledge  of  the  Paths  of  the  Lord. 


MONKS  83 

tween  1141  and  1151,  and  is  chiefly  concerned  with  moral 
and  dogmatic  theology,  though  the  last  chapters  are  pro- 
phetic. The  effects  of  the  Incarnation,  she  tells  us,  are 
three  :  the  re-purchase  of  the  world,  the  divinising  of  man, 
the  development  of  virtues  especially  of  humility  and 
charity.  In  Vision  10  of  Book  III.  she  declares  that  the 
Incarnation  has  developed  certain  virtues  to  the  support 
of  the  Christian  life  :  constancy,  desire  of  heaven,  com- 
punction of  heart,  contempt  of  the  world,  concord.  By 
her  correspondence  with  those  who  consulted  her,  she 
accomplished  an  incalculable  work  for  good  in  her  gene- 
ration ;  "  Since  with  that  liberty  which  the  Spirit  of  the 
Lord  suggests,  she  admonished  salutarily,  and  frankly  she 
reproved  them  for  their  defects  .  .  .  the  same  did  she 
with  Conrad  and  with  the  Pope."  In  her  2""^  epistle 
she  apostrophises  Rome,  saying  "  The  King's  Daughter, 
which  is  Justice,  thou  hast  loved  not  with  an  ardent  love, 
but  as  in  the  torpor  of  sleep,  so  that  thou  hast  expelled 
her  from  thee."  The  great  means  for  winning  back  the 
people  to  Christian  virtue,  which  she  preached  to  popes, 
superiors,  and  the  bishops,  was  gentleness,  which  in  her 
allegorical  language  is  "  the  robe  of  silk  "  clothing  every 
virtue. 

She  wished  the  monastery  to  be  the  great  school  of  re- 
spect. Rather  than  a  great  corporal  austerity  she  would 
have  a  more  strict  personal  humility.  The  sick  and  the 
children  in  her  care  are  her  great  preoccupation.  At  the 
request  of  the  monks  of  Hoeningen  she  wrote  them  an 
Explanation  of  the  Rule  of  S.  Benedict.  A  third  work  is 
a  mystical  treatise  Concerning  the  Divine  IVorhs  of  the 
simple  man*  In  this  she  treats  of  the  6  days  of  crea- 
tion, which  for  her  are  epochs,  and  "  the  evening  and  the 
morning  "  are  the  end  and  the  beginning.  In  response 
to  an  embassy  from  the  monks  of  Willaret  she  wrote  a 
Solution  of  j8  questions,  forming  her  54"^  epistle.  She 
wrote  also  an  explanation  of  the  Athanasian  Creed,  Lives 
of  S.  Robert  and   S.   Disibode,  and   lastly  her  Physic, 

*  In  her  writings  she  often  calls  herself  hovio  sijiiplcx,  the  simple 
man. 


84 


CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 


."ipprdba- 
tion  of  her 
writings. 


Hildegarde 
as  a 
preacher. 


Relinde 
and  Her- 
rad. 


Heloi'se. 


'•  *jf  the  subtilties  of  divers  created  natures,"  which  is  a 
summary  of  the  medical  knowledge  of  the  middle  ages. 
At  the  instance  of  S.  Bernard  and  of  many  bishops,  Eu- 
genius  III.  publicly  approved  her  revelations  and  spirit  at 
the  Council  of  Treves.  The  reading  of  the  Scivias,  elu- 
cidated by  Bernard  and  her  friend  the  Abbat  Lewis,  caused 
the  Fathers  of  the  Council  to  praise  God  for  his  creature. 
They  prayed  Eugenius  to  write  to  her,  and  his  letter  runs  : 
"  We  marvel,  O  daughter,  we  marvel  more  than  you  can 
believe,  that  God  shows  new  wonders  in  these  our  times,  by 
so  penetrating  you  with  His  Spirit  that  you  are  able  to  see 
many  hidden  things,  and  seeing  them  to  comprehend,  and 
impart  them." 

From  all  parts,  say  her  biographers,  people  of  every 
condition  thronged  to  the  monastery  "  as  once  the  He- 
brew people  thronged  to  the  Baptist  in  the  desert,"  to 
hear  her  and  take  counsel  with  her.  In  the  words  of  the 
Theatine  father  Ventura  she  "  obtained  an  immortal  name 
by  her  glorious  apostolate  in  France  and  in  Germany." 
One  of  the  most  charming  pictures  which  the  middle  ages 
present  to  us,  an  age  of  great  personalities  and  therefore 
of  great  friendships,  is  the  French  monk  to  whom  the 
Lord's  Mother  was  so  prominent  a  Christian  ideal,  urging 
the  pope  to  emphasise  the  teaching  of  this  woman  apostle 
of  two  countries,  and  so  enforce  it  on  the  manners  of  the 
time.     Hildegarde  died  17  September,  1179. 

Among  famous  Benedictine  nuns  must  be  counted 
Relinde  (or  Kilinde)  Abbess  of  Hohenbourg,  a  woman 
of  great  qualities  of  mind  and  heart,  chosen  to  this  ])ost 
by  Barbarossa  when  Duke  of  Suabia  and  Alsatia.  Relinde 
re-established  discipline  in  the  monastery  through  study. 
She  herself  taught  the  Religious  Latin,  and  her  own  verses 
have  come  down  to  us.  The  celebrated  Abbess  Herrad, 
author  of  the  Hortus  Deliciariim,  succeeded  her  in  1 167- 
II 80. 

In  the  XII.  century  lived  another  famous  nun,  Heloi'se. 
At  the  Priory  of  the  Paraclete  ruled  by  her,  she  held  a 
school  of  Greek  and  Hebrew,  and  herself  taught  the  nuns 
of  most  promise,  deeming  the  inspiration  of  a  taste  for 


MONKS 


85 


learning  among  them  to  be  one  of  her  duties.  The  nuns 
also  learnt  surgery  and  medicine  "  afin  de  pouvoir  se 
passer  des  hommes."  In  the  next  century  Gertrude  a 
nun  of  Helfta*  and  Mechtilde  her  companion  and  spir- 
itual mother,  illustrated  their  century  by  their  lives,  vir- 
tues and  writings.  "  To  the  knowledge  of  humane  letters 
she  joined  the  science  of  divine  things  "  says  the  Roman 
Breviary  of  Gertrude.  This  Saxon  niin  was  brought  to  a 
Benedictine  house  at  5  years  old.  "  She  shone  with  the 
gift  of  prophecy  and  the  revelation  of  divine  things ;  " 
indeed  both  she  and  Mechtilde  are  called  in  their  Lives 
Prophetesses.  She  died  in  1302,  being  46  years  old. 
(Canonised  xvii.  century.) 

The  learned  Ellena  Cornaro-Piscopia,  Doctor  of  the 
University  of  Padua,  was  a  xvii.  century  Benedictine 
Oblate.  Enough  has  been  said  to  show  that  the  nunner- 
ies were  centres  of  learning  and  intellectual  activity.  A 
school  of  letters  and  a  school  of  mysticism  existed  in 
each  abbey,  and  the  nuns  were  divided  into  2  classes, 
'Teachers'  and  '  jNIystics,'  /.<?.  schoolmasters  or  masters 
of  the  contemplative  life.  It  is  said  of  the  French  Abbey 
of  Ronceray  at  Angers,  that  girls  were  sent  there  in  order 
to  a  higher  education.,  viatitriores  doctrince  causa.  He- 
loi'se  was  educated  at  such  a  school  at  Argenteuil.  But 
in  the  time  of  Louis  XIV.  it  was  thought  a  strange  thing 
by  the  sons  of  such  spiritual  mothers  that  a  "  nun  "  should 
understand  her  latin  office,  and  Angelique  Arnauld  was 
a  prodigy.  Since  the  xvi.  century,  when  the  nuns  were 
finally  enclosed,  there  have  been  no  great  names  to 
record,  and  there  has  been  a  complete  dearth  of  all 
learning.  No  one  deplored  this  change  more  than  Du- 
panloup  who  urged,  in  vain,  that  learning  had  always 
been  the  support  of  the  religious  hfe,  the  handmaid  and 
earnest  of  piety. 


Gertrude 
and  Mech- 
tilde. 


Learning 
in  the  niin- 


Another  example   of  the  illustrious  position  held   by   Benedic- 

Benedictine   nuns  is  to  be  found  in  the  formation  of    ^'""^  canon- 
esses. 


*  .She  has  been  erroneously  styled  and  represented  as  its  Abbess. 


86 


CHRISTIAN  AXD  ECCIESIASTICAL   ROME 


Laus 
pcrennis. 


Chapters,  which  was  an  ecclesiastical  feature  of  the  later 
middle  ages.  A  large  number  of  convents  formed  them- 
selves into  Chapters  of  canonesses,  and  assumed  the 
canons'  dress.  Some  of  these  remained  monastic,  others 
became  secular  Chapters.  Among  the  former  were  Fon- 
tevrault,  the.  countess-canonesses  of  Bourbourg,  and  the 
canonesses  of  S.  Peter  of  Rheims,  who  assisted  in  proces- 
sions with  the  canons  of  the  cathedral,  walking  rank  and 
rank.  Among  the  latter  was  Remiremont.  At  Nivelle 
there  was  a  Chapter  of  both  sexes,  "  in  which  the  Virgins 
obtained  the  greater  dignity"  {digniorem  locum).  All 
these  Chapters  ceased  at  the  time  of  the  French  Revolu- 
tion. Some  wore  the  rochet  over  a  white  habit,  others 
over  a  black.  Thus  at  Fontevrault  and  at  S.  Pierre  de 
Rheims,  though  both  Black  Benedictine  houses,  the  habit 
worn  was  white. 

The  formation  of  Chapters  within  the  monastery  was  a 
result  of  the  large  part  played  by  the  divine  office  in 
Benedictine  life  ;  which  had  already  brought  about  the 
laus  perennis,  or  perpetual  praise,  accomplished  by  alter- 
nate choirs  who  chanted  the  Hours  in  succession.  Thus 
at  Remiremont,  then  the  largest  nunnery  in  Gaul,  7  choirs 
alternated  the  Perpetual  Praise  in  7  chapels. 


Friend- 
ships of  the 
cloister. 


The  middle  ages  have  been  called  magjia  parens  vi- 
rum  ;  the  defects  of  the  age  left  untouched  some  of  the 
greatest  character-making  qualities,  and  among  these  we 
may  count  magnanimity  —  in  that  period  what  is  mean 
and  weak  finds  no  place.  Round  these  great  characters, 
especially  in  the  cloisters,  gathered  the  great  historic 
friendships,  and  their  possibility  must  have  made  life 
more  "pleasant,"  in  David's  sense,  despite  the  violence 
and  corruption  around,  than  we  easily  realise  who  live 
out  smaller  lives  in  what,  in  our  sense,  are  far  more 
'  pleasant '  surroundings.  Lacordaire  has  beautifully  said, 
"  That  which  ruins  love  is  egoism,  it  is  not  the  love  of 
God,"  and  exclaims  it  would  be  strange  if  a  religion 
based  on  the  dual  love  of  God  and  man  should  have 
been  closed  to  instances  of  the  latter  love. 


MOXKS  87 

Gregory  the  Great  tells  us  of  one  of  the  earliest  of 
these  friendships  in  Rome,  that  of  the  noble  Roman 
Galla,  a  nun  in  a  monastery  by  S.  Peter's,  who  prays  that 
her  friend  Benedicta  may  die  with  her.  Another  was 
that  between  Ambrose  and  his  sister  Marcellina,  whom 
he  addresses  as  "  Lady,  Sister,  preferred  before  eyesight 
and  life  itself."  *  In  Gaul  the  friendship  of  Radegund, 
Agnes,  and  Fortunatus  is  historic.  In  England  Bede 
records  the  friendship  of  Hild  and  another  nun  "  who 
loved  her  with  an  immense  love."  The  tender  friend- 
ship between  Ethelburga  of  PJarking  and  Torctgyd,  who 
knew  not  how  to  survive  her,  is  preserved  by  Bede  also  : 
Torctgyd  after  being  speechless  for  3  days  and  3  nights 
sees  Ethelburga  in  a  vision,  is  greeted  by  her,  and  is 
called  to  join  her.  In  the  correspondence  of  Boniface 
and  Bega,  ]\Iontalembert  notices  "  le  besoin  d'exprimer 
la  tendresse,  on  dirait  volontiers  la  passion  qui  les 
anime."  Bernard  never  lost  the  tender  love  of  Peter 
the  Venerable,  though  he  was  obliged  to  attack  the 
abuses  of  the  illustrious  community  of  Cluny  which  the 
Abbat  Peter  was  vainly  endeavouring  to  reform  ;  and  Peter 
writes  to  him  :  "  If  it  were  permitted  to  me,  my  dear  Ber- 
nard, and  if  God  willed  it,  I  should  prefer  to  live  near 
you,  and  be  attached  to  you  by  an  indissoluble  tie,  than 
be  first  among  mortals,  or  sit  upon  a  throne  ;  for  must 
not  one  prefer  to  every  earthly  thing  the  happiness  of 
living  with  you  ?  "  j  The  friendship  of  Abailard  and 
Heloise,  in  the  same  century,  and  in  the  ne.xt,  of  Ger- 
trude and  Mechtilde,  S.  Dominic  and  Cecilia ;  in  the 
xvi'?^  of  Teresa  and  Anne  of  S.  Bartholomew,  carry  on 
the  same  tradition. 

Montalembert  speaks  of  the  "joyous  presentiment  of  Deaths  of 
death  "  among  the  early  Religious,  and  it   is  worthv  of  the  early 

^  "^  ^  ^  Religious, 

notice  as  a  testimony  to  the  beauty  and  peace  of  their         ° 

*  Domina  Soror  vitcF  atque  ocnlis  pracferenda.     See  Chap.  I., 

t  Peter  is  memorable  for  his  wise  and  moderate  spirit;  he  gave 
asylum  to  Abailard  when  he  was  persecuted  by  fSernard,  and  a  beau- 
tiful letter  of  his  to  Heloise  on  the  death  of  her  husband  is  extant. 


ss 


CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 


lives.  We  have  seen  how  Paula  in  the  iv.  century,  one  of 
the  first  Roman  nuns,  died  saying  "all  is  peace  within 
me."  Bede  tells  us  that  Hild  "looked  cheerfully  on 
death"  and  died:  laeta  moj-tem  vidit.  Above  all,  says 
Montalembert,  "among  the  savants  of  Barking"  death 
appeared  "  douce  et  radieuse." 


Black 
Benedic- 
tines. 


National 
Congrega- 
tions. 


Reforms. 

Benedict  of 
Aniane, 

VIIT.-IX. 

centuries. 


THE    BLACK    BENEDICTINES. 

The  'Black  Benedictines,'  so  called  from  the  black 
habit,  scapular,  hood  and  cowl  which  they  wear,  not  only 
form  the  larger  part  of  the  Order  of  S.  Benedict,  but  have 
always  held  the  original  Benedictine  sites,  Monte  Cassino 
and  Subiaco.  The  original  Congregation  of  Black  Bene- 
dictines is  that  of  Monte  Cassino,  whose  abbat  was  known 
as  the  'abbat  of  abbats,'  and  to  whom  all  Cassinese 
Benedictines  owe  obedience.  They  have  14  monas- 
teries. The  reform  called  the  Cassinese  Congregation 
of  the  Primitive  Observance  has  27  monasteries  and  is 
governed  by  an  Abbat  General  resident  at  S.  Scholastica, 
Subiaco.  AH  other  Black  Benedictines  are  formed  into 
National  Congregations  under  Abbat  Presidents.  These 
are,  in  order  of  seniority,  the  English,  Swiss,  Bavarian, 
Brazilian,  French,  Prussian  Congregation  of  Beuron, 
Helvetio-Amcrican,  and  the  2  Austrian  Congregations 
of  a  The  Immaculate  Conception  and  h  S.  Joseph  ;  added 
to  these  is  the  ancient  Hungarian  Arch-Abbacy  of  S. 
Martin,  while  Australia,  Scotland  and  Poland  have  each  a 
detached  Benedictine  monastery.* 

The  first  Reform  of  the  Benedictines  was  undertaken 
by  S.  Benedict  of  Aniane  in  Languedoc,  by  origin  a  Goth, 
who  had  been  page  to  Pepin,  and  a  commander  under 
Charlemagne,  t    He  wrote  a  Commentary  on  the  Rule  in 

*  The  French  and  American  Congregations  and  the  Hungarian 
Arch-abbacy  are  affiliated  to  Monte  Cassino.  The  latter  was 
founded  in  987.  The  English  National  Congregation  was  founded 
in  1300,  and  restored  in  1602;  the  Swiss  and  Bavarian  are  X\']I. 
century,  the  remainder  were  all  founded  in  the  present  century. 

f  Born  751;    in  774  became  monk  in  the  Abbey  of  Saint-heine. 


MONK'S 


89 


817.  This  first  attempt  at  reforming  Western  monasticism 
was  all  in  the  direction  of  petty  definitions  and  restrictions, 
which  had  not  come  within  the  large  purview  of  Benedict, 
whose  reform  of  monasticism  has  been  well  described  as 
"a  la  fois  large  et  passionee."  *  This  Reform  was  intro- 
duced into  England  by  S.  ^thelwold  bishop  of  Win- 
chester, who  translated  the  Rule  into  Saxon  in  the  Liber 
Eliensis,  or  Winchester  Book,  and  added  the  work  called 
the  Regularis  Concordia.-\  A  mitigated  rule  appears  to 
have  obtained  in  England  from  the  time  of  Charlemagne 
(viii.)  to  that  of  Edgar  and  Dunstan  (x.  century).  In 
the  XV.  century  the  Benedictines  of  the  Presentation,  a 
Reform  of  the  great  abbey  of  Melk  on  the  Danube,  were 
of  brief  duration. 

In  1550  the  Reform  of  S.  Vanne,  and  in  162 1  the 
similar  Congregation  of  S.  Maur  for  Lorraine,  were  estab- 
lished. S'.  Germain  des  Pr^s  was  one  of  the  latter's 
great  abbeys,  and  Mabillon,  Martene,  Ruinart,  Menard, 
d'Achery,  were  among  its  monks  :  to  them  we  owe  the 
Annals  of  the  Order,  the  work  "I'Art  de  verifier  les  dates  " 
and  the  "  Histoire  litteraire  de  la  France."  Among  the 
nuns,  Santuccia  Terrebotti  of  Agobbio,  a  Servite,  Avas 
called  by  the  pope  in  1293  to  reform  the  Benedictine 
nuns,  and  created,  by  Brief,  Abbess-General,  with  power 
to  visit  all  Benedictine  houses  in  Italy  founded  by  herself. 
Her  nuns  were  called  Santuccie.  This  great  servant  of 
God  died  in  Rome  in  her  church  of  S.  Maria  in  Julia  in 
1305.  Besides  S.  Maria  in  Julia  (now  S.  Anna  dei  Fale- 
gnami)  she  had  a  monastery  at  S.  Maria  Liberatrice  on 
the  Forum,  and  one  on  the  island  of  the  Tiber  already 
destroyed  in  Bruzio's  time.  In  the  xvii.  century  Catherine 
de  la  Barre  instituted  the  Benedictines  of  the  Most  Holy 
Sacrament  for  the  Perpetual  Adoration  :  thus  uniting, 
with  more  zeal  than  knowledge,  this  modern  devotion 
with  the  ancient  Benedictine  Rule.  The  nuns  wear  a 
monstrance  on  the  black  habit. 

*  Guizot. 

t  Often  attributed  to  Dunstan,  who  took  much  interest  in  this 
revival  of  monasticism  under  Edgar. 


S.  ^thel- 

wold, 

X.  century. 


Melk,  XV. 
century. 
St.  Vanne 
and  St. 
Maur,  XVI 
and  xvu. 


Reforms 

among 

nuns. 

Santuccia, 
XIII.  cen- 
tury. 


Catherine 
de  la  Barre. 
XVII.  cen- 
tury. 


90 


CHRISTIAY  AXD   ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 


S.  Anselmo 
and  the 
Abbat- 
Primate. 


Benedic- 
tines in  the 
East. 


Armenian 
Benedic- 
tines. 


Benedic- 
tines in 
England. 


Monasteries  of  Black  Benedictine  nuns  have  always 
existed  as  separate  communities,  and  the  nuns  have  at  no 
period  formed  themselves  into  congregations  or  provinces. 
In  this  they  follow  the  original  design  of  S.  Benedict. 

The  various  independent  abbeys  and  congregations  of 
Black  Benedictines  presented  such  diversity  that  it  was 
possible  to  see  the  Viennese  monks  driving  a  carriage 
and  pair  of  horses,  and  the  monks  of  Subiaco  living  in 
the  utmost  poverty  under  the  same  rule.  Leo  XIII.  de- 
siring to  bring  about  greater  uniformity  of  usage  and  life 
has  recently  erected  a  large  Benedictine  House  on  the 
Aventine  hill,  which  is  to  serve  as  a  college  for 'Black 
Benedictines '  of  all  nations,  every  monastery  sending 
monks  to  study  there.  An  Abbas  Frimas,  or  Abbat 
Primate,  has  been  nominated  by  the  pope  for  lo  years 
and  resides  at  this  new  Aventine  monastery  of  S.  An- 
selm.  His  position,  however,  does  not  give  him  an 
authority  superior  to  that  of  the  Heads  of  Congregations. 
The  first  man  to  fill  this  difficult  post  is  a  Belgian  monk, 
the  Abb6  Hemptinne. 

The  renown  of  the  Benedictines  has  always  been  great 
in  the  East.  In  the  days  of  the  Latin  Empire  Sancta 
Sophia  was  served  by  Benedictines,  and  in  the  middle 
ages  many  important  posts  on  the  other  side  of  the 
Mediterranean  were  in  their  hands,  and  their  Liturgy  and 
the  tradition  of  their  learning  have  not  been  forgotten. 
Leo  XIII.  has  now  opened  an  international  Benedictine 
College  at  Constantinople  adjoining  the  church  of  S. 
Pulcheria ;  and  has  also  placed  the  Greek  College  in 
Rome  in  Benedictine  hands. 

In  I  703-1713  Mechitar,  an  Armenian,  founded  a  Con- 
gregation of  Black  Benedictines  for  men  of  Armenian 
nationality.  They  are  settled  at  the  island  monastery  of 
S.  Lazzaro  at  Venice,  and  have  done  great  service  to  their 
iiation.  They  are  called  Mcchitai-isti,  and  are  divided 
into  the  2  Congregations  of  Venice  and  Vienna ;  they 
have  a  house  at  Constantinople. 

The  Rule  of  S.  Benedict  was  introduced  into  England 
by  S.  Augustin  of  Canterbury,  according  to  Mabillon,  but 


MOXKS  91 

according  to  others  by  Benedict  Biscop.*  The  principal 
seats  of  the  Benedictines,  before  the  rise  of  the  Branches 
of  the  Order,  were  Westminster,  Glastonbury,  Reading, 
Colchester,  for  monks  —  the  two  last  supplying  the  martyrs 
whose  heroism  we  read  of  at  the  time  of  the  Reformation 
—  and  S.  Alban's,  which  was  preeminent  in  the  time  of 
Henry  II.,  and  to  which  Matthew  Paris  belonged.  The 
nuns  had  Whitby,  Wimborne,!  Barking,  Winchester,  Cold- 
ingham.  The  nuns  of  Barking  owned  large  property  in 
London  still  recorded  in  the  name  "  All  Hallows'  Barking." 
The  nuns  of  Coldingham,  the  first  Scottish  nunnery,  were 
famous  for  having  mutilated  their  faces  on  the  approach 
of  the  Danes,  who  thereupon  put  them  and  their  Abbess 
Ebba  II.  to  death  (Martyrology,  August  25,  867).  Her 
name  is  preserved  in  SI  Abb's  head  and  Ebchester.  The 
first  Benedictine  House  in  Ireland  was  erected  at  Kildare, 
and  in  Scotland  at  Ripon,  Wilfrid  of  York  being  its  abbat.t 
For  the  Order  in  France,  see  the  references  to  the  great 
French  abbeys,  Marmoutier,  S'  Victor,  Luxeuil,  Lerins, 
Fleury,  Sf  Maur,  S!  Amand,  Fontevrault,  Remiremont, 
Jouarre,  Chelles,  Faremoutier,  and  pp.  26,  %S>,  93,  124. 
For  its  introduction  into  Germany,  see  pp.  27,  78,  80, 
82.  In  Italy  as  we  have  seen  Monte  Cassino  and  Subiaco 
led  the  way  (see  pp.  69,  78).  In  Rome,  one  of  the  in  Rome, 
earliest  monasteries  to  accept  S.  Benedict's  Rule  was  that 
settled  at  S.  Paolo  fuori-le-mura,  of  whose  monks  Procopius 
speaks  as  early  as  531.  The  basilica  and  monastery  have  vi.  century, 
remained  in  Benedictine  hands  ever  since.  In  the  x. 
century  the  House  was  given  to  the  Order  of  Cluny,  and 
Hildebrand  is  beheved  to  have  been  monk  and  abbat 
there.  When  Monte  Cassino  was  destroyed  by  the  Lom- 
bards in  580  the  fugitive  monks  founded  the  monastery 
of  S.  Pancratius  by  the  Lateran  basilica  ;  and  about  the 
same  time  Gregory  the  Great  bestowed  on  them  his  house 

*  See  p.  54  and  cf.  pp.  27,  89.  t  See  p.  ?iO  footnote. 

X  The  last  survivor  of  the  English  Benedictines  was  Siegebert 
Buckley  a  monk  of  Westminster.  Eventually  the  Abbat  of  Castile 
ordered  every  monastery  in  that  province  to  receive  one  English 
novice. 


92        CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 

on  the  Celian.*  In  Charlemagne's  time  there  were  44 
monasteries  in  Rome.  In  the  x.  century  there  were  60, 
all  Benedictine,  40  for  men,  20  for  women.  There  are 
now  only  6  :  the  Cassinese  Congregation  reside  in  winter 
at  S.  Callisto  in  Trastevere,  being  removed  there  from 
S.  Justina  on  the  Quirinal  in  the  pontificate  of  Paul  V. 
In  summer  they  reside  at  S.  Paolo.  'J'he  Cassinese  of  the 
Primitive  Observance  have  their  monastery  and  procura  at 
S.  Ambrogio  de'  Maxima  in  Piazza  Mattel.  In  summer 
they  reside  at  Subiaco.  A  third  Benedictine  residence  is 
the  new  monastery  of  S.  Anselmo  on  the  Aventine.  The 
nuns  have  also  3  houses  in  the  city  :  ^  S.  Maria  in  Campo 
Marzio,  which  became  Benedictine  in  the  xiii.  century 
and  was  restored  to  them  by  Pius  VII.  after  its  desecra- 
tion.f  ^S.  Cecilia  in  Trastevere,  which  has  been  Benedic- 
tine since  the  time  of  Paschal  I.  (817)  and  passed  to  the 
nuns  in  1530.I  •''  S.  Benedict's  in  \'ia  Boncompagni,  a 
community  of  Black  Benedictines  under  an  English  conse- 
crated abbess.  Their  house  was  canonically  erected  as  a 
monastery  in  1897,  although  these  nuns  are  not  enclosed, 
but  according  to  the  ancient  Benedictine  usage,  go  out 
when  there  is  reason  or  necessity  to  do  so.  The  Mechitarist 
Benedictine  monks  of  the  Vienna  Congregation  have  a 
Procurator  General  resident  in  Via  Giulia  63. 

Habic.  The  Habit  of  the  Benedictines  is  a  long  black  tunic, 

scapular,  and  hood,  the  tunic  tied  with  a  stuff  or  leather 
belt ;  in  choir  and  at  solemnities  they  wear  over  this  the 
cowl.  In  the  street  a  priest's  hat.  The  nuns  wear  a  long 
black  tunic  and  leather  belt,  black  scapular,  wimple  and 
fillet  of  unstarched  hnen  over  which  is  worn  a  white  veilette 
and  the  black  nun's  veil.  The  cowl  in  choir  and  at  solem- 
nities. 

Bad.e;e.  The  badge  of  the  Black  Benedictines  is  3  hills,  the  3 

evangelic  virtues,  surmounted  by  the  cross  and  the  word 
PAX. 

*  For  a  list  of  other  ancient  Benedictine  houses  in  Rome,  see  p.  94. 
t  See  supra  p.  65.  and  Part  I.,  p.  272. 
X  See  Ilumiliati,  p.  121. 


MOXKS 


93 


The  number  of  Benedictine  monks  is  about  4295  ;  lay 
brethren  952  ;  novices  and  postulants  464.  The  number 
of  monasteries  119.  The  present  ruler  of  the  Cassinese 
Congregation  is  the  294"'  abbat.  Benedictine  ;;//;/j- num- 
ber 8000,  with  considerably  over  250  monasteries. 

BRANCHES    OF   THE    BENEDICTINES. 


Summary 
of  the 
Benedic- 
tine Order, 
present 
dav. 
( Black 
Benedic- 
tines.) 


Cluny. 


The  first  branch,  the  first  great  reform,  of  this  great 
Order  was  made  in  910  at  Cluny  in  the  diocese  of  Macon, 
by  William  the  Pious,  Duke  of  Aquitaine.  Berno  became 
the  first  abbat  of  what  was  thenceforth  known  as  the  Clu- 
niac  Congregation,  which  for  200  years  was  the  centre 
of  Benedictine  activity,  and  boasted  a  series  of  holy  and 
famous  abbats.  Its  greatest  glory  was  reached  under 
the  9"^  Abbat  Peter  the  Venerable,  who  governed  no  less 
than  2000  monks.  The  new  reform  of  manners  spread 
from  France  to  Italy ;  and  the  first  English  house  was 
founded  by  a  companion  of  the  Conqueror  at  Lewes  in 
1077.  Cluny  was  celebrated  for  its  schools  and  the  splen- 
dour of  its  religious  services.  It  is  said  that  the  obscurely 
born  youth  under  the  care  of  abbat,  prior,  dean,  masters, 
singers,  librarians,  chaplains,  sick-nurses,  was  trained  as 
the  son  of  a  king.  The  splendour  of  its  church  services 
has  never  been  rivalled  ;  the  monks  assisted  in  the  choir 
all  vested  in  copes.     The  Cluniacs  wore  the  black  habit.* 

In  1098  Robert  Cluniac  Abbat  of  Molesme  founded  a  Citeaux 
conmiunity  in  the  desert  of  Citeaux,  Beaune,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  restoring  the  strict  rule  of  S.  Benedict.  He  died 
in  1 1 10,  and  his  successor  with  a  Chapter-General  pub- 
lished their  statutes  in  a  document  called  the  Charta 
Charitatis,  in  11 19.  Thus  arose  the  Cistercian  Order. 
S.  Benedict  had  decreed  that  the  moment  of  the  founda- 
tion of  a  monastery  was  the  day  that  an  abbat  and  12 
brethren — an  apostolic  nucleus  —  took  possession,  and 
tiiis  rule  has  always  been  followed  by  the  Cistercians  and 

*  The  great  Church  of  Cluny,  built  by  Abbat  Peter,  and  conse- 
crated by  Innocent  II.  in  1131,  was  pulled  down  by  the  town  of 
Cluny  during  the  Revolution. 


The  Cis- 
tercians. 


94 


CHRISTIAN  AND   ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 


Ancient 
houses  ol 
the  Bene- 
dictines in 
Rome. 


HOUSES   HELD   BY  THE   BLACK   BENEDICTINES. 

Bv  Monks:  — 

Ara  Coeli.      Probably  from  ix.  century  till  1250. 

S.  Agata  de'  Goti. 

S.  Alessio.      Joined  with  Basilians  till  1231. 

S.  Balbina. 

S.  Biagio.      One  of  the  largest  abbeys  in  Rome. 

S.  Cecilia.      (Monks,  then  the  Humiliati,  and  since  1530,  nuns.) 

S.  Cosmato  in  Trastevere.      One  of  the  richest  in  Rome. 

S.  Crisogono,  Trastevere.     From  vni.  to  xii.  century. 

S.  Gregorio  al  Celio.      (See  p.  103.) 

S.  Giorgio  in  Velabro. 

S.  Justina  al  Quirinale. 

No  longer  in  existence. 
S.  Lorenzo  in  Miranda. 
S.  Maria  in  Cosmedin. 

From  temp.  Eugenius  IV.  till  Leo  X. 
S.  Martino  ai  Monti. 

From  IX.  to  the  xili.  century. 
J3  S.  Pancratius,  Laleran. 
2  S.  Pancrazio. 
^'        Monastery  of  S.  Victor. 
U  S.  Prisca  on  the  Aventine. 

From  1061  to  1414. 
S.  Sabba  (Cluny,  1141). 
S.  Sebastiano  on  the  Palatine. 

In  1352,  the  Roman  residence  of  the  "  Abbat  of  Abbats."     Given  by 
Alexander  II.  (1061)  to  the  monks  of  M.  Cassino,  in  exchange  for 
S.  Croce  in  Gerusalemme  ceded  to  them  by  Leo  IX. 
SS.  Sergio  e  Baccho. 
S.  Silvestro  in  Capite. 

xin.  century. 

By  Nuns:  — 

S.  Agnese  Outside-the-Walls. 

Till  1499. 
S.  (jiovanni  a  Porta  Latina. 

From  temp.  Lucius  II.  to  temp.  Boniface  VIII. 
S.  Maria  Liberatrice. 

(Santuccie.      Cf.  p.  89.     Once  held  by  monks.) 
S.  Maria  sopra  Minerva. 

Part  of  the  large  property  of  the  nuns  of  Campo  Marzio. 
S.  Piibiana.  , 

S.  Ciriaco,  via  Lata. 
S.  C'osimato  in  the  Forum. 
.S.  Erasmo  sul  Celio,  with  S.  Scholastica. 
Spirito  Santo,  at  Trajan's  Column. 
S.  Tecla,  by  the  Vatican. 
S.  V'cneranda  of  the  Bizocche. 
S.  Vito  ad  Lunam. 

Called  "  Monastero  Maggiore." 


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96 


CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 


Poverty  of 
Citeaux, 
the  Cister- 
cian ideal. 


Situation 

of  Citeaux 

when 

S.  Bernard 

arrived. 


Carthusians.  The  Abbat  of  Citeaux  was  to  be  called  Pater 
universalis.  The  Cistercians  were  to  profess  poverty,  not 
only  personal  but  corporate  ;  they  were  to  be  "  poor  with 
Christ  who  was  poor."  They  did  not  uphold  learning, 
their  ideal  was  to  live  by  the  labour  of  their  hands,  to 
exercise  themselves  in  a  humble  and  poor  life,  and  they 
have  been  called  "  the  Puritans  of  the  monasteries."  They 
constantly  refused  to  take  tithes.  This  "  importunate  pov- 
erty of  Citeaux  "  was  a  new  thing  among  ?]enedictines,  and 
quickly  gave  offence.  But  the  greatness  of  Citeaux  is  due 
to  S.  Bernard  who  arrived  at  the  convent  with  his  com- 
panions in  1 1 13,  being  then  only  22  years  old.  At  this 
time  Citeaux  was  ruled  by  its  third  abbat,  an  Englishman, 
Stephen  Harding.*  The  monks  were  reduced  to  great 
poverty,  for  the  abbat  had  offended  the  Court  of  Bur- 
gundy ;  and  the  few  monks  who  clung  to  the  convent 
were  decimated  by  pest.  The  poor  discouraged  abbat 
prayed  for  light,  and  then  adopted  the  following  strange 
test.  There  was  at  that  day,  writes  the  abbey  annalist, 
a  brother  who  was  about  to  receive  in  another  life  the 
recompense  of  his  labours  ;  Stephen,  full  of  the  Spirit  of 
the  Lord,  spoke  to  him  in  this  guise  in  the  presence  of  all 
his  Religious  :  "  Thou  seest  the  affliction  we  are  in :  we 
will  certainly  follow  the  strait  path  marked  out  for  us  by 
our  holy  father  Benedict ;  but  we  know  not  if  the  disci- 
pline we  have  adopted  is  pleasing  to  the  Lord,  above  all 
because  the  Religious  of  these  parts  accuse  us  of  having 
introduced  novelties  productive  of  scandal :  besides  all 
this  I  am  moved  to  the  bottom  of  the  heart  to  see  the 
greater  part  of  our  brethren  leaving  us,  so  that  our  cloister 
is  now  almost  empty,  and  I  fear  that  our  institute  will  end 
with  our  lives.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  in  the  name  of 
Jesus  Christ,  for  the  love  of  whom  we  have  chosen  this 
narrow  way  which  He  Himself  has  recommended  in  the 
gospel,  ...  I  impose  on  thee  the  duty  of  returning  to  us, 
after  thy  passing  to  God,  in  the  way  and  time  that  pleases 

*  Stejihen  Harding,  a  monk  of  Sherborne,  is  regarded  as  the 
second  founder  of  Citeaux.  lie  had  been  prior  under  Alberic.  His 
feast  day,  as  a  canonised  saint,  is  April  17. 


MOXA'S 


97 


Him,  to  instruct  us  what  we  ought  to  think  about  our  way 
of  Hfe."  A  few  days  after  the  monk's  death,  Stephen,  who 
had  been  working  with  his  monks,  retired  to  pray  :  and 
then  there  appeared  to  him  the  dead  monk  resplendent, 
and  he  heard  him  say  these  words  :  "  Pray  God  that  He 
may  make  thee  as  happy  as  I  now  am  from  following  the 
way  of  life  thou  gavest  me,  and  behold  I  have  returned, 
according  to  thy  will,  to  tell  thee  that  thy  way  of  life  is 
pleasing  to  the  Lord  :  put  to  flight  all  affliction  and  heavi- 
ness, nay  convert  them  to  joy,  because  in  a  little  while 
God  will  show  thee  the  magnificence  of  His  mercies,  and 
thy  desert  shall  suddenly  flower  again  with  the  seed  of 
great  benediction." 

A  few  days  later  S.  Bernard  knocked  at  the  door  of  S.  Bernard 
Citeaux  to  beg  for  the  habit ;  he  was  accompanied  by  30 
companions,  5  of  whom  were  his  own  brothers.  There 
had  come  to  Citeaux  men  of  the  stamp  to  be  attracted  by 
those  very  "  novelties  "  which  deterred  others,  and  on  their 
foreheads  Stephen  read  "the  predestination  of  saints." 

S.  Bernard  was  born  at  the  castle  of  Fontaines  in  Bur- 
gundy in  1 09 1.  His  mother  was  Aleth,  or  Elizabeth,  of 
Montbarc,  who  had  desired  to  dedicate  herself  to  religion 
before  her  marriage  at  15  years  old.  Bernard  was  the  third 
of  her  children,  and  she  wished  to  transmit  to  them  the  vo- 
cation she  believed  she  had  herself  received.  She  was, 
says  one  of  her  contemporaries,  in  all  things  the  model 
of  her  children  ;  and  Bernard  especially  wished  to  live 
like  his  mother,  to  pray  like  her,  to  secretly  imitate  all  he 
saw  her  do,  her  acts  of  sweetness  and  charity.  S.  Ber- 
nard is  one  of  the  great  doctors  of  the  Church  of  whom 
Neander  notes  that  they  owed  their  future  greatness  to 
their  mothers.  She  died  when  he  was  20,  leaving  him  a.d.  im. 
desolate,  and  deprived  of  all  support.  Soon  he  persuaded 
a  band  of  gay  young  cavaliers  to  devote  themselves  to  the 
life  of  the  Gospel  ;  they  retired  to  Chatillon,  and  there 
determined  to  take  the  Benedictine  habit.  They  decided 
to  apply  to  Citeaux. 

At  25  years  old,  he  was  sent  from  here  to  found  the   He  is  sent 
monastery  which  he  called  Claire  Vallee,  because  it  should   ^'  fo""^ 

•'  '  Clairvaux. 


His 
mother. 


98        CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 

be  as  a  burning  furnace  of  divine  light.  For  his  conse- 
cration as  abbat  he  went  to  the  Bishop  of  Chalons.  He 
entered  the  bishop's  presence,  emaciated  and  with  death 
written  in  his  face,  surrounded  by  his  tall  robust  com- 
panions. But  the  bishop  never  hesitated  which  he  was 
meant  to  consecrate  —  he  fixed  his  eyes  on  Bernard,  and, 
says  the  chronicler,  "  from  that  day  and  hour  they  had  but 
one  heart  in  our  Lord."  (luillaume  de  Thierry  has  left  an 
account  of  his  friend  Bernard's  life  at  Clairvaux  :  "  Such," 
he  concludes,  "  is  this  illustrious  school  of  Christian  wis- 
dom, over  which  the  holy  abbat  Bernard  presides,  such 
is  the  fervour  and  discipline  /;/  ejus  clarissima  et  carissima 
valle'^  (in  his  most  bright  and  beloved  valley).  Bernard 
united  great  delicacy  and  sweetness  of  nature,  evidenced 
in  his  correspondence,  with  austerity  and  fearlessness. 
His  strong  affection  is  shown  in  his  friendships  :  Peter 
the  Venerable,  S.  Norbert  (see  p.  210)  Hugh  and  Rich- 
ard of  the  Abbey  of  S.  Victor,  and  F>mengarde  Countess 
of  Brittany  loved  and  were  loved  by  him.  His  austerity 
and  bold  reproof  of  evil  raised  complaints.  Some  of  the 
bishops  denounced  him  because  he  was  a  simple  monk ; 
even  the  pope  and  cardinals  reproved  him.  To  the  re- 
monstrance from  Rome  he  replies  with  "  a  holy  bold- 
ness "  :  "  How  long  will  truth  be  hated,  even  in  the 
mouth  of  the  poor?  ...  I  know  not  whether  I  ought 
to  congratulate  or  compassionate  myself  for  being  looked 
upon  as  a  dangerous  man,  because  I  have  spoken  accord- 
Influence^  ing  to  truth,  and  acted  according  to  justice."  It  has 
been  justly  said  of  Bernard  that  while  he  lived  he  was  the 
real  ruler  of  Christendom.  A  leader  of  men,  he  led  them 
where  he  would  ;  admonished  peoples  and  kings,  recon- 
ciled schismatics,  destroyed  heresies,  decided  in  favour 
of  Innocent  II.  as  against  the  antipope  Anacletus,  and 
made  France  and  Henry  I.  acknowledge  him.  Educator 
and  counsellor  of  popes,  preacher  of  the  Crusade  of  which 
in  1 146  he  was  offered  the  command,  he  himself  despised 
honours  —  and  the  archbishoprics  of  Milan,  Rheims  and 
Genoa  were  refused  by  him.  Like  S.  Catherine  he  lived 
in  an  age  when  the  world  and  the  sacred  ministers  were 


of  Bernard. 


MONKS  99 

clothed  "  in  vice  as  in  a  garment,"  simony  abounded,  and 
of  all  the  great  saints  who  have  decried  the  abuses  of  the 
clergy,  none  have  exceeded  Bernard  in  the  bitterness  of 
his  reproach.  He  loathed  and  scorned  the  Church's 
blemishes,  yet  loved,  as  perhaps  none  but  the  saints  have 
loved,  what  was  eternal  and  divine  in  it ;  and  with  them 
he  exalted  and  upheld  that  poor  "  earthern  vessel "  in 
which  man's  treasure  is  hid.  His  faults  were  the  faults 
of  his  age,  which  he  represented  and  summed,  his  virtues 
were  his  own. 

When  Bernard  lay  dying,  the  Archbishop  of  Treves  His  death, 
besought  him  to  visit  Metz,  then  the  scene  of  internecine 
war  between  the  nobles  and  the  commonalty.  "God" 
says  the  chronicler,  "  held  his  soul  between  His  hands, 
and  did  with  it  as  He  pleased  :  "  S.  Bernard  actually  set 
forth,  and  stood  on  the  banks  of  the  Moselle  surrounded 
by  a  itw  brethren,  yet  so  feeble  that  his  voice  could  not 
be  heard.  In  the  middle  of  that  night,  however,  a  depu- 
tation of  nobles  came  to  accept  his  mediation.  The  next 
morning  Bernard  heard  all  their  griefs,  and  a  kiss  of  peace 
passed  through  the  ranks.  Thus  his  death  suited  with 
his  life.  He  died  "warming  the  hearts  of  his  brethren 
with  the  sweetest  consolations."  Their  piteous  distress 
"moved  the  maternal  heart  of  the  servant  of  God"; 
Bernard  wept,  and  looking  towards  heaven  with  an  ex- 
pression of  great  sweetness  said  "  I  know  not  to  which  I 
ought  to  yield  —  to  the  love  of  my  children  which  urges 
me  to  stay  here,  or  to  the  love  of  my  God  which  draws 
me  to  Him."  They  were  his  last  words.  He  died  aged 
63  on  August  20  at  9  in  the  morning. 

His  writings  are  numerous,  his  commentary,  and  ex-  His  writ- 
planation  in  a  mystical  sense,  of  the  "  Canticle  of  Can-  '"^s- 
tides"  being  perhaps  the  best  known.  The  special 
devotion  of  his  life  appears  in  his  writings  in  honour  of 
the  Blessed  Virgin,  which  have  become  household  words, 
and  in  which  he  manifests  much  of  the  grace  and  delicacy 
of  his  mind.  Hence  in  the  very  beautiful  picture  in  the 
Badia  church  in  Florence,  Mary  is  appearing  to  him  while 
he  writes. 


lOO      ClIRlSriAN  AND    ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 

He  is  one  of  the  Doctors  of  the  Church,  and  has  been 
called  "  the  last  of  the  fathers."  His  canonisation  took 
place  20  years  after  his  death. 

The  Cistercians  now  number  among  them  only  monks 
who  are  at  the  same  time  priests,  lay  brethren,  oblates, 
and  peasants. 

The  periods  in  the  history  of  the  Cistercian  order  may 
be  divided  as  follows  :  period  of  the  '  plantation  '  of  the 
Order,  1098-1134;  its  golden  age,  1 134-1342;  its  de- 
cadence 1 342-1  700.  In  the  XIV.  century  700  monasteries 
obeyed  the  abbat-general ;  S.  Bernard  himself  founded 
no  less  than  163.  At  the  present  day  only  a  few  remain, 
and  Citeaux  itself  is  a  Reformatory  managed  by  secular 
priests.  The  period  of  '  plantation '  in  luigland  was 
from  1 128  to  1 15 2.  Some  of  the  most  splendid  English 
cloisters  were  Cistercian.  Waverley  in  Surrey  was  the 
first,  founded  in  11 29;  and  among  100  houses  in  Eng- 
land and  Wales  were  Whalley,  founded  by  S.  Stephen 
Harding,  Furness,*  Rivaulx  in  Yorkshire,  founded  by 
S.  Bernard  from  Clairvaux  in  1131,  Fountains  in  the  same 
coimty,  Buckland  and  Buckfastleigh  in  Devon,  Hailes  in 
Gloucestershire,  Ford  in  Dorsetshire,  Woburn  in  Bed- 
fordshire, Tintern  in  Monmouth.  The  Mother  house  of 
Scotland  was  Melrose,  a  daughter  of  Rivaulx ;  and  the 
Welsh  Mother-house  was  Whitland  founded  from  Clair- 
vaux in  1 13 1.  In  England  the  Cistercians  were  known 
as  the  "white  monks." 

Among  Cistercian  privileges  is  that  of  celebrating 
mass  with  closed  doors  in  time  of  interdict,  granted  by 
Eugenius  III.,  who  was  himself  a  Cistercian  monk,  and  a 
pupil  of  S.  Bernard's.  Alanus  the  Schoolman  was  a  lay 
brother  of  this  Order,  which  also  boasts  among  its  abbats 
Joachim  of  Flora,  the  founder  of  the  Cistercian  reform  of 
that  name  in  Calabria  (1196). 
Nuns.  The  Order  for  women  was  instituted  in  11 25  with  the 

*  Founded  in  11 12  from  Saiiiguy  a  French  Benedictine  reform 
with  13  French  and  15  Fnghsh  dependent  houses.  All  were  al)- 
sorbed  by  the  Cistercians  in  1147. 


MOXA'S  loi 

cooperation  of  S.  Stephen  at  Tart,  near  Dijon;  the  nuns 
are  Icnown  as  Beniardines.*  They  have  some  60  old  and 
54  new  Houses,  and  number  some  2800.  The  Spanish 
nuns  had  power  to  hold  Chapters-General ;  holding  the 
first  in  1 189. 

The  Mother-house  is  in  Bohemia.  The  Cistercian  in  Rome, 
house  and  Procura  in  Rome  is  at  S.  Bernardo  in  the 
piazza  of  that  name.  The  nuns  reside  at  S.  Susanna 
opposite.  The  Congregation  of  Italy  (with  a  Procura 
also  in  piazza  S.  Bernardo)  have  the  church  and  part 
of  the  building  of  S.  Croce  in  Gerusalemme.f 

On  Saturday  of  Holy  Week  the  nuns'  dinner,  consist- 
ing of  a  dish  of  lentils,  is  sent  them  by  the  monks,  and 
the  nuns  send  the  monks  a  dish  of  beans. 

The  Cistercian  habit  was  changed  by  Alberic,  the 
second  Abbat,  from  the  dark  habit  of  Cluny  to  a  grayish  Habit, 
white.  This  white  dress  they  regarded  as  specially  be- 
fitting men  who  had  dedicated  themselves  to  the  Blessed 
Virgin.  Over  the  white  habit  a  black  scapular  is  v/orn. 
The  lay  brethren  shave  the  head  and  wear  a  brown  dress. 
The  Cistercian  badge  is  the  escutcheon  of  Burgundy  :  Badge, 
bendy  of  6  or  and  azure,  a  bordure  gules.  In  Spain  they 
have  used  a  bar  chequey  with  2  fleurs-de-lis. 


S.  ROMUALD  AXD  THE  CAMALDOLESE. 

The  next  reform  of  the  Benedictines  i  was  made  by  Camaldo- 
S.  Romuald,  who  was  born  in  956  at  Ravenna  and  lived  '^^e. 
till  1027.  He  was  a  Benedictine  abbat,  but  all  the 
houses  over  which  he  successively  ruled  dismissed  him, 
not  being  willing  to  bear  the  penitential  life  he  proposed 
to  them.  In  1012,  therefore,  he  founded  a  hermitage 
at  Camaldoli,  in  a  beautiful  Apennine  valley  not  far  from 


*  Thus  the  Cistercians  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  Com- 
munity on  the  Creat  St.  Bernard,  founded  by  S.  Bernard  of  Men- 
thon  at  the  end  of  the  X.  century.  For  Cistercian  nuns  cf.  also 
p.  121.     (Gilbertines.) 

t  The  rest  is  a  Barrack. 

%  Younger  than  the  Cluniac  but  older  than  the  Cistercian  reform. 


102      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 


Recluses,  or 

enclosed 

hermits. 


Camaldoli. 


The 
Eremo. 


Govern- 
ment and 
branches. 


Arezzo,  where  each  monk  lived  in  a  separate  dwelHng ; 
the  settlement  being  enclosed  by  a  wall  530  yards  in  ex- 
tent, beyond  which  the  monk  could  not  stray.  Romuald 
gave  them  the  Rule  of  S.  Benedict ;  they  never  tasted 
meat  and  fasted  for  two  Lents  in  each  year.  Their  con- 
stitutions were  committed  to  writing  and  slightly  miti- 
gated by  the  fourth  Prior  in  1102. 

The  monks  were  bound  to  repair  to  the  church  to 
recite  together  the  divine  office.  But  there  were  from 
the  first  a  class  of  recluses  who  obtained  permission  to 
live  in  a  specially  constructed  cell,  which  they  never 
quitted,  their  food  being  passed  to  them  through  hatches. 
If  the  recluse  were  a  priest  his  mass  was  answered  by  some- 
one in  a  little  room  communicating.  The  hermits  and 
recluses  continued  side  by  side  until  the  present  century  \ 
but  for  the  past  30  years  there  has  been  no  recluse  to 
inhabit  the  cells  which  may  still  be  seen  at  the  Holy 
Hermitage.  The  monastery  lower  down  the  hill  was 
constructed  later  ;  all  its  inmates  were  monks  not  her- 
mits, but  obeyed  the  same  rule.  A  large  number  of  the 
hermitages  were  converted  into  monasteries,  but  the 
original  Camaldoli  xtX.'Ax-m  both.  G/wa/^/r'// derives  from 
ca  Maiulolo,  ca  being  Tuscan  for  casa.  It  gives  its  name 
to  the  Order,  and  every  Camaldolese  monastery  is  also 
called  a  Camaldoli.  The  great  Camaldoli  is  now  sup- 
pressed, a  few  monks  only  remaining  who  officiate  in  the 
church.  The  eremo,  or  hermitage,  founded  by  Romuald, 
lies  2  miles  up  the  hill,  and  is  preceded  by  a  chapel 
dedicated  to  S.  Antony.  The  fine  church  is  surrounded 
by  a  little  village  of  separate  dwellings,  each  with  a  garden 
in  front,  and  by  the  recluses'  cells. 

The  Order  is  governed  by  a  General  who  is  also  Prior 
of  Camaldoli ;  the  last  general  being  elected  there  on 
May  13,  1897.  The  Camaldolese  are  divided  into  5 
congregations:  (i)  The  Holy  Hermitage,  at  CamaldoH 
(2)  The  Congregation  of  Paris  (3)  The  Congregation  of 
Turin  (4)  of  the  Ancient  Convent  of  S.  Michele  at  Mu- 
rano  near  Venice  (monks)  (5)  Monte  Corona,  at  Perugia 
(Hermits). 


MOS'KS 


103 


The  Congregation  of  S.  Michele  (4)  is  called  the 
Riforma  di  CamaUoli,  (1476)  and  is  now  (since  1616) 
distinct  from  the  Order.  The  Congregation  of  Monte 
Corona  (5.  Hermits)  the  Tuscan  Reform,  was  instituted 
by  Paul  Giustiniani  in  the  early  xvi.  century;  it  embraces 
Neapolitans  and  Poles.  The  Camaldolese  nuns  date  from  Nuns, 
the  XI.  century  also.  Some  are  under  the  Order,  others 
under  the  Diocesan. 

The  Hermits  (i)  have  a  Procura  where  the  Procurator  in  Rome. 
General  resides,  which  is  attached  to  the  church  of  the 
Angeli  Custodi  in  Via  del  Tritone  184.*  The  Monks 
(i)  are  at  S.  Gregorio,  one  of  the  most  ancient  of  Bene- 
dictine sites  (Camaldolese  since  1573).  Here  Gregory 
the  Great  hved,  and  from  here  it  is  believed  he  sent 
S.  Augustin  to  England.  The  Congregation  of  Monte 
Corona  are  settled  at  the  Camaldoli  outside  Frascati. 
The  nuns  used  to  own  the  monastery  of  S.  Antonio,  now 
the  military  hospital,  by  S.  Maria  Maggiore  :  it  was  insti- 
tuted by  Angela  Francesca  Pezza  in  1724.7  This  was 
taken  from  them  in  1871,  and  they  are  now  at  S.  Antonio 
on  the  Aventine,  where  they  are  well  known  for  the  cere- 
monial palms  which  they  make  up  for  Palm  Sunday, 
which  is  the  industry  of  the  convent.  J    They  have  no  grille. 

The  Camaldolese  habit  is  white  with  a  white  scapular ; 
the  hood  is  worn  over  the  head.  The  scapular  of  pro-  Habit, 
fessed  monks  is  tied  by  the  long  white  cincture,  the 
novices  wear  it  loose.  In  choir  they  wear  a  white 
cucuUa  with  the  hood  drawn ;  and  out  of  doors  they 
wear  a  cloak,  caperuccio,  with  a  small  hood  attached. 
The  lay  brethren  wear  leathern  belts  and  beards  ;  the 
hermits  also  wear  beards,  but  the  monks  are  clean  shaven. 
The  hermits  at  Frascati  dress  more  hke//v7///  they  wear 
white  tunic  and  scapular,  no  cowl ;  in  the  street  a  long 
hoodless  cloak,  fastened  with  a  piece  of  wood,  and  a  white 
hat.  The  dress  of  the  nuns  at  S.  Antonio  is  figured  on 
plate  at  page  109. 

*  Now  (November,  1899)  removing  to  S.  Ilclefonso,  via  Sistina, 
cf.  p.  217.     Their  ancient  house  was  the  SS.  Quattro  Incoronati. 
t  Cf.  Part  I.,  p.  353.  X  See  Part  II.,  p.  249. 


i 


I04      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 

The  device  of  the  Order  is  a  cup  out  of  which  2  doves 
drink,  representing  the  2  classes  of  hermits  and  monks, 
the  contemplative  and  the  active  life  ;  and  signifies  that 
both  drink  of  the  one  cup.  The  device  of  the  Tuscan 
Reform  of  Monte  Corona  is  the  3  Benedictine  mounts 
surmounted  by  a  crown. 
Guido  Blessed  Guy  of  Arezzo,  the  inventor  of  the  musical 

Aretino.  scale,  was  a  Camaldolese  hermit ;  and  Peter  Damian,  the 
"  Master  of  the  Sentences,"  and  Gregory  XIV.,  called 
from  a  hermit's  cell  to  the  papal  throne,  were  members 
of  this  Order. 

S.    JOHN    GUALBERTUS    AND   THE    VALLOMBROSANS. 

Vaiiom-  A  Congregation  of  Benedictines  was  founded  by  S.  John 

biosans.  Gualbertus  at  Vallombrosa near  Florence  in  1038.  During 
the  strife  of  party  factions,  S.  John's  brother  had  been 
murdered,  and  he  had  vowed  to  avenge  himself  on  the 
murderer.  Years  after  as  he  was  riding  down  the  hill 
that  leads  from  Vallombrosa  to  Florence,  he  met  his 
brother's  murderer  alone  and  defenceless  :  the  moment 
had  come  for  which  Gualbertus  had  waited.  It  was 
Good  Friday,  and  the  hunted  man  throwing  himself  on 
his  knees,  stretched  out  his  arms  in  the  form  of  a  cross, 
and  besought  the  brother  of  his  victim  for  Jesus'  sake  to 
spare  him.  Gualbertus  let  his  arms  fall  to  his  side,  and 
permitted  the  man  to  pass.*  But  this  one  act  made  all 
life  look  different  to  him  ;  he  entered  the  neighbouring 
chapel  of  S.  Miniato  and  vowed  his  life  to  God.  The 
result  was  the  monastery  and  small  hermitage  which  he 
built  at  Vair  Ombrosa,  the  "  shady  valley."  He  died  in 
1073,  and  lies  buried  at  Passignano  near  Florence. 
Nuns.  Blessed  Gualdo  the  9'^  Abbat-General  reformed  the 

monasteries  especially  by  recalling  the  Religious  to  the 
spirit  of  poverty.  It  is  then  that  we  first  hear  of  Vallom- 
brosan  nuns,  for  in  1153  he  sent  S.  Bertha  de'  Bardi,  a 
Florentine,  to  reform  the  nunnery  of  Cavriglia. 

*  The  story  is  adopted  by  the  author  of  "John  Inglesant." 


MOA'A'S  105 

In  1226  and  1281  two  Vallombrosan  monasteries  were    S.  UmiltA. 
founded  by  Rosana,  beatified  as  S.  Umilta.*     The  Order 
for  women  had   much  vogue  in  Italy,  and  S.  Bertha's 
community  still  exists  at  S.  Gemignano  near  Siena. 

The  Monastery  and  Hermitage  of  Vallombrosa  are  now 
secularised,  and  the  house,  like  Camaldoli,  converted  into 
an  hotel. 

The  Procura  is  at  S.  Prassede,  which  is  in  charge  of    In  Rome. 
Vallombrosans,  and  the  residence  of  an  abbat.      The 
habit,  broad  scapular,  and  cowl  are  black,  with  a  stuff    Habit, 
girdle.     For  nuns  the  white  veil  projects  beyond  a  short 
black  one. 

The  device  of  the  Order  is  the  arm  of  the  founder,  in    Badge, 
the  cowl,  grasping  a  crutch.     The  field  is  blue,  and  a 
white  mitre  surmounts  the  cowled  arm. 


S.    BRUNO    AND   THE    CARTHUSIANS. 

In  1086  Bruno,  with  6  companions,  founded  at  Grenoble  Carthu- 
the  Order  of  the  Carthusians.  Bruno  (born  1030)  was  a  ^'^"^• 
native  of  Cologne  but  completed  his  education  at  the 
then  celebrated  episcopal  school  at  Reims.  Being  much 
persecuted  by  the  bishop  he  determined  to  fly  the  world, 
and  S.  Robert  of  Molesme  sent  him  to  S.  Hugh  Bishop 
of  Grenoble,  who  took  Bruno  and  his  companions  with 
great  joy  to  a  desert  spot  of  the  Alps  14,000  feet  above 
the  sea.  This  was  the  Grande  Chartreuse  which  has 
given  to  the  Order  the  name  of  Carthusians.  Here 
Bruno  built  an  oratory,  surrounded  by  separate  dwellings 
in  imitation  of  the  Lauras.  The  hermit-monks  made 
gardens,  dug  for  minerals,  and  "vivified  the  desert  places." 
Urban  II.  who  had  been  a  pupil  of  Bruno's  at  Reims,  and 
afterwards  a  monk  at  Cluny,  sent  for  Bruno  to  Rome  to 
aid  him  in  the  troubles  which  then  beset  Christendom. 
After  founding  two  other  retreats  in  Calabria  he  died 
there  in   iioo. 

*  Bulfalmacco,  the  friend  of  Giotto  and  Boccaccio,  has  painted 
scenes  from  her  life.     She  died  1310,  May  23. 


ic6      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 

The  Rule.  For  some  time  the  Carthusians  possessed  no  Rule ; 
they  observed  perpetual  fasts,  never  touched  flesh  meat, 
ate  only  bran  bread.  Their  time  was  spent  in  praying, 
reading,  manual  labour,  and  transcribing  books.  They 
met  together  for  Matins  and  Vespers  but  said  the  Lesser 
Hours  in  their  own  cells.  The  "  Customs"  of  the  order 
had  been  written  down  in  1126;  in  1259  the  ''Ancient 
Statutes,"  in  1368  the  "  New  Statutes,"  and  in  the  xvi. 
century  the  "  Constitutions  "  recapitulating  the  preceding 
Collections  and  the  ordinances  of  General  Chapters,  were 
compiled.     They  were  approved  by  Innocent  XL 

The  Statutes  are  the  sovereign  Rule  for  all,  from  the 
Abbat-Cieneral,  who  is  called  le  Reverend  Pere,  to  the 
last  lay  brother.*  The  Order  recognises  3  classes,  fathers, 
lay  brethren,  and  nuns.  Amongst  these  again  are  the 
3  usual  degrees,  the  professed,  the  novices,  and  the  postu- 
lants. Under  the  Father  General,  who  is  Prior  of  the 
Chartreuse,  each  house  is  governed  by  a  Prior,!  the  other 
officers  being  the  Vicar,  Procurator,  Sacristan,  Coadjutor, 
and  Master  of  Novices.  \\\  139 1  the  Pope  confirmed 
the  exemption  of  the  Order  from  episcopal  control.  The 
Prior  is  by  right  the  spiritual  director  of  his  Religious,  as 
Benedict  directed  the  abbat  should  be,  but  for  the  sake 
of  Hberty  he  nominates  other  confessors,  his  Vicar  being 
especially  deputed  to  this  office.  "  Dom  Procurator" 
governs  the  temporal  affairs,  "  l)om  Sacristan  "  the  church 
functions,  while  "Dom  Coadjutor"  is  the  guest  master, 
hears  the  confessions  of  exlerns,  and  conducts  retreats 
for  visitors. 

The  cell.  Each  Carthusian  lives  in  a  separate  dwelling,  consist- 

ing of  5  little  rooms,  and  a  covered  ambulatory,  and 
fronting  on  a  little  garden.  His  food  is  passed  through 
a  hatch,  where  the  monk  receives  it  at  the  foot  of  the 
stairs  leading  to  his  rooms.    A  small  passage  room  with  a 

*  A  copy  of  the  Statutes  is  to  be  placed  in  the  cell  of  every 
monk.     For  the  Chapter-General  see  Chap,  i.,  p.  46. 

t  The  Prior  exercises  a  tempered  and  paternal  authority  :  "  He  is 
to  be  only  the  lirst  among  his  equals,  and  the  director  antl  minister 
of  equals,  not  the  lord."     \^Disciplina  of  the  Carthusian  Order.] 


MONKS 


107 


statuette  of  the  blessed  Virgin,  is  called  "  I'Ave  Maria," 
from  the  custom  of  reciting  this  prayer  on  entering. 
Next  to  this  a  tiny  study  leads  to  the  cell  proper,  the 
cubiculum  of  the  Gospel  Matt.  vi.  6,  with  its  simple  bed, 
priedieu  and  chair,  folding  table,  and  pictures  of  sacred 
subjects ;  for  here  the  monk  sleeps,  prays,  eats,  and 
studies.  Below  these  rooms  is  the  monk's  workshop,  The  day. 
and  a  cellar  where  he  keeps  and  chops  his  wood,  etc. 
In  this  little  dwelling  he  is  "  to  occupy  himself  in  an 
orderly  and  useful  way,  reading,  writing,  psalming,  pray- 
ing, meditating,  contemplating,  toiling,"  At  i^  to  12,  when  The  mid- 
the  bell  sounds,  each  monk  opens  his  cell  door,  and  "'ght  office. 
lantern  in  hand  proceeds  across  the  cloister  to  the 
church,  where  Matins  and  Lauds  are  chanted.  There  is 
no  decoration,  no  music,  and  but  little  light,  yet  it  has 
been  said  that  this  midnight  office,  which  is  the  con- 
solation and  support  of  the  Chartreux,  realises  the 
truth  that  simplicity  does  not  exclude  majesty.  The 
Chartreux  meets  his  brethren  at  7  a.m.  for  the  con- 
ventual mass  ;  and  at  ^  to  3  for  Vespers.  The  other 
hours  are  said  in  his  cell,  and  the  ancient  Carthusian 
Office  of  our  Lady,  which  they  call  "  the  Office  of  the  The  office 
Blessed  one,"  precedes  each  canonical  hour.  On  festi-  '^^  Beata. 
vals  however  all  the  Hours  are  chanted  in  choir,  and  the 
monks  spend  6  or  7  hours  in  the  church.  On  Sunday 
and  feast  days  also  they  have  recreation  in  common 
after  nones,  and  eat  together  in  the  Refectory.  Once 
a  week,  also,  the  absolute  silence  in  which  the  Chartreux 
lives  is  broken,  when  the  monks  take  a  walk  of  3  or  4 
hours'  duration,  and  these  walks  are  notable  for  the 
'  sweet  and  frank  gaiety '  which  reigns.  Every  other 
hour  of  the  24  is  spent  by  the  monk  in  his  cell,  which 
he  sweeps  and  cleans,  or  in  his  little  garden,  which  he 
cultivates. 

This  is  the  only  Order  which  has  uniformly  observed   Order 
its  Rule,  and  has  never  been  reformed.     It  is  also  the   "^v^*^"" 
only  Order  for  which  members  of  the  Mendicant  Orders 
may  exchange  their  own  ;  but  once  a  Carthusian  always 
a  Carthusian.     Thus  is  recognised  the  perfection  at  which 


io8      CHRISTIAN  AND   ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 


The  Order 
in  Enijland. 


Present 
day. 


Nuns. 


Reception 
of  a  Car- 
thusian 
nun. 


the  Rule  aims.  The  xv.  century  was  the  period  of  the 
Order's  greatest  fame;  there  were  then  191  houses  of 
monks  and  6  of  nuns. 

The  Order  reached  England  in  1 178,  where  its  Houses 
were  called  Charter-houses,  as  they  are  called  Chartreuse 
in  France  and  Certosa  in  Italy.  The  London  Charter- 
house was  built  in  1371.  S.  Hugh  of  Lincoln  was  a 
Carthusian,  and  the  conduct  of  the  London  monks  during 
the  Reformation  under  Henry  VUL  has  been  described 
by  Dr.  Gasquet  in  his  "  Suppression  of  the  Monasteries." 
The  Order  is  divided  into  5  Provinces,  France,  Provence, 
Burgundy,  Lombardy,  and  Geneva.  France  remains  the 
principal  centre  of  the  Order:  there  are  11  houses  there, 
5  of  which,  including  the  Great  Chartreuse,  are  noviciate. 
There  is  one  house  in  each  of  the  following  countries, 
Spain,  Switzerland,  Germany,  and  England  (in  Sussex). 
In  Italy  there  are  6,  including  the  well  known  Certosa 
outside  Florence,  and  the  residence  of  the  Procurator 
in  Rome,  where  there  is  no  monastery.  In  all  there  are 
2 1  monasteries  of  monks  and  3  of  nuns. 

In  1 145,  the  year  of  the  first  Chapter-General,  the 
nuns  of  the  Abbey  of  Prebayon  in  Provence,  a  founda- 
tion of  the  VII.  century,  asked  to  be  incorporated  with 
the  Order.  S.  Anthelm  its  Abbat-General  consented, 
and  the  incorporation  was  approved  by  Eugenius  HI. 
Since  that  time  there  have  always  been  Carthusian  nuns, 
who  have  at  present  3  houses,  all  of  which  are  in  France. 
Their  life  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  monks,  except  that 
the  various  litde  dwellings  open  on  to  the  wide  corridors 
of  the  monastery  instead  of  being  built  round  a  cloister, 
and  that  all  eat  in  a  common  refectory. 

These  nuns  still  retain  the  Sacre  or  Consecration  which 
takes  place  4  years  after  the  profession,  and  is  the  ancient 
Christian  rite  of  Ordination  of  deaconesses.  It  is  not  as 
Carthusians,  but  as  a  reminiscence  of  their  first  Rule 
which  was  that  of  S.  Cesarius  of  Aries  that  they  preserve 
this  rite,  though  all  other  nuns  have  long  since  lost  it. 
It  is  performed  by  the  bishop,  surrounded  by  his  chief 
clergy,  and  is  joined  to  the  rite  of  the  Consecration  of  a 


Camaldolese. 


Carthusian. 


MOXKS  109 

Virgin  described  later  on  pages  129,  133.*  Tlie  recipi- 
ent must  liave  completed  25  years.  She  presents  herself 
for  Ordination  in  the  white  Carthusian  habit  and  scapular 
and  a  white  veil,  which  is  exchanged  in  the  ceremony  for 
a  black  one.  She  receives  the  gold  diadem  and  the  gold 
ring  of  the  Consecrated  Virgin,  and  the  stole  and  the 
maniple  of  the  deacon.  The  maniple  is  worn  on  the 
the  right  arm.  The  rite  begins  with  the  Veni  Creator,  and 
Litany  of  the  Saints,t  and  terminates  with  the  Te  Deum. 
The  nun  chants  the  Gospel  of  the  Mass  vested  with  the 
stole.  At  the  daily  conventual  mass  one  of  the  conse- 
crated nuns  still  chants  the  Epistle,  and,  in  the  absence 
of  a  priest,!  she  still  reads  the  Gospel  at  Matins,  vested 
with  the  stole. 

The  Carthusian  habit,  consisting  of  white  tunic  and  Carthusian 
scapular,  the  cuculla  for  ceremonies,  and  a  cloak  for  out  "^'^"• 
of  doors,  differs  from  the  Camaldolese  in  one  point  only, 
the  front  and  back  of  the  scapular  is  joined  by  a  piece  of 
white  cloth.  Their  habit,  says  Peter  the  Venerable,  was 
more  scant  than  that  of  other  monks,  and  they  wore  a 
hair  shirt  next  the  skin.  The  tunic  of  the  Carthusian 
and  Camaldolese  nuns  is  still  shorter  than  that  of  the 
'long-robed  Black  Benedictines.'  The  nuns  wear  a 
scapular,  called  by  Carthusians  '  cucuile,'  and  for  com- 
munion and  certain  other  solemnities  they  wear  the  cowl, 
which  they  however  call  a  '  large  white  mantle.'  The 
scapular  of  the  professed  nun  differs  from  that  of  the 
novice,  and  the  veil  of  novices  and  of  professed  nuns  for 
the  first  4  years  is  white.  The  monks  cover  their  heads 
with  the  hood  in  church,  and  the  nuns'  veil  is  constructed 
so  as  to  cover  the  face  if  required. 

The  famous  liqueur  of  the  Chartreux  monks  is  not  made 

*  She  does  not  take  the  vows,  as  these  have  already  been  taken 
by  a  Carthusian  4  years  previously  at  her  Profession.  In  the  case 
of  other  Benedictine  nuns  the  monastic  profession  is  joined  to  the 
old  Consecratio  I'lrghi/a/i  forming  one  ceremony. 

t  Cy:  Part  II.,  pp.  179,  2S2. 

+  A  Father  \'icar,  representing  the  Order,  ordinarily  assists  out- 
side the  nuns'  choir  at  the  Ottices,  and  he  resides  at  the  monastery 
in  a  Chartreux's  cell. 


no      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 


The 

Chartreuse 
liqueur. 


Badge. 


Carthusian 
mass. 


Procura  in 
Rome. 


by  themselves,  but  by  paid  operatives  in  the  Dauphin^ 
x\lps  ;  the  village  population  gathering  the  herbs  required. 
The  liqueur  originated  in  a  medicinal  elixir  which  was 
only  distilled  at  the  Grande  Chartreuse,  but  since  1835 
the  liqueur  known  as  Chartreuse  has  superseded  it. 

The  ancient  Carthusian  device  is  a  monogram  of  the 
letters  C.  A.  R.  T.  {^Carthusianuvi)  ;  but  the  more  gener- 
ally adopted  badge  is  a  globe  surmounted  by  a  cross 
and  stars,  and  the  legend  Stat  crux  diim  volvitiir 
orbis.  'The  cross  stands  immovable  whil§  the  globe 
revolves.' 

The  Carthusians  do  not  say  the  relic  prayer  {oranius 
te  Domine)  on  ascending  the  altar ;  but  recite  here  the 
Pater  and  Ave.  Like  the  Carmelites,  Dominicans,  and  in 
the  use  of  Sarum  the  arms  are  extended  at  the  Preface 
and  the  Anamnesis  {Unde  et  me  mores).  They  omit  not 
only  the  ^x?iyQ.x  Placeat  but  the  priest's  blessing  at  the  end 
of  mass.  A  record  of  this  more  ancient  usage  is  still 
retained  to-day,  as  we  know,  in  the  requiem  mass,  where 
no  blessing  is  given. 

The  Grande  Chartreuse  is  in  the  Departeraent  de  I'lsere, 
France.     The  Roman  Procura  is  in  the  Via  Palestro  39. 


S.    SYLVESTER    GOZZOLINI   AND   THE   SVLVESTRIANS. 


In  Rome. 


Another  small  but  ancient  Benedictine  Congregation  is 
the  Sylvestrian,  founded  by  Sylvester  Gozzolini,  the  her- 
mit of  Osimo,  in  1230.  The  Rule  is  wholly  Benedictine  ; 
and  the  Order  received  its  final  organisation  at  the  Chap- 
ter of  Monte  Fano,  a  Chapter  which  was  epoch-making 
in  the  development  of  constitutionalism  among  Bene- 
dictines. Like  the  Vallombrosan  the  Sylvestrian  has 
been  a  purely  Italian  Order,  and  is  to  be  found  in  Umbria 
and  the  Marches.  The  Sylvestrians  have  also  had  a  mis- 
sion station  in  Ceylon  for  the  past  100  years.  Like  the 
Olivetans  this  is  an  Order  for  monks  only.  The  Mother- 
house  and  Procura  of  the  Order  is  in  Via  S.  Stefano 
sopra  Cacco   26,   the   residence  of  the  Abbat-General, 


I 

f5 


I 


112      CHRISTIAN  AND   ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 

Habit.  given  to  the  Order  in  1568.*     The  habit  is  the  Bene- 

dictine, hut  in  dark  blue.      Both  rule  and  habit  were 

Badge.  given  to  S.  Sylvester  by  Benedict  in  a  vision.  The  badge 
is  the  three  green  hills  on  a  blue  ground,  surmounted  by 
a  gold  crozier,  with  two  rose  branches  in  flower  at  its 
sides. 


S.  BERNARD  TOLOMEI  AND  THE  OLIVETANS. 

Olivetans.  The  Olivetan  monks  were  founded  by  Blessed  Bernard 
Tolomei  of  Siena,  born  in  1272.  At  the  time  of  the 
foundation  the  pope  who  was  at  Avignon,  bade  the  Bishop 
of  Arezzo  give  the  Rule  and  habit  of  S.  Benedict  to  the 
new  monks.  The  bishop  sent  for  the  Camaldolese,  who 
inaugurated  the  Order  under  the  name  of  "  Congregation 
of  the  Blessed  Virgin  of  Monte  Oliveto."  It  was  con- 
firmed in  1 3 19. 

Mont'  Their  great  abbey,  16  miles  from  Siena,  has  been  de- 

Oiiveto.  clared  a  national  monument ;  f  the  cloister  is  celebrated 
for  its  scenes  of  the  life  of  S.  Benedict  painted  for  the 
monks  by  Sodoma.  The  last  Abbat,  di  Negro,  of  the 
family  of  S.  Catherine  of  Genoa,  was  allowed  to  remain 
there  in  secular  dress  in  charge  of  the  monument.  He 
died  in  1897.  His  courteous  reception  of  all  strangers, 
the  charm  of  his  goodness,  simple  piety,  and  serenity 
under  loss  and  trial,  will  be  remembered  by  all  he  wel- 
comed, and  have  been  recorded  by  M.  Paul  Bourget  in 
his  books  "  Cosmopohs  "  and  "  Un  Saint."  The  Abate 
di  Negro  remembered  the  now  empty  cloister  and  choir 
filled  by  50  white  robed  monks.  The  Mother-house  is 
now  at  Settignano,  near  Florence. 

In  R(5mf.  The  Procura  is  at  S.  Francesca  in  the  Forum,  which  is 

in  the  care  of  the   Olivetans  (since   1352),  though  the 

Habit.  monastery  is  suppressed.     The  habit  is  the  white  robe, 

*  The  original  church  of  the  Order  was  S.  Giacomo  alia  Lungara 
(founded  by  Leo  IV.)  given  to  Saint  Sylvester  himself  by  the 
Chapter  of  S.  Peter's.  The  property  however  was  not  freehold, 
and  the  Sylvestrians  later  on  accepted  their  present  church. 

t  At  the  Suppression,  there  were  34  inmates,  14  of  whom  were 
priests,  the  rest  novices  and  lay  brethren. 


MOXKS 


113 


scapular,    and    cowl    of  the    Camaldolese,  with  a  black 
cloak  in  winter  out  of  doors.     Novices  and  lay  brethren 
wear  a  rosary.     Their  badge  consists  of  the  3  Benedic-   Badge, 
tine  mounts  surmounted  by  a  cross,  with  2  branches  of 
olive  d^rioling  peace. 

BENEDICTIXE    OBLATES    OF    THE   ORDER     OF    MOXT'   OLIVETO. 


A  society  of  oblates,  living  in  community,  was  founded  s.  Fran- 
by  S.  Francesca  Romana,  who  is  not  only  the  greatest  '^^^^^  f^o- 
saint  in  the  Olivetan  calendar,  but  one  of  the  holiest  of 
those  who  have  trodden  the  streets  of  Rome,  "  the  city  of 
the  soul."  Born  in  Rome  in  1384,  of  Jacobella  and  Paolo 
Bassi,  she  was  married  against  her  will  to  Lorenzo  Pon- 
ziani,  with  whom  however  she  "  lived  in  the  most  blessed 
union."  Every  day  she  would  leave  the  Porta  San  Paolo, 
clad  in  coarse  wool,  and  gathering  firewood  for  the  poor 
bring  it  home  on  her  head,  to  distribute.  Even  during 
Lorenzo's  lifetime  she  had  collected  together  some  good 
women  dedicated  to  a  life  of  charity  under  the  Rule  of 
S.  Benedict,  but  without  irrevocable  vows.  On  his  death 
she  became  their  Superior,  a.d.  1425,  and  eventually 
founded  the  Oblates  of  Tor  de'  Specchi,  a  convent  near 
the  Capitol.  Pastor  says  of  her  time  :  "  Francesca  Romana 
was  now  filling  Rome  with  the  splendour  of  her  holiness"  ; 
and  it  is  she  indeed  who  began  the  great  work  of  regen- 
eration which  was  continued  by  Philip  Neri.  She  had 
that  exquisite  charity  which  willingly  "  leaves  Christ  for 
Christ";  and  it  is  said  that  being  once  called  away  4 
times  as  she  was  beginning  the  same  verse  of  the  Office 
of  our  Lady,  she  found  this  verse  written  on  the  page  in 
letters  of  light  by  her  guardian  angel. 

The  Oblates,  or  nohili  dame,  of  Tor  de'  Specchi  still  re-   Tor  de' 
side  in  the  street  of  that  name  at  the  foot  of  the  Capitol.   Specchi, 
They  have  no  enclosure,  but  may  occasionally  be  seen      °"^^' 
driving  in  a  closed  carriage  of  the  large  old  Roman  type, 
such  as  cardinals  use.     They  do  not  take  perpetual  vows, 
and  are  free  to  leave  and  marry.      Their  convent  may 
be  visited   at  the  periodical  Sale  of  their  work  for  the 


114      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCIESIASTICAL   ROME 

poor.     It  used  to  be  open    all    day  on  the  feast  of  S. 
Francesca,  and  may  generally  be  seen  even  now  on  the 
Octave.     On  Holy  Thursday  their  chapel  is  open  for  the 
Habit.  visit  to  the  sepulchre.     The  habit  is  a  black  dress,  with  a 

simple  white  gauze  veil,  very  ample  and  long,  no  scapular 
and  no  whimple.  Their  Superior  is  called  Presideritessa. 
S.  Francesca  died  at  the  Ponziani  palace  in  1440  while 
on  a  visit  of  consolation  to  her  son  ;  the  site  is  now 
marked  by  the  little  chapel  in  Via  Vascellari.  This  and 
Tor  de'  Specchi  are  the  two  special  spots  in  Rome,  all 
of  which  is  hallowed  by  her  presence,  which  are  con- 
nected with  her  life,  her  prayers,  her  ecstasies  and  her 
trials.  The  feast  day  is  March  9.  On  it,  unfortunately, 
her  skeleton  is  exposed  at  the  church  in  the  Forum,  under 
the  high  altar. 


The  Abbe  de  Ranc6  and  the  Trappists. 

The  Trappists  are  a  branch  of  the  Cistercians.  Their 
founder  Abb6  de  Ranc6  was  born  in  1626,  and  after  a 
series  of  events  which  impressed  on  him  the  valuelessness 
of  all  for  which  he  had  been  living  he  quitted  the  world  in 
LaTrappe.  1660  and  retired  to  his  abbacy  of  La  Trappe  near  Se^z, 
giving  his  patrimony  to  the  Hotel  Dieu  in  Paris.  La 
Trappe  was  an  ancient  Cistercian  monastery,  founded 
in  1 140*  by  Eugenius  HL  In  course  of  time  it  was  in- 
herited by  Armand  de  Ranc6  as  one  of  his  many  lay  bene- 
fices, t  Here  he  inaugurated  the  "  Strict  observance  of 
the  Cistercians,"  J  and  finally  the  discipline  of  La  Trappe. 

*  It  was  affiliated  to  Citeaux,  as  one  of  the  Savigny  Houses,  at 
the  Chapter  General  of  1 147.     See  supra  p.  100  footnote. 

t  See  Part  IV.,  p.  491.  lie  had  been  ordained  priest  by  his 
uncle  the  Archbishop  of  Tours  in  1651,  but  even  as  a  child  had 
been  loaded  with  preferments  according  to  the  abuse  common  at 
that  time. 

X  It  must  not  be  supposed  that  the  "importunate  poverty  of 
Citeaux  "  continued.  Before  the  XIII.  century  the  '  white  Cistercian 
monks'  are  called  Avarice,  from  their  evil  cupidity;  Avarice's 
sisters  being  the  Pride  of  the  Templars,  and  the  Luxury  of  the 
priests  and  prelates. 


MOXJ^S  115 

La  Trappe  thenceforth  became  famous  as  the  scene  of  a 
strangely  mortified  mode  of  existence,  in  which  Ranee 
was  joined  by  others  disillusioned  with  what  hfe  has  to 
offer,  who  found  there  with  him  peace  and  happiness. 

Every  Trappist  monastery  is  called  u/ie  Trappe.  The  Discipline 
silence  observed  is  absolute,  no  monk  may  speak  to  2/^^ 
another  on  any  occasion.  The  only  exceptions  are  for 
the  abbat  and  the  guest-master.  The  rule  which  pre- 
scribed 2  meals  in  the  course  of  the  day  {^mane  accipiant 
fnixtum  .  .  .  et  ad  seram  coenent)  has  been  mitigated 
since  1894,  and  from  Easter  to  September  14,  3  meals 
are  permitted,  the  dinner  being  at  11.  The  diet  consists 
of  vegetables  only.  From  September  14  until  Lent  the 
one  meal  is  taken  at  2.30.  But  in  Lent  the  one  meal  is 
not  taken  till  4,  with  a  very  slight  refection  later.  In 
summer  the  monks  retire  to  rest  at  7,  in  winter  at  8.  The  day. 
They  rise  at  2  a.m.  to  recite  Matins  and  Lauds  to  which 
they  add  "  the  Little  Office  "  and  half  an  hour's  medita- 
tion, which  lasts  till  4.30.  Then  they  rest  in  their  cells 
till  Prime  at  5.30 ;  but  in  winter  they  read  to  themselves 
in  a  common  room.  At  7  they  begin  manual  work,  dig- 
ging, stone  carrying,  etc.,  the  abbat  often  taking  the  more 
lowly  employment.  In  bad  weather  they  work  at  car- 
pentry, copying,  book- binding,  sweeping,  or  do  other  useful 
labour.  At  8.30,  Terce  is  said  followed  by  Mass.  Sext 
follows,  and  an  interval  of  private  reading  each  in  his  own 
cell.  After  the  midday  repast  they  work  again  for  about 
2  hours,  and,  on  the  signal  being  given,  each  monk  takes 
off  his  sabots,  puts  his  tools  away,  dons  his  cowl,  and 
meditates  and  reads  in  his  cell  till  Vespers  at  4.*  The 
collation  of  dry  bread,  fruit,  and  a  little  cider  is  taken  at 
5  o'clock,  from  Easter  till  September  14.  An  interval  is 
allowed  after  tliis,  which  each  spends  in  his  cell,  and  then 
the  monks  listen  to  spiritual  reading  in  the  Chapter-house 
till  6.    They  sleep  on  straw  palliasses,  and  in  their  clothes. 

La  Trappe  is  rather  an  outcome  of  S.  Bernard  than 
S.  Benedict,  and  interprets  the  rule  of  the  latter  '  according 

*  In  Lent  Vespers  follow  Mass.      Cf.  Part  II.,  p.  144. 


ii6      CHRISTIAN  AND   ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 


L^  Trappe 
and  the 
Revolu- 
tion. 


Subse- 
quent Con- 
gregations. 


Re-acquisi- 
tion ot 
Citeaux. 


Numbers. 


to  the  letter  rather  than  the  spirit.'  The  AbW  de  Ranc6 
emphasised  the  dignity  which  Benedict  had  bestowed  on 
manual  labour  at  a  time  when  such  labour  was  relegated 
to  slaves ;  *  Mabillon,  following  the  Black  Benedictines, 
insists  rather  on  the  founder's  care  for  study. 

During  the  life  of  the  Abb6  de  Ranc^  none  but  the 
nuns  of  Clairets  attempted  to  follow  his  Reform.  La 
Trappe  itself  was  suppressed  during  the  Revolution,  in 
1790,  despite  the  people  of  the  neighbourhood  who  desired 
these  useful  toilers  to  remain.  The  53  monks  then  resi- 
dent were  questioned,  42  declaring  their  wish  to  live  and 
die  in  the  observance.  One  of  the  monks  retired  to  the 
Canton  Fribourg,  and  here  both  Trappists  and  Trappis- 
tines  settled,  the  Order  spreading  thence  to  Belgium, 
Piedmont,  Spain,  Ireland,  England,  and  America.  La 
Trappe  was  again  constituted  Mother-house  in  18 15. 

From  1847  till  1893  there  existed  3  Trappist  com- 
munities, which  were  placed  under  the  Cistercian  Order 
(rt-)  the  Cistercian  Trappists,  who  followed  the  Constitu- 
tions of  Citeaux  {b^  Trappists  who  followed  the  Cistercian 
Rule  as  modified  by  Ranc6  (^)  The  Belgian  Congrega- 
tion, a  modification  of  (//').  By  a  Brief  of  1893  these 
Congregations  were  reunited,  the  Abbat- General  of  the 
United  Trappists  (Trappistes  rdunis)  residing  in  Rome. 
The  official  style  of  the  Order  became :  "  Order  of 
Reformed  Cistercians  of  our  Lady  of  La  Trappe,t  and 
the  monks  live  the  life  of  xii.  century  cenobites,  to  which 
is  added  perpetual  silence. 

In  1898  Citeaux  was  re-acquired  by  purchase  ;  and  this 
will  henceforth  be  the  Mother-house  of  the  Order,  the 
Abbat-General  being  ipso  jacto  Abbat  of  Citeaux.  The 
style  of  the  Order  has  since  been  changed  to  "  Order  of 
Reformed  Cistercians,^''  without  further  addition. 

The  55  Trappist  houses  existing  in  1893  have  increased 
to  104  in  1899,  46  of  which  are  nunneries.     They  are 

*  At  the  abbey  of  S.  Gall,  monks  and  priests  all  worked  in  the 
fields  with  the  slaves. 

t  Or  "Congregation  Cistercienne  de  I'etruite  observance  de  la 
Trappe." 


MOXKS 


U7 


scattered  in  the  5  quarters  of  the  world,  38  however 
being  In  France.  The  Cistercian  Order,  inckiding  those 
of  the  'Common '  and  those  of  tlie  'Reformed '  (Trappist) 
Observance,  numbers  4150  monks,  of  which  3200  are 
Trappist.  There  were  about  900  Trappist  nuns  until  last 
year,  when  29  Cistercian  Convents,  25  of  which  are 
Spanish,  sought  admittance  among  them.  {Cf.  with  page 
loi  supra.) 

It  will  be  noticed  that  every  step  in  the  history  of  the 
Cistercian  Order,  Cluny,  Citeaux,  Clairvaux,  La  Trappe, 
has  been  of  exclusively  French  origin.  The  site  of  Tre  In  Rome 
Fontane,  near  the  basilica  of  S.  Paul's,  was  bought  and 
given  by  a  Frenchman  to  French  Trappists  in  1865;* 
and  recently  the  charge  of  the  catacomb  of  Callistus  on 
the  Appia  has  been  confided  to  them.  It  is  to  be  hoped 
that  visitors  will  not  judge  of  Trappists  by  the  monks, 
who,  absolved  from  their  vow  of  silence,  afford  tourists 
of  all  nations  every  opportunity  of  judging  of  them  as 
ciceroni  of  one  of  the  greatest  of  Christian  sites.  The 
late  Mother-house  and  present  Procura  is  in  Via  S. 
Giovanni  in  Laterano  95.  All  Trappist  houses  are  dedi- 
cated to  No  tre- Da /lie. 

The  Trappist  habit  is  the  same  as  the  Cistercian ; 
white,  and  a  black  scapular  with  the  girdle  over  it.  The 
lay  brethren  wear  a  brown  habit  with  the  black  scapular, 
shave  the  head,  and  wear  a  beard. 

The  badge  is  the  escutcheon  of  Burgundy  on  the 
fleurs-de-lis  shield  of  France  (p.  loi). 


Mother- 
liouse  and 
Procura. 

Habit. 


Badge. 


S.    BRIDGET   AND    THE    BRIDGETTINES. 

The  Order  founded  in  1344  by  Bridget  of  Sweden  is    Bridget- 
reckoned  among  Pjcnedictine  Orders,  because  though  the   ^'"^s- 
founder  gave   them    a    Rule    herself,  she  ordained   that 
whatever  "  was  wanting  to   it  "  should    be   supplied   by 
Benedict's  Rule. 

Birgitta  or  Bridget   married  I'lpho  Prince  of  Xorica,    s.  Bridget, 
converting  him  by  her  example  and  "efficacious  words" 

*  See  Part  I.,  p.  123. 


Ii8      CHRISTIAX  AND   ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 

to  a  holy  life.  Shortly  before  his  death  he  became  a 
Cistercian,  and  then  Bridget  instituted  a  monastery  on 
her  estate  of  Wastein,  Lincopen,  "  under  the  rule  of  the 
Holy  Saviour  "  which  she  had  received  from  Him.  The 
Order  was  a  double  one  for  men  and  women.  "  In  honour 
of  our  Lady  "  the  men  were  subject  to  the  nuns  of  the 
related  House.  Her  first  community  consisted  of  60 
women  and  24  men,  representing  the  12  apostles  and  72 
disciples.  The  Breviary  tells  us  that  she  then  "  came  to 
Rome  moved  thereto  by  God,"  and  there  she  brought 
many  to  holiness.  She  reproved  the  clergy  with  severity 
for  the  profane  life  they  led,  and  freely  announced  to 
Gregory  XI.  the  reform  which  God  desired  of  the  Church 
and  Roman  court,  threatening  his  near  death  and  judg- 
ment at  the  tribunal  of  Jesus  Christ  if  he  should  not  obey. 
It  is  a  very  remarkable  fact  that  in  one  century  Rome 
should  have  seen  three  such  women  as  Catherine,  Bridget, 
and  Frances  of  Rome.  8.  Bridget  is  known  for  her  reve- 
lations, extraordinary  visions  and  insight  of  which  she  was 
the  subject,  often  of  great  truth,  always  forceful.  She  was 
canonised  by  Bonif^ice  IX.  Her  daughter  Catherine  of 
Sweden  is  also  among  the  saints.* 

Zion  House  —  all  S.  Bridget's  monasteries  are  so  called 
—  in  Brentford  was  one  of  the  first  monasteries  sup- 
pressed by  Henry  VIII.  and  is  now  the  property  of  the 
Dukes  of  Northumberland.  It  had  been  founded  by  his 
father  Henry  VII.  The  Bridgettines  from  there  retired 
to  Lisbon,  whence  they  returned  a  few  years  ago  to  Zion 
House,  Chudleigh,  Dorsetshire  ;  but  there  are  no  double 
houses.     The  Bridgettines  are  ruled  by  an  abbess.     A 

In  Rome,      community  of  Carmelite  nuns  have  recently  been  placed 
at  S.  Bridget's  in  Piazza  Farnese,  which  was  the  ancient 

Habit.  Ikidgettine  house.     The   habit  is  black,  the  veil  white 

and  marked  with  a  cross-shaped  red  band. 

*  See  Part  I.,  Saints'  rooms,  p.  353.  The  Order  was  not  sup- 
piessed  in  Sweden  till  1595. 


MONK'S 


119 


EXTINCT    BEXEDICTIXE    COXGREGATIONS. 

The  most  important  and  longest  lived  of  those  Bene-  Fontev- 
dictine  Congregations  which  have  ceased  to  exist  is  the  ''^"'*- 
Order  of  Fontevrault,  founded  by  Robert  of  Arbrissel  at 
the  end  of  the  xi.  century.  Coeval  with  Citeaux  and 
anterior  to  all  the  other  great  reforms,  except  Vallom- 
brosa,  Fontevrault  was  for  600  years  a  unique  instance 
of  uniformly  remarkable  government  and  of  splendid  ad- 
ministrative ability.  "  Fontevrault,"  says  Ernest  Legouve, 
"  nous  montre,  si  Ton  peut  parler  ainsi,  toute  une  serie 
d'hommes  eminents  dans  la  succession  de  ses  abbesses 
superieures."  Under  its  32  abbesses  each  rule  and  privi- 
lege, in  turn  attacked,  was  defended  and  maintained  ; 
and  no  religious  congregation  has  attained  to  greater 
eminence  and  prosperity  :  "  aucune  Congregation  ne  fut 
plus  riche  et  plus  illustre." 

In  1099  Robert  d'Arbrissel  having  instituted  the  first  Constitu- 
"  penitentiary,"  made  the  restoration  of  women  of  evil  |e°"a°uif°"" 
life  the  special  care  of  the  nuns  of  Fontevrault.  The 
Rule  was  Benedictine,  with  constitutions  special  to  it. 
The  Order  was  a  double  one ;  the  Abbess  was  General 
of  the  Order,  its  spiritual  and  temporal  Superior.*  She 
administered  the  property  of  the  community,  adjudged 
the  ecclesiastical  and  civil  penalties  in  each  case,  chose 
the  confessors  for  her  houses,  whether  of  women  or  men. 
No  novice  could  be  received  without  her  permission,  and 
each  monk,  as  each  nun,  made  his  profession  in  her 
hands,  and  swore  obedience  to  her.  The  monks  tilled 
the  fields,  and  the  nuns  received  the  fruits,  even  the 
broken  victuals  were  returned  to  the  nuns'  abbey  for 
distribution  to  the  poor.  "  Partout  ...  la  superiorite 
feminine  ;  "  "  Les  prieures  commandaient  aux  prieurs,  et 
les  religieuses  aux  religieux,  comme  I'abbesse  a  I'abbe." 
This  subordination  had  been  decreed  by  the  founder, 
who  placed  the  Order  under  the  protection  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin  and   S.  John,  wishing  that   the  author- 

*  She  was  exempt  from  the  authority  of  the  Ordinary. 


I20      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAI   ROME 

ity  which  Christ  gave  to  Mary  on  the  cross  should  be 
"  the  model  of  the  relation  which  he  established  between 
the  men  and  the  women  of  his  congregation"  ;  he  him- 
self being  the  first  to  set  the  example.*  Matilde  of  Anjou 
was  its  second  abbess  ;  and  one  of  its  latest  Gratides- 
Prienres  was  Renee  of  Lorraine,  daughter  of  the  Duke 
of  Guise  and  sister  of  the  Cardinal,  afterwards  for  60 
years  abbess  of  St.  Pierre  de  Rheims  (1542-1602).  This 
illustrious  Congregation  ceased  to  exist  when  Fontevrault 
was  desecrated  by  the  Revolutionists,  and  its  library  dis- 
persed, together  with  those  of  Marmoutier,  St.  Maur, 
and  other  historic  abbeys.  Henry  II.  of  England  and 
Richard  Cceur-de-Lion  lie  buried  there.  The  nuns  of 
Fontevrault  wore  the  white  habit  and  rochet ;  with  a 
black  cowl.-f- 

Grand  In    1076   S.  Stephen   of  Muret   and    his  companions 

Montams.  founded  the  Congregation  afterwards  called  of  Grand- 
mont.  Their  houses  in  Normandy  and  Anjou  were  richly 
endowed  by  the  English  Kings.  They  wore  the  black 
habit  with  a  large  scapular.  The  Congregation  ceased 
to  exist  in  the  last  century. J 


Congrega-         Abbat  William,  whose  statue  appears  among  the  found- 
tion  of  erg  Qf  Orders  in  S.  Peter's,  founded  the  monastery  of  the 

Vergine.  Virgin  on  Monte  Vergine  (1119)  and  died  in  1142.  Of 
his  Rule  it  has  been  beautifully  said  that  he  made  it  from 
the  precepts  and  counsels  of  the  Gospel,  from  the  Rule 
of  Benedict,  and  with  his  own  holy  life  and  example. 
The  nuns  of  the  Order,  like  the  hermits,  wore  the  white 
habit,  and  over  this  the  former  wore  a  rochet.  The 
device  of  the  Order  is  the  tliree  mounts,  surmounted  by 
a  cross  and  circle,  and  the  letters  M.V. 

*  Helyot,  vol.  ii.  pp.  299,  303,  307. 

t  Pieces  sur  Fontevrault.  There  were  60  Priories  with  4  Prov- 
inces in  France,  and  2  in  England. 

%  S.  Stephen  denied  that  his  Religious  were  monks,  canons,  or 
hermits!  Mabillon  ranks  them  as  Benedictines,  others  among 
Augustinians.     Helyot  denies  both  assertions. 


MONKS  121 

In  the  XII.  century,  in  the  reign  of  Stephen,  Gilbert  of  The  Eng- 
vSempringham  in  Lincolnshire  founded  an  Order  of  nuns,  ''f  r^h^'^'^ 
lay  sisters,  and  lay  brethren,  with  the  Cistercian  Rule.*  tines. 
With  them  he  associated  later  an  Order  of  Canons,  who 
followed  the  Rule  of  Augustine.  These  4  classes  formed 
4  separate  Congregations,  each  under  a  Superior  chosen 
from  among  themselves.  The  monasteries  were  double. 
Though  the  life  led  was  austere  and  frugal  S.  Gilbert 
required  them  to  be  warmly  and  comfortably  clad  ;  the 
habit  consisted  of  a  white  tunic  and  cowl,  a  cape  and 
hood  {capuce)  lined  with  fur,  and  a  sheepskin  pelisse. 
The  canons  wore  a  mantle  in  place  of  the  cowl.  The 
lay  sister's  tunic  was  black.  The  nuns  had  five  changes 
of  tunic,  and  the  canons  three.  The  Order  existed  till  the 
dissolution  at  which  time  there  were  25  houses  in  Eng- 
land and  Wales.  The  Order  of  Canons  has  lately  been 
revived  by  a  Lincolnshire  priest  at  Spetisbury  in  that 
county,  and  the  old  white  habit  has  been  restored  by 
the  Premonstratensian  Canons.  S.  Gilbert  was  born  in 
the  time  of  William  the  Conqueror  (1083)  of  a  Norman 
father  and  Saxon  mother.  He  was  present  at  the  Chap- 
ter-( General  of  Citeaux,  and  took  counsel  with  S.  fkrnard. 
S.  Thomas  of  Canterbury  was  received  by  him  and  his 
Order  with  great  charity  on  his  way  to  France.  His 
feast  day  is  kept  in  England  on  February  1 1.  {Ol>.  iiSg. 
Canonised  by  Innocent  III.) 

The  Humiliati  were  an  order  of  White  Benedictines.  Humiliati. 
They  arose  in  the  time  of  Barbarossa,  1201,  among  those 
Milanese  nobles  whom  he  had  taken  prisoner,  and  who 
had  to  endure  every  kind  of  misery  in  a  foreign  land. 
These  men  made  a  vow  that  if  they  ever  saw  their  coun- 
try again,  they  would  spend  their  lives  in  good  works. 

*  He  urged  the  Cistercians  to  affiliate  them  to  the  Order,  but  this 
was  refused.  Indeed  the  Chapter-General  held  in  1228  emitted  a 
decree  that  "  no  monastery  of  nuns  should  be  constituted  or  asso- 
ciated to  the  Order."  At  the  same  time  they  would  not  forbid 
nunr,  ado])tinj;  their  Institutions;  thev  only  refused  to  undertake 
the  care  of  souls  in  such  a  monasl-.-ry,  or  to  sen;!  a  Visitor  there. 


Celestin- 
ians. 


122    .  CHRISTIAN  AND   ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 

On  their  return  they  made  a  common  fund  of  what  re- 
mained of  their  patrimony,  and  formed  themselves  into  a 
Community  under  the  Rule  of  S.  Benedict.  They  elected 
to  live  a  common  life  together,  and  were  called  the  Hu- 
fniliati ;  they  were  also  known  as  Berrettini  on  account 
of  the  Phrygian  cap  which  they  wore  in  place  of  a  hood. 
The  Order  at  first  illustrious  became  infamous.  Its  Prov- 
osts lived  like  petty  princes,  the  great  wealth  of  the 
houses  was  not  even  spent  on  the  church  services,  the 
successors  to  the  honours  and  titles  of  Provosts  were 
their  own  sons,  and  intrigues,  murders,  and  all  kind  of 
iniquities  prevailed  in  the  wretched  community.  S. 
Charles  Borromeo  who  was  made  Visitor  of  the  Order 
did  all  in  his  power  to  reform  them,  and  to  convene  a 
Chapter  of  the  Provosts  who  were  the  head  and  front  of 
the  offending.  This  led  to  the  final  scene  in  the  drama, 
their  machinations  to  murder  S.  Charles.  They  were 
suppressed  utterly  by  Clement  VII.  Their  monastery  in 
Rome  was  S.  Cecilia,  now  occupied  by  Black  Benedictine 
nuns,  who  however  wear  the  white  habit  as  a  record  of  them. 

Peter  Morrone  the  hermit  —  afterwards  Celestine  V. — 
founded  the  Order  called  after  him  about  1254.  The 
Rule  followed  was  wholly  that  of  S.  Benedict.  After  the 
abdication  of  their  founder,  these  Paiiperes  hercmitiH 
(iomini  Celestini  had  to  fly  to  Greece  to  escape  the  per- 
secution of  his  successor  Boniface  VIII.  The  Order  per- 
ished in  Germany  at  the  time  of  the  religious  Reformation, 
and  in  France  in  1 766,  but  survived  longer  in  Italy.  Their 
device  is  a  black  serpent  wound  round  a  white  cross. 
Celestine,  though  canonised  in  13 13,  is  one  of  the  popes 
whom  Dante  places  in  hell,  for 

per  viltatc  fcce  il gran  riftuto. 


Feuillants 
and  Feuil- 
lantes. 


The  Feuillants,*  an  Order  for  men  and  women,  were  a 
Reform  of  the  Cistercians,  founded  by  Jean  de  la  Bar- 

*  Fenillans  was,  like  La  Trappe,  an  ancient  French  abbey,  of 
which  la  Barricre  was  abbe  commendataire  at  18  years  old. 


MONKS 


123 


ri^re,  an  austere  man  and  an  eloquent  preacher,  the  con- 
temporary of  S.  Francis  de  Sales.  Cardinal  Bona  was  a 
member  of  this  illustrious  and  industrious  Congregation, 
which  was  established  in  Rome  at  S.  Bernardo  and  S. 
Pudenziana.  The  Italian  Congregation  were  known  as 
Bernanfoni,  and  enjoyed  the  quaint  privilege  of  mould- 
ing the  little  wax  lambs  called  Agnus  Dei  to  be  blessed 
by  the  pope. 

We  have  referred  to  the  Black  Benedictine  Congre-   St.  Maur. 
gition  of  St.  Maur,  which  was  suppressed   in   1792,  on 
page  89.      The  device  of  this   illustrious  community  is 
the  word  PAX  between  a  fleur-de-lis  and  the  3  nails  of 
the  cross,  and  surrounded  by  the  Crown  of  Thorns. 

For  Cluny,    see    p.    93  ;    and   for  Flora    in    Calabria, 
which  persisted  till  the  xvi.  century,  p.  100. 


BENEDICTINE    SAINTS   AND    SAINTS     EMBLEMS. 

S.  Benedict,  S.  Scholastica,  S.  Maur,  S.  Placid,  SS.  Ger- 
trude and  Mechtilde,  S.  Bernard  and  the  other  great 
founders,  are  most  often  represented  in  art.  In  churches 
of  Black  Benedictines  SS.  Benedict,  Scholastica,  Maur 
and  Placid,  and  other  saints  common  to  the  whole  Order, 
as  S.  Gregory  the  Great,  wear  a  black  habit,  and  in 
churches  of  White  Benedictines  a  white  habit.  The  cowl 
being  the  dress  of  ceremony  among  Benedictines,  founders 
and  monks  appear  dressed  in  it  in  all  the  great  pictures  ; 
S.  Romuald  in  the  Vatican  Gallery,  S.  Bruno  in  S.  Maria 
degli  Angeli,  S.  Bernard  at  the  Badia  in  Florence,  SS. 
Bernard  and  John  Gualbertus  in  Perugino's  crucifixion 
at  S.  M.  Maddalena  dei  Pazzi,  S.  Benedict  in  the  beauti- 
ful relief  over  the  entrance  to  Mont'  Oliveto,  the  great 
figures  of  Gertrude  and  Scholastica,  all  wear  the  cowl. 

To  determine  what  patrons  or  monks  are  designated 
in  a  Benedictine  church,  one  must  bear  in  mind  to  what 
Congregation  it  belongs  :  in  a  Cistercian  church  S.  Ber- 
nard, Robert  of  Molesme,  Stephen  Harding,  and  the 
great  Cluny  abbats,  Odo,  Odilo,  or  Peter  the  Venerable, 


Benedic- 
tine Saints 
and  Saints 
Emblems. 


124      CHRISTIAN  AND   ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 


S.  Benedict 
and  Scho- 
Ustica, 


SS.  Maiir 
and  Pl.icid. 


will  appear.  In  Carthusian,  Trappist  and  Camaldolese 
churches,  the  founders  ;  in  Vallombrosan  churches  the 
founder  and  S.  Umilta ;  in  Olivetan  the  founder  and  S. 
Francesca  Romana.  Abbats  and  Abbesses  bear  the  cro- 
zier.  In  France  S.  Bernard  and  S.  Maur  are  most  fre- 
quently met  with  ;  in  Sicily  S.  Placid  ;  in  England  S. 
Gregory,  S.  Augustin  of  Canterbury,*  Benedict  Biscop, 
Bede,  Wilfrid  of  York,  Ansehn  (1033-1109),  Boniface, 
Willibald  and  the  great  Saxon  abbesses,  Mildred,  Wal- 
burga,  Editha,  Etheldrytha,  Ebba ;  in  Germany  Wal- 
burga,  Lioba,  Berthgytha,  Gertrude  and  Mechtilde, 
Boniface. t 

SS.  BENEDICT  and  scHOLASTicA  are  often  represented  together 
in  the  beautiful  scene  of  their  last  meeting  :  S.  Benedict 
stands  about  to  depart  for  his  monastery,  S.  Scholas- 
tica  bows  her  head  on  her  hands,  having  vainly  besought 
him  to  spend  the  night  in  holy  converse,  and  at  her  prayers 
a  great  and  sudden  storm  arises,  so  that  he  cannot  return. 
When  represented  alone  S.  Benedict  has  a  raven  at  his 
feet,  emblem  of  the  solitary  life  at  Subiaco,  but  accounted 
for  by  the  legend  that  a  raven  fed  him.  He  also  appears 
enthroned  as  Patriarch  of  Monasticism.  His  other  em- 
blems are  an  open  book  with  the  opening  words  of  his 
Rule  Aiisciilta  fili  verba  viagistri ;  the  asperge,  embleni  of 
exorcism  ;  the  broken  cup  or  pitcher  which  his  nurse 
broke  and  he  restored  miraculously  ;  a  raven  with  a  loaf 
of  bread  ;  the  thorn  bush  in  which  he  rolled  himself  as  a 
penance  to  the  flesh.  At  Scholastica's  feet  is  her  emblem, 
a  dove,  in  her  hand  a  lily.  Both  Benedict  and  Scholastica 
of  course  have  the  crozier.  S.  Benedict  lies  at  Fleury, 
hence  called  "  the  head  of  all  the  monasteries."  (March 
21  ;  Feb.  10.) 

SS.  MAUR  and  placid  usually  appear  as  children  at 
Benedict's  feet,  with  censers  in  their  hands,  but  in  France 
and  Sicily  they  appear  as  founders  ;  sometimes  with  mar- 
tyrs' emblems.  These  were  Benedict's  first  disciples. 
The  story  that  S.  Maur  established  the  Order  in  France, 


See  p.  90. 


t  For  Ilildegarde,  cf.  Part  IV.,  p.  385. 


MONKS 


»2S 


and  that  S.  Placid  laboured  in  Sicily,  and  that  both  suffered 
martyrdom,  is  denied  by  modern  criticism.  (Jan.  15  ; 
Oct. '5.) 

GERTKtn)E  and  kechtilde  are  often  represented  together, 
in  the  black  cowl,  and  both  holding  croziers.  As  Abbess,* 
Gertrude  is  also  represented  alone,  seated,  a  pen  in  her 
hand,  a  book  on  her  knee,  and  her  special  emblem  the 
stigmata  impressed  on  her  heart,  in  allusion  to  the  story 
that  at  the  end  of  her  life  it  was  transfixed  with  a  mystic 
arrow,  and  retained  the  marks  of  the  Passion.  (Nov.  15  ; 
Oct.  26.)  s.  BEUNo  is  represented  in  meditation;  or  he 
is  leading  his  monks  to  the  Great  Chartreuse.  (Oct.  6.) 
s.  BERNARD  appears  in  the  habit  of  his  Order,  the  demon 
or  a  fettered  dragon  chained  behind  him,  representing 
heresy;  or  he  kneels  before  the  Madonna.  His  other 
emblems  are  the  3  mitres,  which  stand  beside  him  on 
a  book,  alluding  to  the  3  Sees  he  refused  ;  a  bee-hive, 
as  the  Doctor  Mellifluous ;  a  book  and  writing  imple- 
ments. (Aug.  20.)  s.  BERNARD  TOLOMEi.  in  the  Olivetan 
habit,  holds,  or  receives  from  the  Blessed  Virgin,  a  palm. 
(August  21.)  s.  FRAHCEscA  EOMArA  appcars  in  the  black 
oblate's  dress  and  white  gauze  veil.  Her  guardian  angel, 
who,  like  another  Roman,  Cecilia,  "  ever  accompanied 
her,"  is  by  her,  or  writes  in  a  book :  "  Thou  hast  held 
me  by  my  right  hand  and  by  thy  will  thou  hast  con- 
ducted me,  and  with  glory  thou  hast  received  me " ; 
(Psalm  LXXn.)  or  she  is  kneehng  before  a  pyx,  the 
rays  from  the  host  falling  on  her  breast,  an  allusion  to  the 
name  oblate,  ofl^e7-ed.  She  is  represented  of  middle  age. 
(March  9.)  romuald  sometimes  carries  a  cratch  and 
is  depicted  as  an  old  man  with  a  long  beard.  The  habit 
of  course  is  white.  (February  7.)  gualbertus  some- 
times wears  a  cope  over  his  dark  habit,  and  carries  a 
cratch  and  carved  cross.  (July  12.)  syxvestee  gozzolini 
(ob.  126 1).  (November  28.)  s.  Bridget  is  represented 
in  the  Bridgettine  habit.  She  carries  the  pastoral  staff,  or 
a  pilgrim's  wallet  in  allusion  to  her  travels.   (Oct.  8,  Feb.  i .) 


SS.  Ger- 
trude and 
Mechtilde. 


S.  Bruno. 
S.  Bernard. 


S.  Bernard 
Tolomei. 

S.  Fran- 
cesca  Ro- 
mano, 


S.  Ro- 
muald. 

S. John 
Gualbertus. 

Sylvester 
Gozzolini. 

S.  Bridget. 


See  p.  85  footnote. 


126      CHRIST/AN  AXD   ECCLESTASTTCAL   ROME 


Patron 
Saints  of 
the  Order. 


The  Patron  saint  of  the  Cassinese  Congregation  is  S. 
Justina  ;  the  special  Patron  of  the  Cistercians  and  Trap- 
pists  is  the  Blessed  Virgin. 

The  Order  had  given  to  the  Church  up  to  the  time  of 
Raronius,  40  popes,  12  emperors,  4  empresses,  87  kings 
and  queens,  200  cardinals,  5616  archbishops  and  bishops  ; 
and  counts  3600  saints.* 


Benedic- 
tion ot  an 
Abbat. 


BENEDICTION   OF    AN    ABBAT    AND   ABBESS. 

The  rite  of  the  Benediction  of  an  abbat  is  performed 
on  a  Sunday  or  holy  day,  both  the  officiating  bishop  and 
the  Abbat-elect  fasting  the  previous  day.  Two  altars  are 
prepared,  as  at  the  consecration  of  a  bishop.  The  bishop 
sits  on  a  faldstool, f  the  elect  with  two  assistant  abbats  on 
three  high  stools.  For  a  mitred  abbat,  |  pontifical,  for  a 
non-mitred  abbat  sacerdotal  vestments  are  prepared,  with 
a  white  cope  added.  The  assistants  wear  a  stole,  cope, 
and  linen  mitre.  [If  the  Benediction  is  by  Apostolic 
Mandate,  in  which  case  the  abbat  is  exempt  from  the  ju- 
risdiction of  his  Ordinary,  the  pontifical  notary  now  reads 
the  Mandate.  If  otherwise,  the  rite  begins  with  Psalm  67 
(68),  followed  by  some  versicles  and  two  short  prayers; 
after  which  the  abbat  is  presented  to  the  bishop  to  be 
interrogated.]  The  elect  now  reads  the  form  of  oath, 
which  in  the  case  of  an  abbat  consecrated  by  Papal 
Mandate  is  word  for  word  that  made  by  a  bishop  at  his 
consecration  —  with  the  sole  difference  that  while  both 
promise  to  come  to  a  Council  when  called,  the  abbat  does 
not  i)romise  to  make  the  visit  ad  liiniiia,  and  that  the  latter 
jjromises  not  to  alienate  the  goods  of  the  monastery  with- 
out the  consent  of  his  convent,  and  the  former  not  to 
alienate  his  diocesan  revenues  without  the  consent  of  his 

*  The  saints'  days  are  given  as  a  guide  to  the  feasts  in  the  churches 
of  the  various  Orders.  If  the  date  of  a  saint's  canonisation  is  much 
later  than  the  date  of  death,  the  former  is  also  given,  as  no  saint  is 
represented  in  ecclesiastical  art  liefore  beatification  or  canonisation. 

t  In  his  own  diocese,  on  his  throne. 

X  Abbas  de  niitra,  see  p.  59. 


MOXR'S  127 

Chapter.  After  reading  the  oath,  he  touches  the  Gospels 
open  on  the  bishop's  knee,  and  says  :  "  So  help  me  God, 
and  these  holy  Gospels."  Then  follows  the  Interrogation 
as  to  his  keeping  of  the  Rule,  his  manners,  and  his  obedi- 
ence to  the  Holy  Roman  Church.  [If  consecrated  with- 
out Papal  Mandate,  he  is  asked  also  if  he  will  obey  his 
Ordinary.] 

The  bishop  now  says  the  Confiteor  of  mass,  to  which  From  the 
the  elect,  at  his  left  hand,  replies  ;  and  mass  proceeds  as  Sequence, 
far  as  the  Sequence  before  the  (iospel.  The  mass  may 
be  a  solemn  or  a  low  one.  The  elect  says  his  mass  as  far 
as  the  offertory,  supported  by  his  assistants  ;  but  from  the 
offertory  onwards  he  reads  it  from  the  missal,  kneeling  at 
a  stool  before  the  altar,  and  omits  the  words  of  consecra- 
tion.* 

The  bishop  now  kneels  at  his  faldstool,  the  elect  pros- 
trates on  his  left,  and  7  psalms  are  chanted,  followed  by 
the  Litany  of  the  Saints  (as  in  the  ordination  of  priests), 
versicles  and  2  prayers.  The  elect  then  kneels  before 
the  bishop  who  intones  a  Preface,  proceeding,  after  the 
vere  dignum  et  jiistiiin  est,  thus  :  — 

"  Graciously  pour  on  this  thy  serv^ant,  through  our 
prayers,  the  overflowing  spirit  of  thy  benediction ; " 
(he  imposes  his  extended  hands  on  his  head,  saying  :) 
"  That  he  who  by  the  imposition  of  our  hands  is  this  day 
constituted  abbat,  made  worthy  by  thy  sanctification,  may 
remain  by  thee  elect,  and  never,  as  unworthy,  be  here- 
after separated  from  thy  grace." 

At  the  end  of  the  Preface,  2  short  and  one  long  prayer 
are  said.  The  bishop,  sitting,  then  delivers  the  Rule  into 
the  new  abbat's  hands  :  "  Receive  the  Rule  .  .  .  Receive 
the  flock  of  the  Lord  .  .  .  lead  it  to  the  pastures  of  heav- 
enly heritage,  Jesus  Christ  helping  thee."  He  blesses 
the  pastoral  staff  (if  this  has  not  been  already  done)  the 
words  being  the  same  as  for  a  bishop's,  and  gives  it  to  the 
abbat :   "  Receive  the  staff  of  thy  pastoral  office,  that  thou 

*  Up  to  the  offertory  he  celelirates  like  a  bishop-elect,  and  after- 
wards recites  the  mass  like  priests-elect,  but  does  not  concelebrate. 
See  Fart  II.,  p.  289. 


128      CHRISTIAN  AND   ECCLESIASTICAI   ROME 


Rite  of 
Benedic 
tion  of  an 
Abbess. 


The  Cere- 
monial 
Veil. 


mayest  be  piously  severe  in  correcting  vice  ;  and  when 
thou  art  angry,  remember  mercy."  Similarly  a  ring  is 
blest  and  given  :  "  Receive  the  ring,  the  seal  of  faith,  and 
as  the  Spouse  of  God,  that  is  Holy  Church,  adorned  by  an 
unshrinking  faith,  keep  it  untarnished."  Then  the  new 
abbat  receives  the  kiss  of  peace. 

The  mass  continues  to  the  offertory,  when  he  offers  2 
lighted  torches,  2  loaves,  and  2  barrels  full  of  wine.  After 
tlie  first  Communion  prayer,  he  goes  to  the  bishop's  right 
hand,  and  receives  the  Kiss  of  Peace.  At  the  Communion 
he  receives  kneeling,  and  in  one  species  only.  He  is  sol- 
emnly blest  at  the  end  of  mass  [If  he  is  de  mitrd  the  bishop 
here  blesses  and  imposes  mitre  ;md  ringj  ;  and  then  placed 
in  the  Chair  of  his  predecessors,  the  pastoral  staff  in  his 
hand  ;  the  bishop  saying :  "  Receive  full  and  free  power 
to  rule  this  monastery  and  Congregation,  and  all  things 
which  are  known  to  pertain  to  its  direction,  within  and 
without,  spiritually  and  temporally." 

The  Benediction  of  an  Abbess  is  mentioned  by  Pope 
Zacharias  in  748  as  a  ceremony  pertaining  to  the  Diocesan 
Bishop  alone. 

The  abbess-elect  hears  mass  from  her  stall  in  the  choir 
as  far  as  the  Sequence,  then  comes  before  the  bishop, 
holding  the  form  of  oath  sealed  by  her  seal  (the  oath  dif- 
fering as  in  the  case  of  an  abbat),  and  swears  it  on  the 
(iospels.  The  Litany  of  the  Saints  with  the  same  versi- 
cles  and  prayers  as  in  the  Benediction  of  abbats,  follow. 
The  same  Prefiice  and  imposition  of  the  hands,  with  two 
short  and  one  long  prayer,  are  succeeded  by  the  tradition 
of  the  Rule  as  in  the  case  of  abbats. 

Here,  if  the  abbess-elect  be  not  already  a  professed 
nun,  she  receives  the  veil.  She  is  always,  however,  given 
an  ample  gauze  veil,  worn  by  her  thereafter  as  a  ceremo- 
nial item  ;  it  is  a  record  of  the  veiling  which  used  in  most 
cases  to  follow  here.* 

*  The  presumption  used  to  be  that  the  al)l)css-elect  was  not  a 
nun,  and  the  abbat-elect  not  a  monk.  In  his  case  his  profession 
precedes  the  Benediction  in  the  Ponti/icale.     Abbats,  but  especially 


MONKS  129 

At  the  offertory,  accompanied  by  two  matrons,  and  pre- 
ceded by  two  servants  bearing  two  liglited  torches,  she 
presents  these  to  the  bishop  as  an  oblation,  and  returns  to 
her  place.  The  washing  of  the  hands  after  receiving  these 
gifts,  in  an  ordination  mass  and  here,  reminds  us  of  the 
original  meaning  of  this  custom  in  a  bishop's  solemn 
mass. 

The  abbess  communicates ;  and  at  the  end  of  mass  is 
enthroned  by  the  bishop  who  says  the  Accipe plenam  po- 
testatem  (Receive  full  power),  p.  128.  Then  standing 
on  the  right  of  the  new  abbess  he  intones  the  Te  Deum. 
Her  crozier  and  ring  are  blest  and  imposed  in  the  same 
words  as  for  an  abbat. 

Accompanied  by  the  matrons,  she  is  met  at  the  door 
of  the  monastery,  and  led  to  the  choir  ;  where  all  the  nuns 
kneel  and  salute  her,  and  she  embraces  them.  The  rite 
ends  with  the  Confinna  hoc,  Dcus,  quod  operatus  es  in 
nobis,  with  the  versicles  that  follow,  and  a  prayer. 

CONSECRATION    OF    A    BENEDICTINE    NUN. 

The  rite  of  the  consecration  of  a  Virgin  is  one  of  the 
oldest  rites,  as  it  was  one  of  the  most  important  in  the 
primitive  Church.  It  could  only  be  solemnised  by  a 
bishop,  and  is  described  in  every  Pontificale,  even  the 
Leonine.  S.  Ambrose  says  that  the  sacred  Virgins  are 
veiled  at  Easter-tide  when  the  mysteries  of  baptism  are 
being  celebrated  throughout  the  world.  Gelasius  forbids 
the  ceremony  to  take  place  except  at  Easter,  the  Epiphany, 
and  the  feasts  of  Apostles  ;  and  Egbert  in  England  renewed 
the  prohibition.*  Hospinian  supposes  that  the  rite  is  not 
anterior  to  Constantine,  but  the  Patriarchs  of  East  and 
West  celebrated  it  in  the  iv.  century,  and  the  Council  of 

abbesses,  were  often  elected  to  convents  because  of  their  station,  as 
in  the  case  of  royal  princesses.  In  the  same  way  the  consecration 
of  the  pope  always  supposed  him  to  be  in  deacon's  orders  only,  and 
therefore  included  his  episcopal  consecration.  See  Part  IV.,  p.  374. 
*  Pontificate  of  Egbert  of  York. 
K 


CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 


The  cere- 
mony. 


Collect  for 
the  new 
nun. 


Profession 
as  a  nun. 


Carthage  at  the  end  of  the  century  forbids  presbyters  to 
solemnise  it.* 

This  ceremony  is  still  performed  at  the  profession  of 
a  Benedictine  nun  ;  the  two  forming  one  ceremony.  It 
takes  place  in  solemn  mass,  which  is  proceeded  with  as 
far  as  the  Alleluia  or  Sequence ;  the  following  collect 
being  said  for  the  new  nun  :  Grant  ive  beseech  Thee 
O  Lord  a  pe7-fect  effect  to  the  work  noiv  begun  by  Thy 
set  van  f,  ivhoin  Thou  art  pleased  to  decorate  with  the 
honour  of  virginit}' :  and  that  the  gift  she  offers  may  be 
complete  in  fulness,  grant  her  to  bring  the  things  now 
begun  to  their  consummation. 

At  the  last  verse  of  the  Sequence,  the  bishop  seats 
himself  on  a  faldstool  before  the  altar  ;  the  nun  (or  nuns) 
to  be  professed,  accompanied  by  two  matrons  (usually 
relatives),  arid  without  veil  or  cucuUa  proceeds  from  the 
monastery  to  the  church.  The  archpriest  vested  in  a 
cope,  intones  the  antiphon  :  "  O  prudent  virgins,  whose 
lamps  are  prepared,  behold  the  Bridegroom  comes,  go  forth 
to  7neet  him.''  The  nun  lights  her  candle,  and  goes 
towards  him,  and  the  archpriest  presents  her  for  conse- 
cration, and  replies  to  the  question  "  Knowest  thou  if 
she  is  (they  are)  worthy?"  The  bishop  then  declares 
to  the  assembly  that  he  intends  to  bless  and  consecrate 
her. 

He  now  calls  the  new  nun  :  Veni  (or  Venite)  "Come." 
She  responds:  Et  nunc  sequor,  "and  now  I  follow." 
The  call  is  repeated,  and  she  again  rises  and  answers 
"  And  now  I  follow  with  my  whole  heart,"  and  goes 
towards  the  centre  of  the  choir.  For  the  third  time  the 
bishop  chants,  in  a  higher  tone,  "  Come,  daughter,  give 
heed  to  my  voice,  I  will  teach  you  the  fear  of  the  Lord  ;  " 
and  rising  from  her  knees  she  sings  the  antiphon  :  "  And 
now  behold  I  follow  with  my  whole  heart.  Thee  I  fear. 
Thy  face  I  seek  to  see  :  O  Lord  Thou  shalt  not  confound 
me,  but  do  to  me  according  to  Thy  loving  kindness,  and 
according  to  the  multitude  of  Thy  mercies." 


Cf.  the  HI.  century  fresco  in  S.  Priscilla,  Part  I.,  p.  487. 


MONKS  131 

The  matrons,  if  there  are  many  nuns  to  be  professed, 
now  range  them  in  a  semicircle  round  the  bishop,  who 
after  pubUcly  exhorting  them,  interrogates  them  twice  as  to 
their  resolution  to  persevere  in  virginity.  The  nun  places 
her  joined  hands  in  the  bishop's  hand,  and  says  Promitto, 
"  I  promise"  ;  to  which  he  replies  Deo  graiias,  "Thanks 
be  to  God."  She  now  signs  her  profession  as  described  on 
p.  134.     She  then  enters  the  sanctuary,  and  sings  the  — 

Suscipe  me  Domine,  secundum  eloquium  tuum  et  vivam  ; 
et  non  confundas  me  ab  expectatione  mea* 

The  words  prescribed  by  S.  Benedict  to  be  said  by  the 
monk  at  his  profession.  The  first  words  are  chanted 
standing,  the  hands  and  eyes  raised  ;  the  second  half 
kneeling,  the  arms  crossed. 

The  Litanies  follow,  with  the  usual  petition,  as  in  the 
ordination  of  bishops  and  priests,  which  the  bishop  rises 
to  intone  turning  towards  the  newly  professed.  He  now 
removes  the  mitre,  and  blesses  the  nun's  cowl;  in  the 
case  of  a  lay  sister  her  scapular.  The  Veni  Creator  is 
then  sung.  At  its  close,  the  bishop  assisted  by  the 
matrons  vests  the  new  nun  in  the  cowl ;  who  chants  an 
antiphon  from  the  martyrology  of  S.  Agnes  (Roman  Consecra- 
Breviary  January  21).  The  pontiff  proceeds  to  bless  •'°"  r^^  a 
the  veil,  the  ring,  and  the  crown. t  "^°'"' 

If  many,  the  new  nuns  now  form  a  semicircle  a  second 
time  round  the  bishop,  a  short  prayer  is  said,  and  then 
follows  the  Eucharistic  "Prayer  or  Preface  proper  to  the  The 
rite.  This  beautiful  prayer  contains  the  following  :  "  May  Preface, 
there  be  in  her  a  prudent  modesty,  a  wise  benignity,  a 
grave  mildness,  a  chaste  liberty.  .  .  .  May  she  live 
worthy  of  praise,  not  desiring  to  be  praised.  In  holiness 
of  body,  in  purity  of  soul  may  she  glorify  Thee.  Be 
Thou  to  her  honour,  Thou  her  joy.  Thou  her  will ;  in 
grief  her  solace ;    in  doubt  her  counsel ;   in  injury  her 

*  "  Receive  me  O  Lord  according  to  thy  word,  and  I  shall  live, 
and  thou  shalt  not  disappoint  me  of  my  hope." 

t  Ste  Chap.  I.,  p.  34.  First  the  monastic  habit  is  blest,  then  the 
s)Tnbols  of  the  ecclesiastical  virgin. 


132      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 


Giving  tlie 
veil. 


Espousals 
with  the 


ring. 


Crowning 
the  virgo 
sacra. 


Anathema. 


defence  ;  in  tribulation  patience  ;  in  poverty  her  abun- 
dance ;  in  fasting  meat ;  in  sickness  medicine.  May  she 
find  all  things  in  Thee,  whom  above  all  things  she  has 
desired  to  love."  * 

The  bishop  intones  the  antiphon  Veni  electa  mea,  which 
is  continued  by  the  choir.  He  sits  on  the  faldstool,  and 
the  new  nun  kneels  before  him,  s'mgmg  And  Ha  Christi  sum. 
Now  follows  a  second  interrogation  :  "  Will  you  persist  in 
holy  virginity,  which  you  have  professed?"  "I  will." 
He  now  places  on  her  the  black  veil,  and  she  sings  the 
antiphon  :  Posuit  signiDii  ("  He  has  placed  a  sign"). 

After  a  short  prayer,  the  bishop,  resuming  his  mitre, 
calls  the  new  Virgin,  intoning  the  antiphon:  "Come, 
beloved  to  thy  espousals  :  the  winter  is  past,  the  voice  of 
the  turtle  is  heard  in  our  land,  the  vines  in  flower  yield 
their  sweet  smell."  He  yjlaces  the  ring  on  the  ring  finger 
of  her  right  hand,  saying  :  "  I  espouse  thee  to  Jesus 
Christ  .  .  .  receive  therefore  the  ring  of  faith,  the  seal  of 
the  Holy  Spirit,  that  you  may  be  called  the  spouse  of  God 
...  in  the  name  of  the  Father  and  of  the  Son  and  of  the 
Holy  Ghost.  Amen."  She  responds  with  an  antiphon. 
Then  kneeling  in  her  place,  she  stretches  forth  her  right 
hand  and  sings  another  antiphon.  Then  the  pontiff 
blesses  her. 

Again  he  calls  her,  by  chanting  the  antiphon  Veni, 
Sponsa  Christi,  "  Come,  bride  of  Christ,  receive  the 
crown,  which  the  Lord  has  prepared  for  thee  for  ever." 
He  sits,  and  places  the  crovVn  on  her  head ;  and  she 
responds  with  a  chant  as  always.  Then  he  says  a  prayer 
over  her,  standing ;  and  a  second  prayer  over  her  kneel- 
ing. The  new  nun  sings  one  more  antiphon  from  the 
Matins  of  S.  Agnes,  and  then  the  pontiff  solemnly  blesses 
her,  she  meanwhile  standing.  She  then  kneels,  and  he 
pronounces  a  second  blessing. 

An  awful  anathema  is  then  usually  pronounced  against 
all  who  abduct  her  from  the  divine  service,  or  appropri- 
ate her  goods. 


*  This  passage  occurs  in  the  I.eonine  Sacramentary. 


MOXKS 


m 


Then  the  Alleluia,  or  the  last  verse  of  the  Sequence  of 
mass  is  finished,  and  the  mass  proceeds,  the  new  nun 
offering  a  lighted  candle  at  the  offertory,  and  communi- 
cating at  the  highest  step  of  the  altar.  Before  returning 
to  her  place,  she  chants  a  short  antiphon,  kneeling  as  she 
is  at  the  altar. 

The  mass  ended,  the  bishop  gives  a  breviary  into  the 
nun's  hands  :  "  Receive  the  book,  that  you  may  begin 
the  Canonical  Hours,  and  read  the  Office  in  the  Church. 
In  the  name  of  the  Father  and  of  the  Son  and  of  the 
Holy  Ghost.  Amen."  The  Te  Deum  follows.  At  the 
gate  of  the  monastery  the  bishop  presents  the  new  nun 
to  the  abbess,  in  a  few  words  either  said  in  Latin  or  in 
the  vulgar  tongue.  He  then  returns  to  the  church,  and 
recites  the  last  Gospel. 

If  this  ceremony  be  performed  by  a  simple  priest,  cer- 
tain differences  are  obser\'ed.  Widows  can  take  part  in 
it  if  professed  with  Virgins,  and  receive  the  cowl  and 
veil,  sign  the  profession,  and  sing  the  Suscipe,  with  the 
others.  The  Virgins'  antiphons,  and  the  Despoiisatio  are 
alone  omitted  in  their  case. 

This  long  and  elaborate  ceremony  bears  evidence  of 
its  great  antiquity.  The  publicity,  the  presenting  of  the 
Virgin  to  the  bishop  on  the  testimony  of  an  archpriest,* 
the  episcopal  declaration  to  the  people  assisting,  the 
solemn  liturgy,  the  tradition  of  the  breviary,  all  mark  it 
off  as  a  ceremony  creating  a  public  officer  of  the  Ecclesia. 
The  profession  of  a  sanciimonialis,  or  nun,  is  here  joined 
to  the  consecration  of  a  Virgo  sacra,  or  canonical  Virgin, 
while  in  the  tradition  of  the  breviary  a  portion  of  the 
ordination  of  deaconesses  appears.  The  rite  is  full  of 
unction,  and  preserves  much  of  the  joyous  insistence  of 
the  primitive  Church,  —  it  appears  at  times  as  if  the 
Church  could  not  make  up  its  mind  to  be  done  with  the 
sacred  and  mystic  act.     It  is  full  also  of  another  ancient 

*  It  will  be  remembered  that  in  Jerome's  time  it  was  urged  as  a 
sign  of  the  priest's  inferiority  that  he  was  presented  to  the  bishop 
on  the  testimony  of  the  archdeacon.  This  is  still  so  in  the  ordina- 
tion of  priests  to-day.     Part  II.,  pp.  286,  2S7. 


The  mass 
continued. 

Offertory 
and  com- 
munion. 


Tradition 
of  the 
Breviary. 


Presented 
to  the 
Abbess. 


134      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 

element,  m3'sticity —  not  always  wholesome — indeed  there 
is  a  floridness  and  inappropriateness  in  some  of  the  anti- 
phons  which  in  this  order  of  sentiment  betray  the  man's 
conception  of  the  woman's  feeling.  Altogether,  it  is 
stamped  with  the  modes  of  thought  prevalent  in  the 
Christian  Church  and  the  Christian  hierarchy  since  the 
III.  century. 


Profession 
of  a  Monk. 


Signing  the 
profession. 


At  the  end  of  his  year's  noviciate,  the  Benedictine 
monk  is  professed  with  a  ceremonial  much  inferior  in 
interest  to  the  Profession  of  a  Benedictine  nun.  A  pro- 
cession is  made  to  the  church,  the  choir  singing  Psalm 
125(126).  After  the  offertory  of  mass,  the  abbat,  seated, 
asks  the  new  monk  if  he  will  renounce  the  world  and 
its  pomps?  Undertake  the  conversion  of  his  manners, 
and  place  the  love  of  Christ  before  affections  for  kin? 
Proffer  obedience  according  to  the  Rule  of  S.  Benedict, 
renouncing  his  own  will?  Persevere  in  the  holy  Order? 
To  each  he  answers  volo,  and  to  the  last  iwlo  et  cupio  (I 
will  and  I  desire  to  do  so).  Abbat :  May  the  Lord  help 
you.  R.  Amen.  After  4  prayers  the  new  monk  reads 
his  profession  in  a  clear  voice,  and  then  taking  it,  held 
before  his  breast,  to  a  credence  table,  he  signs  his  name 
and  surname  to  it,  kneeling.  Then  he  stands,  arms  and 
eyes  uplifted,  and  sings  the  Suscipe  me  (p.  131).  This  is 
followed  by  Versicles  and  a  prayer,  concluding  with  :  — 

May  he  be  wise  and  humble.    R.  Amen. 

An  example  of  obedience.     ] 

In  buffets  immovaljle.  j 

In  suffering  most  holy.  | 

In  temptations  strong.  }-    Amen. 

In  injuries  patient. 

Fixed  in  peace.  ] 

Frequent  in  prayer  J 

And  may  he  not  be  unmindful  that  he 
Must  be  judged  by  Thee  according  to  his  works. 

A  proper  Preface  follows,  the  whole  convent  standing. 
His  habit  is  blest,  aspersed,  and  incensed,  and  the  Veni 
Creator  sung.     The  novice's  scapular  is  exchanged  for  a 


MOXKS  135 

professed's  scapular,  and  he  receives  the  cuculla  [a  lay 
brother  receives  a  mantle].  The  abbat  kneeling  intones 
^^  Confirma  hoc,  Dens'"  with  Alleluia.  Then  a  prayer 
and  a  short  allocution  are  followed  by  the  kiss  of  peace  : 
the  new  monk  kneels,  saying,  in  Latin,  first  to  the  abbat, 
then  to  the  whole  convent  in  turn  :  Pray  for  me,  father 
(or  brother)  ;  \\\q  x^-^Xyh^xxig  Proficiat  tibi^f rater.  May 
it  be  well  with  thee,  brother.  Psalms  132  (133)  and  47 
(48)  are  meanwhile  sung. 

At  the  offertory  the  new  monk  is  led  to  a  pall  placed  The  pall, 
upon  the  ground,  where  he  hes  prostrate  till  the  Com- 
munion ;  a  pall  is  held  ov'er  him,  a  lighted  taper  is 
placed  at  his  head  and  feet,  and  the  bell  tolls.  The 
deacon,  after  the  censing  of  the  altar,  incenses  this 
"  mystic  sepulchre." 

Before  the  Communion,  the  deacon  comes  to  him  and 
intones  :  "  Awake  thou  that  sleepest,  and  arise  from  the 
dead,  and  Christ  shall  enlighten  thee."  After  receiving 
Communion  the  new  monk  takes  an  ablution. 

The  same  ceremony  is  observed  for  a  lay  brother,  who 
wears  his  cappa  for  3  days,  except  during  work  ;  and  on 
the  day  of  his  profession  dines  at  the  abbat's  table  which 
is  decorated  with  flowers.  The  new  monk  does  the 
same  and  wears  his  cuculla  for  3  days.  The  above  cere- 
mony varies  in  different  Congregations. 

The  Benedictine  vows  are  3  :  Stability,  conversion  of   The  Bene- 
manners,  and  obedience  ;  and  in  this  form  the  vow  of  nun 
and  monk  is  recited  and  signed  at  their  Profession. 


dictine 
Vows. 


THE   CLOTHING. 

The  Clothing  of  a  nun  is  now  an  important  ceremony, 
but  originally  clothing  and  profession  formed  one  rite,  as 
they  do  in  the  Pontificale ;  and  they  still  form  one  rite 
in  the  East.  In  the  West  nuns  are  clothed  when  they 
enter  on  the  Noviciate,  and  it  is  a  public  ceremony.  A 
monk's  clothing  takes  place  in  the  Chapter-house. 

After  Vespers,  the  girdle,  scapular,  a  white  veil,  scissors   Clothing 
and  a  basin,  are  prepared  on  a  credence  table  in  the   of"^"^- 


136      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 

church,  and  are  covered  with  flowers.  The  tunic  and 
head  Hnen  (//'<?  capite  et  co/lo),  also  covered  with  flowers, 
are  placed  in  a  convenient  room  adjoining.  The  proces- 
sion enters  from  the  monastery,  the  postulant  being 
dressed  in  rich  robes,  and  the  hymn  Jesu  Corona  Virgi- 
nian is  sung.  She  goes  from  the  prie-dieu  prepared  for 
her  to  the  officiating  prelate,  who  is  seated  on  a  faldstool ; 
and  he  asks:  Quid  pefis}  ("What  dost  thou  ask?") 
Answer  :  "  The  mercy  of  God  and  the  grace  of  the  Habit." 
The  Veni  Creator  is  now  sung.  The  officiant  having 
asked  the  prayers  of  the  audience,  says  a  short  prayer ; 
and  the  choir  nuns  sing  Tii  es  Domine  qui  restifues  hcered- 
itatem  vieam  mihi.  ("  It  is  Thou,  O  Lord,  who  dost 
restore  to  me  my  heritage")  with  Psalm  15  (16).  The 
postulant  meanwhile,  assisted  by  her  matrons,  goes  up  to 
the  officiant,  who  cuts  off  all  her  hair.  [The  same  rite  as 
the  tonsure  of  clerks  being  used.] 

The  postulant  is  then  taken  to  change  her  rich  clothes 
for  the  religious  habit.  On  her  return  the  officiant,  seated 
(and,  if  a  bishop,  in  his  mitre),  helped  by  the  matrons 
places  on  her  the  girdle,  scapular  and  white  veil  \  the  last 
with  the  words  Accipe  velum  candidiim*  He  then  gives 
her  a  lighted  candle,  saying  :  "  Receive  this  light  in  thy 
hands,  that  when  the  Bridegroom  cometh,  going  forth  to 
meet  Him  with  thy  lamp  trimmed,  thou  mayest  be  admit- 
ted to  the  heavenly  nuptials."     "Amen." 

The  new  novice  rises,  and  being  conducted  by  the 
matrons  to  her  place,  puts  the  candle  on  a  candelabrum. 
The  officiant  facing  her  recites  some  versicles  and  two 
prayers.  Then  he  asperses  her,  making  a  short  discourse. 
After  which  she  kisses  his  hand,  and  the  Te  Deum  is 
intoned.  The  procession  returns  to  the  door  of  the 
monastery,  which  is  found  closed,  and  there  is  a  beautiful 
ceremony  of  entrance. 

*  Originally  the  words  were  "  Accipe,  puella,  pallium.''''  To  this 
day  Eastern  nuns  do  not  wear  a  veil  or  head  linen  like  their  Western 
sisters,  but  a  long  mantle  reaching  from  head  to  ankles.  Jerome 
speaks  of  the  tunic  and  palliuin,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  a  long 
mantle  was   originally  used.     For  the  uses  of  the  veil  see  Chap. 

I-.  P-  35- 


Badges  of  the  Monastic  and  Mendicant  Orders;  of  the  Lateran 
and  Borgo  Canons;  and  of  the  Jesuits  and  the  Oblates  of  S.  Charles 
Borromeo  —  frequently  seen  on  buildings  and  in  churches. 


».«4CZ-~>i-* 

1 

Benedictine. 


Cistercian. 


Camaldolese 


CaRTHL'sIAN. 


137 


Dominican. 


Carmelite. 


lESL'lT. 


Ori.atf.s  of  St.  C.  Rorromko. 


Lateran  Basilica. 


Ha 


u 


Canons  ok  S.  Spirito  in  Borgo. 
139 


CHAPTER   III. 

FRIAI^S. 

The  Mendicant  Orders  :  —  S.  Francis  and  the  Franciscans 

—  6".  Dovtinic  and  the  Dominicans —  S.  Theresa  and  the  Car- 
7nelites — the  Servites  —  Minimites- — Fratelli  delta  Penitenza 

—  Hospitallers  of  S.  John  of  God. 

The  Men-  The  Church  recognises  but  one  great  Rule  after  those  of 
Fdars  Basil,  Benedict,  and  Augustine  —  the  Rule  of  S.  Francis. 

From  the  days  of  Benedict  no  original  rule  had  been 
seen  in  West  or  East  till  Francis  instituted  the  Mendi- 
cant Friars.  The  Rule  was  popular ;  he  had  not  in- 
tended to  found  an  Order.  It  was  a  lay  Rule  ;  S.  Francis 
was  himself  a  layman,  and  there  was  only  one  priest 
among  his  first  12  disciples.  It  was  not  a  monastic 
Rule,  but  one  for  Friars, /rati.  As  opposed  to  monastic 
exclusiveness  and  privilege,  the  Friars  of  St.  Francis  bore 
the  familiar  peasant  character.  Instead  of  dwelling  in 
great  monasteries,  they  were  to  live  familiarly  among  the 
people ;  S.  Francis  desired  neither  the  cloister  nor  the 
desert 

Bernardus  Valles, 

Colles  Benedictus  amabat, 

Oppida  Franciscus, 

Magnas  Ignatius  urbes. 

'^Bernard  sought  valleys,  Benedict  the  hilltops,  ^^-^wr/V 
loved  the  villages,  and  great  towns  Ignatius."  By  his  law 
of  mendicancy  he  forced  his  brethren  to  be  dependent 
on  their  hearers,  and  to  win  their  bread  as  the  recom- 
pense of  their  apostolic  labours.  (Matt.  x.  9,  10.) 
Forestalling  one  point  of  the  rule  of  Ignatius  —  doing 
for  the  villages  what  Ignatius  did  for  the  towns  —  he  re- 

140 


FJUARS 


141 


ciscans  and 
theology. 


jected  the  monastic  ideal  of  perfection,  that  seeking  of 
personal  salvation  through  a  life  of  the  counsels,  and  in  its 
place  desired  to  carry  the  homely  lovely  Christian  exam- 
ple round  the  country  side.  The  idea  is  the  outcome  of 
Francis  himself,  it  was  the  most  striking  innovation  on 
preceding  notions  of  the  Religious  life  which  the  world 
had  seen.  It  is  nearly  as  striking  that  the  Church  should 
have  found  a  place  and  scope  for  the  new  Order,  that  it 
made  the  homely  peasant's  gown  into  an  ecclesiastical 
uniform,  and  blest  the  peasant  evangelist. 

Amongst  the  gifts  with  which  Italy  has  enriched  the  The  Fran- 
Christian  Church,  three  stand  out  preeminent,  the  co- 
ordination of  Christendom  through  the  See  of  Rome, 
and  the  Benedictine  and  Franciscan  Orders.  And  as  the 
Benedictines  have  carried  in  their  history  the  character 
impressed  on  them  by  S.  Benedict,  so  have  the  Fran- 
ciscans borne  the  impress  of  their  founder.  No  Order 
had  had  a  less  theological  origin  than  that  of  Francis  : 
loyal  son  of  the  Church,  he  expressly  avoided  all  points 
of  collision  between  his  apostolate  and  the  ideas  and 
practices  of  current  theology  ;  but  the  Franciscans  always 
preferred  the  Christian  virtue  to  the  doctrinal  accuracy 
—  their  Rule  being  nothing  else  than  the  text  of  the 
Gospel  as  recorded  in  the  4  EvangeHsts  —  and  while 
they  left  theological  subtilty  to  the  older  Orders,  they 
often  showed  a  holy  immoderation  when  the  essential 
points  of  evangelic  conduct  were  at  stake.  Hence  it  is 
among  the  Franciscans  that  the  sectaries  of  the  xiv.  and 
XV.  centuries  are  to  be  found.  Franciscan  friars  openly 
denounced  John  XXII.  from  their  pulpits  as  a  heretic, 
when  he  denied  the  obligation  of  evangelical  poverty, 
and  several  companies  of  Franciscan  Tertiaries  were  dis- 
banded by  authority  and  proscribed  as  heretical.* 


The  founder  of  the  Minor  Brethren,  or  Franciscans,  s.  Francis 

represented  in  his  person  in  an  almost  unique  degree  the  ^^  *^e 

^  Ti  o  Francis- 

*  The  Third  Order  of  Penance  itself  was  classed  with  the  Fra-  cans. 
tiielli  and  Beghini  as  heretical;  fraticello  and   beghiiw  were  syn- 
onyms for  hypocrite  in  the  Xi\".  century. 


142      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 

spirit  of  the  evangelical  counsels.  Born  in  1182,  Fran- 
cesco d'Assisi,  the  son  of  Pica  a  good  and  holy  woman 
and  of  Pietro  Bernardone  a  rich  merchant  of  Assisi,  was 
called  at  his  baptism yt*////,  but  Francesco,  "  the  French- 
man," by  his  companions,  because  he  loved  the  French 
and  loved  to  sing  French  songs.  He  was  gay  and  brave 
and  abhorred  sordid  pursuits,  and  his  father's  business 
irked  him,  so  that  he  went  about  with  his  companions 
until  24  years  old,  a  chief  figure  of  joyous  and  high  cour- 
age, gracious  and  meek  with  all  men.  At  this  time  he 
had  a  long  illness,  during  which  he  determined  to  quit 
worldly  pleasures.  Believing  he  had  been  warned  to  do 
so,  he  purchased  arms  and  started  for  the  Holy  Land  ;  but 
on  the  way  he  saw  Jesus  crucified,  and  understood  that 
he  was  henceforth  to  bear  implacable  enmity  not  to  the 
Saracens  but  to  all  vices.  Uopo  e  che  tii  qiiindinnanzi 
ami  tittto  cib  che  abborristi  e  odii  iiitlo  cib  che  ti  fu  caro  ; 
"  Henceforth  thou  must  needs  love  all  which  thou  hast 
abhorred,  and  hate  all  which  has  been  dear  to  thee." 

As  he  was  reciting  the  divine  office,  one  day  in  1208,  he 
was  struck  with  the  words  "  Get  you  no  gold  nor  silver  nor 
money  in  your  purses  ;  no  wallet  for  your  journey,  neither 
two  coats  nor  shoes,  nor  a  staff,"  and  Francis  parted  with 
everything,  even  his  shoes,  and  wore  a  cord  over  his  poor 
garment  in  place  of  his  leather  belt.  From  this  time  he 
began  to  preach,  beginning  always  with  these  words  : 
"  jNIay  God  give  you  His  peace,"  his  speech  simple  and 
Origin  of  moving.  It  was  now  that  he  counselled  two  men,  Ber- 
the  Order,  nardo  Quintavalle  and  Pietro  da  Cortona,  who  wished  to 
follow  him  in  his  way  of  life,  to  consult  the  Gospels, 
which  they  therefore  opened  at  hazard,  and  read  :  "  If 
thou  wilt  be  perfect,  sell  all  which  thou  hast,"  and  :  "  If 
any  man  will  follow  me,  let  him  deny  himself  and  take 
up  his  cross."  On  this  S.  Francis  exclaimed  "  You  hear 
my  brothers  what  our  Rule  has  to  be?"  And  thus  was 
founded  the  Order  of  Friars  Minor,  on  April  16,  1209, 
Francis  being  in  his  27*!'  year,  two  years  after  he  had  begun 
his  life  of  penance.  To  these  two  first  disciples  were 
added  Fgidius,  a  gentleman  of  Assisi,  Filippo,  Ruffino, 


FRIARS  143 

Sabadino,  Silvestro ;  whom  Francis  sent  forth.  North 
South  East  and  West,  with  "  no  other  provision  for  their 
journey  than  their  poor  habit  and  their  confidence  in 
God."  And  thus  the  people  round  Umbria  became  ac- 
customed to  the  dress  and  way  of  these  simple  evangelists. 
The  little  company  soon  grew  to  twelve  persons.  Their 
name  was  to  be  the  Lesser  Brethren,  Fratres  Afinores. 
Their  first  Rule  merely  took  the  Gospel  as  the  founda- 
tion, adding  a  few  directions  to  insure  some  conformity 
in  the  common  life.  The  brethren  took  the  three  vows 
of  religion.  Poverty  and  chastity  were  the  two  great 
precepts.  Poverty,  "  the  Bride  of  S.  Francis  "  obliged 
them  not  to  touch  money,  even  by  the  intervention  of  a 
third  person.  None  was  to  be  "  Prior "  among  them, 
for  all  were  "  Lesser"  ;  so  the  Superior  was  to  be  called 
the  Guardian,  Custos.  The  brethren  are  to  be  always 
cheerful,  to  be  ready  to  serve  friends  and  enemies,  and 
to  treat  with  equal  kindness  those  of  good  and  evil  re- 
port, and  all  vituperation  is  to  be  suffered  with  resignation. 
"My  brother,  why  this  sad  face?"  S.  Francis  asked  a 
nov'ice.  "  Have  you  committed  some  sin?  That  regards 
only  God  and  thyself.  Go  and  pray.  But  before  me  and 
thy  brethren  always  show  a  holy  joy,  for  it  is  not  meet 
when  one  is  employed  on  God's  service  to  have  a  sad 
countenance." 

"  II  fit  de  la  joie  une  obligation  canonique."  "  Cette 
gaiete  religieuse  fut  I'une  des  forces  de  son  apostolat.  II 
charma  ses  freres,  et  ceux-ci,  a  leur  tour,  charmerent 
ITtalie  par  la  scr^nite  riante  avec  laquelle  ils  accueillaient 
les  grandes  miseres,  les  petites  tribulations  et  les  humbles 
douceurs  de  la  vie."  *  To  appreciate  the  quaint  naive  The 
but  always  touching  ways  in  which  Francis  exercised  ^"^''^^i'- 
himself  and  others  in  humility  of  heart,  poverty  of  spirit, 
and  content  with  little  and  mean  things,  the  Fioretti  or 
"  Little  Flowers  of  S.  Francis "  should  be  read.  In 
these  his  followers  have  recorded  the  charm,  the  uncouth- 
ness,  the  tenderness,  the  naivete,  the  spiritual  beauties 

*  Gebhart,  IJ Italic  mystique. 


144      CHRISTIAN  AND   ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 

inseparable  from  this  grand  and  simple  effort  made  in  the 
XIII.  century  to  follow  a  Gospel  which  said  :  "  The  disciple 
is  not  above  his  master  ...  it  is  enough  for  the  servant 
if  he  be  as  his  lord."  "  If  God  doth  so  clothe  the  grass 
of  the  field,  which  to-day  is  and  to-morrov/  is  cast  into  the 
oven,  shall  he  not  much  more  clothe  you,  O  ye  of  little 
faith?"  "Learn  of  Me  for  I  am  meek  and  humble  of 
heart,  and  you  shall  find  rest  to  your  souls." 

Indeed  there  was  no  precept  of  the  Gospel  which  was 
not  for  S.  Francis  one  of  those  realities  for  which  a  man 
did  well  to  "  sell  all,"  to  leave  all.  His  spiritual  insight 
equalled  the  brave  quality  of  his  virtue,  and  he  had  a  full 
measure  of  that  wisdom  shown  by  all  great  saints.  So  it 
is  told  of  him  that  at  one  of  his  early  chapters  he  ordered 
the  little  chains  and  disciplines  which  the  people  had 
been  using  to  be  brought  to  him,  and  made  a  bonfire  of 
them.  S.  Francis  belongs  to  Christendom  ;  so  perfectly, 
indeed,  that  he  can  hardly  be  said  to  belong  first  to  the 
Franciscans. 
The  Stig-  In  1224  occurred  the  mysterious  experience,  so  often 

mata.  represented  in  art,  known  as  the  impression  of  the  stigmata 

on  S.  Francis.  It  happened  at  La  Verna  in  Tuscany,  on 
September  17,  during  the  Michaelmas  Lent,  one  of  the 
three  yearly  Lents  observed  by  him.  There,  while  medi- 
tating on  the  Passion,  and  asking  for  grace  to  realise  in 
his  body  and  soul  the  Lord's  pains,  and  to  have  his  own 
heart  filled  with  some  measure  of  that  love  which  made 
his  Master  ready  to  endure  the  torment  of  the  Cross ; 
there  appeared  to  him  the  figure  of  one  of  Isaiah's  6-winged 
Seraphim  bearing  between  its  wings  the  image  of  the 
Crucified.  And  while  he  cast  about  to  understand  the 
vision,  "  there  began  to  appear  in  his  hands  and  feet 
signs  of  nails  such  as  he  had  just  seen  in  the  holy  Cruci- 
fied One  who  stood  over  him."  From  thenceforth  Francis 
was  marked  with  the  5  wounds  of  the  Passion.*  Celano 
tells  the  story  3  years  after  the  saint's  death,  and  Bona- 
venture  tells  us  he  heard  it  from  the  lips  of  Alexander  IV. 

*  Cf.  Gal.  vi.  15.     The  feast  of  the  Stigmata  of  S.  Francis  was 
instituted  in  1304. 


FRIARS 


145 


who  had  seen  them  ;  after  his  death,  we  are  told,  they 

were  seen  by  S.  Clare.     Francis  died  in  1226,  being  44 

years  old.     He  was  the  first   Italian   poet,  his  Song  of 

Creatures  {Cantico  delle   Creature,  or  Cantico  del  Sole) 

is  the  first  attempt  at  metrical  Italian.     To  him  nature 

was  a  bond  "  connecting  his  soul  with  all  created  things"  ; 

he  talked  to  birds  and  beasts,  and  understood  that  they 

too  were  praising  God  in  their  own  manner.     He  loved 

poverty,  as  our  Lord  loved  it,  as  first  poverty  of  spirit. 

He  is  called  "  Seraphic,"  and  Francis  was  seraphic  if  a 

love  for  God  and  a  love  for  men  which  consumed  his 

hfe  could  make  him  so. 

The  first  Rule  of  the  Order  was  submitted  to  Inno-   The  Rule 

cent  III.  in  1210  ;  this  prima  re^iila,  written  the  previous   ^""^  l""°" 

cent  111 

year,  was  afterwards  lost.  The  second  Rule  was  written 
in  1 22 1,  and  finally  approved  by  Honorius  III.  in  1223  ; 
the  delay  in  confirming  it  being  the  result  of  the  decision 
to  create  no  new  Order  just  arrived  at  by  authority.*  It 
was  only  owing  to  Pope  Innocent's  dream  that  the  Rule 
received  a  provisional  approval.  He  dreamed  that  he 
saw  a  poor  man  in  a  brown  frock  upholding  the  falling 
Lateran,  and  understood  this  to  mean  that  Francis  should 
uphold  the  Church  of  God.  It  is  strange  to  compare  this 
dream  with  one  the  saint  had  in  his  youth  :  he  heard  the 
words  :  "  Go  rebuild  My  house  which  as  you  see  is  fast 
falling  to  ruin."  He  supposed  he  had  received  an  in- 
junction to  build  up  the  ruinous  Church  of  S.  Damian  at 
Assisi,  and  began  the  task  at  once. 

The    Benedictine   abbat   of   Monte    Subasio   gave   to 
S.  Francis  the  Church  of  S.  Maria  degli  Angeli  in  the 
valley  below  Assisi ;  S.  Francis  restored  it  with  his  own 
hands,  and  it  was  thenceforth  known  as  the  Porziuncola,    Portiun- 
or  little  heritage.     Here  in  12 19  the  first  Chapter  of  the   ^uia. 
Order  was  held,  called  the  Chapter  of  Mats  because  there   First 
was  no  room  to  house  all  the  brethren.     The  "  indulgence   Chapter, 
of  the  Portiuncula"  was  granted  in   1223,  and  the  day  is 
kept  on  August  2  in  each  year. 

*  Lateran  Council  12 15. 


146      CHRISTIAN  AND   ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 


Division 

OF  THE 

First 
Order. 

Conven- 
tuals. 


Observ- 
ants. 


Recollects 
or  Re- 
formed. 


Custodia  of 
the  Holy 
Land. 


Alcanta- 
rines. 


Reunion 
of  the 
branches 
of  the  Ob- 
servants. 


One  of  the  first  disciples  of  S,  Francis,  Elias  of  Cor- 
tona,  who  succeeded  him  as  "  Minister  "  or  custos,  began 
to  oppress  those  who  followed  the  strict  Rule  of  Poverty, 
and  who  observed  the  fasts  and  austerities  of  the  Order. 
This  led  to  its  division  into  2  branches  (a) the  Conventu- 
als and  {b^  the  Observants.  The  Conventuals,  called  in 
Italy  the  "  Signori "  live  in  commodious  buildings,  and 
follow  a  mitigated  rule.  Their  government  has  been 
entirely  separate  from  that  of  the  Observants  since  1446. 
The  Observants  {Osservanti)  live  in  mean  houses,  and 
observe  all  the  fasts.  S.  Bernardino  of  Siena  was  their 
great  propagator  in  Italy,  and  their  Vicar  General.  In 
France  they  were  known  as  Cordeliers,  but  later  as  Recol- 
lects, the  name  given  to  a  convent  of  the  "  Strict  Observ- 
ance "  on  its  introduction  into  France.  This  latter  reform 
was  instituted  in  Spain  by  a  Spanish  frate  (John  de  la 
Puebla)  about  1484 ;  its  members  being  there  called 
Discalced  Friars,  or  Friars  of  the  Capuce.  In  Italy  they 
are  known  as  the  Riformati.  These  friars  are  the  guardi- 
ans of  the  Holy  Places  at  Jerusalem,  a  charge  first  com- 
mitted to  the  Franciscan  Observants  in  1342.  They  are 
hence  styled  E  custodia  Terrce.  Sanctce,  or  Franciscains 
de  Terre  Sainte,  and  they  wear  beards  like  the  Capuchins. 
The  Alcantarincs  form  another  division  of  the  Observ- 
ants. S.  Peter  of  Alcantara,  called  the  greatest  of  the 
contemplatives  since  the  fathers  of  the  desert,  joined  the 
Franciscans ;  but  desiring  a  more  austere  life  he  added 
some  rules  to  which  he  gave  the  form  of  a  new  institu- 
tion of  the  Order.  Between  S.  Peter  and  S.  Theresa 
there  existed  the  strictest  friendship.  In  Italy  his  friars 
are  called  the  Riformati  Alcantarini.  These  branches 
of  the  Observants  continued  to  exist  until  1897,  when 
Leo  XIII.,  following  his  predecessor  Leo  X.  whose  desire 
had  been  to  unite  all  Observants,  issued  a  decree  abolish- 
ing the  names,  habits,  and  separate  administration  of 
these  various  reforms,  and  gathering  the  Observants, 
Alcantarines,  Recollects,  and  Reformed  into  one  Order. 
These  fajniglie  riunite  have  now  one  Procura,  one 
Secretary- General,  one  noviciate,  one  set  of  laws,  one 


FRIARS 


m 


habit.  The  Order  is  called  simply  the  Order  of  Minors, 
Ordo  Alinoruvi.  The  Father  Guardian,  or  minister- 
general,  is  assisted  by  a  council,  consisting  of  a  Procurator- 
General  and  12  Definitors-general,  representing  the  12 
Circumscriptiones  into  which  the  various  Franciscan 
Provinces  are  divided.  The  Order  consists  of  professed 
laics  as  well  as  clerks,  chierici  professi  and  laid  professi. 

The  Conventuals  and  Capuchins  still  form  separate 
Orders,  and  none  of  the  Franciscan  women  are  included 
under  the  decree  of  reunion. 


(Govern- 
ment. 


The  Capuchins,  Cappiiccini,  represent  another  Fran-  Capu- 
ciscan  reform,  originated  in  1526  by  an  Italian  Observant  chins. 
friar,  Matteo  di  Basso  of  Urbino,  who  gave  his  followers 
a  long  pointed  hood  {cappiucio,  capiiche)  which  he  be- 
lieved to  be  the  shape  of  the  hood  worn  by  S.  Francis. 
Originally  they  were  a  company  of  hermit  friars  devoted 
to  the  contemplative  life.  They  were  not  to  chant  mass, 
hear  confessions,  or  even  to  preach,  except  as  missionary 
evangelists.  In  1528  their  hermit  mode  of  life,  and 
the  wearing  of  a  beard,  were  approved.  They  remained 
under  the  Observants  until  161 7,  and  presented  them- 
selves at  their  annual  Chapter.  Now  they  are  a  separate 
Order,  governed  by  a  General,  and  they  perform  the 
same  clerical  offices  as  the  Observants.  Among  them, 
however,  there  is  still  a  large  proportion  of  friars  not  in 
priest's  orders. 

This  popular  Order,  whose  very  chalices  are  to  be  of 
pewter,  whose  churches  are  not  to  be  decked  with  any- 
thing precious,  which  is  to  subsist  entirely  by  alms,  and 
to  rise  for  Matins  at  midnight,  numbered  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  XVIII.  century  no  less  than  2c^,ooo/rafi,  with 
1600  convents. 

There  are  also  several  congregations  of  Capuchin  Cappmcnic 
women.  These  were  founded  in  1538  by  Maria  Lorenza 
Longa,  a  Neapolitan,  who  was  directed  by  the  pope  to  as- 
sume the  position  of  perpetual  abbess.  The  hospital  for 
Incurables  at  Naples  is  due  to  her.  The  Order  was  at  first 
under  the  Theatines,  but  was  subsequently  placed  under 


148      CIIRTSTIAN  AND   F.CCLESfASTICAL   ROME 


the  Capuchins.  Their  well-known  monastery  of  the  Cor- 
pus Domini  opposite  the  Quirinal  palace  (sequestrated  in 
1888)  was  founded  in  1575,  together  with  a  house  in 
Paris  and  two  in  Milan. 


Second 
Order 

(POVERE 

Donne) 
(Clar- 

ISSES). 

S.  Clare, 
I 193-1253. 


Urbanists. 


The  Second  Order  of  Franciscans  is  that  for  women. 
In  1 21 2  S.  Clare  (Chiara)  founded  the  Ordo  Dominariim 
p.uiper  11711,  Order  of  Poor  Ladies,  later  called  Ordo 
Sanche  Clara;,  and  in  France  Clarisses.  In  this  Second 
Order  S.  Clare  carried  out  perfectly  the  spirit  of  S. 
Francis.  She  was  but  a  girl  when  she  heai-d  and  was  moved 
by  his  preaching,  "  for  his  words  penetrated  like  glowing 
fire  to  the  inmost  depths  of  the  heart,"  says  Bonaventure. 
Francis  placed  her  at  S.  Damian's  outside  Assisi,  and  her 
holy  life  and  wonderful  prudence  and  wisdom  are  the 
first  glory  of  his  Order.  She  was  importuned  to  modify 
the  strict  poverty  of  her  life,  but  replied  that  while  she 
earnestly  desired  absolution  from  her  sins,  she  desired 
none  from  following  the  counsels  of  Christ.  S.  Clare 
died  in  1253  ;  and  in  1264,  at  the  request  of  Isabel  of 
France,  sister  of  St.  Louis,  Urban  IV.  mitigated  the  Rule. 
Those  who  followed  the  mitigated  Rule  are  called  Urban- 
ists, while  those  who  preferred  the  old  Rule  are  called 
Clarisses. 

S.  Clare  and  her  community  at  first  lived  under  the 
Rule  of  S.  Benedict,  with  special  constitutions  added  ; 
hence  Franciscan  nunneries  are  called  abbeys,  and  the 
Superior  the  Mother  Abbess.  In  1224  Francis  wrote 
a  Rule  for  them  which  was  confirmed  in  1246.  It  is  di- 
vided into  12  Chapters.  All  goods  are  to  be  given  in 
alms  before  entering  the  monastery.  The  profession  takes 
place  after  one  year's  noviciate.  The  Rule  of  S.  Clare  is 
more  austere  than  that  of  the  friars,  the  nuns  fasting  all 
the  year  round  except  Christmas  day,  while  the  friars  fast 
on  Friday  only.  Nothing  can  either  be  received  or  held 
as  property  by  the  community,  which  subsists  entirely  on 
alms.  S.  Francis  enjoined  on  the  nuns  as  on  the  friars 
the  recitation  of  the  Divine  Office.  The  Order  was  at  first 
superintended  by  a  Cardinal  Protector.     S.  Francis  him- 


FRIARS 


149 


Abbess, 
Vicaress. 
Locutory, 
and  grille 


self  never  permitted  any  of  his  friars  to  go  to  the  monas-  Govem- 
tery  of  the  Clarisses,  and  in  a  letter  to  Cardinal  Ugolino  J^g^second 
expresses  his  disapproval  that  his  frati  ?,\\ov\\d  govern  a  r/i :  Order. 
"  Cerca  tu  di  liberare  i  miei  Religiosi  da  cosiffatte  sovrin- 
tendenze."  At  the  present  day  some  communities  of 
Clarisses  are  under  Franciscan  management,  others  are 
under  their  Diocesan,  who  is  their  Visitor,  while  the  Nea- 
politan Congregation  and  a  few  more  are  directly  subject 
to  the  Holy  See.  The  Abbess  is  to  strive  to  be  the  supe- 
rior of  the  others  rather  by  her  virtues  than  by  her  office. 
Next  to  her  is  the  Vicaress.  No  nun  can  go  to  the  "  locu- 
tory" to  speak  with  externs,  without  leave  ;  and  then  not 
during  the  "  Lent  of  S.  Martin  "  (from  All  Saints  to  Christ- 
mas) orin  the  second  Lent  from  Quinquagesima  to  Easter. 
She  must  be  accompanied  to  iht  grille,  which  is  curtained, 
by  two  sisters ;  and  this  rule  applies  even  to  the  abbess. 
The  nuns  therefore  neither  see  nor  are  seen  by  others. 
Doctors,  workmen,  the  priest  who  brings  the  Viaticum, 
the  bishop,  and  the  Franciscan  Visitor,  are  the  only  per- 
sons allowed  to  enter  the  enclosure. 

The  day  is  spent  as  follows  :  —  They  rise  at  4.30,  and  The  day 
the  Way  of  the  Cross  is  followed  by  Prime,  Terce,  the 
Little  Hours  of  the  B.  V.  AL,  Litany  of  the  Saints,  and 
other  prayers.  At  7,  after  a  preparation,  Mass  and  Com- 
munion and  an  hour's  thanksgivihg  :  then  the  entire  Rosary 
is  recited  aloud.  After  this  all  the  sisters  do  some  manual 
work  in  a  common  room.  Sext,  Nones,  and  the  Angelus 
are  followed  by  dinner  at  12.  This  is  the  first  meal  taken 
in  the  day  ;  it  is  followed  by  prayers,  and  then  by  work  from 
i-3o~3-30-  Z-?>'^  till  5  is  employed  in  prayers  and  the 
Office,  with  Vespers  at  4  and  the  Office  of  the  Dead  at 
4.30.  5-6  a  meditation.  At  6  the  collation,  consisting  of 
a  few  ounces  of  bread.  At  6.30  Compline  and  prayers. 
From  Compline  till  9  the  next  day  strict  silence  is  ob- 
served by  all.  At  7.30  the  nuns  go  to  their  cells,  at  8  they 
are  in  bed,  and  at  1 1  they  rise  for  Matins,  Lauds,  and  other 
prayers,  and  an  hour's  meditation.  At  2  they  go  to  bed 
again  till  4.30. 

By  1  220  the  nuns  were  to  be  found  in  France  and  Spain, 


150      CHRISTIAN  AND   ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 

and  14  years  later  in  Bohemia  and  Germany.  In  England 
they  were  known  as  Alinoresses,  and  so  gave  their  name 
to  the  district  outside  Aldgate  called  the  Minories.  Their 
monastery  there  was  founded  as  early  as  1293.  Later  they 
were  known  as  Poor  Clares,  a  name  compounded  from  the 
original  and  later  style  of  the  Order.  In  the  xviii.  century 
they  numbered  25,000,  and  are  still  numerous  in  Belgium. 
Coiettines.  In  1 436  S.  Colette  restored  the  First  and  Second  Order 
in  France  and  Belgium.  Communities  of  women  reformed 
by  her  were  styled  Clarisses- Coiettines,  the  men  Co/ctans ; 
and  Colettine  is  still  the  name  for  the  Spanish  nuns. 

There  are  therefore  3  Rules  now  observed  {a)  the  orig- 
inal rule  of  S.  Clare  confirmed  by  Innocent  IV.  {b^  the 
Urbanist  mitigation  (<:)  S.  Clare's  Rule  joined  to  S.  Co- 
lette's Constitutions.  Some  of  the  Poor  Clares-Colettines 
are  governed  by  a  Mother-General  who  has  power  to  re- 
move them  from  one  monastery  to  another  :  but  the  Gen- 
eralate  form  of  government  is  quite  optional.  Colette's 
Constitutions,  in  15  Chapters,  provide  that  unmarried 
women  and  widows  may  be  admitted,  but  those  over  40 
are  only  to  be  received  under  special  conditions.  She 
w^ould  suffer  no  one  to  enter  who  wished  by  doing  so  to 
avoid  some  misery,  or  who  was  constrained  by  parents. 
The  Abbess  and  Superiors  are  to  share  like  the  sisters. 
The  Superiors  under  the  abbess  are  the  Vicaress,  Novice 
Mistress,  2  porteresses,  and  8  *  Discreets  '  forming  the 
Council.  The  officers  are  elected  by  the  Sisters  in  Chapter  ; 
and  the  abbess  can  be  deposed  on  account  of  health  or  of 
grave  default.  The  nuns  perform  some  kind  of  manual 
labour  daily.  Their  buildings  are  poor  and  mean  —  in- 
deed poverty  is  the  watchword  and  raison  d'etre  of  the 
Franciscan  nun.  There  are  two  convents  of  Coiettines 
in  England. 

As  Franciscan  nuns  often  conduct  schools  nowadays,  it 
is  not  possible  to  observe  the  full  austerity  of  the  Rule. 
Extern  sisters  conduct  the  out  of  door  business  of  the 
community,  and  beg  for  it ;  and  in  some  instances 
"Extern  Sisters  of  the  Poor  Clares"  are  the  school- 
mistresses. 


FRIARS 


The  so-called  Sepolte  Vive,  or  Buried-alive  nuns,  follow  Sepolte 
a  rule  which  is  an  austere  modification  of  the  Franciscan.  ^''^^• 
They  were  founded  in  1618  by  Donna  Francesca  Farnese 
and  are  hence  called  Faruesiane.  They  keep  perpetual 
silence,  and  when  one  nun  meets  another  she  says : 
'  Remember,  sister,  that  we  all  have  to  die.'  They  have 
no  less  than  3  grates  with  a  curtain  between,  and  it  is 
only  on  the  rarest  occasions  that  they  go  to  the  grate  to 
speak  with  externs,  and  even  then  they  are  never  seen. 
We  have  heard  of  a  visit  which  an  exalted  lady  paid 
them  with  the  Cardinal  Vicar's  permission ;  the  door 
closed  on  her,  and  she  found  herself  in  the  midst  of  the 
nuns,  and  the  first  thing  that  greeted  her  ears  was  a  gen- 
eral burst  of  laughter  :  it  was  20  years  since  the  sisters 
had  seen  the  full  beauties  of  modern  costume.  On 
another  occasion  a  niece  of  one  of  the  inmates,  brought 
her  new  born  baby  to  the  well-known  tourelle,  or  revolv- 
ing cylinder,  at  the  top  of  the  old  steps  in  the  Rione 
Monti,  and  signified  that  she  had  something  to  send 
round  in  it :  when  it  stopped  at  the  nun's  end,  and  the 
baby  was  seen,  the  aunt  and  nuns  were  at  first  scan- 
dalised; then,  overcome  by  the  little  one's  visit,  they 
caressed  and  fondled  it  with  many  signs  of  delight.  The 
habit  is  a  rough  gown  of  dark  maroon,  with  a  coarse 
white  veil  which  is  kept  over  the  face.  Only  a  few 
Religious  now  remain. 

The  Friars  came  to  England,  and  Oxford,  in  1220; 
the  Minoresses  before  the  end  of  the  century.  The  Order 
arrived  in  France  in  1260.  Very  young  men  are  recruited 
for  the  Franciscan  Order,  but  they  cannot  be  professed  France 
under  19  years  old,  after  a  year's  noviciate  and  2  years 
of  simple  vows.*  Among  the  nuns,  widows  are  received, 
and  no  one  is  professed  under  19  years,  with  the  same 
noviciate  as  the  men.  The  Friars  Minor  number  16,000, 
the  Conventuals  2000,  the  Capuchins  8000,  the  Clarisses 
2000.  In  1897  there  were  489  Capuchins  in  missions. 
For  Franciscan  missionary  work  see  page  323. 

*  Young  men    in    Italy   who  are  called  as  soldiers  take  their 
solemn  vows  still  later. 


Francis- 
cans in 
England 
and 


152      CHRISTIAN  AND   ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 


Terti- 
aries,  the 

THIRD 

Order.or 
Order  of 
Penance. 


Another  great  originality  of  the  Order  of  S.  Francis 
was  the  creation  of  the  third  Order  or  Tertiaries.  It 
did  not  suffice  for  the  fraie  to  carry  about  with  him  the 
sweet  Christian  virtues,  he  wanted  to  leave  the  leaven  he 
had  brought.  Francis  responded  to  the  desire  of  many 
families  who  wished  in  some  way  to  follow  his  Rule,  by 
instituting  what  he  called  a  Third  Order,  an  Order  of 
Franciscans  who  were  living  a  family  life  ;  men  and 
women,  wives  and  husbands,  parents,  children,  and  ser- 
vants, who  having  chosen  their  life  duties  could  not 
"leave  all"  in  the  literal  sense,  but  could  be  Franciscans 
—  evangelicals  in  the  beautiful  sense  of  the  term  —  in  all 
"  the  weightier  matters  of  the  law."  The  Third  Order 
brought  home  to  Christians  in  the  xiii.  century  what 
S.  Paul  could  solemnly  assert  in  the  i",  that  all  are 
"  called  to  be  saints." 

This  Third  Order  differed  from  the  system  of  monastic 
oblates  in  precisely  the  same  \vay  as  the  friar  differed 
from  the  monk.  The  tertiary  was  not  the  servant  and 
co-worker  of  a  great  Religious  house,  not  a  donat  of  prop- 
erty for  its  objects,  not  an  individual  electing  for  himself 
the  narrower  way.  He  was  a  member  of  a  community 
in  the  world,  whose  work  was  in  the  world,  preferably  a 
member  of  a  family  of  tertiaries.  The  Tertiaries  were 
a  little  nucleus  of  the  Kingdom  of  God,  and  the  Francis- 
cans were  their  evangelists. 

It  has  been  justly  said  that  the  original  intention  of 
S.  Francis  was  to  form  a  species  of  Third  Order,  the 
Institution  he  proposed  being  really  more  akin  to  a 
'  Third  Order '  than  the  rival  of  previously  existing  Rules. 
The  Tertiaries  were  instituted  under  the  title  of  Tertius 
ordo  de  pcenitentia  or  7'ertiarii,  in  1221,  and  Benedict 
XIII.  speaks  of  them  as  forming  "  a  true  and  proper  Order, 
uniting  in  one  seculars  scatttered  all  over  the  world  and 
regulars  living  in  community."  The  present  pope  has 
entirely  reconstituted  the  Third  Order  for  seculars,  abol- 
ishing all  previous  rules,  obligations,  and  indulgences, 
and  approving  and  granting  new  ones. 

Tertiaries   are    received   by  a  Franciscan;    they  are 


FEIARS 


153 


subject  to  the  visitation  of  a  Franciscan  "Visitor"  ;  they  Obliga- 
observe  more  fasts,  dress  soberly,  hear  mass  more  fre-  ^°°^.  °[ 
quently,  attend  the  sacraments  oftener,  abstain  from  all 
vicious  or  very  worldly  amusements  ;  and  recite  every 
day  the  Little  Office  of  our  Lady,  or  the  Lord's  Prayer, 
Angelical  salutation,  and  Gloria  Patri  12  times.  Secular 
tertiaries  are  entitled  to  the  habit  of  the  Order,  and 
though  they  never  wear  it  in  everyday  life,  it  is  the 
custom  to  be  buried  in  it.  They  wear  underneath  their 
clothes  a  miniature  scapular. 

As  time  went  on,  many  Tertiaries  desired  to  live  in  Conventual 
community,  and  convents  of  Tertiaries,  men  and  women,  £5  Rps^'^r 
rose  in  Lombardy,  Spain,  Portugal,  Sicily,  and  France. 
Rules  were  prescribed  for  them  by  Nicholas  IV.  and 
Leo  X.  They  live  the  usual  religious  life,  and  take  the 
3  vows  of  Religion,  but  do  not  take  "solemn"  vows. 
There  are  a  great  number  of  separate  foundations  of 
Regular  Tertiaries,  founded  by  individuals  for  various 
works  of  charity  and  piety,  missionary,  tuitional,  nursing, 
etc.  The  number  of  such  congregations  cannot  be  given 
with  any  precision.  New  Communities  are  continually 
being  forined,  of  which  the  larger  number  are  Diocesan 
Tertiaries,  t\\]oy\xig  a  simple  approbation  from  the  bishop  ; 
and  many  of  these  never  receive  the  final  cotiferma. 

Unlike  Secular   Tertiaries,    Regular  Tertiaries   do  not   Govern- 
usually  depend  from  the    Franciscan  Order.     There  are   D?|^?^V^°^ '•^^ 
however  some   18,000  or  20,000  Tertiary  Sisters  who  do  order, 
so,  and  who  are  to  be    found  in  all  the  Franciscan  mis- 
sions.    The  govern'iient   of  Tertiaries  also  varies  :    some 
congregations  are   under  a    Father  or   Mother-General, 
while  certain  Communities    of  women  are  ruled  by  an 
abbess,  and  are  enclose  1  ;    a  result  sometimes  of  their 
foundation  and  training  by  Clarisses.     The  first  house  of 
enclosed  Tertiaries  was  founded  at  Foligno  in   1397  by 
B.  Angelina  di  Corbara,  a  Neapolitan. 

There  are  the  following  Regular  Tertiaries*  in  Rome  : 

*  It  is  customary  to  distinguish  regular  from  secular  members  of 
the  III.  Order  by  calling  the  former  'Third  Order'  and  the  latter 
Tertiaries  :  but  there  is  no  historical  warrant  for  this. 


154      CHRISTIAN  AND   ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 

Third  I.  Third  Order  of  S.  Frauds  {Riformafi  Fathers),  which 

Order  m       originated  in  those  companies  of  secular  priests  who  in 
"  every  country  joined  the  Tertiaries,  and  who  after  form- 

l^"^  ing  themselves  into  national  Congregations,  decided  to 

take  solemn  vows.  All  its  members  are  therefore  priests. 
They  were  placed  under  the  Friars  Minor,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  Italians  who  have  always  had  their  own  Gen- 
eral. All  the  Italian  provinces  were  subjected  in  1476 
to  the  one  General,  and  in  1602  Clement  VIII.  united 
with  them  the  Dalmatian  Congregation  of  Priests  of  the 
Third  Order,  who  are  represented  in  Rome  at  the  present 
time  by  three  of  their  number.*  The  Mother-house  and 
Prociira  are  at  the  church  of  SS.  Cosma  and  Damiano, 
Via  in  Miranda  2,  where  the  Fathers  have  resided  since 
1400 ;  part  of  the  annexed  monastery  being  still  left  to 
them  as  parish-priests'  house,  the  church  having  been 
parochial  since  1862.  They  have  another  house  at 
S.  Paolino  alia  Regola,  Via  delle  Zoccolette.  The  orig- 
inal gray  habit  was  changed  in  the  time  of  Nicholas  V. 
to  the  present  black  one,  resembling  the  Minor  Conven- 
tual's. The  Third  Order  have,  however,  a  white  tassel 
at  the  end  of  the  cord,  and  no  rosary,  with  the  priest's 
II.  tonsure,  and  clerical  collar.  II.  Frati  Big;i  della  Carita, 
Gray  Friars  of  Charity,  founded  by  Don  Casoria  in  1859 
as  a  community  of  Recollects,  for  all  works  of  charity, 
especially  for  the  aged,  afflicted,  and  orphans.  They  at 
first  depended  from  the  Order,  but  are  now  a  separate 
'  Ecclesiastical  Congregation.'  They  wear  a  gray  tunic 
with  gray  cord  and  rosary  ;  a  long  cloak,  and  priest's  hat 
out  of  doors.  Address  :  Viale  Manzoni,  at  the  corner  of 
Via  Tasso,  where  they  conduct  the  Pio  Istitiito  delF 
Itnmacolata.  There  are  Gray  Sisters  of  the  same  Con- 
in.  gregation.  III.  A  French  Congregation  of  Missionary 
Tertiaries,  whose  Mother-house  is  at  Albi,  France,  have 
charge  of  the  church  of  S.  Giovanni  a  Porta  Latina.  Like 
the  above  they  take  simple  vows.  They  wear  gray,  and  a 
shortened  scapular  reaching  only  to  the  waist. 

*  Of  the   14  Provinces  some  were  dispersed  by  Napoleon,  and 
some  in  1870. 


FRIARS  155 

I.  The  Franciscan  Alcantarincs*  founded  by  Padre 
Sempliciano  (ob.  1898),  who  placed  his  work  in  charge 
of  the  Franciscan  Order,  direct  the  "  Hospice  of  Rehabil-  (Women) 
itation  and  Work,"  founded  by  this  good  man  at  S.  Bal- 
bina.  They  are  called  Marghereiiuc  after  the  Tertiary 
S.  Margaret  of  Cortona.  Their  habit  is  gray  with  a 
scapular  and  cloak  ;  a  black  veil  over  the  stiff  white  fits 
round  the  head.  The  7ioviccs  wear  a  black  dress  and  cape, 
lace  veil  on  the  head,  and  the  white  cord  of  S.  Francis. 
II.  The  Francescane  Missionarie  di  Alaria,  Franciscan  11. 
Missionaries  of  Mary,  were  founded  recently  in  India  by 
a  Bretonne.  Like  the  above  they  are  under  the  Order. 
They  number  some  2500,  and  as  missionaries  devote 
themselves  to  every  kind  of  work,  hospital  creches,  ref- 
uges, dispensaries.  They  catechise  and  baptise  in  mission 
stations,  and  earn  the  means  of  sustenance  by  undertak- 
ing all  kinds  of  needlework,  painting  on  silk,  embroider- 
ing, printing,  and  other  industries.  Mother-house,  Via 
Giusti  12,  14.  Here  there  are  some  115  Religious  of  all 
nations,  13  languages  being  spoken  in  the  house.  At 
Grottaferrata  they  may  be  seen  tilling  the  fields,  in  large 
straw  hats.  Their  dress,  suitable  for  Indian  missions,  is 
all  white,  habit,  scapular,  cord,  veil,  shoes,  and  crucifix. 
Out  of  doors,  in  Europe,  they  wear  a  light  gray  cloak 
and  a  black  veil.  III.  The  Franciscans  of  the  hnmacii-  ill, 
late  Conception  (called  'the  American  Franciscans')  are 
missionary  Tertiaries  for  Africa,  founded  in  Rome  a  few 
years  ago.  Here  they  have  a  technical  girls'  school, 
where  house-work,  the  making  of  lace  and  other  indus- 
tries are  taught  gratuitously.  Address :  Via  Goffredo 
Mameli  21  ('•  Scuola  S.  Antonio")  near  piazza  S.  Pietro 
in  Montorro.  Habit,  a  maroon  friar's  dress  and  white 
cord,  black  veil  with  sniall  bandeau  and  guimpe.  IV.  The  iv. 
Grauenschwestern  or  Gray  Sisters  \  of  S.  Elizabeth  (Eli- 

*  There  is  a  well-known  Community  ol  Alcantarines  at  Naples; 
see  p.  146  and  p.  160. 

t  Not  to  be  confused  with  the  "  Gray  Nuns  "  in  Canada,  founded 
in  1 730-1 753  by  Marie  du  Frost  de  la  Jemmerais,  Madame  d'You- 
ville,  for  hospital  work. 


156      CHRISTIAN  AND   ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 

sabettine)  are  among  the  most  ancient  of  these  Com- 
munities. They  are  here  classed  among  the  daughters 
of  Francis,  because  though  they  follow  a  special  Rule 
which  is  not  his,  they  are  in  all  respects  the  outcome  of 
his  Third  Order.*  The  Sisters  of  S.  Elizabeth,  like  their 
holy  patron  who  went  about  doing  good,  have  no  enclos- 
ure, but  spend  their  time  in  works  of  mercy.  There  are 
several  communities  in  Austria.  In  Rome  the  Austrian 
Sisters  of  S.  Elizabeth  have  a  house  in  Via  dell'  Olmata  9 
(by  S.  M.  Maggiore)  where  they  have  the  German  Insti- 
tute for  teaching  tailoring,  plain  sewing,  embroidery,  and 
similar  work.  German  is  also  taught ;  and  the  Sisters 
charge  themselves  with  the  care  of  German  servant-maids 
out  of  employment.  The  teaching  is  gratuitous.  The 
indoor  dress  is  a  black  gown  and  cape,  a  close-fitting 
black  bonnet,  over  a  white  cap  with  starched  frills.     Out 

*  The  care  of  hospitals  was  early  committed  to  members  of  the 
Third  (Secular)  Order  of  S.  Francis,  men  and  women;  and  thus 
arose  the  Tertiary  Hospitallers  of  both  sexes.  Hence  the  Third 
Order  forestalled  the  '  active  orders.'  At  the  same  time,  though 
hospitaller  and  teaching  Tertiaries  abounded,  work  like  that  de- 
scribed in  Chapter  V.  was  never  performed  by  Religious  till  much 
later, 
juinage.  The  institution  so  well  known  as  the  Beguinage  now  resembles 

a  Third  ( )rder.  Its  origin  is  however  far  more  remote.  Thomassin 
tells  us  that  the  Beguines  were  canonesses  or  beneficiaries,  known 
as  early  as  the  end  of  the  vil.  century:  their  name  is  derived  from 
S.  Begghe  {ob.  689)  who  founded  the  Canonesses  of  Andenne. 
Others  derive  it  from  Lambert  de  Begue,  priest  of  Liege,  in  1 177. 
Again  heggen  means  to  pray,  hence  our  word  to  beg.  Some  place 
the  foundation  at  the  beginning  of  the  XU.  century,  in  the  Nether- 
lands and  Germany.  The  Beguines  were  eventually  aftiliatetl  to  the 
Third  Order  of  S.  Francis.  Women  who  bring  with  them  good 
repute  and  100  francs  may  be  enrolled,  and  after  3  years  are 
entitled  to  a  little  2  or  3  roomed  house,  where  they  may  take  a 
friend  or  relative  to  live  with  them.  No  vows  were  ever  taken  by 
the  Beguines,  who  assist  in  choir  3  times  a  day.  They  now  only 
exist  at  Cihent,  where  they  number  several  hundred.  The  Superior 
is  called  La  Grande  Dame.  The  Beguines  were  early  connected 
with  the  Dominicans,  and  were  among  the  first  to  use  the  Rosary : 
indeed  they  would  appear  to  have  more  affinity  with  these  canon- 
mendicants  than  with  the  Franciscans.  See  word  Bcghiiio,  p.  141, 
footnote. 


FRIARS 


157 


of  doors  they  wear  a  long  gray  cloak,  and  a  black  veil. 
For  the  Third  Regular  Order  of  Women,  enclosed,  see 
hifi-a  p.  158. 


The  Mother-house  of  the  Franciscan  Order  is  S.  Maria 
degli  Angeli  at  Assisi,  which  was  given  by  the  Benedic- 
tines to  S.  Francis  on  condition  that  it  always  remained 
so.  But  each  branch  of  the  Order,  except  the  Second 
Order,  has  a  Casa  Cjcneralizia,  the  residence  of  their 
General.  At  Assisi  itself  the  sacred  sites  are  divided 
among  the  Order  as  follows  :  The  Sagio  Coiivento,  where 
S.  Francis  lies,  belongs  to  the  Conventuals,  and  so  does 
Rivotorto  where  he  established  himself  with  his  brethren 
on  his  return  from  Rome.  S.  Maria  degli  Angeli  belongs 
to  the  Observants  (now  Friars  Minor  simply).  The  Car- 
ceri,  where  S.  Francis  used  to  retire  for  prayer,  belongs 
to  the  Capuchins.  S.  Damian's,  S.  Clare's  monastery, 
has  been  recently  given  to  the  Observants  by  Lord  Bute, 
to  whom  the  property  belongs.  The  Church  of  S.  Chiara 
in  the  town,  where  S.  Clare  lies,  belongs  to  her  own  com- 
munity of  S.  Damiano.  La  Verna,  in  Tuscany,  the  scene 
of  the  Sfigma/a,  is  in  the  hands  of  '  Observants.' 

In  Rome  the  Friars  Alinor  (up  to  1897  called  Observ- 
ants) have  the  following  houses:  S.  Antonio,  the  new 
Mother-house  and  church  in  the  Via  Merulana  by  the 
Lateran,  is  also  the  Noviciate,  residence  of  the  Minister- 
General,  and  Procura  of  the  Order ;  Aracoeli,  which  passed 
from  the  Benedictines  to  the  Franciscans  in  1 250  ;  S.  Bar- 
tolomeo  air  Isola  (since  1536)  \  S.  Bonaventura  on  the 
Palatine,  a  house  of  Alcantarine  friars  ;  S.  Sebastiano  on 
the  Via  Appia,  given  by  Gregory  XVL  to  the  Franciscan 
Observants  of  the  Roman  province ;  S.  Isidoro,  in  origin 
a  house  of  Irish  Recollects  for  missionary  work,  founded 
by  Luke  Wadding  the  historian  of  the  Franciscans  in 
1625;  S.  Pietro  in  Montorio  ;  the  church  and  convent 
of  S.  Francesco  a  Ripa,  where  S.  Francis  stayed,  founded 
in  1229  ;  SS.  Quaranta,  Via  di  S.  Francesco  ;  and  a  house 
in  Via  di  S.  Prisca  on  the  Aventine.     The  penitentiaries 


Francis- 
cans in 
Assisi. 


In  Rome, 

Friars 

Minor. 


158      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 


Conven 

tiials. 


of  the    Lateran  are   Franciscan  Friars  Minor,   formerly 
Rifortnati. 

The  Conventuals  have  their  Mother-house  at  the 
SS.  ApostoH  in  the  piazza  of  the  same  name  ;  and  also 
possess  S.  Dorotea.  They  are  the  Penitentiary  priests  of 
S.  Peter's,  where  they  replaced  the  Jesuits  on  the  sup- 
pression of  the  latter.  Clement  XIV.  who  placed  them 
there  was  himself  a  Conventual. 
Capuchins.  'J'he  Capuchin  Mother-house  and  Procura  is  now  in 
Via  Boncompagni  160.  Their  churches  are:  S.  Maria 
della  Concezione,  known  as  the  Cappuccini,  in  Piazza 
Barberini ;  the  Basilica  of  S.  Lorenzo  outside  the  walls ; 
and  they  have  also  the  College  of  S.  Fidelis  for  Missions, 
in  Via  dei  SS.  Quattro,  founded  in  1841.  (Women) 
Capuchins  "  of  S.  Urbano,"  *  Via  Agcstino  Depretis  81  A  ; 
and  the  Capuchins  of  the  Corpus  Domini  Monastery 
(Quirinale)  Via  Galilei  21.  The  Clarisses  "  of  S.  Lorenzo 
in  Panisperna  "  are  at  S.  Martino  ai  Monti  (Via  Giovanni 
Lanza).  The  Sepolte  Vive  are  in  Via  Merulana  123, 
where  they  removed  from  their  old  monastery  in  the 
Rione  Monti  pulled  down  some  years  ago.  Third  Regular 
Order  (enclosed):  Franciscans  "  of  S.  Bernardino,"  at 
S.  Bernardino  da  Siena,  Via  Panisperna ;  from  S.  Croce, 
Monte  Citorio  (they  wear  the  black  habit  and  are 
ruled  by  an  abbess)  ;  Franciscans  "  della  SS.  Purifica- 
zione "  (from  the  same  house)  now  in  Via  Sforza  14; 
Franciscans  "  of  S.  Cosimato  "f  just  removed  to  S.  Gre- 
gorio  on  the  Celian.  The  Franciscans  "  of  S.  Silvestro  in 
Capite  "  J  (the  present  Post-office)  now  share  the  Bene- 
dictine monastery  of  S.  Cecilia.  For  houses  of  the  Third 
Order,  unenclosed,  refer  to  pages  155-6. 

The  Franciscan  habit  is  the  coarse  woollen  gown  and 
hood  of  the  xni.  century  peasant  or  shepherd,  tied  with 
a  cord.     The  Friars  Minor  wear  a  maroon   gown  and 


Clarisses. 


Third 
Order 
(enclosed) 


Habit  of 
the  Fran- 
ciscans. 


*  It  is  a  Roman  custom  to  call  monastic  communities  by  the  name 
of  their  monastery;   or  of  their  original  monastery. 

t  S.  Cosimato  has  been  given  to  the  Sceurs  de  S.  Vincent  dc 
Paul. 

X  See  p.  220. 


FRIARS 


»59 


white   cord,    a   little    hood   attached  to   a   neck   piece, 
called  the  cappuccio,  and  in  winter  a  cloak  reaching  below 
the  knee.     They  wear  a  rosary,  and  are  barefoot  and 
bareheaded.     The  "Cord  of  S.  Francis"  is  the  distin-   'Cord  of 
guishing  mark  of  all  branches  of  the  Order.  *•  Francis.' 

The  Minor  Conventuals  wear  a  black  gown  and  cape, 
a  white  cord,  and  a  rosary ;  they  are  shod,  and  wear  the 
usual  clerical  hat  in  the  street. 

The  Minor  Capuchins  wear  a  coarse  brown  frock,  tied 
with  a  knotted  white  cord  ;  they  have  a  long  pointed 
hood  and  wear  a  rosary.  They  are  barefoot  and  bare- 
headed. In  winter  they  wear  a  short  cloak.  They  wear 
beards. 

The  Poor  Clares  or  Clarisses,  and  Clarisses-Colettines 
wear  a  coarse  brown  gown  tied  with  a  white  cord,  a  brown 
cloak,  and  a  black  veil.  They  are  barefoot,  and  wear 
sandals  in  the  garden  and  in  winter  time. 

Capuchin  women  are  barefoot  and  wear  the  same  habit 
as  Capuchin  friars  ;  but  in  choir  they  wear  a  thick  black 
mantle  over  the  head.  The  First  and  Second  Order 
wear  no  scapular. 

Congregations  of  the  Regular  Third  Order  wear  the 
cord  of  S.  Francis,  but  the  colour  of  the  habit  may  be 
gray,  brown,  white,  black,  or  blue.  In  spite  of  this 
Franciscan  Tertiaries  are  usually  called  soeurs  or  freres 
gris.  A  scapular  is  usually  worn,  which  in  the  case  of 
men  is  often  shortened.    See  pages  155,  158  and,  154,  199. 

It  is  disputed  whether  the  original  habit  of  S.  Francis  Ancient 
was  brown  or  gray.  That  gray  was  at  one  time  worn  is  habit, 
recorded  in  the  English  name  for  Franciscans  —  Gray 
Friars.  Every  one  knows  the  story  of  the  perplexed  artist 
who  desiring  not  to  give  offence  by  his  picture  of  the 
saint,  represented  S.  Francis  in  bed,  with  black,  brown 
and  gray  gowns  waiting  for  him  on  hooks  round  the  walls 
—  he  left  to  S.  Francis  the  onus  of  choosing  the  colour. 
Before  the  reunion  of  the  Observant  Franciscans,  the 
habit  differed.  Some  wore  brown  with  a  cloak  of  varying 
length.  The  Alcantarine  habit  was  maroon,  with  a  strip 
of  gray  cloth  sewn  in  front :   this  is  the  present  habit  of 


i6o      CHRISTIAN  AND   ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 

the  Alcantarine  nuns  at   Naples.     The   Recollects  wore 
gray. 

Franciscan        s.  Francis.  —  Emblems  :  represented  in  gray,  brown,  or 

samts  and     w-^^cY  gown  and  cord.     He  is  known  by  the  pointed  mea- 

embienis       gre  face,  short  sparse  beard,  solemn  eyes  ;  the  face  of 

in  art.  xXxt  enthusiast  and  religious  mystic.     He  has  the  stigmata 

in  hands,  feet  and  side  ;  and  his  other  emblems  are  a 

shill  and  crucifix,  the  lamb  emblem  of  meekness,  the 

///)'  of  purity.     (October  4.) 

s.  CLARE,  in  early  pictures,  gray,  in  later  brown  gown 
and  cord,  black  veil.  Her  special  emblem  the  pyx,  in 
allusion  to  her  dispersion  of  the  Saracens  who  assailed 
the  monastery,  by  appearing  on  the  loggici  of  S.  Damian's 
with  the  Host  in  her  hands;  lily ;  palm  alluding  to  the 
palm  brought  to  her  by  the  bishop  from  the  altar,  which 
flowered  in  her  hands  in  the  Procession  of  Palm  Sunday  ; 
"onde  corse  a  Francesco,"  whence  she  fled  that  evening 
to  Francis  to  ask  for  the  habit  of  the  Order.  As  Founder, 
she  also  appears  with  crazier  and  book.     (August  12.) 

s.  ANTONY  OF  PADUA,  the  "  cldcst  son  of  S.  Francis," 
1195-1231.  A  Portuguese,  who,  moved  by  the  story  of 
the  martyrdom  of  5  friars  in  Morocco,  whose  remains 
had  been  brought  to  Lisbon,  determined  to  enter  the 
Order,  and  there  find  death  for  Christ.  Seized  with  ill- 
ness on  the  way  to  Morocco,  he  was  obliged  to  return, 
and  was  driven  by  contrary  winds  to  Italy  and  S.  Francis. 
Being  learned,  he  taught  in  the  universities  of  Paris,  Bo- 
logna, and  Padua,  and  was  famous  as  a  preacher.  None 
could  resist  his  eloquence.  Like  S.  Francis,  he  preached 
"  to  every  creature,"  and  made  a  sermon  for  the  fishes  as 
Francis  had  done  for  the  birds.  Everywhere  in  the  dis- 
traught and  tyrant-ridden  north  of  Italy  he  preached  hu- 
manity and  peace,  "  the  peace  of  justice  and  the  peace 
of  liberty  "  he  said.  He  died  in  Padua,  where  he  is  en- 
shrined in  the  churches  and  the  affections  of  the  people. 
Emblems  :  flame  of  fire  ;  book  and  lily  ;  lily  twined  round 
the  crucifix  ;  the  infant  Christ  —  who  appeared  standing  on 
his  book  while  he  preached  of  the   Incarnation  —  on  a 


FRIARS  i6i 

book  or  in  his  arms ;  a  mule  kneeling,  in  allusion  to  the 
legend  of  the  unbeliever  who  required  a  miracle  in  proof 
of  the  Doctrine  of  the  Sacrament.  When  the  Host  passed 
him,  his  mule  knelt  in  adoration,  in  spite  of  the  sieve  of 
oats  with  which  its  master  hoped  to  distract  it  I  (June 
13.)* 

s. BONAVENTURA  t( Cardinal),  1221-1274;  the  "Seraphic 
Doctor."  The  only  monk  or  friar  represented  in  a  hat.  % 
He  is  beardless,  and  sometimes  wears  a  cope  over  the 
habit ;  mitre  as  bishop  of  Albano  ;  the  Host,  referring  to 
his  having  been  communicated  by  an  angel,  when  too 
humble  himself  to  approach  the  holy  table.  He  was 
buried  at  Lyons,  but  his  ashes  were  dispersed  by  the 
Huguenots.  He  is  specially  interesting  to  Englishmen 
from  his  refusal  of  the  archbishopric  of  York  offered  him 
by  the  pope  in  1265.     He  is  the  biographer  of  S.  Francis. 

(July  14- ) 

BERNARDINO  OF  sizNA,  13S0-1444.  The  great  preacher,  who 
first  gave  the  name  of"  Franciscans  of  the  Observance  " 
{Observants)  to  his  reform  of  the  Order.  He  is  repre- 
sented in  his  brown  gown,  holding  in  his  hand  the  device 

*  In  churches  there  is  often  an  alms  box  marked  "  S.  Antony's  S.  Antony's 
bread."  Six  years  ago  a  woman  of  Toulon  could  not  enter  her  bread, 
baker's  shop,  the  lock  of  which  was  damaged,  and  she  promised  S. 
Antony  a  little  bread  for  his  poor  if  the  door  could  be  opened.  A 
key  was  now  tried,  and  the  door  opened  immediately.  Hence  it  has 
become  the  custom  to  accompany  every  petition  to  S.  Antony  with 
a  promise  of  bread  for  the  poor.  As  S.  Antony  is  \.heji;i</i//g  saint, 
and  is,  unhappily,  invoked  to  restore  every  lost  article,  the  alms  box 
receives  the  donations  of  those  whose  petitions  have  been  heard.  A 
list  of  poor  institutions  and  orphannges  is  kept,  and  these  send  in 
turn  for  the  bread,  which  is  distributed  to  each  according  to  the 
number  of  inmates.     Antony  is  also  patron  of  firemen. 

t  Christened  Giovanni,  but  when  brought  as  a  little  child  to  S. 
Francis,  his  mother  begging  him  to  save  his  life  by  his  prayers,  the 
saint  exclaimed,  O  biioiia  ventiira  !  O  happy  future  I  and  hence  the 
great  doctor's  name. 

X  The  Cardinal's  hat  is  sometimes  hanging  on  a  tree,  in  allusion 
to  the  stor)'  that  when  it  was  brought  to  him  he  was  washing  uji  the 
plates  after  the  convent  meal  in  the  garden  of  a  Franciscan  friary, 
and  begged  the  ambassadors  to  hang  the  hat  on  a  tree  until  he  was 
able  to  take  it. 


1 62      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCIESIASTICAL  ROME 

I.  H.  S.  I.  H.  S.  surrounded   by  a  glory.     This  is  the  laudabile 

7iomcn  JesH  which  he  designed,  and  used  to  show  to  the 
people  after  his  sermons.  It  is  preserved  in  his  church 
at  Siena.*  He  also  bears  the  3  little  green  hills  sur- 
mounted by  a  cross,  or  by  a  flag  on  which  the  dead  Christ 
(Pieta)  is  figured,  in  allusion  to  his  founding  the  mojits- 
de-piete.    (May  20.) 

s.  LOUIS  OF  FRANCE,  Third  Order  :  holds  the  crown  of  thorns, 
and  a  sword,  or  the  sword  and  sceptre  are  at  his  feet ;  a 
crown  on  his  head  or  at  his  feet.  In  French  pictures  he 
is  beardless.    (August  25.) 

s.  LOUIS  OF  TOULOUSE,  ob.  1 297,  royal  saint.  Young  and 
beardless  ;  wears  episcopal  robes  over  the  habit,  with  his 
bishop's  crozier,  mitre,  and  book  ;  sometimes  at  his  feet 
a  crown  and  sceptre,  in  allusion  to  the  crown  of  Naples 
which  he  refused.    (August  19.) 

S.  ELIZABETH  OF  HUNGARY,     I2O7-I23I.        ("  Mothcr     of    thC 

poor"  Mater  pauperuin.  Die  liebe  Frau  Elizabeth). 
Royal  saint,  Third  Order.  Daughter  of  Andreas  II.  of 
Hungary  ;  betrothed  at  4  years  old  to  Ludovic  son  of 
the  Landgrave  of  Thuringia,  she  was  married  at  15,  her 
husband  being  then  a  lad  of  20.  After  barely  6  years 
of  a  tender  union,  blended  in  his  case  with  a  supernat- 
ural awe  and  veneration  for  his  holy  wife,  he  left  for  the 
Crusades,  and  dying  on  the  way  in  the  arms  of  the  Patriarch 
of  Jerusalem,  entreated  his  companions  to  protect  Eliza- 
beth, left  exposed  to  the  scorn  of  courts  and  the  persecu- 
tion of  her  relatives.  These  friends  eventually  forced 
the  latter  to  yield  to  Elizabeth  her  own  city  of  Marburg, 
whither  she  retired  :  and  here  she  lived  till  her  death  3^ 
years  afterward.  Conrad  of  Marburg  (afterward  assas- 
sinated for  his  persecuting  schemes)  a  priest  and  later 
bishop  of  the  city,  was  Elizabeth's  confessor,  and  cloked 
the  instincts  of  a  butcher  under  the  semblance  of  spiritual 
direction.  He  took  away  her  infant  daughters,  forbade 
her  to  give  alms  because  he  saw  how  sweet  a  consolation 
it  was  to  her,  forbade  her  even  to  beg,  till  as  she  became 

*  See  Jesuits,  p.  303. 


FRIARS  163 

weaker  and  earned  less  (for  she  had  adopted  the  poverty 
with  the  cord  of  S.  Francis)  her  patched  raiment  made 
the  very  children  pursue  her  through  the  streets.  Two 
faithful  women  who  were  left  to  her,  he  substituted  with 
creatures  of  his  own,  in  order  to  add  to  the  indignities 
she  suffered.  At  last  she  whose  coming  had  made  the 
world  more  fair  —  for  wars  and  violence  ceased  and  a 
plentiful  harvest  had  greeted  her  birth  —  yielded  up  her 
spirit,  aged  24.  If  we  take  away  the  excesses  partly 
chosen,  partly  borne  by  her,  wondering  how  best  to 
please  her  heavenly  spouse,  and  desiring  always  "  the  bet- 
ter gifts,"  there  emerges  to  the  light  one  of  the  great 
figures  of  hagiography  ;  an  image  of  purity,  real  good- 
ness, and  spiritual  worth,  of  gentleness,  love,  pity,  and 
humility  of  heart  proof  against  all  self-seeking.  The 
scenes  from  her  life  are  familiar  to  us  in  art :  she  appears 
usually  in  regal  clothes,  crowned,  performing  some  act  of 
compassion,  or  with  the  roses  of  the  legend  in  her  lap  : 
for  when  Ludovic  asked  her  what  she  carried,  she, 
anxious  to  conceal  her  constant  almsgiving,  pressed  her 
burden  closer  to  her  ;  but  when  he  drew  aside  the  cloak 
he  saw  nothing  but  roses  —  ''les  plus  belles  qu'il  eut 
vues  de  sa  vie." 

S.COLETTE,  ob.  1447,  the  Reformer  of  the  Franciscan 
Order  was  born  at  Corbie  in  Picardy,  her  father  being  the 
master-carpenter  of  the  great  Abbey ;  her  mother,  twice 
married,  was  aged  at  the  time  of  her  birth  :  '  Colette  ' 
(Nicole  Boilet)  was  born  the  year  that  Catherine  of  Siena 
died.  At  her  request  the  anti-pope  Benedict  XIII.  gave 
her  the  Clarisse  habit  with  an  obligation  to  obsen-e  the 
strict  Rule.  She  had  faculties  to  reform  the  Franciscan 
Order,  one  of  its  two  generals  remitting  his  own  authority 
into  her  hands.  She  was  remarkable  in  power,  tiny  in 
stature.    (March  6.) 

s.  CATHERINE  OF  BOLOGNA,  1413-1463,  a  ClaHsse  nun,  and 
an  artist,  maid  of  honour  to  Princess  Margaret  d'Este. 
Her  body  is  shown,  seated  in  a  chair,  at  Bologna,  where 
she  is  known  as  "La  Santa."  No  special  emblems. 
(March  9.)      s.  peter  of  alcantaea,  1499-1562,   (canonised 


1 64      CHRIST/AiV  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 

1669).  He  is  represented  walking  on  the  water,  tliroiigh 
faith  ;  or  with  the  Dove  above  his  head,  emblem  of  inspi- 
ration in  prayer.  (Oct.  19.)  s.  pasqual  babtlon,  ob.  1592 
(Aragon).  A  shepherd  in  his  youth,  then  an  Observant 
friar.  There  is  a  church  in  Rome  dedicated  to  him. 
(May  17.)  s.  JOHN  capistban,  ob.  1465  (canonised  1690). 
Sent  by  the  popes  to  preach  a  Crusade  after  the  capture 
of  Constantinople  by  the  Turks.  Canonised  in  com- 
memoration of  the  deliverance  of  Vienna  from  the  Turks. 
Emblems  :  Crucifix,  standard  and  cross.  (October  23.) 
s.  PETER  REGALATo  (Valladolid),  ob.  at  Osma  1456,  canon- 
ised 3  centuries  later.    (March  30.) 

Capuchin  Saints:  s.  felix  of  cantilicio,  15 13,  lay  brother 
who  begged  for  the  convent  in  Rome  for  45  years.  Ob. 
1587,  buried  at  the  Cappuccini.  Emblem  :  beggar's 
wallet.  (May  21.)  s.  diego,  Spanish  lay  brother,  1463 
(November  13).  s.  fidelis  of  sigmaringen,  ob.  1622,  first 
martyr  of  Propaganda  Fide.  Emblem  :  in  the  habit, 
with  a  wound  on  the  head.    (April  24.) 

Besides  S.  Elizabeth  and  S.  Louis  of  France  there  have 
been  a  large  number  of  canonised  Tertiaries.  The  fol- 
lowing royal  Tertiaries  :  s.  Elizabeth  of  Portugal,  ob.  1336, 
canonised  1625.  Grandniece  of  S.  Elizabeth  of  Hun- 
gary. (July  8.)  s.  isabelle  of  france,  sister  of  S.  Louis  : 
she  is  represented  distributing  alms.  s.  margaret,  widow 
of  S.  Louis,  s.  ANNE  of  BOHEMLflL,  who  rcfuscd  the  hand  of 
the  Emperor  Frederick  H.,  and  wrote  telling  S.  Clare 
that  she  wished  to  embrace  poverty  with  her.  ss.  eleazar 
and  delphine,  his  wife  (1300),  they  appear  together,  richly 
dressed,  s.  Bridget  of  sweden,  and  her  daughter  Cather- 
ine:. Other  Tertiaries  are  :  s.  rose  or  rosalie  of  viterbo,  ob. 
1 26 1,  patroness  of  that  cit}^  her  emblem  a  chaplet  of 
roses.  (September  4.)  s.  roch,  ob.  1327,  advocate  against 
pest.  Points  to  plague  spot  on  his  leg.  Pilgrim's  staff 
and  gourd  ;  dog.  (August  16.)  s  margaret  of  cortona,  the 
penitent,  ob.  1297,  has  a  dog  at  her  feet.  (February  22.) 
s.  IVES  OF  BRITTANY,  1253-1303.  Alleged  to  have  been  a 
Tertiary.  Patron  of  lawyers,  and  a])pears  in  lawyer's  robe 
and  bonnet.     The  cult  of  this  saint  was  introduced  to  our 


FRIARS  165 

Southwest  shores  through  commerce  with  Brittany  ;  hence 
S.  Ives  in  Cornwall.  The  church  of  the  Sapienza  univer- 
sity in  Rome  is  dedicated  to  him.  (May  19.)  It  will 
be  noticed  that  nearly  all  these  great  saints  lived  in  the 
XIII.  and  XIV.  centuries.  Tertiaries  are  often  not  repre- 
sented in  the  habit  of  the  Order,  but  sometimes  have 
the  cord  of  S.  Francis  to  distinguish  them. 

There  have  been  7  Franciscan  popes  :  Gregory  IX. 
(Cardinal  Ugolino,  see  p.  148-9),  Nicholas  IV.,  x^lex- 
ander  v.,  Sixtus  IV.,  Julius  II.,  Sixtus  V.,  Clement  XIV. 
(Conventual). 

And  among  the  great  men  of  the  Order  are  the  School- 
men Roger  Bacon,  the  ".Admirable  Doctor"  (1214- 
1292);  Duns  Scotus,  the  '"Subtile  Doctor";  William 
Occam,  the  "  Invincible  Doctor  "  ;  and  Alexander  Hales, 
the  "  Irrefragable  Doctor." 

The  l>adgt'  of  the  Franciscans  is  the  crossed  arms  of  Badge. 
Christ  and  S.  Francis,  the  latter  draped  in  the  sleeve  of 
the  habit,  with  a  cross  between  them.  The  Alcantarines 
(now  merged  in  the  On/o  Mi  no  rum)  bore  a  green  cross 
patonce  on  a  white  field.  The  Capuchins  erect  a  cross, 
to  which  are  suspended  the  instruments  of  the  Passion, 
outside  their  friaries. 


i66      CHRISTIAN  AND   ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 


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CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 


TO   DISTINGUISH   THE   WHITE   HABITS   OF  ORDERS. 


Monastic ; 


/'Carthusian 


Same  habit  ■' 


White  Habits  (Monks  and  Friars). 

Cistercian  ....  The  scapular  is  black.     (Hat.) 

1  rappisl The  black  scapular  is  tied  with  the  girdle. 

(Hat.) 
The  two  sides  of  the  scapular  are  joined  by 

a  piece  of  stuff. 
White  cloak,  with  small  hood,  out  of  doors. 
Professed   monks   have  the  scapular  tied 
'      with  the  girdle;  novices  have  it  loose. 

Olivetan The  Camaldolese  dress,  with  a  black  cloak 

out  of  doors. 


Camaldolese 


Mendicant:    White  indoors  or  in  summer: 


Dominicans . 

Trinitarians  . 

White  always:  Mercedari .  . 

Missionary:    Peres  Blancs 


(Hat.)     Lay  brethren,  black  scapular. 
Blue  and  red  cross  on  breast.     (No  hat.) 
Pendent    Augustinian    belt,    badge    round 

neck.     (Hat.) 
White   cloak   caught  back  over  shoulders, 
rosary  round  neck.     (Hat  ) 


The  habit  of  inonk  and  friar  differs  in  form.  The 
monk's  scapular  is  not  covered  by  the  broad  capuce  of 
the  friar.  ( Cf.  Plates  I,  II,  III,  IV.)  No  monk  wears 
a  rosary  ;  and  only  hermit-monks  wear  a  cloak  out  of 
doors.  Cistercians  and  Trappists  are  thus  easily  dis- 
tinguished from  Dominican  lay  brethren  ;  and  the  Do- 
minican without  his  black  cappa  from  the  Carthusian 
and  Camaldolese,  even  if  the  friar's  rosary  is  not  seen. 
Those  Benedictine  lay  brethren  who  wear  a  brown  habit, 
with  a  beard  and  rosary,  are  distinguishable  from  all  brown 
Mendicants,  except  the  Capuchins,  by  the  beard  and  the 
absence  of  the  capuce,  and  from  Capuchins  by  the  ab- 
sence of  the  cord.  Since  the  xviii.  and  xix.  century 
Suppressions  in  Austria,  France,  and  Italy,  habits  have 
not  been  commonly  worn  in  the  streets.  Even  in  Rome, 
Olivetans,  Mercedari,  and  occasionally  Dominicans,  wear 
the  long  priest's  coat  {greca)  over  their  white  habit ;  and 
this  is  also  habitually  worn  by  Canons  Regular.  Hermit 
Orders,  whose  proper  head  covering  is  the  cowl,  as  Camal- 


FEIARS  169 

dolese,  and  others,  as  Carmelites,  who  go  bareheaded, 
often  adopt  a  white  hat  against  the  sun. 

S.    DOMIXIC    AND    THE    DOMINICANS. 

Dominic,  a  member  of  the  great  Spanish  house  of 
Guzman,  w-as  born  in  11 70  at  Calaroga  in  Old  Castile. 
His  mother,  enrolled  in  this  century  among  the  "  Blessed," 
was  Joanna  of  Aza,  according  to  some  a  Castilian  and  to 
others  a  daughter  of  the  ducal  house  of  Brittany.  From 
her  he  learnt  his  love  of  prayer,  his  charity,  the  modesty 
so  remarkable  in  his  w^hole  life,  and  his  exquisite  com- 
passion for  the  poor.*  In  1191  during  a  terrible  famine 
he  sold  everything,  even  his  books  commented  by  himself, 
in  an  age  when  MSS.  were  so  rare  and  precious  a  treasure. 
When  his  friends  wondered  that  he  should  throw  away  all 
his  chance  of  study  —  "Would  you  have  me,"  said  he, 
"  study  off  those  dead  skins,  when  men  are  dying  of 
hunger?  "  All  his  biographers  tell  us  that  at  this  time  he 
desired  a  poor  woman  who  was  unable  to  ransom  her  son 
taken  prisoner  by  the  Moors,  to  sell  him,  and  to  redeem 
her  son  with  the  price. 

When  he  was  25  years  old,  Dominic  became  one  of  the 
new  canons  regular  established  at  the  Cathedral  of  Osma. 
From  here,  he  left  with  some  companions  for  Montpellier, 
this  part  of  France  being  then  overrun  by  the  Albigensian 
heresy.     He  was  now  in  his  33'".''  year,  and  his  life  had 
hitherto  been  spent  in  solitude  and  retirement ;  not  the 
least  sacrifice  of  his  life  was  made  when  he  left  all  this 
behind  him,  to  enter  a  world  of  strife  and  contention. 
His  extraordinary  patience  under  this  and  all  other  trials 
is  the  admiration  of  his  biographers.     Rome,  and  the 
great  abbey  of  Citeaux  beloved   by  S.   Dominic,   were 
visited  on  the  way.     Of  his  labours  at  this  time  we  have   Langue- 
a  record  in  the  report  presented  to  the  Spanish  Cortes  in   '^°^-^  1203- 
181 2  which  led  to  the  suppression  of  the  inquisition  in     ^  ^' 
that  country.    It  says  :  "  The  early  inquisitors  encountered 

*  Her  tombstone  is  inscribed  SancLc  JoaiDui:. 


I70      CHRISTIAN  AND   ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 


Dominic's 
death. 


His  char- 
acter. 


heresy  with  no  other  arms  than  those  of  prayer,  patience, 
and  instruction  ;  and  this  remark  apphes  more  particularly 
to  S.  Dominic."  And  the  present  pope  in  his  encyclical 
on  the  rosary,  writes  :  "  This  man,  great  by  the  integrity 
of  his  doctrine,  by  the  example  of  his  virtues,  and  by  his 
apostolic  labours,  undertook  the  magnificent  task  of  de- 
fending the  Catholic  Church,  not  by  force,  or  by  arms, 
but  by  the  sole  power  of  that  prayer  which  he  was  the 
first  to  make  known  under  the  title  of  the  Holy  Rosary."  * 

In  1 2 15  Dominic  again  visited  Rome,  to  attend  the 
Lateran  Council ;  and  at  this  time  he  met  S.  Francis. 
After  the  confirmation  of  his  Order  he  returned  towards 
France,  visiting  Siena  on  the  way.  At  Bologna  he  sickened, 
but  refused  to  spare  himself  any  of  the  daily  duties  ;  when 
he  could  work  no  longer,  he  lay  on  sacking  on  the  floor, 
and  throughout  his  sufferings  no  groan  escaped  him,  "  he 
always  seemed  cheerful  and  full  of  joy  "  and  had  for  all 
"  sweet  words  and  a  smiling  countenance."  "  You  know," 
he  said  to  his  children,  "  that  to  serve  God  is  to  reign ; 
but  we  must  serve  Him  with  our  whole  hearts.  Behold 
my  children  what  I  leave  to  you  as  a  heritage  :  Have 
charity,  guard  humility,  and  make  your  treasure  out  of 
voluntary  poverty."  At  the  words  in  the  Commendation 
of  the  dying  "  offerentes  earn  in  conspectu  altissimi  "  "  Help, 
saints  of  God,  hasten  angels  of  the  Lord,  receiving  his 
soul,  offering  it  in  the  sight  of  the  Most  High,'''  Dominic 
stretched  his  hands  towards  heaven,  and  breathed  his 
last  breath.  This  was  in  1221,  on  August  6.  He  was 
then  in  his  51^'  year.  His  resting  place  is  Bologna,  where 
his  celebrated  shrine  is  known  as  the  "  Area  di  San 
Domenico." 

S.  Dominic  was  not  only  a  great  preacher,  but  he 
"  possessed,"  as  a  recent  biographer  says  of  him  "  in  a 
very  high  degree  that  gift  by  which  certain  souls  commu- 
nicate themselves  to  others."  Being  asked  in  what  book 
he  had  studied  to  find  the  matter  for  his  burning  utter- 
ances, he  answered  "  My  son,  I  have  chiefly  studied  in 


*  Cf.  Inquisition,  Part  IV.,  p.  455. 
163. 


Rosary,  Part  II.,  pp.   161, 


FRIARS  171 

the  book  of  Charity,  for  all  things  are  learnt  there."  He 
was  easily  touched,  and  wlien  he  saw  from  afar  the  roofs 
of  any  great  town  he  was  approaching  "  he  would  melt 
into  tears  as  he  thought  of  the  misery  of  its  inhabitants." 
But  above  all  were  his  spirit  of  prayer  and  his  serenity 
great ;  "  the  habit  of  prayer  wherein  he  reposed  with 
marvellous  and  undisturbed  tranquillity."  "  Nothing  ever 
disturbed  his  tranquillity  but  compassion  for  others,"  says 
a  biographer,  and  "  if  the  interior  peace  lost  by  Adam 
were  to  be  found  restored  in  any  human  soul,  it  was  in 
that  of  the  blessed  Dominic."  As  he  went  along,  from 
city  to  city,  always  on  foot,  he  prayed  \  and  he  was  often 
seen  to  make  the  sign  of  the  cross  and  a  movement  as  if 
he  7vere  brushing  away  flies,  as  though  driving  from  him 
all  disturbing  thoughts.  To  his  brethren  he  repeated  the 
words  of  Judith  "  The  prayer  of  the  meek  and  humble  is 
always  pleasing  to  thee  O  Lord." 

S.  Dominic  founded  his  Order  in  1214-1215.  At  this  The  Order 
time,  we  are  told,  Fulk  bishop  of  Toulouse  appointed  pj-gach^rs 
brother  Dominic  and  his  companions  "  as  preacliers 
throughout  our  Diocese."  The  Order  was  confirmed  in 
1 2 16-12 1 7,*  and  the  brethren  then,  assembled  at  Prouille, 
chose  the  Rule  of  S.  Augustine.  This  Rule  is  at  the  head 
of  the  Dominican  Constitutions,  which  were  based  on  the 
Statutes  of  the  Premonstratensian  canons,  and  were  written 
in  1228,  and  successively  modified  till  1252.  "The  Order 
of  Preachers  was  principally  and  essentially  designed  for 
preaching  and  teaching,  in  order  thereby  to  communicate 
to  others  the  fruits  of  contemplation,  and  to  procure  the 
salvation  of  souls."  t  A  special  provision  was  a  power  of 
dispensing  from  anything  in  the  Constitutions  which  would 
impede  the  members  in  their  active  duties,  or  in  their 
first  duty  the  good  of  souls.  So  communication  with 
seculars  was  to  be  permitted  even  in  the  interior  of  the 
convent.  A  certain  number  of  students  were  to  be  sent  to 
universities,  to  take  degrees,  and  open  schools.  S.  Catherine 
writes  :  "  He  made  it  a  royal  Order,  where  none  were  found 

*  Hence  it  takes  precedence  of  the  Franciscans,  see  p.  145. 
t  Constitutions, 


172       CIIRISTIAX  AXD    ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 

under  mortal  sin  ...  for  enlightened  by  Me  *  the  true 
Light  .  .  .  his  Order  large,  joyous  and  odoriferous  is  in 
itself  a  most  delightful  garden  :  "  "  La  sua  religione  tutta 
larga,  tutta  gioconda,  tutta  odorifera,  e  uno  giardino  dilet- 
tissimo  in  se." 


Second 
Older. 


Story  of 
the  nuns  of 
Trasteverc, 
S.  Sisto, 
and  S. 
Sabina, 


In  1206  Dominic  founded  a  monastery  for  women  who 
had  been  converted  from  the  Albigensian  heresy,  and  as 
a  refuge  for  young  women  exposed  to  its  influence.  The 
spot  he  selected  was  Proiiilk,  given  him  for  the  purpose 
by  its  noble  owner  the  Chatelaine  of  Fanjeaux.  The 
sisters  lived  under  the  Rule  of  S.  Augustine,  to  which 
Dominic  added  silence  and  manual  labour ;  while  those 
who  could  were  to  study  psalmody.  Their  dress  was  the 
same  as  that  worn  by  Dominic  as  Canon  of  Osma.  It 
does  not  appear,  however,  that  the  saint  projected  a 
Second  Order  until  his  last  visit  to  Rome,  when  Innocent 
III.  having  vainly  endeavoured  to  gather  a  number  of 
nuns  into  a  cloistered  community,  put  the  matter  into 
Dominic's  hands.  Those  who  were  most  hostile  to  the 
idea  of  enforced  enclosure  were  the  poor  nuns  of  S.  Maria 
in  Trastevere  ;  and  the  Romans  took  their  part.  Dom- 
inic's first  visit  to  them  was  a  complete  failure  ;  they 
would  not,  they  said,  be  controlled  by  him,  or  cardinals, 
or  pope.  They  could  not  be  forced  to  accept  enclosure 
which  they  had  never  contemplated  in  entering  their 
state.  However  the  matter  was  brought  about,  partly  by 
Dominic's  persuasiveness,  but  not  without  recourse  to 
some  force  and  deception.  He  offered  them  his  own 
convent  of  S.  Sisto,  and  he  himself  removed  to  S.  Sabina. 
Forty-four  nuns,  and  the  picture  of  the  Madonna  i)ainted 
by  S.  Luke,  were  brought  to  the  new  convent,  the  condition 
on  which  they  insisted  being  that  should  the  picture  go 
back  of  its  own  accord  to  Trastevere,  they  should  go 
back  after  it ;  and  they  took  their  vow  with  this  proviso. f 

*  She  is  speaking  as  if  Christ  were  reciting  the  spiritual  glories 
of  the  Order. 

t  This  picture  is  now  at  the  high  altar  of  SS.  Domenico  e  Sisto. 
Turrigio  wrote  its  history. 


FAVAA'S  173 

Sister  Cecilia  Cesarini,  then  only  1 7,  was  the  first  to  beg 
S.  Dominic  for  the  habit  of  his  Order,  and  the  other  nuns 
followed  her  example.*  The  Rule  of  the  nuns  is  the 
same  as  that  of  the  Friars,  except  that  meat  is  never  eaten 
by  the  former,  unless  with  a  dispensation  from  the 
Prioress,  f  The  Second  Order  has  always  been  enclosed, 
indeed  it  is  S.  Dominic  himself  who  introduced  the  gnV/e, 
or  grate.  It  has  also  been  from  the  first  under  the  super- 
vision of  the  Dominican  Fathers.  The  Second  Order 
now  numbers  some  13,000  or  15,000  nuns.  Dominican 
Friars  and  nuns  are  ruled  by  a  Prior  or  Prioress,  elected  Govern- 
for  3  years.  Under  them  is  a  sub-prior  or  sub-prioress.  ?'^"'  ^"'^ 
Dominican  houses  are  Priories.  The  Order  is  divided 
into  Provinces,  under  a  General  resident  in  Rome,  and 
consists,  among  friars,  of  priests,  novices,  and  lay  brethren  ; 
among  nuns,  of  choir  nuns,  novices,  and  lay  sisters. 
Those  who  present  themselves  for  admission  remain  pos- 
tulants for  3  months  at  least ;  the  noviceship  lasts  for  a 
year,  at  the  end  of  which  he  or  she  takes  the  vow  for  3 
years,  but  remains  in  the  noviciate  ;  and  4  years  after 
their  admission  as  novices  they  take  the  perpetual  vows. 
Lay  brethren  and  sisters  begin  as  simple  Tertiaries  X  for 
3  years  after  which  the  noviciate  begins,  and  they  are 
only  professed  at  the  end  of  7  years.  The  vow  taken  is 
that  of  obedience  only,  and  is  understood  to  include  the 
others.  The  profession  is  made  during  mass,  in  the 
hands  of  the  Superior,  the  newly  professed  afterwards 
communicating,  being  accompanied  to  the  holy  table  by 
his  superiors.  In  the  case  of  nuns,  a  delegate  from  the 
First  Order  is  present ;  but  the  profession  is  made  in  the 
hands  of  the  nun's  own  Superior. 

The  Dominican  Order  has  proved  the  most  homogene- 
ous of  all  the  Orders.     There  have  been  no  branches,  divi- 

*  She  was  the  friend  anil  earliest  biographer  of  S.  Dominic,  who 
"communicated  to  her  the  most  hidden  secrets  of  his  heart." 

t  S.  Dominic  indeed  said  that  no  meat  was  to  enter  the  Refec- 
tory; so  the  friars  eat  meat  in  a  room  which  is  not  called  the 
Refectory. 

X  See  p.  it^T),  fool  note. 


174       C//A-/ST/.!.V  A.Vn    ECCLESTASTICAL   ROME 

sions,  or  "  Reforms."  This  is  in  part  due  to  the  unity  of 
purpose  in  the  founder.  At  the  same  time  among  many 
members  of  the  First  Order  the  Rule  is  kept  with  startling 
laxity  and  justifies  the  remark  made  by  a  priest  at  a  retreat 
of  nuns  of  his  Order  —  "  the  men  make  the  Rule  and  the 
women  keep  it."  The  Order  was  in  fact  at  first  assimi- 
lated to  that  of  Canons,  and  has  always  preserved  this 
character,  though  it  was  enrolled  among  the  mendicants. 
To  this  day  it  more  nearly  combines  the  Regular  and 
canonical  traditions  than  any  other  community,  with  the 
exception,  in  the  past,  of  some  Benedictine  congregations 
of  women. 

Third  The  date  of  the  institution  of  a  Third  Order  on  the 

Older.  lines  of  the  Third  Order  of  S.  Francis  is  unknown,  the 

foundation  is  however  assigned  to  the  year  1224,  but  its 
rules  were  not  made  till  1285  by  the  7'!'  General  of  the 
Order,  and  about  the  same  time  it  obtained  sanction.  At 
first  styled  "  Militia  of  Jesus  Christ,"  the  later  and  present 
name  is  "  Order  of  Penance  of  S.  Dominic."  This  Third 
Order  became  rapidly  more  Regular  in  its  constitution, 
and  now  embraces  a  large  number  of  communities  of 
Regulars  dedicated  to  active  works  of  charity  and  tuition.* 
They  take  simple  vows,  and  the  women  are  of  course 
unenclosed.  Neither  men  nor  women  are  subject  to  the 
First  Order,  but  depend  either  directly  from  the  Holy 
See,  or  from  their  Diocesan.  They  are  ruled  by  a  Father 
or  Mother-General,  and  in  the  case  of  women  the  Supe- 
rior of  the  separate  houses  is  often  a  prioress.  The  men 
Tertiaries  direct  the  l^cole  Lacordaire  in  Paris,  There 
are  two  communities  of  women  in  England,  at  Stone,  and 
Stroud,  fully  confirmed  ;  and  there  are  Irish  Dominican 
Sisters  in  South  Africa,  2  of  whom  have  just  received 
(1898)  the  Royal  Red  Cross  Order  for  work  done. 
Secular  Tertiaries  have  rules  similar  to  the  Franciscan, 
.  though  somewhat  less  austere.  They  wear  a  miniature 
white  scapular  and  the  'belt  of  S.  Thomas.' 

*  See  infra,  S.  Catherine,  p.  177. 


FRIARS 


175 


There  is  another  Dominican  Congregation,  interesting   Domini- 
as  being  the  first  attempt  to  unite  the  contemplative  and   cans  of  the 
activ^e  hfe.     This  is  the  Congregation  of  the  Dominican  tion. 
Sisters  of  Charity  of  the  Presentation  of  the  Holy  Virgin, 
founded  by  Mere  Poussepin,  a  Dominican  tertiary,  and  by 
a  Dominican  father,  in    1684.      This  large  community, 
numbering  3300  in  France  alone,  is  devoted  to  all  the 
works  of  charity  ;    having  creches,  schools,  invalids,  and 
tending  the  leprous.      Their  houses  are  to  be  found  in 
Colombia  and  Bagdad.     They  have  400,000  children  in 
their  care.     The  habit  is  the  Dominican,  with  a  black 
apron  indoors,  and  the  stiff  white  cap  or  cornette  in  place 
of  guimpe  and  veil.     Their  house  in  Rome  is  the  Villa 
della   Presentazione,   Via   Milazzo,    where    they   receive 
invalids,  and  take  pensionnaires* 

The  Dominican  Friars  were  introduced  into  England   Order  in 
in  the  lifetime  of  S.  Dominic  by  Gilbert  de  Fresnoy,  to   England. 
whom  he  entrusted  the  formation  of  an  English  Province. 
They  were  there  known  as  Black-friars,  and  were  settled 
in  the  district  near  S.  Paul's  still  called  after  them.     In 
France  they  were  called  Jacobins. 

The  original  dress  of  the  Dominicans  was  that  worn  Habit, 
by  S.  Dominic  as  Canon  of  Osma  Cathedral,  "  a  white 
tunic,  and  linen  rochet,  and  in  choir  a  black  mantle." 
This  was  slightly  changed  in  the  saint's  own  lifetime,  and 
a  scapular  substituted  for  the  surplice,  in  obedience  to  a 
vision  of  the  Madonna  with  which  one  of  the  brethren 
was  favoured.  So  they  speak  of  the  Dominican  scapular 
as  "  woven  by  the  hands  of  the  true  mulier  fortis  for  the 
members  of  her  household."  The  tunic,  scapular,  and 
capuce  are  white,  in  shape  like  those  of  the  Augustinians, 
the  cowl  is  pointed ;  over  this  a  black  cloak  and  hood  is 
worn,  called  the  cappa.     The  cappa  is  now  a  peculiarly    Cappa. 


*  This  Congregation  must  not  be  confused  with  Mere  Rivier's 
Sisters  of  the  Presentation  of  Mary,  founded  at  \iviers  on  November 
21,  1796.  The  \'en.  Marie  Rivier  was  called  by  Pius  IX.  "the 
apostolic  woman."  The  Congregation  is  numerous  in  France  and 
Belgium  and  joins  active  works  of  charity  and  missionary  labours  to 
the  work  of  education. 


176      CHRIST  I  AX  AXD  ECCLESIASTICAL   TOME 

Dominican  garment :  it  is  worn  from  All  Saints'  day  till 
the  "Gloria"  on  Easter  Eve,  and  by  friars,  nuns  and  lay 
brethren  for  communion,  and  at  all  great  solemnities. 
This  is  nothing  else  but  the  cappa  nigra,  a  black  mantle 
or  open  cope,  worn  for  centuries  by  cathedral  and  colle- 
giate clergy  in  choir.  Hence  its  use  among  canonical 
clergy  was  identical  with  that  of  the  monastic  cuculla. 

The  dress  of  nuns  is  the  same  as  that  of  friars,  but 
they  wear  a  black  veil  and  whimple  in  place  of  the 
capuce.  Male  novices  wear  the  full  habit  of  the  Order, 
but  women  wear  a  white  veil.  Both  wear  the  unblest 
scapular.  Lay  brethren  and  sisters  wear  a  black  instead 
of  a  white  scapular,  the  former  a  black  instead  of  a  white 
capuce,  and  the  latter  a  white  instead  of  a  black  veil. 
The  Third  Order  wear  a  habit  identical  in  all  respects 
with  that  of  the  I.  and  II.  Orders,  except  that  the  vien  do 
not  wear  a  scapular.  All  Dominicans  wear  a  rosary, 
shoes  and  white  stockings,  and  the  men  wear  the  priest's 
hat. 
In  Rome.  The  General  of  the  Dominicans   {Afagiskr  Ordinis) 

resides  at  the  Convent  of  S.  Maria  sopra  Minerva.  The 
other  Dominican  houses  in  Rome  are  :  S.  Sabina  ;  S.  Cle- 
mente  ;  and  SS.  Quirico  e  Giulitta.  Outside  the  walls, 
the  Church  of  the  Santo  Rosario  on  Monte  Mario ;  and 
a  vigna  on  the  Via  Praenestina  which  belongs  to  the  Irish 
friars  of  S.  Clemente.  The  Dominicans  are  also  the 
Penitentiary  priests  of  S.  M.  Maggiore  (with  residence  at 
the  Canonica),  and  may  be  seen  in  the  confessionals 
there  in  the  penitential  seasons,  and  during  Holy  Week. 
The  houses  of  the  II.  Order  are  :  SS.  Domenico  e  Sisto. 
The  nuns  moved  here  from  S.  Sisto,  161 1  ;  S.  Caterina  a 
Magnanapoli,  close  by ;  *    and   the  Annunziata    in   the 

*  These  nuns  came  from  S.  Chiara  near  the  Minerva,  where  the 
original  "Sucre  di  S.  Caterina"  lived.  (See  Part  I.,  Saints' 
Rooms,  p.  354.)  They  gradually  increased  the  monastery,  buying 
the  land  which  includes  the  Torre  dclle  Mih/.ie,  and,  after  receiv- 
ing the  visit  of  5  Florentine  Sisters  of  the  IT.  Drder,  adopted  this 
Rule  in  place  of  the  Tertiary.  Napoleon  dispersed  them,  but 
they  returned  5  years  later.     The  house  is  now  sequestrated,  and 


FRIARS  177 

Piazzetta  del  Grillo.  Third  Order  :  S.  Sisto  Vecchio  :  the 
community  now  restored  to  this  ancient  Dominican  site 
was  founded  a  few  years  ago  by  a  lady  from  Palermo  ; 
Nursing  Sisters  in  Via  degli  Artisti  i  7  and  Via  Panetteria 
51  (they  wear,  like  Spanish  Dominicans,  a  crucifix  on 
the  breast)  ;  the  English  Dominican  Nursing  Sisters,  via 
Napoli  67  A.,  who  are  clothed  secular  Tertiaries. 
There  are  no  men  Tertiaries  in  Rome. 

s.  DOMINIC.     Emblems  :  Star  on  the  forehead,  in  allusion    Dominican 
to  the  "  certain  radiance  "  on  his  brow  which  those  saw   S^'P's  and 
who  looked  on  him  intently,  and  to  the  legend  that  his   emblems 
godmother  when  she  took  him  at  the  font  saw  a  splendid   in  Art. 
star  descend  on  him  ;  the  dog  and  torch  ;  a  lily  ;  a  book. 

s.  CATHERINE  OF  SIENA.  Next  to  S.  Dominic.  the  greatest 
figure  in  the  Order,  the  reviver  of  its  spirit  in  the 
XIV.  century,  was  Catherine  Benincasa,  S.  Catherine  of 
Siena,  her  father  being  a  dyer  in  that  city  where  she 
was  born  in  1347.  A  visionary  child,  a  lover  of  soli- 
tude and  austerity,  she  rejected  the  many  suitors  whom 
her  parents  pressed  her  to  accept,  and  in  1362  was 
received  among  the  Mantellate,  a  company  of  widows  Manteilate. 
of  the  Third  Order  of  vS.  Dominic.  It  is  this  com- 
pany which  she  formed  into  the  Tertiaries  afterwards 
called  Suore  di  Santa  Caterina.*  By  the  time  she  was 
24  all  called  her  "  Mother,"  and  her  confessors  styled 
themselves  her  *'  sons "  as  they  were  her  disciples.  So 
unlearned  that  she  had  never  been  taught  to  read  and 
write,  she  became  a  writer  of  singular  beauty,  force  and 


when  the  number  of  nuns  dwindles  to  6  will  be  abolished.  The 
sequestrated  income  of  the  monastery  was  45,000  lire  annually 
(;if  iSoo)  :  each  choir  nun  now  receives  50  lire  a  month  (^2)  and 
each  lay  sister  25 ;  an  expense  to  the  Government  of  some  ^^300  a 
year.  Part  of  the  building  is  converted  into  a  Barrack,  but  the 
nuns  have  nothing  to  complain  of  on  the  score  of  courtesy  and 
kindness  from  the  soldiers. 

*  See  p.  116,  Jootiio/e.  The  Institute  for  decrepit  poor  by  the 
Porta  Laterina,  Siena,  is  in  charge  of  Dominican  Sisters  who  wear 
the  same  dress  as  S.  Catherine. 


ijS      CNRISTIAX  A.VD   ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 

distinction.  Her  letters  to  nuns,  priests,  notables,  sove- 
reigns, and  the  pope,  were  usually  dictated,  and  she  would 
dictate  three  important  epistles  at  a  time,  walking  up  and 
down  in  the  midst  of  her  scribes,  and  never  having  occa- 
sion to  alter  the  sentences  thus  written.  Her  language 
is  never  that  of  controversy ;  her  theological  accuracy 
has  been  the  marvel  of  her  critics.  As  a  spiritual  guide 
she  was  preeminent,  no  mannerism  of  piety  could  de- 
ceive her,  and  like  so  many  great  saints  she  was  a  dis- 
cerner  of  spirits.  She  understood  instinctively  those 
devices  by  which  souls  are  won  to  self-realisation,  had 
that  delicate  touch  which  awoke  in  her  hearers  unreal- 
ised possibilities  in  themselves.*  But  not  only  by  preach- 
ing did  she  fulfil  the  Dominican  ideal  of  a  union  of  the 
mystical  and  laborious  life.  The  rebellion  of  Florence 
against  the  Holy  See,  the  exile  at  Avignon  which  sapped 
the  strength  and  decorum  of  the  Church,  drew  Catherine 
into  that  arena  of  political  life  in  which  she  played  the 
Brings  the  most  distinguished  part  of  her  century.  Catherine  went 
Pope  back  to  Avignon,  and  had  a  remarkable  series  of  interviews 
to  Rome.  ^^j^j^  ^.j^^  pope  and  the  cardinals.  She  expressed  her 
sorrow  to  Gregory  XI.  at  finding  the  Roman  court  so 
stained  with  vice  ;  and  when  he  asked  her  how  she  had 
gained  in  a  few  days  so  much  knowledge  of  its  manners, 
"  Suddenly  changing  her  attitude  of  profound  humility 
and  reverence,  she  raised  herself  with  an  air  of  majesty, 
and  said  '  To  the  honour  of  God  I  will  dare  to  say  that  I 
was  more  conscious  of  the  infection  of  the  sins  com- 
mitted in  the  Court  of  Rome  when  I  dwelt  in  my  native 
city,  than  those  are  who  daily  commit  them.'  "  f  As  we 
know,  she  prevailed  on  the  pope  to  return  to  Rome, 
which  she  entered  with  him,  as  he  feared  his  own  weak- 
ness and  the  hostility  of  his  cardinals. 
Catherine  The  Church,  declared  Catherine,  needs  no  reform  ;  but 
and  the        only  its  ministers  and  pastors.     It  fell  to  her  lot  to  rebuke 

reform  of 

the  cleigy.  ^  „  ^^  ^^^  voice,  nay  only  looking  upon  her,  hearts  were  changed." 

For  her  preaching,  with  papal  faculties,  see  Part  II.,  p.  i86. 

t  Narrative  of  Fra  Raimondo,  her  biographer  anil  confessor,  who 

accompanied  her  to  Avignon. 


FRIARS  179 

the  scurrilous  lives  of  the  priesthood,  of  men  stained 
with  every  species  of  vice,  swashbuckling  priests  who, 
dressed  in  secular  costume,  went  about  with  a  sword  at 
their  sides,  picking  up  quarrels.  These  priests  are  "  fiori 
puzzolenti  nel  giardino  della  santa  Chiesa,"  stinking  flow- 
ers in  the  garden  of  holy  Church.  In  her  "  Dialogue  " 
she  writes  :  "  My  anointed  ones  .  .  .  have  made  My  Church 
into  a  stable,  and  lie  there  in  filth."  To  them  she  applies 
the  words  of  Christ's  warning  against  false  prophets,  and 
calls  them  wolves  in  sheep's  clothing ;  and  writing  of  the 
flock  so  betrayed,  says  :  "  It  is  no  cause  of  trouble  to  you 
that  the  invisible  devil  should  carry  them  off,  you  your- 
selves being  visible  devils,  and  the  means  by  which  they 
are  sent  to  hell."  Again,  of  bad  pastors  she  finely  says  : 
"  They  see  and  understand  nothing  but  the  shell  of  the 
letter." 

Catherine  died  on  April  29,  1380,  aged  2,3,  ',  having  done 
a  strenuous  work  of  reform  in  Italy  at  the  same  time  that 
Wyclif,  who  died  in  1384,  was  similarly  employed,  in  his 
own  way,  in  England. 

In  Art,  her  emblems  are  the  lily,  a  crown  of  thorns,  and  In  .\rt. 
a  book  ;  and  she  is  the  only  woman,  as  Francis  is  the  only 
man,  represented  with  the  stigmata,  which  in  her  case  ap- 
pear as  rays  of  light  darting  from  the  hands.  Her  body 
lies  in  Rome,  at  the  Minerva  ;  the  head  in  Siena.  Feast 
day,  April  30  (canonised  1461). 

Other  great  Dominican  Saints  are  :  s.  thomas  AQtriNAs,  of 
Aquino  in  the  Kingdom  of  Naples,  12 25-1 2 74,  the  "An- 
gelic Doctor."  Emblems:  sun  on  breast;  books;  ink- 
horn  and  pen  ;  sacramental  cup  in  allusion  to  his  office  for 
Corpus  Christi.  (March  8.)  s.  peter  martyr,  1205-1252, 
assassinated  by  two  men  of  the  sect  of  the  Cathari  whom 
he  had  persecuted.  Gash  on  the  head;  or  pierced  through 
with  a  sword ;  palm.  His  xiv.  century  tomb  is  at  Sant' 
Eustorgio  at  Milan.  (April  29.)  s.  vincent  feerer,  1357- 
1419,  the  great  preacher  and  missioner  ;  endowed  with 
the  gift  of  tongues,  so  that  all  who  heard  understood 
him  ;  born  in  Spain,  died  in  Brittany.  A  crucifix ;  some- 
times wings  as  a  messenger  of  good  tidings.    (April  5.) 


iSo      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 

s.  RAYMTiND  or  PENNAFORT,  1175-1275  (caiioiiised  1601),  to 
whom  the  Constitutions  in  their  present  form  are  due. 
Borne  on  the  sea,  on  his  black  mantle,  in  allusion  to  the 
alleged  miracle  of  his  return  to  Spain  with  his  cappa  as  a 
boat,  when  James  el  Conquistador  had  forbidden  any  ship 
to  leave  the  port  of  Majorca.  (January  23.)  See  also 
Part  IV.,  p.  455.  s.  HYACINTH  OF  POLAND,  ob.  1257  (cauoniscd 
1 5 94 ) .  Crucifix  ;  pyx ;  also  walking  on  the  swollen  waters 
of  the  river  Dniester  in  Russia.  (August  i6.)  s.  lewis 
BERTRAND,  1526-1581,  Spaniard,  and  missionary  in  Peru. 
Crucifix,  as  a  preacher.  (October  9.)  s.  rose  of  lima, 
1586-1617,  the  first  American  canonised  saint.  Third 
Order.  Crucifix ;  crown  ofi  thorns;  shower  of  roses. 
s.  AGNES  OF  montepulciano,  ob.  1317,  aet.  43  ;  buried  in  the 
Dominican  church  at  Orvieto.  (April  20.)  B.  Henry 
Suso  the  mystic,  and  S.  Catherine  Ricci  are  2  more 
of  this  Order's  saintliest  names.  Four  popes  have  been 
Dominicans  :  B.  Benedict  XI.  ;  B.  Innocent  V. ;  S.  Pius  V. 
(canonised  171 2,  lies  at  S.  M.  Maggiore)  ;  Benedict  XIII. 
Albertus  Magnus,  Savonarola,  and  Fra  Angelico,  are  among 
its  historic  names  ;  while  in  modern  times  Henri  Lacor- 
daire  took  the  Dominican  habit  and  was  the  means  of 
re-introducing  the  religious  Orders,  at  a  time  when  France 
had  forgotten  the  appearance  of  a  habit  and  cowl. 
Badge.  The  badge  of  the  Order  is  the  complicated  coat  given 

on  p.  138,  and  the  Cross  of  the  Holy  Office,*  gyronny 
sable  and  argent,  a  cross  fleury  counterchanged.  Motto  : 
Veritas.  The  badge  of  the  dog  with  the  torch  in  its 
mouth,  alludes  to  the  dream  of  Joanna  d'  Aza  that  she 
brought  forth  a  black  and  white  dog  with  a  flaming  torch 
in  its  mouth.  The  Dominicans  are  sometimes  repre- 
sented in  art  as  dogs,  for  the  zeal  of  the  friars  in  hunting 
out  heresy  gained  for  them  the  canting  name  of  Domini 
canes,  or  "  dogs  of  the  Lord." 
Dominican  The  Dominican  Order  though  Spanish  in  origin  was 
Mass.  founded   in    France,   and    the   friars'    mass    retains   the 

peculiarities   of  the   Southern    French   rite   which    they 

*  See  Part  TV.,  p.  456. 


FRIARS  i8i 

adopted.  In  low  mass  the  Gifts  are  prepared  before- 
hand, the  priest  ascending  the  altar,  laying  out  the  cor- 
poral, blessing  the  water,  preparing  the  chalice,  and  then 
covering  all  over  with  the  pall.  He  opens  the  missal  at 
the  epistle  side,  returns  to  the  centre  and  puts  back  the 
amice  with  which  his  head  has  been  covered,*  laying  back 
the  hood  also  :  then  he  says  silently  the  collect :  "  Prevent 
us  O  Lord  in  all  our  doings,"  and  descends  to  begin  mass. 
The  shortened  Confiteor  f  is  said  on  the  step  below  the 
predella,  preceded  by  the  Versicle  Confitemini  Domino 
quotiiam  bo7uis.  R.  Qitoniain  in  scEcuIiim  misericordia 
ejus.  At  the  words  Adju  tori  urn  nostrum  he  ascends  to 
the  altar,  and  does  not  recite  the  Oramus  te,  but  the  Aufer 
a  7iohis  in  its  place.  The  Iniroit,  Gloria  and  Creed  are 
all  begun  at  the  centre,  the  first  2  being  completed  at 
the  epistle,  the  last  at  the  gospel,  side  \  and  the  saluta- 
tion after  the  Gloria  is  made  from  the  epistle  corner. 
In  the  creed  the  priest  returns  to  the  centre  and  kneels 
for  the  usual  words  :  et  incarnatus  est.  At  the  Offer- 
tory he  lifts  the  veil  and  pall  from  the  Gifts  and  recites 
the  words  which  appear  in  the  Latin  rite  at  the  Com- 
munion :  Quid  retribuam  .  .  .  Calicem  salutaris.  Then 
he  lifts  the  chalice  with  the  host  and  paten  :  Suscipe 
Sancta  Trinitas :  The  Lavabo  following,  and  then,  at 
the  centre,  the  prayer :  /;/  spiritu.  \  After  the  Orate 
fratres  he  says  :  "  O  Lord  hear  my  prayer  and  let  my  cry 
come  unto  thee,"  then  the  Seci'et.  At  the  next  variable 
portion  of  the  mass,  the  Communion,  the  arrangement  is  : 
Pax  Domini,  Agnus  Dei,  Hcec  Sacro-sancta  conimixtio. 
He  kisses  the  chalice,  and  gives  the  Pax  to  the  assistant, 
holding  the  pall  or  the  '  pax '  in  his  hand.  Only  the 
ante-Communion  \>xd.ytx  Do}nine  Jesu  Christi  is  said  :  the 
priest  does  not  beat  his  breast  either  in  the  Confiteor  or 
at  the  Domine  non  sum  dignus.  He  says  in  place  of 
Corpus  Domini  nostri,  "  Corpus  ct  sanguis  Domini  nostri 

*  See  Part  II.,  p.  99. 
t  Part  II.,  p.  15,  Sarum  rite. 

X  Cf.  the  arrangement  in  the  Latin  rite,  Part  II.,  pp.  28-32,  and 
with  p.  273  ibid. 


i82      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 

.  .  ."  and  then  communicates  silently  in  both  species.*  In 
common  with  the  Carthusians,  Carmelites,  and  the  Sarum 
rite,  the  hands  are  stretched  out  at  the  Canon,  and  at  the 
Anainnesis  ("unde  etmemores"). 

In  High  Mass  the  celebrant  kisses  the  Gospel  and  says 
the  words  "  Per  evaugelica  dicta  "  after  he  has  intoned 
^' Credo  in  unum  Deiun;''^  he  finishes  the  Creed  at  the 
gospel  side,  and  does  not  kneel  at  the  et  incarnatus  est, 
until  the  choir  sing  it.  He  says  the  Calicem  salutaris 
accipiam  on  receiving  the  Cup  from  the  deacon.  The 
words  at  the  Pax  are  :  Pax  tibi  et  ecclesice  sane  to:  Dei. 
All  these  particulars  occur  in  the  Limoges  missal.  (See 
Part  II.,  15,  43,  bo,  footnote.) 

S.    THERESA    AND   THE    CARMELITES. 

The  ancient  Order  of  Mount  Carmel  claims  to  follow 
the  Rule  of  the  prophet  Elijah,!  ^'"'d  that  its  friars  are 
members  of  a  body  of  solitaries  which  had  never  failed 
since  the  prophet's  day.  In  the  xn.  century  Berthold  of 
Calabria,  having  made  a  pilgrimage  to  the  Holy  Land, 
founded  a  company  of  hermits  on  Mount  Carmel,  on  the 
site  marked  by  tradition  as  the  abode  of  Elijah.     It  was 

1209.  joined  by  crusaders  and  pilgrims,  and  in  1209  a  Rule  was 

given  by  S.  Albert  Patriarch  of  Jerusalem,  confirmed  in 
1224  by  Honorius  III. 

In  1238  the  hermits  retired  from  Carmel  to  Cyprus, 
thence  to  Sicily  and  in  1240  to  England,!  and  4  years 
later  to  France  where  S.  Louis  established  them.  At  the 
first  Chapter  General,  held  at  Aylesford  in  1245,  Simon 
Stock,  an  Englishman,  was  chosen  General  of  the  Order.§ 

1247.  The  Rule  was  altered  by  Innocent  IV.  in  1247,  and  the 

*  Cf.  ibid.,  p.  50,  and  the  sentence  Quid  rclribiiain  omitted  here 
in  the  friar's  mass. 

t  I.  Kings  xviii.  19,  20,  42.  II.  Kings  ii.  3,  5,  7.  According  to 
the  legend,  Agabus,  one  of  the  rejected  suitors  of  the  B.  V.  M., 
retired  as  an  anchorite  to  Carmel. 

X  According  to  Helyot  they  came  from  Syria  to  England. 

§   Whitefriars  without  the  Temple  was  then  founded. 


FRIARS  183 

Order  was  assimilated  to  the  mendicants,  under  the  name 
of  Friars  of  our  Lady  of  Mount  Carmel.  In  the  2  suc- 
ceeding centuries  the  Order  suffered  considerably  from 
corrupting  influences  interior  and  exterior,  and  its  origi- 
nal severity  was  still  further  modified  by  Eugenius  IV. 
and  Pius  II.  In  1462  the  Venerable  Johan  Soreth  who  1462. 
endeavoured  to  reform  his  Order,  had  the  monastery 
doors  shut  in  his  face  at  Cologne,  and  was  eventually 
poisoned  at  Nantes.  It  was  during  this  General's  rule 
that  he  applied  for  and  obtained  permission  to  enrol 
"  virgins,  widows,  and  beguines,"  as  did  the  Augustinians 
and  Dominicans  ;  and  by  virtue  of  a  Bull  of  Nicholas  V., 
circa  1452,  the  first  monasteries  of  women  were  founded 
in  France ;  and  it  is  to  a  woman's  reform  of  it  that  the 
strength  and  preservation  of  the  Order  are  entirely  due. 

S.  Theresa  is  herself  the  greatest  of  the  many  great  S.  Theresa 
figures  of  the  epoch  of  the  catholic  reaction,  and  the  of^^iia. 
greatest  intelligence  it  produced.  Her  '  reform  from 
within '  the  Church  consisted  in  rekindling  monastic 
asceticism,  in  restoring  the  original  spirit  of  the  cloister 
throughout  Europe.  She  was  born  of  noble  Spanish 
parents,  at  Avila  on  March  25,  15 15.  Her  full  name, 
with  those  of  her  mother's  family,  was  "  Doiia  Teresa 
Sanchez  Cepeda  Davila  y  Ahumada  (in  Religion  Teresa 
of  Jesu).  Left  motherless  when  she  was  13,  she  was 
placed  by  her  father  with  the  Augustinian  nuns  at  Avila. 
Her  young  mind  had  been  fed  on  romances  of  chivalry 
for  which  there  was  a  veritable  passion  in  the  Spain  of 
her  day.  She  hated  the  restriction  of  the  convent  and 
was  "  very  uncomfortable,"  but  in  8  days  found  herself 
much  more  contented  than  at  home.  After  a  visit  to  an 
uncle  who  later  became  a  Religious  she  decided  to  force 
herself  to  embrace  the  same  state,  and  a  long  interior 
struggle  ensued.  .At  this  time  she  says  of  reading  "  that 
gave  me  life  "  ;  and  the  Bollandists  tell  us  that  she  always 
despised  books  of  inferior  note.  Eventually  she  asked 
admittance  at  the  convent  of  the  Incarnation  outside 
Avila  on  November  2,  1533.  This  was  a  Carmelite 
house.     The  Mitigated  Rule  practised  here  was  so  lax 


1 84       CHRIST  TAX  .LVD   ECCLESTASriCAL   ROME 

that  it  permitted  an  almost  completely  worldly  life  to  be 
led  by  the  inmates.  She  made  her  profession  in  1536; 
and  here  she  lived  for  32  years,  during  the  last  3  of  which 
only  was  she  Prioress. 

It  is  difficult  in  a  few  words  to  present  an  idea  of  the 
character  of  one  whom  Harriet  Martineau  agreed  "  with 
Bossuet  in  thinking  one  of  the  most  interesting  of  the 
saints  of  his  Church."  She  has  left  herself  portrayed  in 
one  of  the  two  great  spiritual  autobiographies  which  have 
been  given  to  the  w^orld.  We  there  see  her  revealed  as 
first  a  human  being,  a  strong  great  and  winning  soul,  fit 
material  for  a  saint.  No  one  was  ever  more  truthful  and 
sincere  than  Theresa.  To  her  sincerity  she  added  a 
humility  as  great ;  unaffectedly  she  esteemed  herself  of 
no  account.  To  these  great  qualities  was  added  a  high 
sense  of  honour.  Lacordaire  said  that  however  beautiful 
the  name  of  Chretien,  he  always  prized  that  of  honnete- 
homme ;  Theresa  would  not  have  expressed  this;  for 
herself  she  could  not  have  conceived  the  absence  of  this 
character.  Her  natural  droiture  was  the  secret  of  all  her 
triumphs  and  all  her  courage.  Just  before  her  active  life 
began,  she  had  ceased  to  find  any  comfort  in  friends. 
"To  converse  with  anyone  is  worse,  for  the  devil  then 
sends  so  offensive  a  spirit  of  bad  temper,  that  I  think  I 
could  eat  people  up."  "  From  a  stupid  and  too  apparent 
devotion,  Lord  deliver  us  !  "  exclaimed  Theresa  :  and 
when  she  began  admiring  the  streets  of  Madrid,  and  ask- 
ing trivial  questions,  the  Spanish  ladies  who  hatl  flocked 
to  see  her  decided  she  was  no  saint. 

For  16  years  Theresa   endured   a  terrible   aridity  of 
soul ;  neither  her  faith  nor  the  sacraments  brought  her 
any  consolation.     She   persevered  with   a  great-hearted 
courage,  and  was  rewarded  with  perhaps  more  joy  and 
consolation    in    mental    prayer — in    the    words    of    a 
biographer   "  a  greater  weight  of  grace    and    glory  "  — 
Theresa        than  has  fallen  to  the  lot  of  any  other.     Theresa  is  the 
and  mysii-     greatest  exponent,  the  greatest  doctor,  of  mystical  the- 
o^ogy.*^'         "logy-     "Its  noblest  representative,"  her  mysticism  com- 
pared with  that  of  her  followers  is  "  like  a  majestic  river  " 


FKI.l/^S  1 85 

beside  "a rushing  torrent  or  an  impoverished  streamlet."  * 
None  of  the  mystics  "  attained  to  her  mingled  passion 
and  simplicity."  "La  presomption  est  le  p(^che  mignon 
des  mystiques,  a-t-on  dit.  Exceptons  Ste.  Therese  :  elle 
a  trop  d'humilite,  humilite  qui  proc^de  de  sa  foi,  mais 
aussi  d'un  rare  bon  sens."  f  It  escapes  the  Scylla  and 
Charybdis  of  pantheism  and  quietism  :  her  realisation  of 
the  Person  of  Christ  made  the  one  impossible,  her  prac- 
tical teaching  as  to  life  the  other.  This  is  how  the  greatest 
mystic  in  history  speaks  to  her  followers  :  "  God  is  not 
satisfied  with  words  and  thoughts,  my  Sisters,  He  requires 
results  and  actions  .  .  .  the  love  of  God  does  not  consist 
in  shedding  tears,  or  in  that  satisfaction  and  tenderness 
which  w-e  ordinarily  desire  because  they  are  consoling  : 
it  consists  in  serving  God  with  courage,  in  acting  justly, 
in  practising  humility."  '*  Merit  does  not  consist  in 
fruition,  but  in  working,  suffering,  and  loving."  "  Faith 
without  works,  and  both  without  the  merits  of  Christ,  are 
nothing."  But  the  'seraphic  Theresa'  is  also  'the  saint 
of  common  sense.'  This  master  of  mystical  contempla- 
tion, this  "  geographer  of  the  unknown  regions  of  the  soul," 
recommends  us  to  be  comfortable  at  prayer,  and  illus- 
trates "  the  great  moral  truth  "  that  "  spirituality  perfects 
common  sense."  :J:  When  the  Constitutions  for  the  Re- 
form of  the  Carmelites  were  being  drawn  up,  she  is  pre- 
occupied with  the  question  of  cleanliness  in  the  Friaries. § 
"  For  the  love  of  God  take  care  that  there  be  all  fitting 
cleanliness  in  the  beds  and  table  linen  of  the  friars,  what- 
ever expense  it  may  entail.  For  lack  of  cleanliness  is  a 
terrible  thing.  I  am  decidedly  of  opinion  that  this  ought 
to  be  ruled  by  a  Constitution,  and  indeed,  being  what 
they  are,  I  doubt  whether  a  constitution  will  be  sufficient." 
Not  the  least  of  the  glories  of  this  woman,  is  that  in  a 
hard-featured  age  she  was  pitiful  :  her  pity  in  that  century 

*  "  Life  of  S.  Theresa."     Macmillan  &  Co.      1S75. 
t  Rousselot,  Ll's  Mystiques  F.spapiols. 

X  Cardinal  Manning,  Preface  to  the  Life  of  S.  Theresa.     Hurst 
&  lilackett.    1865. 

§  See  ante.  Chap.  IL,  p.  61. 


i86      CHRISTIAN  AND   ECCLESIASTICAI   ROME 

is  one  of  the  marks  of  her  greatness.  "  S.  Theresa  and 
the  Inquisition  !  "  exclaims  Rousselot,  "  the  mind  can 
scarcely  bring  them  together  or  associate  them  in  any 
common  action,  however  limited  .  .  .  yet  ...  it  was  in  the 
classic  country  of  the  Inquisition  that  a  teaching  like  that 
of  the  nun  of  Avila  was  ardently  embraced  and  valued." 
"  Her  soul  was  restless,"  writes  her  biographer  and 
panegyrist,*  "her  sex  weighed  on  her."  She  saw  the 
great  work  to  be  done,  and  longed  to  do  it.  The  course 
of  the  protestant  reformation  in  Spain  was  checked  by 
her  more  surely  than  by  that  inquisition,  with  which  she 
was  however  herself  threatened.  Nor  were  these  perse- 
cutions her  only  trials.  About  1560  she  made  the  cele- 
brated vow  "never  in  any  action  to  do  that  which  was 
the  less  perfect."  Though  her  nature  was  wonderfully 
free  of  scruples,  the  efforts  of  her  confessors  to  determine 
the  most  perfect  course  in  all  cases,  made  this  vow  an 
intolerable  burden.  The  confessors,  she  says,  "did  my 
soul  much  harm."  Many  of  them  were  convinced  that 
her  method  of  prayer  was  the  work  of  the  devil,  and  it 
was  not  until  the  Jesuits,  and  especially  Francis  Borgia 
whom  she  saw  in  1557,  declared  her  work  to  be  that  of 
the  Spirit  of  God,  that  any  priest  was  found  to  under- 
stand her.  Indeed  her  account  of  the  confessors  and  the 
constant  general  confessions,  leaves  the  impression  that  a 
lesser  soul  than  Theresa  must  have  been  hopelessly  be- 
littled by  them. 

On  S.  Bartholomew's  day,  August  24,  1562,  she  opened 
her  first  monastery  of  Reformed  Carmelites.  Before  her 
death,  in  1582,  she  had  founded  32  houses,  17  for  women. 
The  first  house  for  men  was  founded  in  1568.  She  died 
full  of  joy  and  peace,  in  her  68'!'  year,  in  the  arms  of 
her  friend  and  constant  companion,  Anne  of  S.  Bartholo- 
mew, a  lay  sister  of  her  convent.  In  a  simple  and  beauti- 
ful narrative,  she  tells  us  that  having  left  the  room  for  a 
few  moments,  on  her  return  to  the  saint's  bedside  "  elle 
me  regarda  en  souriant,  et  me  t^moigna  tant  de  caresses, 

*  Juhannes  a  Jesu  Maria. 


FRIARS  187 

qu'elle  me  tira  aupres  d'elle,  et  se  mit  entre  mes  bras. 
Je  I'y  tins  quatorze  heures  entieres."  Thus  did  Theresa 
affirm  in  her  last  hours  what  she  expresses  so  well  in  a 
letter  to  a  nun  :  "our  human  nature  looks  for  a  return, 
nor  can  this  be  wrong  since  our  Lord  looks  for  it  from 
us  ...  it  is  an  advantage  to  us  to  resemble  him  in  any- 
thing, if  it  be  only  in  this  "  {i.e.  in  returning  human  love).* 
She  was  beatified  in  1614,  canonised  in  1622,  at  the 
same  time  as  Isidore  Agricola,  Ignatius  Loyola,  Philip 
Neri,  and  Francis  Xavier.  Her  body,  desecrated  and 
stolen  by  the  Carmelite  friars,  rests  at  Avila.  The  Bol- 
landists  give  more  space  to  her  life  than  to  that  of  any 
other  saint ;  it  occupies  600  folio  pages,  or  more  than  is 
occupied  by  the  lives  of  Jerome  and  Augustine  together, 
although  the  "  Confessions  "  of  tlie  latter  are  appended. 
It  fills  Volume  54  of  the  "Acta  Sanctorum,"  while  the  6 
preceding  volumes  for  the  month  of  October  contain  the 
lives  of  475  saints.  Her  works  are  :  The  Story  of  her 
Life  ( Vida)  ;  The  Way  of  Perfection ;  Story  of  her 
Foundations  {FoJidaciones)  ;  the  Interior  Castle  {Man- 
siones)  ;  Thoughts  on  Divine  Love  (burnt  to  please  one 
of  her  confessors)  ;  Meditadons  on  the  Pater  Noster ; 
Admonitions  to  Religious  ;  Guide  for  the  Visitor  to  the 
Cloister  of  Discalced  Nuns  ;  Exclamations  of  a  soul  to 
her  God,  1579;  Letters;  Cantici  ( C/is'i'^ ) ;  Constitutions 
of  the  Reform. 

The  Rule  of  the  Patriarch  Albert  consisted  of  16  arti-   The  Rule, 
cles ;  the  first  4  treated  of  the  Prior,  the  cells,  and  the 
location  of  the  prior's  cell ;  the  s'?"  required  the  Religious 
to  dwell  in  his  cell,  and  day  and  night  to  give  himself  to 
prayer.    Article  6  prescribes  the  recitation  of  the  canonical 

*  Anne  of  S.  Bartholomew  had  learnt  from  her  this  lesson  of 
friendship:  —  "I  was  afflicted  unto  death  when  I  reflected  that  I 
must  lose  her,  and  that  I  must  even  survive  her  .  .  .  her  presence 
was  my  whole  consolation  ...  I  served  her  in  everything,  ever  since 
my  vesting  .  .  .  and  although  I  had  the  happiness  to  rejoice  in  her 
companionship  for  the  space  of  14  years,  I  found  in  it  so  great  a 
pleasure,  that  it  seemed  to  me  I  had  not  had  this  joy  for  longer 
than  a  day." 


i88      C//AVS77.LV  AXD   ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 

Hours.  There  is  to  be  no  personal  property  ;  an  oratory 
is  to  be  built  in  the  midst  of  the  friars'  cells.  The  (f} 
article  deals  with  the  Chapter  and  penances  ;  and  the 
Io'^  and  ii'^  ordain  a  fast  from  Holy  Cross  day  till 
Easter,  excluding  Sundays,  and  perpetual  abstinence  from 
meat.  The  1 2'.*^  article  speaks  of  spiritual  armour  against 
the  evil  one,  the  13'^  ordains  labour  with  the  hands.  Si- 
lence is  to  be  observed  from  after  Vespers  till  Terce  the 
next  day.  The  2  last  articles  require  the  Prior  to  be 
humble,  and  that  the  Religious  treat  him  with  proper  rev- 
erence. This  Rule  was  expanded  by  the  Pope  into  28 
Chapters.  S.  Theresa  restored  the  original  Rule,  which 
is  distinguished  among  Religious  Rules  by  its  simplicity. 
Her  own  Constitutions  breathe  her  spirit  of  liberty.  Thus 
the  Religious  are  not  to  be  pressed  to  open  their  hearts  to 
their  superior  ;  all  is  to  be  voluntary  ;  and  the  government 
is  to  be  by  love.  The  houses  are  if  possible  to  be  without 
endowment,  the  beds  of  straw;  and  each  convent  was  to 
consist  of  13  members,  this  number  only  to  be  exceeded 
when  fresh  foundations  were  to  be  made  from  the  house. 
In  opposition  to  the  Augustinian  Rule,  the  Religious  are 
not  to  work  together,  in  order  that  silence  may  not  be 
broken  ;  and,  in  agreement  with  S.  Clare's  Rule,  special 
tenderness  is  to  be  lavished  on  the  sick,  who  are  to  "  sleep 
in  linen  and  have  good  beds."  The  love  of  the  Carmelite 
is  to  be  for  solitude  and  retirement  from  company  ;  there 
are  to  be  hermitages  in  the  garden,  and  the  nuns  are  to 
there  learn  "to  go  forwards."  There  are  to  be  no  high- 
sounding  names  for  the  prioress,  who  shall  share  in  all 
respects  with  the  others.  The  day  is  spent  in  frequent 
meditation,  in  the  recitation  of  the  Office,  and  the  work 
The  day.  of  the  house.  The  Religious  rise  at  5  in  the  summer  and 
6  in  the  winter.  After  an  hour's  prayer  the  Divine  Office 
is  recited,  followed  by  mass.  All  then  go  to  their  duties  ; 
and  of  these  Theresa  said  :  "  Know  that  even  if  you  are 
in  the  kitchen,  our  Lord  moves  among  the  pots  and  pans, 
helping  us  both  within  and  without."  A  little  before  din- 
ner, which  is  at  midday,  every  sister  wherever  she  may  be 
kneels  down,  at  a  given  signal,  "  and  makes  her  examen 


FRIARS 


189 


of  conscience  briefly."  At  2  Vespers,  and  an  hour's  spir- 
itual reading ;  Compline  is  said  at  5  in  winter  and  6 
in  summer,  and  absolute  silence  is  kept  from  then  till 
after  Prime  the  following  day.  At  8  there  is  an  hour's 
mental  prayer,  and  at  9  Matins,  Lauds  being  recited  next 
morning  with  the  4  following  Hours.  S.  Theresa  did  not 
wish  the  Religious  to  rise  at  night  for  Matins.  All  go  to 
bed  at  1 1.  For  2  hours  daily  the  Religious  meet  together 
for  converse  after  dinner,  and  after  supper.  All  fast  till 
dinner  time.  Flesh  meat  is  never  eaten,  and  the  nuns 
and  friars  fast  three-fourths  of  the  year.  The  Sisters, 
Theresa  tells  us,  found  the  Rule  light  on  many  points, 
"  and  so  they  have  other  observances,  which  we  have 
thought  necessary  for  the  more  perfect  keeping  of  it." 
Carmelite  nuns  are  strictly  enclosed,*  and  so  keep  the  Dwelling 
original  spirit  of  the  Rule  which  required  the  Carmelite  in  the  cell, 
to  dwell  continually  in  his  cell,  one  of  the  rules  mitigated 
by  Eugenius  IV.  in  143 1,  who  however  did  not  allow  him 
to  wander  beyond  his  enclosure.  But  no  such  rule  is  ob- 
served by  the  friars  at  the  present  day.  There  is  to  be  one 
monastery  in  each  province,  constructed  like  a  Chartreuse, 
and  in  some  solitary  place,  where  the  friars  may  retire 
from  time  to  time.  These  are  the  Carmelite  hermitages. 
The  number  of  Religious  has  now  been  increased  to  20, 
in  convents  subject  to  the  Order,  while  in  those  subject 
to  the  Diocesan  there  is  no  fixed  number.  Theresa  or- 
dained that  there  should  be  no  servants  ;  but  sceurs  and 
freres  converses  have  since  been  introduced.  Her  Con- 
stitutions were  approved  by  Pius  IV.  in  1562.  The  friars 
are  governed  by  a  General ;  but  many  of  the  nunneries  are 
under  the  Diocesan,  and  then  each  house  is  independent. 
The  separate  houses  are  ruled  by  priors  and  prioresses. 
When  the  Discalced  Carmelites,  or  Theresians,  migrated 
from  Spain  to  Rome,  where  Clement  VII.  had  offered  them 
the  monastery  of  La  Scala,  the  dissatisfaction  in  Spain  was 
so  great  that  the  Order  was  divided  into  2  Congregations, 

*  They  have  a  double  grille,  and  in  Lent  a  perforated  iron  door 
also.  They  keej)  their  veils  down  when  speaking  with  externs,  ex- 
cept in  the  case  of  relatives. 


Govern- 
ment. 


190      CHRISTIAN  AND   ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 


Calced 
Carmelites. 


Third 
Order. 


an  Italian  and  a  Spanish,  each  under  a  General.  These 
have  now  been  united.  Carmelite  postulants,  after  3  or  6 
months,  spend  a  year,  sometimes  more,  as  novices,  and  then 
make  their  profession  :  the  vows  are  made  in  the  Chapter- 
house, and,  in  the  case  of  women,  the  ceremony  of  receiv- 
ing the  black  veil  takes  place  soon  after.  In  the  latter 
case,  also,  the  Noviciate  begins  with  the  clothing,  when 
the  novice  comes  in  richly  dressed,  and  then  casting  away 
her  worldly  apparel  assumes  the  Carmelite  habit  and  a 
white  veil.  Widows  are  received  into  this  Order,  as  they 
are  also  among  the  Franciscans,  Dominicans,  and  Black 
Benedictines.  The  form  of  the  vow  is:  —  "I  N.  (reli- 
gious name)  make  my  profession  and  promise  obedience 
chastity  and  poverty  to  God  our  Lord  .  .  .  according  to 
the  primitive  rule  of  Mount  Carmel  which  is  without  miti- 
gation ;  and  this  until  death."  Carmelites  add  to  their 
own  baptismal  name  the  name  of  a  Saint,  with  the  prefix  S. 
When  S.  Theresa  reformed  the  Order  the  largest  number 
of  Carmelites  were  to  be  found  in  England, "where  in  Lon- 
don, Darlington,  and  Chichester  there  are  still  friaries  and 
nunneries.  Later  they  became  numerous  in  France,  the 
nuns,  who  were  introduced  there  by  Madame  Acarie,  being 
given  the  Priory  of  Notre  Dame-des-Charaps  ;  they  were 
known  as  the  Congregation  de  Ste.  Genevieve  on  account 
of  their  proximity  to  that  church.  To-day  they  number 
some  2800  in  France,  and  Carmelite  nuns  are  to  be  found 
besides  in  Belgium,  Italy,  Austria,  Russia,  Spain,  the  United 
States,  and  Peru. 

There  are  2  Carmelite  Generals  in  Rome.  During 
Theresa's  lifetime  a  schism  took  place  among  the  friars 
which  obliged  Gregory  XV.  to  divide  the  Reform,  placing 
Theresa  at  the  head  of  the  Barefoot  Carmelite  nuns  and 
Theresian  Fathers,  while  a  second  Order  with  a  separate 
organisation  and  distinctive  dress  existed  by  the  side 
of  Theresa's  Reform ;  and  is  called  "  of  the  Antica 
osservanza." 

There  is  also  a  Third  Order  for  men  and  women  ;  it  is 
governed  by  the  Order  and  its  members  wear  the  Car- 
melite habit.      The   Regular  Tertiaries  are  engaged  in 


FRIARS  191 

active  works  of  charity ;  both  men  and  women  {Padri 
Terziarii,  FratcUi  Terziafii,  Snore  Terziaric,  Snore  Terc- 
siane)  serve  as  Missionaries  in  India  :  there  are  Tertiary 
Fathers  of  the  Latin  Rite,  and  also  Syro-Malabaric  Car- 
melites. In  Dublin  a  Congregation  of  Tertiaries  have  an 
asylum  and  school  for  male  blind ;  they  are  under  a 
Brother  Superior.  Carmelite  Tertiary  Sisters  have  a  school 
at  Ripatransone  in  the  Marches,  and  have  recently  re- 
ceived from  the  Italian  government  the  silver  medal  for 
the  "notable  benefits"  they  have  conferred  on  the  edu- 
cation of  the  people.  In  Mission  Stations,  the  Third 
Order  is  subject  to  a  Bishop  of  the  Order.  Secular  Ter- 
tiaries of  both  calced  and  discalced  Carmelites  follow  a 
prescribed  mode  of  life ;  they  wear  a  girdle  under  the 
clothes.  They  can  be  received  in  Rome  as  usual  at  any 
Carmelite  Church. 

The  wearing  of  scapulars  by  secular  persons  originated  TheScapu- 
with  the  Carmelites.  The  scapular  consists  of  2  little  ^^^' 
pieces  of  dark  cloth,  joined  by  strings,  by  which  it  is  sus- 
pended round  the  neck  ;  *  it  forms  a  miniature  monastic 
scapular,  and  must  be  worn  day  and  night.  Those  who 
wear  the  scapular  of  an  Order  participate  in  its  prayers 
and  in  many  of  its  privileges.!  It  is  related  that  the 
Blessed  Virgin  appeared  in  1251  to  S.  Simon  Stock  at 
Cambridge,  when  the  Order  was  in  great  trouble,  and 

*  It  usually  has  a  picture  of  the  Madonna  del  Carmine  attached 
to  it. 

t  The  Scapular  of  Mount  Carmel  has  the  exclusive  enjoyment  of 
a  privilege  accorded  to  it  by  the  now  famous  '  Sabbatine  Bull '  of 
John  XXII.  "  Those  who  have  piously  worn  the  sacred  scapular 
of  Carmel  will  be  liberated  by  the  intercession  of  Mary  from  the 
flames  of  Purgatory  on  the  first  Saturday  after  their  death,  or  as 
soon  as  possible."  [There  is  naivete  in  this  addition  "  0  al  piii 
presto possibileP'\  It  is  claimed  that  this  '  Bull '  is  certainly  a  forgery. 
The  scandalous  promise  is  permitted  to  appear  in  all  the  publica- 
tions of  the  Carmelites,  and  was  confirmed  by  a  decree  of  the  Con- 
gregation of  the  Holy  Office  authorised  by  Paul  V.  in  1613,  which 
runs :  "  It  is  permitted  to  the  Carmelite  Fathers  to  preach  to  the 
people  that  they  may  piously  believe  .  .  .  that  the  most  Holy 
Virgin,  particularly  on  Saturday,  helps  their  souls  in  a  special  manner 
after  death." 


19: 


CHRISTIAA-    AXD   ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 


Other 
Scapulars. 


Habit. 


gave  him  a  scapular  which  she  bore  in  her  hands,  that  by 
it  "  the  holy  Order  might  be  known,  and  protected  from 
the  evils  which  assailed  it."  Later  on  the  Confraternity 
of  Carmel  was  formed.  Bossuet  says  of  the  scapular 
"  you  wear  it  as  a  visible  token  that  you  are  yourselves 
Mary's  children,  and  she  will  be  your  mother  indeed,  if 
you  live  in  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ."  Benedict  XIV.  says 
the  same,  but  speaks  of  the  abuse  to  which  these  badges 
had  given  rise  by  a  misplaced  confidence  in  them.  Other 
scapulars  are  given  in  imitation  of  the  scapular  of  Mount 
Carmel :  the  Trinitarians  give  a  white  linen  scapular  with 
a  red  cross  on  it ;  the  Servites  one  of  black  wool ;  the 
Theatines  have  the  scapular  "  of  the  Immaculate  Con- 
ception," of  light  blue,  instituted  in  the  xvi.  century  by 
Ursula  Benincasa  ;  the  Congregation  of  S.  Vincent  de  Paul 
give  a  scapular  "  of  the  Passion,"  which  is  red,  and  was 
instituted  in  Paris  in  1846  by  one  of  the  Sisters  of  that 
Congregation.  All  scapulars  are  blest  when  first  given, 
but  are  renewed  without  re-blessing. 

The  Carmelites  originally  wore  a  striped  brown  and 
white  cloak,  supposed  to  resemble  the  white  mantle  of 
Elijah  blackened  by  fire  as  he  cast  it  to  Elisha.  Hence 
the  Carmelites  were  called  in  France  les  Barirs.  At  the 
Council  of  London  in  1281  this  cloak  is  alluded  to  as  a 
carpita  :  frater profcssus  habeat  imam  carpitam.  It  was 
a  coarse  streaked  cloth,  and  is  the  origin  of  the  striped 
mantle.  In  Europe,  however,  the  friars  soon  changed 
this  for  a  black  {^iwiv  Imnuii)  tunic  and  scapular,  with  a 
white  mantle  —  the  Dominican  habit  reversed.  Hence 
in  England  their  name  of  White-Friars.  The  nuns  wear 
the  same  :  Brown  tunic  and  scapular,  a  white  mantle  in 
choir,  a  black  veil  in  place  of  the  hood.  S.  Theresa 
intended  her  nuns  to  go  barefoot,  but  eventually  ordered 
them  '•  sandals  of  hemp,  and,  for  decency,  stockings,  but 
of  frieze  or  hempen  cloth." 

The  Calced  Carmelites  w-ear  a  reddish-brown  tunic  and 

Carmelites,    scapular,  leathern   girdle,  and   a  cape  pointed   like   the 

Augustinians.     They  wear  the  rosary  as  do  the  discalced 

friars,  but   are   shod,  and   wear  the   clerical   hat   in   the 

streets.     In  winter  they  have  a  brown  cloak. 


Calced 


FRIARS 


193 


The  Discalced  Friars  have  their  Mother-house  in  the  in  Rome. 
Corso  d'  Itaha  39,  outside  Porta  Salaria,  the  residence  of  Discalced 
the  Provost-General.  Their  other  houses  are  S.  Maria  Fnars. 
della  Vittoria  in  Via  Venti  Settembre,  the  Madonna  della 
Scala  in  Piazza  della  Scala,  and  S.  Pancrazio  outside  the 
Gate  of  that  name.  This  used  to  be  a  school  of  languages 
for  Carmelite  missionaries,  but  one. /rate  only  now  remains 
there,  as  custodian  of  the  church.  The  nuns  subject  to  Nunneries, 
the  Order  are  established  at  S.  Egidio  in  Trastevere  ;  the 
nuns  of  the  monastery  of  S.  Theresa  on  the  Quirinal,  now 
pulled  down,  are  established  at  S.  Stefano  Rotondo : 
while  those  of  Regina  Coeli  (now  a  prison)  share  the 
house  of  the  SS.  Quattro  Incoronati  by  the  Lateran  with 
the  Augustinians.  Carmelite  nuns  subject  to  the  Cardinal 
Vicar  of  Rome  are  established  at  S.  Guiseppe  Capo  le  Case  ; 
and  another  community,  formerly  at  S.  Lucia  de'  Ginnasi, 
at  SS.  Pietro  e  Marcellino  Via  Merulana.  The  former  was 
founded  in  the  lifetime  of  Theresa,  and  the  church  was 
the  first  in  Rome  dedicated  to  S.  Joseph.  Part  of  the 
monastery  is  now  the  Industrial  Institute,  and  it  is  the 
property  of  the  municipality  to  whom  it  was  transferred 
by  the  Government.  At  the  latter  nunnery  is  established 
the  Association  of  prayers  for  the  souls  in  Purgatory  in 
relation  with  the  well-known  Turin  Society.  There  are 
also  Carmelites  at  S.  Brigida  in  Piazza  Farnese,  who  how- 
ever have  the  perpetual  adoration  and  are  not  strictly 
speaking  Theresian  Carmelites.  The  Mother-house  of 
the  Calced  Carmelites  is  at  S.  Maria  Traspontina,  in  the 
street  leading  from  Ponte  Sant'  Angelo  to  S.  Peter's  ;  here 
the  Prior-General  is  elected  every  6  years.  The  Noviciate 
for  the  present  is  in  the  Palazzo  delle  Convertendi  in 
Piazza  Scossacavalli  close  by.  They  also  hold  S.  Martino 
ai  Monti  on  the  Esquiline,  and  S.  Nicola  ai  Cesarini. 
The  Calced  Carmelite  nuns  {Barberine)  founded  by  the 
Barberini,  now  share  the  Canonesses'  Convent  at  S.  Puden- 
ziana.  Via  Agostino  Depretis  80.  There  are  no  houses  of 
the  Third  Order  in  Rome  ;  S.  M.  della  Concezione  by  the 
Liberian  Basilica  and  S.  Vito  belonged  to  Carmelite  Ter- 
tiary Sisters,  but  the  site  is  now  occupied  \>y  Maes tre  pie. 
o 


Calced 
Friars. 


194      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAI    ROME 

Carmelite  s.  THERESA,  second  Patroness  of  Spain  with  S.  James  the 

Saints  and  Apostlc,  is  often  represented  kneeling  in  an  ecstacy,  her 
biems^in'  heart  pierced  by  an  angel  with  an  arrow,  signifying  the 
Art.  fervour  of  her  love.     An  ugly  subject.     Or  she  appears 

writing,  the  Dove  at  her  ear,  symbol  of  inspiration,  as  in 
the  case  of  Gregory  the  Great ;  or  she  is  in  ecstacy,  the 
Dove  above  her.  Sometimes  she  ministers  to  a  sick 
child.  Besides  the  arrow  in  the  angel's  hand,  her  em- 
blems are  the  Dove,  and  writing  materials  ;  a  heart  with 

1.  H.  S.,  the  name  of  Jesus,  impressed  on  it ;  a  crucifix, 
lily,  and  crown  of  thorns.  (October  15.)  The  patriarch 
ALBERT  (ob.  12 1 2)  is  in  pontifical  robes,  and  bears  a 
palm,  because  he  was  assassinated  at  Acre  on  his  way 
to  the  Lateran  Council.  (April  8.)  s.  john  op  the  cross 
ob.  1 59 1,  the  disciple  of  S.  Theresa,  and  mystic,  who 
aided  her  in  the  reform  of  the  Order  of  friars,  appears 
with  her  before  the  Madonna ;  he  of  course  wears  the 
habit  of  the  Order,  and  his  emblems  are  the  crucifix, 

2,  pot  of  lilies,  and  his  books.  (Nov.  24.)  s.  simon  stock, 
in  the  habit  of  his  Order,  is  usually  represented  receiv- 
ing the  scapular  from  the  Madonna.  (May  16.)  s.  maria 
MADDALENA  de- PAzzi  1566-1607,  is  most  oftcn  represented 
inFlorence,  where  she  lived  and  died.  (May27.)  (Canon- 
ised XVII.  century.)  s.  andrea  corsini  1302-13 73,  Bishop 
of  Fiesole,  and  a  Carmelite  from  his  1 7'!'  year,  appears  in 
a  chasuble.  (February  4.)  (Canonised  1629.)  elijah 
appears  as  Patriarch  of  the  Order.  Barbe  Avrillot,  Madame 
Acarie,  known  in  the  Paris  of  her  day  as  "  la  belle  Acarie," 
introduced  the  Theresian  Reform  into  France.  She  with 
her  maid  lived  by  a  rule  in  the  midst  of  her  life  in  Paris  ; 
and  while  still  "  in  the  world  "  she  had  the  impression  of 
the  stigmata.  Afterwards  becoming  a  lay  sister  of  the 
Order,  this  highly  born  lady,  who  eschewed  all  singularity, 
and  guided  her  life  by  the  love  of  God,  was  ultimately 
canonised  as  S.  Mary  of  the  Incarnation.  Other  distin- 
guished Carmelites  were  Louise,  sister  of  Louis  XV.,  in 
Religion  Theresa  of  the  Incarnation,  and  the  nuns  of 
Compiegne,  who  died  with  triumphant  joy  at  the  Barri^re 
du  Trone  during  the  Revolution ;  the  whole  community 


PRIARS 


195 


preceding  their  Prioress  at  the  guillotine,  she  herself, 
last  and  alone,  continuing  her  daughters'  song  till  her 
voice  also  was  quenched  in  death.  So  Theresa's  children 
have  known  how  to  die. 

The  badge  is  a  Coat  of  arms  party  per  pile  transposed,  Badge, 
white  and  brown,  surmounted  by  a  ducal  crown  and  stars. 
La  Madonna  del  Carmine  is  often  represented,  she  spreads 
her  cloak  over  the  members  of  the  Order,  or  presents  a 
scapular  to  a  Carmelite.  Honorius  III.  styled  the  Order 
"  the  Family  of  the  Most  Blessed  Virgin,"  and  by  these 
pictures  the  legend  Decor  Carmeli,  Ornament  of  Carmel, 
is  often  placed ;  she  has  the  scapular  marked  with  a 
crowned  M,  or  the  badge  of  the  Order  in  her  hand. 
(  Feast  day,  July  i6.) 


THE    SERVITES. 

In  the  early  xiii.  century,  7  merchants  of  Florence  Servites 
used  to  go  daily  to  an  oratory  dedicated  to  the  Madonna, 
and  there  invoke  her.  The  Florentines  would  call  after 
them  "  Ecco  i  servi  di  Maria  "  '  Behold  Mary's  servants  ! ' 
On  the  feast  of  the  Assumption  1233  they  all  felt  con- 
strained to  give  their  lives  to  God,  and  the  foundation 
of  the  "  Religious  Servants  of  the  Holy  Virgin,"  or  Ser- 
vites, was  the  outcome  of  this  resolve.  The  basis  of 
their  rule  was  the  Augustinian ;  and  in  1487  Innocent 
VIII.  by  Bull  numbered  the  Servites  among  the  Mendi- 
cant Orders. 

In  1253  Philip  Benizi  joined  the  Order,  and  became 
its  General ;  to  him  is  due  its  great  expansion.  He  was 
a  Doctor  of  Medicine  at  Padua,  and  spent  32  years  in 
the  Order  in  which  he  was  celebrated  as  a  great  preacher 
and  a  great  peacemaker  ;  tender,  humble  of  heart,  and 
full  of  charity.  Juliana  Falconieri  co-operated  with 
S.  Philip  in  the  organisation  of  the  Order,  and  herself 
founded  the  Third  Order  of  Servites  or  Mantellate.  When 
Philip  came  to  die  '  He  found  none,  not  only  amongst 
women,  but  in  the  whole  Order,  more  fitted  than  Juliana 
to  be  its  propagator  and  moderator,  and  to  her  he  com- 


Philip 
Benizi. 


Juliana 
Falconieri. 


196      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 


Unenclosed 

Third 

Order. 


mended  it '  :  Nul/i  melius  qitam  JuliancB  non  feminas 
tantum,  scd  ei  totiim  Servoriim  ordinem,  cuius  propagator 
et  moderator  exstiterat,  commendatum  voluit*  Juliana's 
mother  Riguardata  founded  tlie  beautiful  Servite  church 
of  the  Annuiiziata  at  Florence,  j 

The  Third  Order  founded  by  Juliana  is  for  women,  and 
the  nuns  are  strictly  enclosed.  Towards  the  end  of  his 
life  S.  Philip  founded  an  enclosed  nunnery  of  Servites  at 
Porcharia  near  Narni,  but  it  is  no  longer  in  existence. 
There  are  nuns  in  Bavaria,  France,  and  Venice  who  call 
themselves  '  Second  Order,'  but  as  a  matter  of  fact  there 
is  no  Order  for  women  but  that  founded  by  Juliana  in 
1306.  The  Rule  she  gave  tliem  is  transcribed  in  full  in 
Martin  V.'  Bull  relative  to  the  Order  (1424).  After  a 
■year's  noviciate,  the  aspirant  promises  to  remain  for  life. 
In  addition  to  the  fasts  of  the  Church  the  nuns  fast  every 
Friday,  and  during  Advent ;  and  at  other  times  may  only 
taste  meat  three  days  a  week.  On  Sundays  and  feast 
days,  and  during  Advent  and  Lent,  they  rise  at  midnight 
for  Matins.  The  Servite  Order  was  restored  in  Germany 
by  the  Archduchess  Anne  Catherine  Gonzaga  (ob.  1622), 
wife  of  Ferdinand  and  mother  of  Anne  of  Austria  :  she 
built  a  House  of  the  Third  Order  at  Innspruck,  and  gave 
to  it  special  Constitutions  which  were  approved  by 
Paul  V. 

By  the  side  of  the  Majitellate  there  are  now  also  Servite 
Sisters  who  are  engaged  in  charitable  work,  orphanages 
and  schools,  for  which  they  beg.  They  are  called  Ser- 
vites of  the  SS'""  Addolorata,  or  Addolorate.  S.  Philip 
had  been  the  first  to  found  a  Sodality  of  the  Seven  Dol- 
ours, and  hence  the  name. 

There  are  also  Secular  Tertiaries  of  both  sexes,  and 
there  have  always  been  oblates  of  the  Order,  originally 
persons  converted  by  their  preaching.  The  Servites  have 
hardly  penetrated  to  France  ;  in  England  there  are  3 
women's  convents  (one  of  which  is  at  Arundel)  and   2 

*  Roman  Breviary,  for  her  feast  day. 

t  Decorated  by  Andrea  del  Sarto  at  the  time  that  the  habit  of 
the  Order  was  changed  from  white  to  black. 


Franciscan  Tertiary. 


FJ^IAKS 


197 


ccTnvents  of  men,  while  a  House  of  enclosed  ATantellafe 
has  just  been  founded  at  Eognor. 

The  Prior- General  of  the  Servites  resides  at  S.  Marcello  l"  Rome, 
in  the  Corso.  The  Order  is  also  established  at  S.  Maria 
in  Via  ;  and  at  the  College  of  S.  Alessio  Falconieri  in  Via 
S.  Nicola  da  Tolentino  31,  a  house  for  its  students.  The 
nuns,  Ma7itcUate,  have  moved  to  Via  S.  Giovanni  in 
Laterano  3,  from  Via  S.  Lucia  in  Selci  96.  There  are  no 
Sisters  of  the  Third  active  Order  yet  in  Rome. 

The  original  habit  was  a  white  tunic,  but  after  a  vision  Habit, 
vouchsafed  to  one  of  the  brethren  it  was  changed  to  black 
in  commemoration  of  Mary's  sorrow  and  of  Christ's  Pas- 
sion.* It  consists  of  a  black  tunic  with  a  leathern  girdle, 
a  black  scapular,  capuce  and  hood,  and  in  winter  a  black 
cloak.  The  stock  has  two  small  pieces  of  white  stuff  laid 
upon  it  in  front.  The  Servite  friars  are  barefoot  and 
bareheaded.  The  dress  of  the  Alantellaie  is  the  same ; 
but  the  Addolorate,  or  active  Order,  wear  under  the 
scapular  on  the  left  side  a  badge  representing  the  Host 
(see  infra,  S.  Juliana).  In  Germany  the  Archduchess 
Anne  Catherine  prescribed  the  white  veil  originally  given 
to  the  Alantellate  by  Juliana,  on  which  she  placed  a  blue 
star. 

Alonaldi,  Manetti,  Amidei,  Lantclla,  Ugticcioni,  Sostegni,  Servite 
and  Falconieri,  the  original  "  Sette  Servi  "  were  canonised 
by  the  present  pope.  (February  11.)  s.  philip  benizi, 
ob.  1285,  was  canonised  in  167 1,  beatified  a  century 
earlier.  Emblem:  the  tiara  he  refused.  (August  23.) 
s.  jtTLiANA  FALCONIERI,  1270-1340,  buricd  at  the  Annunzi- 
ata,  Florence  ;  canonised  in  1693.  Emblem:  \\\e  Host 
on  her  breast  in  allusion  to  her  last  Communion  ;  she 
could  not  communicate  sacramentally,  and  asked  that 
the  Host  should  be  placed  on  her  breast ;  this  was  done, 
and  she  received  it  miraculously,  its  impress  being  found 


Saints  and 
their  em- 
blems in 
Art. 


*  In  memory  of  this  vision  which  occurred  on  Good  Friday  1239, 
the  Servites  perform  on  that  day  the  ceremony  of  the  '  IJurial  of 
Jesus  Christ,'  followed  on  Saturday  by  '  the  Coronation  of  the  Holy 
Virgin.'  Until  the  time  of  Pius  V.  they  also  celebrated  an  evening 
mass  on  the  latter  dav. 


19S      CIIRISTIAX  AXD  ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 

when  she  died.    (June   19.)     Fra  Paolo  Sarpi,  the  his- 
torian of  the  Council  of  Trent,  and  Ferrari  the  architect, 
were  Servites. 
Badge.  The  device  of  the  Order  are  the  letters  S  and  M  sur- 

mounted by  a  crown  with  7  lilies  representing  the  7 
Founders. 

Privileges  The  Servites,  as  a  5'!'  Mendicant  Order,  share  with  the 
Me'^d'  T  other  4  the  privileges  granted  from  time  to  time  to  the 
Orders.  Mendicants.  The  General  of  these  Orders  has  a  place 
assigned  him  at  the  Cappelle  papali ;  and  on  the  Sundays 
and  feasts  of  Lent  and  Advent  they  provide  the  preachers 
for  the  Papal  Chapel.  At  the  obsequies  of  Cardinals, 
the  Dominicans  sing  the  Requiem  Vespers,  the  Francis- 
cans the  First  Nocturn,  the  Augustinians  the  Second  and 
the  Carmelites  the  Third  Nocturn  ;  while  the  Servites 
chant  Lauds. 

S.    FRANCIS   OF   PAULA   AND   THE   MINIMITES. 

Minimites.  S.  Francis  of  Assisi  wished  his  frati  to  be  called  the 
Lesser  Brethren,  S.  Francis  of  Paula  called  the  members 
of  the  Order  he  instituted  in  1436,  the  Least,  Minimites. 
Paola  is  in  Calabria,  here  S.  Francis  was  born  and  gave 
the  example  of  a  life  of  splendid  virtue.  In  his  humility 
he  thought  himself  the  least  of  all  men  ;  pure  of  heart 
and  life  he  denied  himself  all  things,  and  when  he  gave 
the  Constitutions  to  his  Congregation  bound  on  them  as 
a  4"*  vow  the  Observance  of  a  perpetual  Lent.  Louis  XL 
begged  him  to  go  to  France,  where  he  and  his  sons  were 
held  in  great  honour,  and  he  died  at  Tours  at  91  years 
old  in  1507.  Leo  X.  canonised  him  (15 19).  The  Order 
was  approved  in  1474. 

Rule.  The  Rule  is  based  on  the  Franciscan,  and  the  Religious 

are  Mendicant  friars.  They  are  divided  into  priests  and 
laics.  There  are  enclosed  nuns  of  the  Order  called 
Paolotte  ;  their  Rule  is  the  same.  There  is  still  a  con- 
vent of  the  Order  at  Fr^jus,  Var.  The  French  courtiers 
had  called  Francis  of  Paula  "  le  Bonhomme,"  in  derision, 


FRIARS 


199 


and  "  Bonhommes  "  became  the  title  of  affection  given  to 

tlie  friars  in  France.     The  church  of  the  Trinita  de'  Monti    In  Rome. 

was  founded  for  the  saint  and  endowed  by  Charles  VIII. 

of  France,  as  an  inscription  on  the  wall  of  the  Villa  Medici 

still  records.     Later  the  Mother-house  was  established  at 

S.  Francesco  di  Paula  near  S.  Pietro  in  Vincoli,  but  the 

monastery  is  now  secularised,  and  a  {&\n  frati  only  remain 

there.      The  present   Casa  genera/izia  is  at  S.   Andrea 

delle  Fratte,  where  they  succeeded  Augustinian  nuns  in 

1585  ;  the  Minimites  also  have  S.  Salvatore  in  Corte,  or 

della  Luce,  in  Trastevere  ;  and,  since  the  Carthusians  left, 

the  friars  officiate  the  church  of  S.  Maria  degli  Angeli.    The 

Sisters  are  at  the  church  of  S.  Bernardino  Via  Panisperna, 

entrance  Via  S.  Agata  de'  Goti.     The  habit  is  that  of  the   Habit. 

Minor  Conventuals,  with  a  shortened  scapular  to  which 

is  attached  a  small  round  hood.     It  is  tied  with  a  black 

cord,  hanging  down  the  front.    The  sleeves  have  a  pocket 

in  them.     The  priests  wear 

Paolotte  is  the  same,  with  a 

(enclosed)  wear  a  white  veil. 

S.  Francis  is  represented  very  old,  generally  hooded.  Saints. 
with  a  staff  in  his  hand.  He  wears  a  dark  tunic  and 
cord,  and  the  word  CJiaritas  appears  near.  Sometimes 
he  is  represented  walking  on  the  sea,  in  allusion  to  the 
legend  that  he  stretched  his  mande  on  the  sea  and  crossed 
to  Messina  from  Reggio.  He  has  2  companions  with 
him.  In  1562  his  shrine  was  rifled  and  his  ashes  burned 
by  the  Huguenots.    (April  2.) 

The  badge  of  the  Order  is  the  word  Charitas  in  a  glory.   Badge, 
It  signifies  the  ideal  of  the  frati  which  is  love  to  all  man- 
kind, themselves  "  the  least  in  the  Kingdom  of  God." 


a  hat.     The    habit  of  the 
black  veil ;  but  lay  sisters 


FRATELLI    DELLA    PENITENZA    {Scalzeiti). 

A  second  offshoot  of  the  Franciscans  is  the  Order  of 
Penance,  under  the  invocation  of  Gesu  Nazzareno,  hence 
the  frati  are  called  Nazzareni.  It  was  instituted  by 
Giovanni  Varela  y  Flosata,  a  Galician,  in  1752  ;  and  was 
approved  by  Pius  VI.  in  1 789.     The  frati  are  bound,  in 


FratelH 
della  Peni- 
tenza. 


200      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 

addition  to  the  3  vows,  to  sustain  the  dogma  of  the 
Immaculate  Conception.*  Their  duties  are  to  preach, 
and  to  render  assistance  to  the  dying  at  the  call  of  the 
parish  priest.  The  Order,  which  consists  of  priests  and 
lay  brethren,  is  to  be  found  in  Spain,  Portugal,  and  Italy, 

Habit.  and  has  hermitages  in  Piedmont.     The  habit  is  a  brown 

Franciscan  gown,  tied  with  a  blue  cord  ;  the  priests  have 

In  Rome,  an  additional  white  tassel.  In  Rome  the  FratelU  were 
given  the  church  of  S.  Maria  delle  Grazie  by  Porta 
Angelica ;  they  are  very  proud  of  the  miraculous  picture 
of  the  Madonna  of  that  name,  which  was  crowned  in 
1644.  Besides  this  church,  S.  M.  in  Macellum  belongs 
to  them. 

They  are  the  most  recent  male  Order  established  in 
Rome  with  the  exception  of  the  Concettini. 

Badge.  Their  device  is  a  Greek  cross  with  I.  N.  N.  R.  in  the 

corners,  Jesus  Nazarenus  Nostrum  Refugium  (Jesus  the 
Nazarene,  our  Refuge.) 

HOSPITALLERS   OF   S.    JOHN   OF   GOD. 

s.  John  of  S.  John  of  God,  born  in  1495,  was  a  Portuguese,  who, 
God,  and  wounded  in  battle,  determined  to  devote  his  life  to  God, 
bene-'^^'  ^"^1  on  his  recovery  became  the  servant  of  the  sick, 
fratelli.  John  was  not  learned  or  eloquent  or  powerful,  it  required 

a  vision  to  reveal  to  him  that  there  was  anything  great 
for  him  to  do  :  for  one  day  seeing  a  poor  man  left  on  the 
public  way,  pale  and  death-like,  John  ran  and  took  him 
in  his  arms,  and  carried  him  to  his  hospital,  where  he 
perceived  on  his  feet  the  print  of  the  Nails  !  Then  he 
lifted  a  trembling  gaze  to  the  stranger's  face,  and  it  seemed 
to  him  he  saw  the  features  of  his  Master.  John  fainted 
away,  and  in  his  heart  heard  sweet  words  of  encourage- 
ment and  appreciation  of  his  work  ;  and  when  he  came 
to  himself,  there  was  no  one  there. 

He  founded  (1538)  the  institute  of  the  Fate-bene-fra- 

*  The  favourite  Franciscan  dogma,  not  defined  as  of  faith  till 
1854. 


FJ^IARS  20I 

telli  "Do-good-brothers,"  hospital-frati,  originally  all  lay- 
men, who  tend  the  sick  at  their  convent  hospital,  and  have 
a  Pharmacy  attached  from  which  they  dispense  medica- 
ments to  the  poor.  John  himself  "  merited  to  be  called 
John  of  God."  He  died  in  1550  rising  from  his  bed  and 
embracing  the  cross  of  Christ  "  with  his  hand  and  with 
his  heart,"  and  dying  "in  osculo  Domini''''  was  numbered 
by  Alexander  VIII.  among  the  saints  who  are  publicly 
invoked  on  earth. 

The  Frati  are  counted  among  the  Mendicants.  They 
acquired  their  popular  name  from  the  inscription  which 
they  placed  on  the  alms  box  of  their  church  on  the  Island 
of  the  Tiber  :  "  Fate  bene,  fratelli  ! "  A  large  number 
of  the  friars  are  not  in  priests'  orders.  They  had  no 
Rule  till  after  the  founder's  death,  and  no  vows  till  1570. 
Some  300  are  to  be  found  in  France  and  England  ;  in 
the  latter  the  "  Brothers  of  S.  John  of  God "  have  an 
asylum  for  convalescent  men  and  boys.  The  Superior- 
General  and  the  heads  of  houses  have  the  style  of  Prior. 
Youths  and  men  may  be  received  as  Brothers  of  the 
Order  from  14  to  30  years  old. 

The  Mother-house  is  at  S.  Giovanni  Calibita,  a  church  in  Rome, 
dedicated  to  that  Basilian  monk  on  the  Island  of  the 
Tiber  (S.  Bartolomeo  all'  Isola  39),  and  here  they  have  a 
hospital  for  men  affected  with  acute  disease  ;  one  of  their 
number  is  well  known  for  practising  gratuitous  dentistry. 
S.  Giovanni  Calibita  still  belongs  to  these /raii  because 
it  was  bought  by  three  foreigners  a  few  years  ago,  and 
handed  over  to  their  administration.  The  habit  closely  Habit, 
resembles  the  Benedictine  :  the  tunic  cincture  and  scapu- 
lar are  of  a  thick  black  stuff,  the  last  is  very  wide  and 
has  the  hood  attached  ;  shoes  and  hat ;  in  winter  a  cloak 
may  be  worn.     No  rosary. 

S.  John  of  God  is  represented  in  tunic,  hood  and  cloak,   s.  Juan  di 
a  beggar  at  his  feet,  or  the  vision  of  a  radiant  child  with   l^'os. 
the />o mo  di  Granada  in  his  hand.     Sometimes  the  beds 
of  a  hospital  ward  are  in  the  background.     The  badge   Badge. 
of  the  frati,  a  pomegranate  surmounted  by  a  cross,  usually 
figures  in  the  picture.     (March  8.) 


202      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 

The  Augustinian  Hermits  form  a  4'!'  Mendicant  Order  ; 
the  Servites  counting  as  the  5*!^. 

The  former  are  described  among  Augustinians  in  Chap- 
ter IV. 

Those  companies  —  hermit  or  otherwise  —  which  are 
under  the  rule  of  S.  Augustine,  and  are  reckoned  as  Men- 
dicants, also  find  their  place  among  the  Augustinians  in 
the  same  Chapter. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

CANONS. 
AuGusTiNrAN  Canons  and  Augustinian  Friars  —  Ma- 

tricnlai-ii  —  the  Clergy  in  the  bishop's  house  —  Augustine  and 
Eusehius  of  Vercelli —  ChroJegang —  Chapter  of  Aix-la-Cha- 
pelle —  Yvoof  Chartres —  Canonesses —  Congregations  of  Regu- 
lar Canons — Habit  of  Canons  —  Augustinian  Hermits  — 
Augustinian  A'uns —  A'ule  of  S.  Augustine —  S.Jean  de  Matha 
and  the  Trinitarians — S.  Peter  Nolasco  and  the  Order  of 
Ransom  —  Order  of  S.  John  of  Jerusalem,  or  of  Malta  —  Her- 
mits of  S.  Jerome — of  S.  Paul  the  First  Hermit  —  Romites  of 
S.  John  Baptist—  Oblates. 

The  distinctively  Western  institution  of  canons  is  both 
older  and  younger  than  Western  monasticism,  an  historical 
nicety  expressed  in  the  precedence  of  monks  and  canons. 
the  latter  taking  precedence  of  the  monks  in  processions, 
when  they  are  dressed  as  clergy  in  tunic  and  surplice 
(rochet),  but  not  when  they  wear  the  cappa,  which  ranks 
them,  as  it  were,  with  Religious  Orders.  As  an  Order, 
also,  the  canons  occupy  a  place  midway  between  the 
manner  of  life  of  monks  and  that  of  the  clergy. 

A  list  of  persons  entitled  to  a  fixed  allowance  from  the  Matric 
common  ecclesiastical  fund  was  kept  from  the  first  by  the  larii. 
Christian  Church  ;  this  list  was  called  the  matricula.  It 
included  the  clergy  of  both  sexes,  the  consecrated  Virgins, 
the  old,  widowed  and  poor.  The  recipients  were  called 
Caiionici  or  Matricularii.  Thus  "  canons  "  is  one  of  the 
oldest  of  the  terms  applied  to  the  clergy,  signifying  all 
clerks,  presbyters,  deacons,  deaconesses,  lectors,  cantors, 
receiving  a  fixed  allowance.*     To  be  "  in  the  Canon  "  in 

*  "  Canon  "  was  the  name  in  late  I,atin  for  the  fixed  contribution 
of  corn  or  other  produce  which  the  provinces  paid  to  Rome. 

203 


204      CHRISTIAX  AXD   ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 


S.  Augus- 
tine and 
Eusebiusof 
Vercelli  — 
the  canon- 
ic a  or 
episcopia. 


The  Rule 
of  Chrode- 
gang. 


Bishop 

Chrode- 

gang. 


time  designated  legitimate  clergy,  and  was  a  term  pre- 
cisely equivalent  to  our  present  use  of  the  word  canonical. 

The  next  step  in  their  history  was  made  by  S.  Augus- 
tine and  by  Eusebius  of  Vercelli,  who  gathered  their 
clergy  into  a  common  dwelling  house,  with  a  common 
rule  of  life.  The  house  was  called  canonica  clericorum, 
and  sometimes  monasteriiim  ;  and  episcopia  as  being  usu- 
ally the  bishop's  own  house.  The  inmates  were  known 
as  canonici ;  young  clerks*  —  acolytes  and  lectors  —  as 
well  as  deacons  and  presbyters  lived  here;  so  that  the 
life  of  these  "  canons  "  was  the  first  attempt  to  regulate 
and  dignify  the  life  of  the  secular  clergy,  a  subject  which 
had  already  engaged  the  attention  of  Ambrose  and  Mar- 
tin of  Tours.  It  is  still  the  ideal  duty  of  priests  accord- 
ing to  Canon  law  to  live  near  their  church  and  to  live  in 
common. t 

Three  hundred  years  later  Chrodegang  made  the  third 
step  in  the  history  of  the  canons.  Struck  by  the  worldli- 
ness  and  corruption  of  the  clergy,  which  was  the  more 
apparent  beside  the  spectacle  of  rule  and  order  offered 
by  the  Benedictines,  Chrodegang  revived  the  Order  of 
canons,  which  had  indeed  r^ever  quite  ceased  to  exist 
since  the  time  of  Augustine,J  and  in  760  indited  a  Rule 
on  the  model  of  that  of  Benedict. 

Chrodegang  was  a  Prankish  noble,  cousin  to  Pepin, 
who  introduced  the  Roman  Easter,  Roman  ceremonies, 
and  the  Roman  chant  into  his  diocese  of  Metz.  In 
recognition  of  his  services  in  procuring  the  safe  conduct 
of  Stephen  II.  to  the  monastery  of  S.  Denis  in  Paris,  he 
received  the  pallium  from  that  pope  in  752.  The  prin- 
cipal monastery  of  canons  established  by  him  was  at 
Gorze,   near  Metz.     He  was  the  contemporary  of  the 


*  And  later,  youths  dedicated  to  the  church.    See  p.  492,  Part  IV. 

t  Cf.  with  Clerks  Regular,  Chap.  V. 

X  Cf.  Canons  Regular  of  the  Lateran  infra.  In  538  canons  are 
forbidden  secular  business.  In  633  the  II.  Council  of  Toledo  re- 
quires that  the  scholars  of  schools  directed  by  canons  should  live 
in  the  bishop's  house.  In  724  the  house  and  church  of  canons  is 
mentioned  as  the  canonica. 


CJjVO.VS 


205 


English  Boniface,  and  Paulus  Diaconus  wrote  a  notice 
of  his  Ufe.     He  died  in  764. 

From  this  time  all  canons  resident  in  the  bishop's 
house  were  obliged  to  adopt  the  new  Rule,  and  for  the 
first  time  assumed  a  semi-monastic  character. 

In  802  provision  had  to  be  made  for  the  case  of  Bene- 
dictine monks  who  abandoned  their  Rule  to  live  as 
canons,  and  two  manners  of  Hfe  are  recognised,  that  of 
those  who  live  regulariter,  i.e.  the  monks,  and  of  those 
who  live  canonice,  i.e.  the  canons.  In  8 16  the  Chapter 
held  at  Aix-la-Chapelle  issued  a  Rule  for  canons  and 
canonesses. 

In  the  XI.  century  a  4*.''  epoch-making  step  was  taken 
by  S.  Yvo  of  Chartres,  who  wrote  a  still  stricter  Rule,  and 
inaugurated  the  Regular  Canons  whose  final  formation 
dates  from  this  Rule,  and  who  towards  the  end  of  that 
century  first  style  themselves  Canons  Regular  of  S. 
Augustine,  in  contradistinction  to  the  secular  Chapters, 
which  date  from  the  middle  of  the  century.  The  accre- 
tion of  cathedral  chapters  in  the  xii.  and  xiii.  centuries 
to  the  ranks  of  the  Regular  Canons,  swelled  the  number 
of  these  Communities,  8000  of  which  were  spread  over 
Europe  in  the  xvi.  century;  since  which  date  they  have 
constantly  declined. 

The  career  of  Canons  as  it  differed  from  that  of  monks 
is  happily  expressed  by  the  historian  Freeman,  when  he 
says  that  while  the  former  existed  for  the  services  of  the 
church,  the  abbey-church  existed  for  the  spiritual  needs 
of  the  inmates  of  the  monastery. 

Previous  to  the  Chapter  of  Aix,  canons  lived  under  a 
mixed  rule  taken  from  the  writings  of  Jerome,  Athana- 
sius,  Cyprian,  and  Csesarius.  Chrodegang  had  not  bound 
them  either  to  poverty  or  to  strict  obedience.*  The 
Rule  of  816  also  allows  them  to  retain  their  own  prop- 
erty, a  procurator  being  appointed  to  administer  it  and 
to  defend  them  in  courts  of  law.  They  were  also  allowed 
servants,  but  this  Nicholas  II.  prohibited,  and  S.  Yvo 
abolished  personal  property. 

*  Differences  of  rank,  too,  were  allowed  within  the  clergy-house. 


Regulariter 
vivant,  vel 
Canonice 
vivant. 

The  Rule 
of  the 
Chapter  of 
Aix. 

The  Rule 
of  Yvo  of 
Chartres. 


Previous 

rules. 


2o6      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 


Canon- 
esses. 


Canonesses  are  at  least  as  old  as  canons.  It  would 
appear  that  as  clergy  inscribed  on  the  tnatricul(z  they 
very  early  formed  themselves  into  communities  living 
under  one  roof;  two  nieces  of  S.  Basil  who  were  supe- 
riors of  convents  in  Csesarea  are  styled  canonesses,  and 
the  letter  of  S.  Augustine  which  embodies  his  '  Rule  '  was 
probably  written  to  a  house  of  canonesses,  for  a  Prior- 
presbyter,  as  was  usual  in  a  canonica,  was  placed  over  it ; 
and  the  titles  prioress  and  provost  in  place  of  abbess 
suggest  ecclesiastical  rather  than  monastic  nuns.  Canon- 
esses did  not  take  perpetual  vows,  though  the  vows  of 
chastity  and  obedience  were  taken  by  them,  as  we  learn 
from  the  laws  for  canonesses  made  in  the  viii.  century  by 
Lewis  the  Pious.  They  kept  their  own  property.  They 
rejected  the  titles  of  nun  and  mother,  and  their  manner 
of  life  was  non-monastic.  In  later  times  their  special 
work  was  the  education  of  the  children  of  nobles.  To-day 
they  are  hardly  distinguishable  from  nuns. 


Canon- 
esses of 
the  Holy 
Sepulchre. 


Canon- 
esses in 
Englanlil. 


Rule. 


The  most  important  Congregations  of  Canonesses  are 
the  Sepulchrines  or  Canonesses  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre, 
and  the  Lateran  Canonesses.  The  former  are  mentioned 
by  the  historian  Socrates  in  the  iv.  century,  as  canonical 
women  of  the  clergy,  who  wore  the  double  cross  badge  ^ 
on  a  linen  surplice.  S.  Helena  greatly  esteemed  them 
and  was  enrolled  a  canoness  by  the  Bishop  of  Jerusalem. 
The  Canons  of  the  Sepulchre  who  wore  the  same  cross 
are  now  obsolete  ;  but  both  formed  part  of  the  Military 
Knights  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  incorporated  with  the 
Knights  Hospitallers  of  S.  John  in  1484.* 

The  Canonesses  are  established  at  New  Hall  in  Essex, 
the  community  having  been  founded  at  Liege,  in  the 
time  of  Charles  I.,  by  two  Devonshire  women,  and  having 
removed  to  England  at  the  time  of  the  French  Revo- 
lution.!    Their  Rule  is  that  originally  prescribed  for  the 

*  The  cross  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  is  now  given,  as  a  decoration, 
l)y  the  Patriarch  of  Jerusalem. 

t  It  had  been  founded  in  the  hope  of  providing  a  shelter  for 
many  English  ladies  when  the  penal  laws  against  Catholics  had 


CAXOXS 


207 


Order  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre.  They  rise  at  4  for  medita- 
tion, Matins,  Lauds,  Prime.  A  large  part  of  the  day  is 
spent  in  reciting  the  canonical  hours,  in  reading,  and 
meditation.  On  Sunday  and  festivals  they  sing  high 
mass  and  vespers.  They  work  together  in  a  common 
room.  The  vows  are  renewed  annually.  Each  house  is 
independent  and  is  ruled  by  a  Prioress,  and  the  diocesan 
is  their  ordinary  Superior,  with  powers  limited  by  the 
Constitutions.  The  Canonesses,  in  Chapter,  elect  their 
prioress  for  life.  They  occupy  themselves  also  in  teach- 
ing the  poor,  a  work  which  they  are  bound  to  perform 
if  called  on  to  do  so  by  the  bishop. 

Margaret  Pole,  niece  of  Edward  IV.,  beheaded  in  her 
old  age  by  Henry  VHI.,  was  a  canoness  of  this  Order,* 
which  had  several  houses  in  Rome  at  the  end  of  the  xiv. 
century,  but  is  not  represented  there  now. 

The  French  Hospitaller  Canonesses  and  Canons  of 
Saint-Esprit  is  another  ancient  community  which  having 
been  confirmed  by  Innocent  III.  in  1198  settled  in  his 
pontificate  at  Santo  Spirito  in  Sassia,  and  served  the 
church  of  this  Saxon  borough  and  its  celebrated  hos- 
pital.t  Their  device  is  given  on  p.  139.  They  wore 
the  double  cross  of  Jerusalem  on  a  white  or  black  habit. 
Clement  VIII.  founded  a  monastery  of  canonesses  there, 
dedicated  to  S.  Tecla,  in  1600.  The  President  of  the 
Community  was  afterwards  styled  *  Commendatore  di  S. 
Spirito,'  holding  as  such  one  of  the  first  prelacies  of  the 
Roman  Court. 


Ancient 
House  of 
Canons  in 
Rome. 


The   Canons   Regular  of  the    Lateran  are  the  most  Canons 
ancient  Community  of  canons  now  extant.    In  440  Leo  I.   ^f '^"^ 
ordered   Gelasius,  afterwards   pope,  and  the   friend  of 


been  somewhat  relaxed ;  and  with  this  object  was  to  have  been 
moved  later  to  England.  The  Sepulchrine  Rule  was  reconfirmed 
and  revised  by  Urban  VIII.  about  this  time,  after  the  canonesses 
arrived  in  1 620  at  Charleville  in  France. 

*  Her  feast  is  kept  by  the  New  Hall  Canonesses  on  May  28. 

t  Part  I.,  p.  342. 


2o8      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 


'  Lateran 
Canons  of 
the  most 
holy  Sav- 
iour.' 


Augustine,  to  cause  the  Lateran  clergy  to  live  according 
to  the  Rule  which  had  been  prescribed  by  the  latter  at 
Hippo.  The  disorders  of  the  Roman  clergy  of  this 
epoch  are  known  to  us  through  the  letters  of  Jerome. 
In  1061  these  Regular  clerks  or  canons  needed  reform, 
and  Alexander  II.  brought  to  Rome  for  the  purpose  a 
canon  of  S.  Frediano  of  Lucca,  of  which  Chapter  he 
was  himself  a  member.*  The  Lateran  was  declared  to 
be  the  head  and  chief  of  its  many  dependent  houses,  at 
a  Council  held  two  years  later ;  and  all  the  canons  of 
these  houses  were  to  be  styled  Lateran  Canons. 

After  enjoying  possession  for  over  200  years,  the 
canons  of  the  Lateran  entered  on  a  period  of  strife 
which  lasted  150  years.  Boniface  VIII.  in  1294  turned 
them  out  to  make  room  for  secular  canons.  Gradually 
his  greed  led  to  their  spoliation,  they  lost  all  their 
churches  in  the  city,  and  Grottaferrata  which  they  had 
held  was  given  to  the  Basilian  monks.  In  1442  how- 
ever Eugenius  IV.  reinstated  them,  but  not  without  con- 
siderable difficulty.  It  is  from  then  that  the  present 
title  'Lateran  Canons  of  the  most  holy  Saviour'  dates: 
Eugenius  imposing  this  name  on  the  Canons  of  S.  Mary 
of  Lucca,\  whom  he  ordered  at  this  time  to  proceed  to 
Rome  and  to  the  Lateran.  This  order,  given  while  he 
was  still  at  the  Council  of  Florence,  failed  of  effect ;  the 
secular  canons  organised  an  attack  which  drove  the  new- 
comers from  the  basilica  on  the  feast  of  Corpus  Christi. 
A  third  company  of  30  Canons  from  Lucca  again  at- 
tempted in  1443  to  gain  possession;  but  the  people  had 
been  told  that  the  pope  intended  to  drive  the  Romans 
from  the  Lateran  and  put  strangers  in  their  place,  whose 
sole  object,  moreover,  was  to  purloin  the  heads  of  Peter 
and  Paul;  so  that  it  was  not  until  January,  1445,  that 
they  were  finally  established,  under  their  new  name,  and 


*  S.  Fiancesca  Romana  in  the  Forum  belonged  to  these  Canons. 

t  S.  Mary,  Lucca,  had  always  been  served  by  clerks  living  in 
common,  who  in  time  became  Regular  Canons.  They  had  been 
reformed  at  the  end  of  the  xi\'.  century  by  Bartolomeo  Colonna, 
and  had  dependent  houses  at  Milan,  Verona,  and  Venice. 


CAXOXS 


209 


in  the  enjoyment  of  all  the  benefices,  temporalities  and 
spiritualities  of  the  Mother  of  churches.  Their  troubles, 
however,  were  not  at  an  end;  the  Borgia  pope  Calixtus 
III.  drove  them  out ;  Paul  II.  brought  them  back,  but 
on  his  death  the  secular  canons  ousted  them  with  an 
armed  force;  and  since  that  year,  1471,  the  Lateran 
Canons  of  the  holy  Saviour  have  never  gone  back.  Peter 
Martyr,  the  heretic,  was  a  Prior  of  Lucca  and  Visitor- 
General  of  this  Order. 

Several  Congregations  of  Canons  depend  from  the 
Lateran  Congregation  :  such  is  the  Polish  Community  of 
Lateran  Canons  Regular,  originally  Clerks  living  under 
the  Rules  prescribed  by  the  Chapter  of  Aix,  and  existing 
in  Poland  since  that  country  received  Christianity  (970). 
In  1408  Stefano  Cioni  of  Siena  reformed  Italian  Canons 
by  the  foundation  of  the  Canons  of  S.  Salvatore  of 
Bologna ;  who  held  the  3  important  Roman  basilicas 
of  S.  Lorenzo,  S.  Agnese  and  S.  Pietro  in  Vincoli.  They 
are  no.v  united  to  the  Lateran  Canons.* 

Many  Communities  of  Canonesses  belong  to  none  of 
the  great  Congregations  —  but  like  the  Canons  they  all 
tend  to  one  type  and  one  costume.  There  is  however  in 
Rome  one  house  of  Lateran  Canonesses,  called  Rocchet- 
tine  in  allusion  to  the  rochet.  In  the  last  century  the 
Lateran  Canonesses  still  formed  the  Community  of  S. 
Spirito.  The  Canonesses  of  S.  Peter  of  Reims  f  and 
those  of  N.-D.  de  la  Victoire  de  Picpus,  who  sprang 
from  them,  belong  to  no  special  Congregation ;  nor  do 
the  Spanish  Canonesses. 

At  the  end  of  the  xvi.  century  S.  Peter  Fourier,  him- 
self an  Augustinian  Canon  Regular,  undertook  the  reform 
of  the  Canons  of  Lorraine.  He  first  founded,  1598,  a 
reformed  Congregation  of  Canonesses  of  Notre-Dame, 
having  as  co-founder  the  Ven.  Alix  Le  Clerc,  who  was 
born  at  the  historic  monastic  site  of  Remiremont  (1576- 
1622).     Their  work  was  approved  by  Paul  V.,  Urban 

*  They  wore  a  brown  serge  soutane,  rochet,  the  scarf  or  bande- 
role, and  a  brown  cappa. 
t  See  p.  86. 
i- 


Canons  of 
S.  Saviour 
of  Bolgona. 


Lateran 
Canon- 
esses. 


Reforma- 
tion of 
French 
Canons 
andCanon- 
esses. 


2IO      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCIESIASTICAL   ROME 

VIII.,  and  Innocent  X.  The  Canonesses  have  several 
flourishing  Communities,  and  devote  themselves  to  the 
education  of  girls,  and  the  conduct  of  ouvroirs  and 
orphanages.  They  number  2600  in  France,  and  have  3 
great  convents  in  Paris  (Rue  de  Sevres  and  Avenue 
Hoche).  In  1623,  after  the  death  of  the  Ven.  Mother 
Le  Clerc,  Fourier  reformed  the  Canons,  founding  a 
Congregation  of  Canons  Regular  of  Notie-Saiiveiir  of 
Lorraine.  This  Congregation  was  dispersed  at  the 
Revolution.  (S.Pierre  Fourier,  1554-1640;  canonised, 
1897.*)     (July  7.) 

Premon-  The   best    known    community   of   canons  is  that  of 

stratensian  Premontr^,  founded  by  S.  Norbert  in  11 20.  S.  Norbert 
and  s"^  ^^'^s  born  in  1080  at  Cleves.  He  had  been  chaplain  to 
Norbert.  the  Emperor  Henry  IV.,  and  was  converted  after  a  ter- 
rible accident.  He  began  his  apostolic  labours  in  11 18, 
having  faculties  from  Gelasius  II.  to  preach  everywhere. 
Two  years  later  the  Bishop  of  Laon  offered  him  the 
desert  valley  afterwards  called  Pr^montre  (/Vr  monire, 
Frafmn  monstratum,  the  Shown-land),  because  S.  Nor- 
bert saw  it  in  a  vision,  and  here  he  built  a  coenobium, 
the  first  of  11  foundations  peopled  with  800  Religious 
who  soon  gathered  round  him.  All  practised  the  Rule 
of  the  Augustinian  Canons  Regular,  to  which  they  added 
a  perpetual  fast,  never  tasting  flesh  meat. 

S.  Norbert  was  elected  Bishop  of  Magdeburg,  and  in 
3  years  reformed  his  diocese,  never  ceasing  at  the  same 
time  the  care  of  his  religious  family.  He  died  in  1134. 
His  remains  rest  at  Strahow,  Prague.  In  art  he  is  repre- 
sented with  cope  mitre  and  crozier,  or  in  rochet  and  moz- 
zetta  and  bare-headed  :  in  his  hand  is  a  pyx,  in  allusion 
to  his  incessant  exhortations  to  Christians  to  frequently 
receive  the  Eucharist.  Sometimes  he  has  the  chalice 
with  a  spider  over  it,  alluding  to  the  story  that  having 
consecrated  the  cup  with  a  poisonous  spider  in  it,  he  drank 
uninjured.     Another  emblem  is  the  demon  bound  at  his 

*  A  statue  of  the  saint  has  just  been  placed  in  one  of  the  niches 
for  founders  of  Orders  in  S.  Peter's.     See  Part  I.,  p.  73. 


CAXOXS 


feet.  He  is  represented  in  a  stucco  medallion  over  the 
Premonstratensians'  old  church  in  Via  Agostino  Depretis 
52.*  (June  6.)  Another  Saint  of  the  Order  is  S.  Herman 
Joseph,  1236;  in  art  he  appears  being  presented  to  the 
Blessed  Virgin  by  an  angel.  (April  17.)  At  one  time 
this  Order  counted  1000  houses  of  men  and  half  that 
number  of  women.  After  the  Revolution  there  were  still 
10  abbeys  "subject  to  the  Crozier  of  Premontre,"  two  of 
which  were  maintained  by  the  Protestant  Kings  of  Prussia 
in  Prussian  Silesia,  At  the  present  day  there  are  Houses  ians, 
in  Austria,  France,  Bohemia,  and  Belgium  :  while  in  Eng- 
land two  Belgian  cells  in  Lincolnshire,  with  some  French 
Premonstratensians  established  at  Storrington  by  the  ex- 
Empress  Eugenie,  represent  the  pre-reformation  splen- 
dours of  Welbeck  with  its  28  dependent  abbacies.  The 
Belgian  and  French  Congregations  were  united  in  1897. 

As  we  see,  this  Order  of  Canons  is  governed  by  an 
abbat,  their  houses  also  are  called  abbeys,  and  their  mode 
of  life  is  nearly  akin  to  that  of  monks.  From  the  time  of 
S.  Bernard  there  has  always  been  a  close  bond  between 
them  and  the  Cistercians.  The  Canons  were  to  dedicate 
themselves  to  prayer,  preaching,  and  the  solemnities  of 
the  divine  worship,  which  in  their  churches  were  always 
accomphshed  with  much  pomp. 

The  Order  was  founded  as  a  double  one  for  men  and 
women.  Premonstratensian  Canonesses  still  exist,  but 
the  monasteries  are  no  longer  double.  The  Canonesses 
are  called  Norberiines  after  the  founder,  and  their  mode 
of  life  at  the  present  day  is  indistinguishable  from  that  of 
nuns. 

The  device  of  the  Premonstratensians  is  two  croziers  in 
saltire  on  the  fleur-de-lis  shield  of  France. 


Existing 
branches  of 
Premon- 
stratens- 


A  double 
Order. 


Badge. 


The  Portuguese  Canons  of  the  Holy  Cross  were  founded  Canons  of 


at  Coimbra  by  Tellon,  canon  and  archdeacon  of  that  place, 
with  II  companions,  in  1131.  This  Community  became 
extinct  at  the  beginning  of  this  century. 

*  Cf.  also  Part  I.,  p.  174. 


the  Holy 
Cross. 
I. 

S.  Cruz  di 
Coimbra. 


212      CHRISTIAN  AND   ECCLESTASTICAI    ROME 


II. 
'  Croisiers 
or '  Portes- 
Croix." 


Thomas  a 
Kempis. 


The  Canons  of  the  Holy  Cross,  called  Croisiers  ox  Cro- 
cifori,  are  mentioned  in  a  papal  Bull  of  1 187,  and  are  said 
to  have  settled  50  years  later  in  Italy  where  they  are  now 
extinct.  There  are  however  several  houses  in  Belgium, 
with  a  Mother-house  in  Brabant,  and  a  few  have  found 
their  way  to  England. 

Thomas  a  Kempis  was  a  Canon  Regular  of  Windesheini 
in  the  Low  Countries. 


Govern- 
ment. 


Canons 
and 
Canon- 
esses  in 
Rome. 


Habit  of 
Canons. 


Canons  keep  their  name  and  surname  like  secular 
priests.  Originally  all  canons  were  ruled  by  Priors,  but 
at  the  present  day  two  out  of  the  three  Congregations  — 
namely,  those  of  the  Lateran  and  Pr^montre  —  are  gov- 
erned by  an  Abbat-General,  with  abbats  over  the  different 
houses.  They  wear  pontifical  vestments  at  the  great  cere- 
monials. Canonesses  are  ruled  by  a  Prioress  and  have 
no  Generals  or  Provincials. 

The  Lateran  Canons  {Canonici  Lateraneusi)  have 
their  Prociira  at  S.  Pietro  in  Vincoli,  and  their  chef-lieu 
in  the  Macao,  Via  S.  INLartino  12  ;  they  also  have  the  ba- 
silica of  S.  Agnese  Fuori*  The  Canonesses  {Rocchettine) 
are  established  at  the  historic  church  of  S.  Pudenziana 
(Via  Agostino  Depretis  80). 

The  Premonstratensians  have  a  Prociira  in  Via  Aureli- 
ana  ;  and  the  French  Canons  have  a  procurator  at  present 
at  Monte  Tarpeo  54.  They  will  hold  a  General  Chapter 
in  1902. 

The  Canons  of  the  Cross  (  Crociferi)  are  not  represented 
in  Rome. 

Regular  Canons  wear  a  white  habit, f  over  which  is  the 
ecclesiastical  rochet.      Unlike  monks  they  wear  the  ber- 

*  See  also  Part  I.,  p.  288. 

t  It  will  be  remembered  that  the  earliest  dress  of  clerks  at  the 
altar  was  white.  Cf.  pp.  86-7,  and  Secular  Canons  Part  IV.,  p.  481. 
At  Lucca  the  church  of  the  Canons  Regular  was  called  "  S.  Maria 
jianca,"  while  the  Cathedral  Canons'  church  was  "  S.  Maria  ncra" 
In  England  however  the  Austin  Canons  were  known  as  "  Black 
Canons,"  because  they  wore  the  black  cappa,  in  contradistinction  to 
the  Premonstratensians  or  "White  Canons."  These,  the  later 
arrival,  settled  in  Lincolnshire  about  1 140. 


Canoness  of  the   Lateran. 


r.^.\'a\-.s- 


213 


retta.  In  the  street  they  wear  the  priest's  long  black  coat 
{the grt'ca),  and  the  clerical  hat :  the  Unen  rochet  can  be 
seen  at  the  neck.  In  choir  they  wear  a  surplice  or  coUa 
over  the  rochet ;  *  most  canons  and  canonesses  have  also, 
at  some  period  of  their  history  worn  the  black  mantle 
called  cappa,  which  may  be  regarded  as  their  distinguish- 
ing dress  as  an  Onkr.j 

Another  item  of  their  costume  is  the  cape  and  capuce  cape  and 
originally  used  to  cover  the  head,  and  which  in  some  amess. 
places,  notably  in  Austria  and  the  Low  Countries,  was  made 
of  fur  —  sheepskin  or  ermine  —  and  called  the  amess, 
being  worn  either  on  the  shoulders  or  the  arm.  The  Gil- 
bertines  wore  it  in  England.  Both  the  cape  {cainail  de 
chanoine)  and  the  strip  of  fur  attached  to  the  arm  {amess, 
aiimuce,  aimi/zia)  have  still  a  tiny  capuce  attached,  though 
they  no  longer  serve  as  headgear.} 

Canons  and  Canonesses  also  wore  a  scarf  of  white  linen,   Scarf. 
4  fingers  broad  {banderole^,  which  was  placed  over  the 
surplice  in  choir,  and  was  probably  a  reminiscence  of  the 
orarium.%     (See  ank,  p.  20()  footnote. ~) 

The  dress  of  Canonesses  has  always  been  identical  with 
that  of  canons  ;  rochet,  cappa,  amess,  and  scarf  being 
common  to  both.  Some  Premontre  Canonesses  wore  the 
amess  in  place  of  the  veil,  and  some  of  the  Lateran  Can- 
onesses had  the  camauro  for  this  purpose. 

Cappa,  amess,  and  cape  are,  however,  not  worn  by 
Italian  canons  :  the  dress  of  the  Lateran  Canons  in  Rome  of  Lateran 
has  always  been  a  white  tunic,  a  closely-plaited  rochet  Canons, 
and  a  black  berretta  :  the  Canonesses  wear  the  same  habit 
with  a  black  veil,  no  whimple  or  fillet  round  the  face.  The 
Premonstratensians  combine  all  the  canonical  traditions 
in  their  habit,  and  by  the  wearing  of  a  scapular  and  rochet 
join,  as  in  their  name  of  "  Regular  Canons,"  the  ecclesias- 


Of  Pre- 
monstra- 
tensians. 


*  See  Part  IV.,  p.  473. 

t  Cf.  Chap.  III.,  p.  175,  and  Part  IV.,  p.  481.  The  black  cappa 
in  choir  is  still  worn  by  the  Canonesses  of  St.  Pierre-de-Reinis  and 
N.-D.  des  Victoires. 

+  See  Secular  Canons,  Part  IV.,  p.  481,  and  pope's  c«;«tf «;-«?,  p.  335. 

§  See  Part  II.,  p.  102. 


214      CHRISTIAX  AXD  ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 


Of  Canons 
of  the 
Cross. 

Of  Sepul- 
chrines. 


Badges. 


tical  garment  with  the  monastic.  Their  habit  and  scapular 
are  white  ;  out  of  doors  they  wear  the  greca  and  a  white  hat ; 
indoors  they  wear  a  cape;  in  choir  they  wear  a  surphce 
and  white  amess,  but  in  winter  a  rochet  with  white  cappa 
and  white  cape.     The  berretta  is  white. 

The  Canons  of  the  Cross  wear  white,  with  black  scapu- 
lar and  sash,  forming  a  large  cross ;  on  the  breast  a  white 
and  red  Maltese  cross ;  a  black  cape. 

The  Sepulchrines  wear  the  white  habit,  rochet,  and 
scapular ;  a  black  veil  over  a  white  one ;  their  proper 
badge  is  the  double  cross  of  Jerusalem. 

For  the  habit  of  the  Gilbertine  Canons  see  p.  121. 

The  badge  of  the  Lateran  Canons  is  the  head  of  the 
Saviour  on  a  shield,  which  is  placed  on  a  spread  eagle 
(emblem  of  John  the  Evangelist).  ( Cf.  badge  page  139.) 
Another  badge,  given  by  Helyot,  is  the  Madonna  and 
child,  with  S.  John  on  her  right  and  Augustine  on  her 
left,  an  eagle  at  her  feet,  and  above  her  head  the  Face  of 
the  Saviour.  The  Canons  of  S.  Pietro  in  Vincoli  used  to 
have  as  a  device  the  Head  of  the  Saviour  crowned  with 
thorns,  and  the  legend  :  Salvator  miindi  salva  nos  omnes  ; 
and  the  Canons  of  S.  Saviour  of  Bologna  used  as  device 
the  Saviour  holding  a  book  on  which  alpha  and  omega 
were  inscribed. 


Augustin- 
ian  Her- 
mits. 


AUGUSTINIAN    HERMITS. 

The  Augustinians,  or  Austin  friars,  although  now  classed 
among  Mendicants,  are  really  an  Order  of  hermits.  They 
trace  their  origin  to  S.  Augustine,  and  to  the  year  388  in 
Tagaste,  when  that  Father  united  some  friends  in  a  house 
near  the  church  and  lived  with  them  according  to  a  Rule.* 
The  canons,  however,  declare  that  Augustine  merely  gave 
some  rules  to  African  solitaries  with  a  view  to  regulating 
their  life,  and  the  controversy  between  the  canons  and  the 
hermits  as  to  which  were  the  genuine  Augustinians  had 
to  be  silenced  by  Sixtus  IV. 


Ep.  225. 


CAXOXS 


215 


It  is  certain,  at  least,  that  in  1256  Alexander  IV. 
(following  Innocent  IV.)  collected  together  the  numerous 
hermits  scattered  throughout  Europe,  and  united  them 
under  the  Rule  of  S.  Augustine.  In  1567  Pius  V.  aggre- 
gated them  with  INIendicant  Friars. 

This  Order  of  Romitaui  di  S.  Agostino,  or  Romites,  has   The  Ro- 
existed  at  the  Vatican  ever  since  the  time  of  Alexander   ^'*"  ^*. 
VI ;  *  the  position  of  parish  priest  of  the  Vatican  being  (-an. 
always  filled  by  an  Augustinian.     With  him   are  some 
half  dozen  friars,  forming  an  Augustinian  corner  of  the 
Palace  as  the  Holy  Office  forms  a  Dominican  corner. f    The 
Friars  have  also  possessed  the  Priory  church  of  S.  Maria   Other 
del  Popolo  since  the  time  of  Alexander  IV.     It  is  here   i\ouses  in 
that  Luther,  who  was  a  friar  of  this  Order,  lived  when  he 
visited  Rome.    Augustinians  are  still  in  charge  of  the  great 
church  of  S.  Agostino,  although  their  property  is  confis- 
cated and  the  monastery  suppressed.     S.  Prisca  on  the 
Aventine  is  also  Augustinian  property,  though  served  by 
Franciscans.     The  Prior-General  of  the  Order  resides  at 
the  Mother-house  and  Procura  Via  di  S.  Uffizio  I.  (col- 
legio  di  S.  Monica)  close  by  the  Vatican  ;  and  the  present 
Director  of  the  Vatican  Observatory  is  an  Augustinian 
Romite. 

There  are  two  great  Romite  saints  :  Nicholas  of  Tolen- 
tino  and  Thomas  of  Villanova.  Pope  Eugenius  IV.  was 
a  member  of  the  Order,  and  so  was  Panvinius  the  historian. 
The  habit  oi  the  Augustinian  Romites  is  a  white  tunic  and  Habit, 
scapular;  but  out  of  doors  they  wear  a  black  tunic,  a 
leathern  belt,  of  which  a  strip  hangs  down  in  front,!  and 
a  pointed  cape  reaching  to  the  elbow,  with  a  small  round 

*  An  Augustinian  Sacristan  is  found  at  the  Vatican  as  early  as 
1287,  John  XXir^  Sacristan  was  also  a  Romite;  but  the  Sacristan 
of  Sixtus  IV.  having  obtained  the  Cistercian  abbey  of  S.  Sebastian 
outside  the  walls  and  become  a  member  of  that  Order,  the  Romites, 
alarmed,  begged  Alexander  VI.  to  make  the  appointment  perpetual, 
which  he  did  by  Bull  1497. 

t  Part  IV.,  p.  394. 

+  As  the  Augustinians  persisted  in  dressing  like  the  Franciscans, 
Gregory  IX.  required  their  cincture  to  be  "long  enough  to  be  seen," 
and  the  tunic  short  enough  to  show  the  shoes.     (1241.) 


2i6       CHRISTIAN  AND   ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 


Discalced 
Augustin- 
ians. 


Badge. 


hood.  The  white  collar  of  the  tunic  beneath  shows  at  the 
neck.  Augustinians  may  not  wear  the  white  habit  out  of 
doors  in  any  town  where  there  are  Dominicans.  The  lay 
brethreji  wear  the  same  black  dress  without  the  white 
tunic.  At  great  functions  the  Romites  wear  large  sleeves 
{jnaiiiconi )  like  the  sleeve  of  the  Benedictine  cowl.* 

The  Agostiniani  Scalzi,  or  barefoot  Augustinians,  origi- 
nated as  a  Reform  of  the  Strict  Observance  in  the  xvi. 
century,  the  reformer  being  the  Ven.  Tommaso  di  GesiJ 
a  Portuguese.  There  are  nuns  of  his  Order  in  Spain ; 
they  were  first  gathered  in  a  monastery  by  Philip  II.  in 
1589;  and  take  a  4'J'  vow  not  to  speak  with  externs, 
even  though  they  be  relatives.  The  Mother-house  and 
Procura  is  at  the  church  of  Gesu  e  Maria,  Corso  45. 
The  Spanish  Congregation  with  an  Apostolic  Commissary 
General  in  Madrid,  has  had  since  1619  the  church  of  S. 
Ildefonso,  and  a  Proci/ra  in  Via  Sistina  11.  The  habit  S^ 
of  thick  black  cloth,  with  the  Augustinian  leathern  hanging 
girdle,  a  short  Franciscan  capuce  and  hood  in  place  of 
the  Augustinian  cape,  with  no  scapular.  They  are  bare- 
foot. Their  badge  is  Azuj-e,  a  heart  pierced  by  2  arrows 
///  saltire. 


AUGUSTINIAN    NUNS. 

There  are  4  orders  of  Augustinian  Religious,  Canonesses, 
Romites,  Oblates,  and  members  of  the  modern  active 
Congregations  :  but  there  are  and  have  always  been  Augus- 
tinian communities  belonging  to  none  of  these  divisions. 

Augustinian  nuns  have  always  been  flourishing  commu- 
nities and  an  important  branch  of  the  Religious  family : 
the  large  number  of  women  solitaries  were  united  under 
one  discipline  and  the  Rule  of  S.  Augustine  at  the  same 
time  as  the  men ;  but  the  resulting  communities  to  be 
met  with  in  Spain,  Italy,  France,  and  Germany  offered  a 
number  of  varieties  in  dress  and  mode  of  Hfe. 


*  The  Irish  Augustinians,  who  tried  to  estabhsh  themselves  in 
Rome  in  charge  of  the  unbuilt  church  of  S.  Patrick,  left  in  1898. 


C.4X0XS  217 

The  only  "  Rule  "  which  can  be  regarded  as  contributed    Rule  of  s. 
by  S.  Augustine  is  contained  in  a  letter  which  he  wrote  to   Augustine, 
the  nuns  of  Hippo  in  423.     He  gives  them  certain  rules 
meet  "  for  persons  living  in  a  monastery."     ( i )  All  should 
be  of  one  mind,  and  should  have  all  things  in  common. 

(2)  The  Sisters  are  not  to  hold  their  heads  high  because 
they  find  themselves  equal  among  their  superiors  by  birth, 
or  because  they  have  brought  money  to  the  monastery. 

(3)  They  are  to  be  instant  in  prayer  at  the  appointed 
hours.  (4)  The  fasts  are  to  be  according  to  their  ability. 
(5)  Sick  nuns  are  to  have  better  fare.  (6)  The  dress  is 
not  to  be  conspicuous,  nor  the  head-dress  so  thin  as  to 
show  the  hair  through  it.  (7)  There  is  to  be  no  forward- 
ness of  eye.  (8)  If  a  nun  does  not  submit  to  correction 
she  is  to  be  expelled.  (9)  All  clothes  are  to  be  left  in 
one  wardrobe,  and  to  be  given  out  to  each  according  to 
need.  (10)  The  clothes  are  to  be  washed,  but  not  too 
often,  and  the  nuns  are  only  to  bathe  once  a  month, '  the 
usual  interval.'  (11)  "  When  they  go  beyond  the  monas- 
tery," for  example  to  the  Baths,  three  are  to  go  together, 
and  their  coiffure  should  neither  be  showy  nor  slovenly. 
(12)  The  sick  are  to  be  under  the  special  care  of  one 
sister.  (13)  Quarrels  are  to  be  unknown,  and  forgiveness 
prompt.  (14)  The  Prioress,  called  Provost,  is  to  be 
obeyed  as  a  mother.  And  the  letter  ends  with  a 
hope  that  this  rule  will  enable  them  to  be  "  persons 
enamoured  of  spiritual  beauty,"  and  with  an  injunction 
that  it  be  read  once  a  week. 

This  Letter,*  occasioned  by  the  disorderly  manner  of 
life  of  its  inmates,  was  written  to  a  community  founded 
by  the  saint,  over  which  his  sister  Perpetua  had  presided. 
It  was  resuscitated  under  Charlemagne,  arranged  as  a 
Rule  in  10  Chapters  and  adapted  to  convents  of  men. 
Thus,  directions  intended  for  simple  African  canonesses 
became  the  Rule  for  a  great  branch  of  the  Religious 
family.  It  is  observed  by  all  Orders  and  Congregations 
who  have  not  the  monastic  or  the  Franciscan  rule,  as  it 

*  £/>.  211,  in  some  editions  log. 


21 8      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 


Congrega- 
tions of 
Augustin- 
ian  nuns. 

In  Rome. 


is  considerably  wider  than  these,  and  its  absence  of  detail 
and  precision  adapt  it  to  endless  modification.  It  thus 
forms  the  basis  of  the  Dominican,  and  of  all  hospitaller 
and  military  Religious  Rules,  as  well  as  of  all  those  mod- 
ern congregations  whose  scope  is  active  work,  excepting 
such  as  have  taken  the  Jesuit  Rule. 

Among  the  many  Congregations  of  Augustinians  are 
the  Augustinians  of  the  Recollection,  Augustinian  Hospi- 
tallers de  r  Hotel  Dieu,  Augustinians  of  S.  Catherine  des 
Cordiers,  Dames  de  St.  Cyr,  Dames  Augustines,  and  sev- 
eral Communities  of  Oblates  (p.  249).  In  Rome  there 
are  two  Communities  of  Romites ;  one  of  the  oldest  of 
all  Congregations  being  that  of  the  Augustinians  "  of  the 
Virgins"  i^delle  Vcrgini),  since  become  Romites,  who 
were  instituted  by  Alexander  III.  as  early  as  1 1  77,  during 
his  sojourn  in  Venice.  It  was  at  the  time  when  the  pope 
had  just  removed  the  censures  against  Barbarossa,  whose 
daughter  Julia  became  abbess  of  the  new  monastery.  The 
members  were  called  "  Gentildonne  "  and  addressed  as 
"  Illustrissime."  The  abbess  was  elected  for  life,  and  her 
obsequies  were  like  those  of  the  Doge.  In  1698  H^lyot 
witnessed  the  ceremony  which  used  to  take  place  when 
the  papal  confirmation  of  her  election  arrived,  the  Doge 
then  '  espousing '  the  abbess  with  2  rings,  one  being  an 
image  of  the  Madonna  and  the  other  a  sapphire.  These 
nuns  had  a  monastery  in  the  Via  dell'  Umilta,  their  church 
of  S.  Maria  delle  Vergini  still  recording  them  ;  they  moved 
to  Via  Galilei  3,  beyond  Piazza  Vittorio,  some  years  ago. 

The  second  Community  of  Romites  is  that  oi  S.  Marta* 
the  name  of  a  monastery  by  the  Collegio  Romano  which 
was  founded  by  S.  Ignatius  for  women  he  had  converted. 
These  afterwards  moved  to  S.  M.  Maddalena,  and  in 
1 561  S.  Marta  became  an  Augustinian  House  :  the  mon- 
astery was  a  large  isolated  building,  bounded  by  4  streets  ; 
none  but  princesses  and  nobles  were  admitted.  Though 
all  houses  of  Augustinians,  men  and  women,  are  priories 


See  footnote,  Chap.  III.,  p.   15S. 


C.-iXOXS  219 

and  ruled  by  priors,  S.  Marta  by  special  privilege  is  an 
abbey.  The  Convent  is  now  established  in  Via  Pani- 
sperna  260,  in  the  house  of  the  P'ranciscans  of  S.  Bernar- 
dino. 

The  nuns  of  6'.  Lucia  in  Seki,  or  ///  Or/ea,  are  still  at 
the  church  of  that  name,  Via  in  Selci  82.  The  nuns  of 
^.  Caferina  de'  Fiinari  retain  their  old  monastery,  an- 
ciently known  as  that  of  Domina  Rosa,  after  S.  Rosa  of 
Viterbo  ;  the  site,  according  to  the  Mirahilia,  of  the 
Castellum  aureum.  (Via  de'  Funari  7.)  The  site  was 
obtained  from  Paul  III.  by  S.  Ignatius,  in  1536,  and 
Cardinal  Cesi  built  the  house.  In  1544  some  Religious 
whom  Ignatius  had  placed  in  another  iDuilding,  were  re- 
moved here  :  they  consisted  of  20  professed  Augustinians 
in  charge  of  girls  exposed  to  temptation,  who  were  re- 
ceived from  10  to  12  years  old,  and  kept  for  7  years;  on 
the  death  of  a  nun  one  of  these  girls  took  her  place  in 
the  convent.  At  present  the  nuns  teach  an  Elementary 
Girls'  School  ("S.  Caterina  della  Rosa"). 

The  nuns  of  the  Sauti  Qiiaitro  Incoronati  are  still  at 
this  interesting  monastery,  which  they  now  share  with  the 
Carmelites.  Their  origin  was  similar  to  that  of  the  nuns 
of  S.  Caterina  :  S.  Ignatius  placed  with  them  girls  of  hon- 
ourable life  orphaned  of  both  parents,  and  in  1560  the 
Cornmunity  was  placed  at  the  Santi  Quattro.  The  num- 
ber of  orphans  is  100,  and  they  replace  the  nuns.*  Those 
who  marry  or  enter  another  convent  receive  a  dot  from 
the  Confraternity  of  S.  M.  in  Aquiro,  where  S.  Ignatius 
placed  a  similar  community  of  orphan  boys.  The  Relig- 
ious used  to  number  about  40.  The  girls  were  dressed 
in  white  serge  and  a  white  veil,  with  a  rosary  in  the  girdle. 
It  will  be  seen  that  the  establishments  of  Augustinian  nuns 
in  Rome  owe  much  to  the  charitable  zeal  and  fostering 
care  of  Ignatius. 

The  nuns  of  S.  Giacomo  dc/la  Lungara  are  now  estab- 
lished in  Via  SS.  Giovanni  e  Paolo  3  ;  the  monastery  had 
been  given  to  the  Reformed  Augustinian  ConvertHe  in 

*  Such  an  arrangement  cannot  now  (since  the  Suppression)  be 
put  in  practice. 


220      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAI   ROME 


Habit  of 
Augustin- 
ian  nuns. 


Sacramen- 
tate. 


1630  by  the  Chapter  of  S.  Peter's.  A  Congregation  of 
Augustinians  called  Convertite  or  Penitent!  were  placed 
by  Leo  X.  at  S.  Silvestro  in  Capite  in  1520 ;  *  hence  the 
name  of  the  street  close  by  this  church.  These  nuns  are 
alluded  to  by  the  Council  of  Trent. f 

The  habit  of  Augustinian  nuns  is  sometimes  white 
and  sometimes  black  :  the  Roinites  delle  Vergini  and  of 
.S.  Mai'ta  dress  in  white  in  summer  and  black  in  winter. 
The  Discalced  Spanish  nuns  wear  on  weekdays  a  coarse 
white  woollen  tunic,  a  white  linen  veil,  faUing  in  front  as 
far  as  the  eyes,  and  over  this  a  cloth  ;  on  feast  days  they 
wear  black ;  %  they  wear,  like  the  discalced  friars,  cord 
sandals.  The  nuns  of  i^.  Cater ina  and  of  the  6"^.  Quaitro 
wear  white  serge  tunic  and  scapular,  the  Augustinian 
leathern  girdle,  and  a  black  veil  lined  with  white  linen. 
The  usual  Augustinian  habit  is,  however,  black  with  the 
leather  belt,  a  black  veil  and  white  veilette  ;  but  a  white 
habit  with  a  black  scapular  has  not  been  unknown. 

The  Sacranientate  nuns,  so  called  on  account  of  the 
perpetual  exposition  and  adoration  of  the  Sacrament  in 
their  churches  day  and  ?iighf,  were  founded  by  a  Tyrolese 
lady  at  Innspruck  in  the  present  century.  They  are  an 
old-established  Congregation  in  Rome.  Their  convent  used 
to  be  at  the  corner  of  Via  del  Quirinale  and  Piazza  Monte 
Cavallo,  exactly  opposite  the  Palace ;  and  it  was  the  cus- 
tom among  the  Romans,  and  among  priests  and  semina- 
rists, to  lift  their  hats  while  passing  the  chapel  door  with 
its  heavy  leather  hanging.  In  1888  the  nuns  were  forced 
to  move  to  allow  of  the  present  gardens  being  laid  out, 
and  they  are  now  in  Via  Nazionale  95,  on  the  steps  of 
Magnanapoli.  They  observe  strict  canonical  enclosure, 
and  are  under  the  Rule  of  S.  Augustine.  The  habit  is 
white  with  a  red  scapular  on  which  the  monstrance  is 


*  This  was  afterwards  a  Franciscan  house. 

t  S.  Andrea  delle  Fratte  was  built  for  Augustinian  nuns. 

X  Helyot  says  the  friars  used  to  do  the  same. 


CAiVOXS  221 

embroidered  :    on  certain  occasions   they  wear  a  large 
white  cloak  and  train. 

For  the  enclosed  Community  of  Annonciades  (Augus- 
tinian-Salesian  Rule)  see  Chap.  V.,  p.  246. 


S.    JOHN    DE    MATHA    AND    THE    TRINITARIANS. 

At  the  close  of  the  xii.  century  arose  the  Orders  for  the 
redemption  of  Captives  ;  of  those  miserable  ones  who  as 
l)risoners  or  slaves  formed  the  most  pitiable  class  during 
the  rude  warfare  of  the  middle  ages. 

The  2  Orders  now  to  be  described  rank  among  Mendi- 
cants, but  as  they  have  nothing  in  common  with  the  Fran- 
ciscans, Dominicans  and  Carmelites,  they  are  here  classed 
as  Augustinians. 

S.  Jean  de  Matha  was  a  native  of  Provence,  and  was 
born  in  11 54  of  noble  parents,  and  educated  by  his 
mother  Marthe.  At  the  University  of  Paris  he  was 
famous  both  for  goodness  and  learning.  Ordained  priest, 
he  had  a  vision  when  celebrating  his  first  mass  :  an  angel 
clothed  in  white,  with  a  red  and  blue  cross  on  the  breast, 
rested  his  hands  on  the  heads  of  two  slaves.  S.  John, 
moved  by  his  vision,  sold  his  goods  and  prepared  for  the 
mission  of  redeeming  captives.  With  Felix  de  Valois  he 
arranged  the  plan  of  a  new  Order,  and  together  they 
went  to  Rome  for  the  papal  approbation.  "  The  Order 
of  the  Holy  Trinity  for  the  Redemption  of  Captives  "  or 
Trinitarians,  proceeded  to  redeem  slaves  and  captive 
Christians  in  Africa,  John  himself  preaching  in  Spain  and 
bringing  home  large  numbers  of  slaves  from  Tunis.  His 
health  being  broken  down  he  spent  the  last  two  years  of 
his  life  in  Rome,  where  he  died  of  a  lingering  illness, 
never  ceasing  to  visit  the  prisons  and  preach  to  the 
poor.* 

The  First  Order  of  Trinitarians  is  divided  into  Calced 
and  Discalced  Friars.  The  latter  owe  their  origin  to 
the   deterioration  which  the  Order  suffered  in  the  xvi. 


S.  Jean  de 
Matha. 


Felix  de 
Valois. 


Jean  de 
Matha's 
death  in 
Rome 
1213. 

Calced  and 
Discalced 
Trinita- 
rians. 


*  See  Saints'  Rooms,  Part  I.,  p.  353. 


222      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 


1599- 


Second 

Order 

(Calced). 


(Dis- 
calced.) 


century,  which  led  to  the  members  resolving  on  the 
formation  of  two  or  three  houses  in  each  Province  for  the 
strict  observance  of  the  Rule.  As,  however,  the  friars 
were  allowed  to  return,  should  they  so  wish,  to  their 
original  Convent,  Blessed  John-Baptist  of  the  Concep- 
tion, a  fervent  member  of  the  Order  and  among  the  first 
to  embrace  the  intended  reform,  determined  to  found 
separate  monasteries,  the  members  of  which  were  bound 
to  practise  the  strict  Rule.  He  gained  the  permission  of 
Clement  VIII.,  but  the  contumely  of  his  Order  and  perse- 
cution by  the  Spanish  government.  He  died  at  Cordova 
in  1613.  (Declared  a  beato  1819.)  *  One  of  the  rules 
of  the  Reform  is  that  the  Friars  must  be  barefoot. 

S.  John  de  Matha  gave  part  of  the  Monastery  at  Lerida 
to  Oblates  of  the  Order,  who  took  vows  in  the  time  of 
the  6th  General  (1236)  and  originated  the  Second  Order 
of  Calced  Trinitarians,  who  have  5  or  6  houses  in  Spain. 
The  Religious  were  to  co-operate  in  the  work  of  redeem- 
ing captives  by  their  prayers  and  by  their  alms,  and  their 
Rule  is  not  the  same  as  that  of  the  Friars.  A  reform  of 
this  Order  was  made  by  Angela  della  Concepcion,  called 
the  Riforma  di  Toboso,  and  numbers  also  5  or  6  houses. 
The  Discalced  nuns  originated  in  1612,  when  Francesca 
de  Romero  who  had  projected  a  community  of  Discalced 
Augustinians  asked  to  belong  to  the  Frati  Scalzi ;  she 
and  her  companions  were  received  as  Oblates,  but  6 
years  later  took  solemn  vows  ;  and  these  nuns  are  now 
to  be  found  in  Lima  and  Chile,  whither  they  went  from 
the  original  house  at  Madrid.  The  nuns  observe  enclos- 
ure. The  body  of  S.  John  de  Matha,  which  was  stolen 
from  the  Trinitarian  church  of  S.  Tommaso  in  Rome,  is 
now  in  their  Convent  church  at  Madrid.  Amongst  the 
writers  of  the  Trinitarian  Order  are  inscribed  the  names  of 
Marcella  of  S.  Felix, f  the  daughter  of  the  Spanish  poet 
Lope  de  Vega,  and  of  a  Superior  of  the  same  Madrid 

*  The  '  cause '  for  his  canonisation  is  now  before  the  Congrega- 
tion of  Rites. 

t  Her  life  was  written  by  an  old  nun  of  the  Madrid  Convent, 
alive  ill  1S93. 


CAXOX^ 


22'. 


Convent,  who  edited  apologetic  works  under  the  name 
of  Carmen  Jimenez,  and  after  becoming  a  nun  wrote  arti- 
cles signed  "una  religiosa  Claustral." 

The  Religious  of  the  Third  Order  (all  women)  were 
instituted  at  Lyon  and  Valence  in  France  in  1660,  for 
the  double  work  of  hospitallers  in  charge  of  the  Hotel- 
Dieu,  and  zealous  educators  of  the  young.  They  con- 
tinued to  serve  in  their  hospitals  during  the  Revolution, 
and  formed  a  refuge  for  many  expulsed  nuns,  meeting 
the  menaces  and  persecutions  of  which  they  were  the 
object  with  unconquerable  courage.  They  have  schools 
in  France,  Belgium,  Switzerland,  England,  and  Algiers  — 
over  100  houses.* 

The  Third  Order  attached  to  the  Discalced  Congrega- 
tion was  founded  at  Marseilles  in  1845  j  ^^d  possesses 
some  15  houses.  In  1885  the  Third  Order  was  established 
in  Spain,  at  Valencia ;  it  has  5  houses.  Another  group 
of  Spanish  Tertiaries  founded  some  10  years  ago  is  spread- 
ing fast.  Finally,  the  Third  Order  was  formed  in  Italy 
in  the  last  half  of  the  xvii.  century,  and  approved  in  1828. 

The  Superior  of  the  Order  is  called  the  Minister- 
General  ;  and  the  Heads  of  Convents  Minister,  Ministra, 
in  allusion  to  the  Gospel  Matt.  xx.  26. 

The  Order  for  the  Redemption  of  Captives  was  intro- 
duced into  Spain  and  Italy  first,  but  was  established  in 
France  by  S.  Felix  of  Valois  himself,  who  obtained  for 
it  a  convent  in  Paris  by  the  Chapel  of  Saint  Mathurin, 
hence  the  French  name  Mathurins.  In  England  they 
were  called  Crutched  {crossed)  Friars,  and  gave  their 
name  to  a  district  in  the  city.f  It  is  said  that  the  Trini- 
tarians have   redeemed   900,000  slaves  and  captives ;  X 

*  Not  to  be  confused  with  the  Congregation  of  La  Sainte  Trinite 
founded  in  1829  by  Marie  Rocher  (Mere  de  la  Croix),  which  de- 
votes itself  to  education,  although  this  work  was  not  contemplated 
by  the  founder. 

t  They  were  brought  to  Thellesford  Prior>'  in  Warwickshire  by 
Sir  William  Lacy  on  his  return  from  the  Crusades. 

%  No  documents  exist.  The  discalced  friars  have  a  list  of  cap- 
tives redeemed  in  their  Spanish,  Polish,  German  and  Italian  pro- 
vmces,  between  the  years  1625-1785.     Sume  of  this  work  was  done 


Third 
Order 
(Caked) 


(Dis- 
calced.) 


224      C//AVST/.I.V  AXD  ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 


The  Co- 
founders  in 

Art. 


S.  Rade- 
gund. 


In  Rome. 


but  to-day  their  special  work  has  ceased,  and  the  pope  is 
anxious  to  unite  the  scattered  members.  A  Council 
General  will  be  held  in  Rome  in  1900.  The  work  of  the 
Friars  is  now  among  the  country  people. 

s.  JEAN  DE  HATHA  appcars  in  art  with  fetters  in  his  hand, 
or  captives  at  his  feet ;  in  the  background  his  vision  of  an 
angel  in  the  habit  of  the  Order  with  his  hands  on  the 
heads  of  two  slaves.  •  (February  8.)  s.  felix  of  valois  (ob. 
12 12)  wears  an  Augustinian  hermit's  habit,  and  is  repre- 
sented sitting  by  a  fountain  at  which  a  hart  is  drinking, 
in  allusion  to  Cerfroy,  cervi/s  frigidus,  the  site  where  the 
Order  was  instituted.  (November  20.)  The  founders 
placed  the  Order  under  the  patronage  of  s.  kadegund; 
S.  John  Baptist  being  another  Patron.  Radegund,  in 
pictures  painted  for  the  Order,  is  represented  with  a 
royal  crown  over  her  long  veil,  a  captive  at  her  feet 
with  his  broken  fetters  in  his  hand  :  the  legend  being 
that,  being  unable  to  help  the  prisoners  whose  moans 
she  heard  as  she  walked  in  the  gardens  of  her  palace, 
Radegund  prayed,  and  their  fetters  were  burst  asunder. 
(August  13.) 

Innocent  III.  gave  to  John  de  Matha  the  Convent  and 
church  of  S.  Tommaso  in  Formis,  by  the  arch  of  Dola- 
bella,  and  placed  over  the  entrance  the  mosaic  which 
records  the  saint's  vision,  which  is  still  to  be  seen  there.* 
The  houses  at  present  remaining  to  the  Order  are  how- 
ever the  following  :  S.  Crisogono  in  Trastevere,  Mother- 
house  of  the  Italian  Province  ;  S.  Carlino  at  the  Quattro 
Fontane,  founded  in  1609,  and  the  common-house  of 
the  Spanish  Provinces ;  S.  Stefano  degli  Abissini  behind 
S.  Peter's  ;  and  the  country  parish  of  S.  M.  alle  Fornaci,! 


in  co-operation  with  the  Mercedari;  and  some  further  redemptions 
were  operated  in  the  middle  of  the  present  century  by  a  priest  in 
Lower  Egypt,  whose  work  was  aggregated  to  the  Order.  The  most 
active  and  the  last  to  redeem  captives  in  any  considerable  number 
was  the  German  province. 

*  See  Part  I.,  Saints'  Rooms,  p.  353,  and  anfe,  p.  221. 

t  Originally  the  '  Apostolic  College  of  Propaganda  Fede  of  the 
Trinitarians'  for  Missions;  dispersed  by  Napoleon.  The  Discalced 
friars  have  however  still  a  mission  in  Cuba. 


fl 

1        1 

•— . 

^^ 

f        -    -  i 

AUGUSTINIAN    ROMITE. 


Trinitabian. 


CANONS  225 

outside  Porta  Cavallaggieri.  All  these  belong  to  Discaked 
Friars.  The  Calced  F^riars  were  at  the  church  of  the 
Holy  Trinity  in  Via  Condotti  until  the  death  of  the  last 
General  in  1894  ;  and  there  are  now  none  in  Rome. 
The  Third  Order  (Italian)  has  just  settled  in  Rome  for 
teaching  work,  in  Via  Germanico  85,  by  Porta  Angelica. 

The  Trinitarian  habit  is  a  white  tunic  and  scapular,  a  Habit, 
black  cloak  and  lined  hood ;  on  the  scapular  a  blue  and 
red  cross.  Like  all  Mendicants  they  wear  the  rosary. 
The  3  colours  signify  the  Trinity,  the  blue  the  Redeemer, 
the  red  the  fire  of  charity  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  The  nuns' 
habit  is  the  same  ;  and  so  is  that  of  the  Tertiaries.* 

The  device  of  the  Order  is  the  red  and  blue  cross  on  a   Badge, 
shield,  surrounded  by  a  captive's  chain.     In  France  this 
is  placed  within  a  blue  bordiire  charged  with  fleurs-de-lis. 
The  arms  have  sometimes  2  white  harts  as  supporters.j 

S.    PETER   NOLASCO   AND   THE    ORDER    OF   OUR    LADY   OF 
RANSOM.  J 

{^Mercedari.) 

S.  Peter  Nolasque,  or  Nolasco,  had  heard  John  de 
Matha  preach  the  deliverance  of  captives  in  Languedoc  ; 
and  founded  in  imitation  of  him  a  knightly  Order  for  the 
same  ends  and  for  the  redemption  of  prisoners  for  debt. 
Only  knights  and  gentlemen  at  first  belonged  to  it.  The 
Order  is  now,  however,  purely  religious.  Peter  Nolasco, 
having  spent  his  life  redeeming  captives  from  the  Moors 
in  Spain  and  on  the  coast  of  Barbary,  died  in  1258. 

*  A  silver  cross  having  been  offered  to  the  Mother  Superior  by 
the  Prefect  of  Drome  in  recognition  of  the  service  of  the  Religious 
during  the  Revolution,  the  \'alence  congregation  thenceforth  added 
a  silver  cross  on  the  breast  to  the  habit,  according  to  the  request  of 
the  population.  In  the  X\'1II.  century  they  also  changed  the  white 
tiDiic  for  black,  as  being  more  serviceable  for  nursing. 

t  Helyot,  following  Pere  le  Paige,  classes  this  Order  with  Canons 
Regular.  The  Trinitarians  kept  their  7th  Centenary  in  Rome  in 
1898.  The  Minister-General  of  the  French  Congregation  and  the 
Superior  of  Fontainebleau  both  had  the  title  of  '  Counsellor  and 
Almoner  of  the  King.' 

X  Delia  Men-cde  ;  de  la  Merci. 


226      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 


Tertiaries. 


In  Rome. 
Habit. 


Nuns.  An   Order   of  Mercedari,    or   Sisters   of   Mercy,   was 

founded  at  Seville,  and  was  closely  allied  to  the  Order 
of  Peter  Nolasco ;  the  Sisters  took  a  4'!'  vow :  to  prom- 
ise as  far  as  their  condition  permitted  to  apply  them- 
selves to  the  redemption  of  captives,  and  to  give  their 
life  if  necessary.  They  kept  enclosure,  and  led  an 
austere  life.  Many  houses  of  these  Religious  still  exist 
in  Spain.*  About  1265  two  illustrious  Spanish  women  in- 
stituted Tertiaries  of  this  Order,  in  imitation  of  the 
Franciscans  and  Dominicans. 

The  Mercedari  have  a  province  in  the  Argentine 
Republic. 

The  house  of  the  Mercedari  (men)  is  by  the  church 
of  S.  Adriano  in  the  Forum,  which  they  serve.  They 
have  been  established  here  since  1589.  The  habit  and 
scapular  are  white,  with  the  badge  of  the  Order  sus- 
pended on  the  breast ;  the  white  capuce  is  pointed 
behind,  and  they  wear  the  Augustinian  hanging  girdle. 
The  proper  dress  out  of  doors  is  a  white  mantle,  but  in 
Rome  they  wear  the  greca. 

s.  PETER  NOLASCO  Is  represented  as  an  old  man  with  flow- 
ing beard  ;  a  common  subject  in  art  since  his  canonisa- 
tion in  1628,  represents  him  carried  by  angels  to  the 
chapel  to  receive  the  Sacrament.  (January  31.)  s.  ray- 
MUND  NONNATTJs  (ob.  1 240) ,  Spaulsh  Cardinal,  was  a  member 
of  this  Order.  In  allusion  to  his  strange  birth  he  is  the 
patron  of  midwives  and  of  women  in  labour  in  Spain. 
(August  31.)  Another  frequent  subject  in  churches  of 
this  Order  is  our  lady  of  mercy.  She  stands  crowned 
with  stars,  on  her  breast  or  in  her  hand  the  badge  of  the 
Order,  while  angels  bear  the  palm,  olive,  and  broken  fet- 
ters—  victory,  peace,  deliverance.  (Feast  day,  Sept.  24.) 
Badge.  The  badge  is  the  coat  armour  of  James  el  Cotiquistador, 

4  pallets,  and  in  chief  a  cross  J'(7/ fee. 


Saints  of 
the  Order 
of  Ransom 
in  Art. 


*  The  Order  of  Mercy  for  women  is  not  to  be  confused  with  the 
far  better  known  Order  of  Mercy,  the  Irish  Sisterhood  founded  in 
1825  by  Katharine  McAulay.  There  are  also  some  Sucre  delta 
Alisericordia  of  Savona  in  Italy,  who  have  been  for  over  20  years 
in  the  Argentine  Repubhc. 


CAA'OjVS  227 

HOSPITALLER   AND    MILITARY   ORDER   OF    S.    JOHN   OF 
JERUSALEM. 

(^Chevaliers  de  Malte — Cavalieri  di  I\Talla^ 

A  Still  earlier  instance  of  semi-monastic  chivalry  than 
the  one  last  described  is  that  of  the  Knights  Hospitallers 
of  S.  John,  afterwards  known  as  Knights  of  Rhodes  ana 
later  still  as  Knights  of  Malta.  The  Orders  of  Chivalry, 
each,  in  origin,  semi-religious  in  character  as  was  all  tht- 
enterprise  of  the  middle  ages,  were  an  outcome  of  the 
spirit  and  temper  of  the  Crusades.  A  passionate  desire 
to  actuahse,  amid  the  rough  and  cruel  life  around,  that 
urbanity  and  courtesy,  those  gentler  manners,  necessary 
to  the  ideal  of  Christian  conduct,  assisted  in  establishing 
these  Knightly  Orders  —  Caesar's  contribution  as  it  were 
to  the  common  Christian  ideal. 

The  most  illustrious  of  such  associations  is  the  Hos- 
pitaller and  Militar}'  Order  of  S.  John  of  J^erusalem,  the 
oldest  order  of  Christian  chivalry,  the  model  of  all  sub- 
sequent Knightly  Orders.  Of  the  3  great  Communities 
which  arose  about  this  time,  the  Hospitallers,  the  Templars, 
and  the  Teutonic  Knights,  none  so  nearly  fulfilled  the  idea 
of  \ht  frere-chevalier  as  the  Knights  of  S.  John. 

The  foundation  in  Jerusalem  which  was  to  become  the  Founda- 
greaiest  aristocracy  in  Europe,  was  due  to  some  rich  mer-  ^°"" 
chants  of  Amalfi  who  obtained  permission  from  the  Caliph 
to  establish  a  Latin  hospice  for  the  care  of  poor  and 
infirm  pilgrims  to  the  Holy  Land  (1014-1023).  The 
work  was  placed  in  the  charge  of  Benedictine  monks.  It 
was  received  with  enthusiasm  by  noble  pilgrims,  by  young 
Knights  and  Ladies  ;  and  its  first  Rector  was  one  of  these, 
a  Provencal  named  Peter  Gerard,  who  moved  by  the 
sight  of  its  charities  joined  the  nursing  band  ;  while  a 
noble  Roman  called  Agnes  presided  over  the  women's 
hospice,  and  was  head  "  of  the  canonesses  of  S.  John  " 
when  Godfrey  de  Bouillon  entered  Jerusalem  in  1099.* 

*  Godfrey  dowered  the  Order  with  estates  in  France,  the  first  gift 
ever  made  to  it. 


22S      CHRISTIAN  AND   ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 

Dedication       The  Order  was  dedicated  to  John  the  Baptist  —  "to 
R-  *''r  *^"^  Lady  and  S.  John  the  Baptist  "  —  perhaps  on  account 

of  the  preeminence  given  to  this  saint  during  the  first 
1500  years,  perhaps  because  it  is  recorded  of  him  that 
he  was  a  Voice  crying  in  the  desert  places  :  '  Prepare  ye 
the  way  of  the  Lord,  make  His  paths  straight,'  and  the 
new  Order,  in  its  twofold  aspect,  hoped  to  fulfil  a  similar 
mission.  It  is  certain  that  on  more  than  one  occasion 
the  popes  have  saluted  the  Order  as  deliverer  in  the 
words  :  '  There  was  a  man  sent  from  God,  whose  name 
was  John  :  '  Fiiit  homo  7nissus  a  Deo  cut  nonien  erat 
Johannes*  It  is  Gerard  who  proposed  that  the  fraternity 
should  constitute  itself  as  a  Religious  one  ;  and  it  is  his 
successor  Raymund  du  Puy  (11 15)  who,  finding  the 
Order  now  largely  recruited  by  Crusaders,  organised  it 
as  a  military  body,  and  became  its  first  military  '  Master ' 
("  Master  of  the  Hospital  of  Jerusalem  ").  Thus  its  per- 
manent characteristics  were  traced  by  the  character  of 
its  work  and 'of  its  members  :  it  became  the  "Sovereign 
Military  and  Religious  Order  of  S.  John"  —  'Sovereign,' 
because  as  we  shall  see  it  actually  ruled,  and  because  it 
is  the  only  order  which  confers  the  accolade  without  the 
intervention  of  a  prince  ;  '  Military  and  Religious '  for  the 
Knights  were  both  soldiers  and  men  professed  under  vows. 
During  a  great  part  of  the  middle  ages  this  order  formed 
the  only  standing  army  in  Europe. 
The  Rule.  The  new  Rule  received  the  sanction  of  Paschal  II.  in 
1 1 13.  Its  precepts  are  bound  on  the  Knight  'in  the 
name  of  almighty  God,  Blessed  Mary,  Blessed  John,  and 
the  Poor.'  To  the  vows  of  chastity  obedience  and  renun- 
ciation of  property,  Raymund  added  a  4'!',  to  bear  arms 
in  defence  of  religion  and  of  the  new  kingdom  of  Jeru- 
salem established  under  Baldwin  II.  The  Knights  were 
never  permitted  to  draw  their  swords  in  feuds  between 
Christian  peoples.  Their  dress  was  also  to  be  poor,  "  be- 
cause our  masters  the  poor  whose  servants  we  profess  to 
be"  are  meanly  clad. 

*  The  first  dedication  rf  one  of  tlie  two  hospices  at  Jerusalem  to 
S.  John  the  Almoner,  the  good  Patriarch  of  Alexandria,  was  soon 
changed  for  the  dedication  to  the  Baptist. 


CANOiVS  229 

The  Knights  have  had  5  homes,  Jerusalem,  Acre,  Resi- 
Cyprus,  Rhodes,  and  Malta.  After  the  taking  of  Jeru-  fences, 
salem  they  proceeded  to  Acre  which  had  surrendered  to 
Richard  of  England,  and  they  took  a  gallant  part  in  its 
defence.  Its  fall  in  1191  drove  the  Order  from  Syria,  the 
land  of  its  birth,  and  when  Coeur-de-Lion  invited  them 
to  assume  the  protection  of  the  Island  of  Cyprus,  the 
Hospitallers  repaired  thither  in  company  with  the  Teu- 
tonic Knights,  a  military  Order  which  had  been  formed 
at  the  Siege  of  Acre.  Before  leaving  Palestine  they  had 
won  the  admiration  of  the  opponent  Knights  of  the 
Crusades,  the  pagan  and  the  Christian,  Saladin  and 
Richard. 

In  August  13 10  the  Knights,  alone  and  led  by  their 
Grand  Master  Villaret,  captured  the  Island  of  Rhodes, 
and  from  this  coigne  of  vantage  kept  the  Turk  out  of 
Europe  for  200  years.  It  was  at  this  moment  that 
Othman  founded  the  Turkish,  or  Ottoman,  Empire ;  so 
that  the  order  of  S.  John  became  an  independent  Power 
contemporaneously  with  the  rise  of  that  p]mpire  which 
was  its  hereditary  enemy.  The  Knights  now  became  a 
maritime  Power,  their  galleys  swept  the  Mediterranean, 
and  their  red  standard  was  the  ensign  of  safety  to  the 
peaceful  traveller,  the  terror  of  the  infidel.  Within  their 
stronghold  the  Knights  usually  numbered  some  500,  their 
soldiers  from  4000  to  double  that  number.  The  manner 
in  which  Rhodes  was  defended  against  all  comers,  the 
almost  incredible  constancy  of  devotion  and  heroism  in  a 
band  of  men  where  treachery  and  baseness  never  once 
penetrated,  raised  the  immense  reputation  of  the  Knights 
in  the  West,  and  after  the  abolition  of  the  Templars,  no 
one  contested  the  right  of  the  Rhodian  deliverers  to  suc- 
ceed to  their  vast  estates.*     Men  felt  that  such  valour 

*  The  Templars,  a  knightly  Order  similar  to  that  of  S.  John,  had 
a  brief  and  illustrious  career  from  their  foundation  in  Jerusalem  by 
Baldwin  II.  in  1118  to  their  suppression  in  131 1.  Their  tragic  end 
was  a  sort  of  international  auto  da  fe  —  stories  of  black  magic  rang 
through  Europe,  princes  and  bishops  collected  reports  of  the  opinions 
and  conduct  of  the  Knights,  the  Order  was  utterly  exterminated,  and 


230      CHRISTIAN  AND   ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 

and  devotion  must  be  based  on  real  civic  as  well  as  mili- 
tary virtues.  The  men  and  women,  the  very  children  of 
Rhodes,  caught  the  infection  of  their  heroism  :  A  young 
Greek  who  had  borne  two  children  to  one  of  the  officers 
defending  the  '  English  Bastion '  in  the  last  Siege  of 
Rhodes,  saw  him  killed  before  her  eyes.  She  ran  to  her 
children  and  killed  them,  then  seizing  the  sabre  and  vest- 
ments still  covered  wdth  the  blood  of  him  whom  she  had 
loved,  she  hastened  to  the  breach  and  threw  herself  into 
the  thickest  of  the  fight,  where  after  slaying  many  of  the 
enemy,  and  after  prodigies  of  valour,  she  herself  perished. 
Rhodes  was  lost  in  1522  after  one  of  the  memorable 
sieges  of  history,  and  while  the  noble  Grand  Master  de 
risle  Adam  guided  the  destinies  of  the  Order.*  He  died 
in  1534,  and  his  epitaph  was  written  in  the  words :  Here 
rests  virtue  victorious  over  fortune. 

The  Knights  with  their  wounded  now  set  out  on  a 
veritable  Odyssey ;  they  embarked  for  Messina  and 
afterwards,  landing  at  Baia,  formed  a  camp  near  Cumse. 

a  large  number  of  the  unhappy  Templars  were  done  to  death  by 
slow  tire. 

Apparently  the  Templars  had  really  adopted  a  species  of  gnostic 
mysticism,  based  on  the  idea  suggested  by  their  name.  For,  in  con- 
tradistinction to  the  church,  the  House  of  Christ,  the  temple  carried 
with  it  the  idea  of  universal  religion;  the  temple  was  the  House  of 
the  Holy  Spirit.  They  had  fallen  under  the  spell  of  that  eternally- 
recurring  ideal  'the  Gospel  of  the  Spirit,'  and  had  met  the  usual 
fate  of  its  devotees,  the  fate  of  the  gnostic  and  the  Spirittiales 
viri. 

*  Six  hundred  Chevaliers  with  4500  soldiers  resisted  for  6  months 
a  force  numbering  200,000;  the  greater  number  of  the  defenders 
perishing  in  the  daily  assaults.  "Nothing  has  been  well  lost  but 
Rhodes  !  "  exclaimed  the  Emperor  Charles  V.  who  afterwards  be- 
stowed Malta  on  the  Order. 

At  Messina  the  Grand  Master  and  his  Knights  again  became 
Knights  Hospitallers:  "  Leurs  freres  et  lui-meme  les  servaient;  ils 
ne  dedaignaient  point  de  descendre  pour  eux  aux  soins  les  plus  hum- 
bles. En  ce  temps  011  leur  valeur  venait  d'etonner  I'Europe  et  leurs 
ennemies  eux-m&mes,  ils  redevenaient  ces  freres-Hospitaliers.''  .  .  . 
And  during  the  Siege  itself,  the  Chronicle  records  :  "  Les  Chevaliers, 
selon  leur  ancienne  instruction,  pansoient  et  servoient  les  malades, 
mesme  le  grand  maistre." 


CAXOXS  231 

While  the  wounded  were  estabhshed  at  Messina,  the 
other  Knights  wandered  tlie  high  seas  in  search  of  a 
home ;  stopping  at  Crete,  and  finally  returning  to  their 
hospital-camp.  The  Grand  Master  then  left  to  arrange 
the  future  of  the  Order  with  the  princes  of  Europe, 
Clement  VII.  in  the  meanwhile  giving  him  the  town  of 
Viterbo,  while  the  galleys  of  the  Knights  were  anchored 
at  Civita  Vecchia.  Eight  years  later  the  possession  of 
Malta  was  negotiated.  The  Knights  arrived  there  on 
October  28,  the  bare  rock  appearing  cold  and  repellent 
to  men  accustomed  to  their  beloved  and  fertile  island  of 
Rhodes,  many  of  whose  inhabitants  followed  them  to  the 
new  home.  In  1565,  under  the  Grand  Master  Lavalette, 
the  heroic  defence  of  the  Fort  of  S.  Elmo  took  place,  in 
which  the  Knights  surpassed  even  themseh'es  by  feats  of 
heroism  which  have  been  paralleled  indeed  but  not  ex- 
celled in  history.  Lavalette  died  in  1568,  "leaving  a 
name  that  will  never  perish  "  ;  a  name  recorded  in  the 
town  of  La  Valetta  then  founded  ;  while  the  fortifications 
made  after  the  Siege  have  rendered  the  Rock  impregna- 
ble. But  the  glories  of  the  Order  were  not  only,  or  first,  The 
military.  The  nucleus  of  ev'ery  home  of  the  Knights  of  i^o^pi'^l- 
S.  John  was  a  Hospital :  that  at  Jerusalem,  opposite  the 
Holy  Sepulchre,  held  2000  poor  pilgrims,  and  Innocent  II. 
says  of  it  "  How  pleasing  to  God  and  how  venerable  to 
man  is  at  least  one  spot  on  earth  !  "  Gerard  had  also 
established  hospices  in  many  of  the  maritime  ports  :  and 
when  Saladin  recaptured  the  City  the  Knights  spent  the 
remains  of  their  treasure  in  ransoming  large  numbers  of 
Christians  who  could  not  pay  the  10  crowns  demanded 
as  the  price  of  their  liberty.  At  Rhodes  and  at  Malta 
the  magnificence  of  the  hospital  was  the  theme  of  travel- 
lers, the  wonder  of  Europe  :  when  a  sick  man  arrived  he 
was  given  the  Sacrament  of  the  Body  of  Christ,  after 
which  he  was  carried  by  Knights  to  his  bed  "  as  though 
they  were  carrying  the  Master  and  Head  of  all."  The 
sick  were  preeminently  the  gi/esis  of  the  Order,  and  the 
Rule  required  the  constant  presence  of  a  Knight  of  Justice 
and  of  Grace  in  the  wards,  a  duty  taken  in  rotation.     The 


232      CHRISTIAX  AXD  ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 

presiding  Knight  carried  in  the  first  dish,  and  the  patients 
were  all  served  on  gold  plate.  The  Knights  gave  the 
sick  all  that  was  in  their  gift ;  they  consulted  experts, 
and  spared  nothing  :  to  us  their  great  hospital  would 
appear  dreary  and  dirty,  but  the  spirit  of  the  work  was 
admirable,  and  its  constancy  a  unique  instance  in  those 
ages  —  what  it  lacked,  the  sick  had  yet  centuries  to  wait 
for. 

In  1377  Gregory  XI.  was  brought  back  from  Avignon 
on  a  galley  of  the  Order  with  a  fleet  of  8  of  their  ves- 
sels. It  is  said  that  Heredia,  afterwards  Grand  Master, 
steered  the  pope's  galley  himself.  In  14 15  the  success 
of  the  Council  of  Constance  which  secured  the  abdica- 
tion of  John  XXIII.  and  elected  Martin  V.,  was  partly 
due  to  the  diplomatic  ability  of  the  Grand  Master 
Nicholas  de  Naillac,  to  whose  Order  the  protection  of 
the  electors  was  entrusted.  It  has  been  one  of  the  privi- 
leges of  the  Knights  since  then  to  keep  the  Doors  at  an 
(Ecumenical  Council,  a  duty  performed  by  the  Italian 
Knights  during  the  Vatican  Council.  Another  glory  of 
the  Order  was  the  celebrated  League  of  the  Pope,  the 
Venetian  Republic,  and  the  Knights  against  the  Turk. 
Tolerance.  A  large  and  tolerant  spirit  prevailed  from  the  first 
among  these  warrior-nurses.  They  were  humanitarian 
before  that  word  was  coined,  and  tolerant  before  the  age 
had  come  to  understand  tolerance.  The  spirit  of  the 
Order  repelled  equally  what  was  petty  and  insolent.  The 
offence  of  a  brother  is  not  to  be  repeated  to  the  Mastei-, 
but  the  offender  is  to  be  spoken  to  "  between  thee  and 
him  alone."  The  quaint  punishment  of  the  original  Rule 
was  continued  among  the  fiery  young  Knights  at  Rhodes, 
and  the  man  who  had  quarrelled  with  his  confrere  ate 
his  dinner  on  the  floor,  and  was  forbidden  to  check  the 
dogs  and  cats  who  were  inclined  to  share  it  with  him. 
The  Knights  were  a  body  of  laymen  :  the  Grand  Master 
and  Provincial  Priors  were  laymen  as  well  as  the  other 
Chevaliers ;  and  among  them  priests  only  served  as  their 
chaplains.  From  the  first  they  were  more  tolerant  than 
the  Religious  Communities  around  them  —  the  Knights 


CANONS  233 

had  always  lived  among  the  infidels  of  Syria  and  their 
brother  Christians  of  the  East,  and  Godfrey  de  Bouillon 
could  admire  the  charity  which  "  received  Greeks  and 
Latins  without  distinction,  and  gave  alms  even  to  poor 
Musulmen."*  At  Jerusalem,  at  Rhodes  and  Malta,  the 
Knights  provided  a  Greek  chaplain  out  of  the  funds  of 
the  Order ;  and  "  Greeks  "  are  among  those  pilgrims  to 
the  Holy  Land  entitled  to  be  lodged  at  its  expense. 
Their's  is  an  almost  solitary  instance  of  both  Churches 
living  side  by  side  in  entire  friendship.  "  I  reign  over 
Christians,  not  over  Latins  and  Greeks."  "  Here  are 
neither  Greek  nor  Latin,  for  we  are  Christians,  the  ser- 
vants of  Jesus  Christ  and  of  His  Blessed  Mother  !  "  ex- 
claimed the  Grand  Master  D'Aubusson.  (1476.)  Nor 
is  there  a  single  record  of  an  attempt  made  by  these 
Knightly  rulers  and  hosts  to  change  the  religious  faith  of 
the  hundreds  who  daily  frequented  their  chef-Heu.  On 
this  point  of  tolerance,  sentiment  remained  unanimous  to 
the  last  days  of  the  Order's  greatness  :  Taafe,  one  of  the 
Knights,  writing  in  the  xviii.  century,  declares  that  the 
basis  of  the  Order  is  no  longer  war  "  but  utility  in  general 
and  neutrality  between  all  Christians  "  ;  and  tells  us  that 
when  the  Confession  of  Augsburg  was  drawn  up,  "  a  depu- 
tation of  our  Knights  was  sent  to  declare  that  all  Christian 
religions  were  indifferent  to  us  ;  and  one  of  the  latest  acts 
at  Malta  was  to  receive  both  Protestant  Germans  and 
Greek  Russians  into  the  Order  as  integral  members  of  it, 
we  being  not  theologians,  but  soldiers."  So  unique  a 
feature  in  a  semi-Religious  Order  has  not  escaped  the 
notice  of  its  historians,  Abb^  Vertot  and  Ue  Boisgelin. 
"The  banner  of  S.  John  protected  all  alike."  The  com- 
mon foe  was  heathendom. 

The  Crusaders  brought  back  with  them  a  whiff  of  the   and  Cos 
East,  a  whiff  of  cosmopolitanism  ;  but  the  chef-lieu  and   ["opoii- 

'  ^  ^  tanism. 


*  In  1 1 75,  jointly  with  the  Templar",  they  gave  burial  to  ex- 
communicates; the  pope  Alexander  III.  thereupon  writing  a  vehe- 
ment letter  to  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  tiidding  him  see  that 
these  Knights  disinterred  the  bodies  and  cast  them  forth. 


234      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCIESIASTICAL  ROME 


Ranks 

within  the 
Order. 


Qualifica- 
tions tor  a 
Knight  and 
Lady. 


Langues  *  of  the  Hospitaller  were  so  many  noviciates  of 
cosmopolitanism . 

The  Order  was  divided  into  3  classes,  Knights,  Chap- 
lains, and  Serving-men.  At  a  later  date,  the  claims  of 
the  merchant  princes  of  the  Great  Republics  of  Venice 
and  Genoa  gave  rise  to  a  lower  degree  of  Knighis,  called 
Knights  of  Grace,  men  of  position  but  not  of  birth,  from 
whom  no  pedigree  proofs  were  required.  A  class  of 
Donahs  was  also  associated,  persons  who  without  con- 
tracting obligations  towards  the  Order,  rendered  it  some 
service.  Afterwards,  Donats  were  those  who  made  an 
oblation  to  the  Order.  Besides  these  classes,  some 
branches  of  the  Order  create  Esquires.  Of  the  above, 
only  Knights  of  Justice  were  in  the  sovereign  grade  of 
the  Order,  or  shared  in  its  government.  Two  of  the  3 
original  classes  were  constantly  under  arms  against  the 
Saracen. 

Every  candidate  had  to  be  of  Knightly  degree,  that  is 
he  must  have  received  the  accolade  ;  nothing  else  was 
required.  Ladies  however  were  required  to  give  proofs 
of  nobility,  and  afterward  the  same  proofs  were  de- 
manded of  men.  These  proofs  varied  in  different 
Langues :  France  demanded  8  quarters,  England,  Spain, 
Italy  and  Portugal  4,  while  Germany  required  i6.t  The 
proof  of  seize  quartiers  signifies  that  the  16  great  great 
grandparents  all  bore  coat  armour,  and  ladies  who  could 
prove  this  enjoyed  special  privileges  at  the  Court  of 
Louis  XIV.  This  proof  of  noblesse  is  sometimes  called 
nobilty  on  the  paternal  and  maternal  side  for  200  years ; 
it  is  the  heraldic  or  genealogical  nobility  alluded  to  by 
the  astute  King  Jamie  when  he  said  to  a  friend  who 
begged  to  have  a  peerage  conferred  on  him  :  "  I  can 
mak  ye  a  lord  but  I  canna  mak  ye  a  gentleman."  Titular 
nobility  was  never  sufficient. 


*  See  infra,  p.  235. 

t  No  genealogical  proofs  were  required  from  Chaplains,  i.e.  all 
clerical  members  of  the  Order  :  and  they  are  of  course  not  Knights. 
It  is  still  an  almost  impossible  thing  in  England  to  prove  Seize 
quartiers. 


CA.VOjVS 


235 


At  a  Chapter  General  held  in  133 1  the  Knights  were 
divided  according  to  nationality,  and  7  langues,  or  lan- 
guages, were  formed,  viz:  i.  Provence.  2.  Auvergne. 
3.  France.  4.  Italy.  5.  Aragon.  6.  England.  7. 
Germany.  In  the  next  century  the  5*  langue  was  sub- 
divided making  an  8'^  latigue  of  Castile  and  Portugal. 
It  will  be  seen  that  of  the  7  original  divisions,  3  were 
French,  and  this  preponderance  of  the  nation  which  estab- 
lished the  Order  and  gave  to  it  two-thirds  of  its  splendid 
series  of  Grand  ^Masters,  continued  to  the  last.  Each 
langue  had  its  Auberge  at  the  chef-lieu,  and  each  was 
represented  in  its  own  country,  where  the  property  of  the 
langue  was  divided  into  Conunanderies.  Of  the  1000 
Knights  who  formed  the  entire  Order,  500  were  always  in 
residence  at  the  chef-lieu,  500  residing  in  their  comman- 
deries  at  home.  The  head  of  each  langue  lived  at  the 
'Convent,  i.e.  the  chef-lieu  at  Rhodes  or  Malta,  and  was 
called  Conventual  Bailiff;  while  a  Capitular  Bailiff,  only 
bound  to  appear  there  for  a  Chapter-General,  presided 
the  langue  in  his  own  country,  with  the  title  of  Grand 
Prior.*  There  were  thus  16  Bailiffs,  who  with  a  few 
titular  baiUffs  were  styled  the  Grand  Crosses  of  the  Order. 

Each  Knight  began  his  period  of  service  at  the  chef-lieu 
in  his  20""  year,  and  after  15  years  was  given  a  Com- 
inandery,  i.e.  an  estate  on  which  he  lived  accompanied  by 
other  Knights,  with  the  title  of  Knight  Commander.  It 
is  an  undoubted  fact  that  some  of  these  Commanderies 
were  presided  by  Serving-Brothers  with  Knights  of  Justice 
under  them  —  service  and  merit  never  failed  to  win  esteem 
among  the  White  Cross  Knights.  Each  langue  paid  one- 
third  of  the  income  of  these  estates  annually  to  the  chef- 
lieu.  There  were  in  Europe  some  700  commanderies  or 
smaller  estates  known  as  Cainercz.  England  at  the  time 
of  the  suppression  in  the  xvi.  century,  counted  63  estates 
distributed  in  30  English  and  Welsh  counties  ;  and  69 
Templar  Commanderies,  chiefly  in  Yorks  and  Lincoln- 
shire.    The  term  of  residence  at  Rhodes,  or  Malta,  and 


Division 
into 

Langues 
or  Lan- 
guages. 


In  England  he  ranked  as  premier  Baron  of  the  Realm. 


236      CHRISTIAX  AXD  ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 


Chevali^res 
of  the 
Order. 


The  Grand 

Master. 


the  accomplishment  of  a  certain  number  of  caravans 
(voyages  on  board  the  galleys)  were  obligatory  in  order  to 
qualify  the  Knight  for  any  post  whatsoever. 

There  have  always  been  Ladies  of  the  Order  of  S.  John  ; 
it  is  the  only  Order  of  Chivalry  which  enrolled  both  sexes 
from  the  first.*  These  Ladies  lived  as  Canonesses  and 
were  so  styled.  They  quitted  Jerusalem  in  1099,  and 
formed  2  Communities  in  Europe.  Bucklands  f  in  Som- 
ersetshire was  presented  to  the  Order  for  their  use  by 
Henry  IL  (1180)  and  here  were  settled  the  5  or  6 
Communities  which  had  previously  existed  in  England. 
Sixena,  near  Saragossa,  was  founded  for  the  Dames-Cheva- 
lieres  by  Sancha  the  Chaste  daughter  of  Alphonso  IL 
Sixty  Ladies  were  established  here,  and  50  at  Buck- 
lands,  the  latter  estate  including  3  manors  and  as  many 
churches.  For  some  time  the  Sixena  Community  was 
separated  from  the  Order,  with  which  it  reunited  about 
1572.  The  Chevalieres  acknowledged  the  Grand  Master, 
and  were  placed  by  Celestine  IIL  under  the  Rule  of 
Augustine  (1193)  to  which  as  we  have  seen  the  Military 
and  Hospitaller  Orders  all  belonged.  The  Grand  Prioress 
of  Sixena  had  her  seat  in  Chapters  next  to  the  Castellan 
of  Emposta,:J:  and  the  Prioresses  of  S.  John  had  a  voice 
at  the  Provincial  Chapters.  Religious  Communities  of 
Chevalieres-Chanoinesses  no  longer  exist  ;  their  last 
house  was  at  ALalta  itself.  The  dignity  is  now  conferred, 
like  that  of  Chevalier,  on  persons  offering  the  necessary 
qualifications  and  position.  Lady  Hamilton  received  the 
Cross  of  a  Canoness  of  the  Order  from  the  Czar  Paul 
at  Nelson's  request ;  the  ex-Empress  Eugenie  has  the 
same  cross  from  the  Italian  Knights ;  and  the  late  Lady 
Strangford,  a  Dame-Chevaliere  de  Justice  of  the  Order  in 
England,  nursed  in  the  Crimean  \\'ar. 

The  Grand  Master,  Magnus  Magisier,  of  the  Order, 
was  a  sovereign  prince,  ranking  among  the  other  princes 
of  Europe,  to  whose  court  he  appointed  envoys.     His 

*  Except,  perhaps,  the  Garter. 

t  It  had  been  a  house  of  Canons  Regular. 

X  Grand  Prior  of  Aragon. 


CA.VOiVS 


237 


Style  was  Most  Eminent  and  Most  Reverend  ;  a  letter 
of  Charles  II.  is  extant  in  which  that  monarch  ad- 
dresses him  as  Cousin  and  most  Eminent  Highness.* 
His  household  and  officers  of  State  were  more  imposing 
but  not  more  picturesque  than  his  retinue  of  16  pages, 
each  of  whom  had  the  Cross  of  a  Knight  of  Justice  at 
12  years  old.  At  the  death  of  a  Grand  Master  no  vessel 
was  allowed  to  leave  the  Island,  lest  the  pope  should 
attempt  to  interfere  with  the  new  election.!  Th^  Grand 
Master  was  elected  for  life,  from  among  the  Grand 
Crosses,  all  3  classes  of  the  Order  taking  part,  and 
deputing  delegates  from  each  grade.  Thus  the  Order 
was  at  once  republican  —  all  classes  joined  to  elect  their 
Ruler  —  and  aristocratic  —  only  the  first  class  having  a 
share  in  the  government.  The  government  was  vested  in 
the  Grand  Master  and  Council,  the  latter  consisting, 
besides  the  Master,  of  the  Archbishop  of  Rhodes,  the 
Prior  of  the  church  of  S.  John,  the  Grand  Crosses,  and 
2  Knights  of  Justice  from  each  Langue.  The  church  of  Church  of 
S.  John  the  Baptist  at  Malta  was  one  of  the  glories  of  the  ^-  J"^"- 
Order;  it  was  founded  in  15 78;  out  of  its  two  aisles  Great Rehc 
opened  the  8  chapels  of  the  Langues,  and  in  the  centre  Order, 
was  the  grand  nave  in  which  only  Knights  of  Justice 
might  walk,  the  Archbishop  of  Malta  himself  having  to 
use  the  aisles.  In  this  great  church  the  Knights  pre- 
served their  notable  relic,  the  arm  of  the  Baptist,  and 
the  miraculous  image  of  our  Lady  of  Philermos.  The 
church  still  remains,  but  shorn  of  its  relics  and  of  its 
splendour. 

The  dress  of  the  Brethren  of  the  Hospital  was  origi-   Habit 
nally  simple  and  poor;  the  one  distinguishing  badge  was   ^^^"j^. 
always  the  white  linen  cross  of  8  points  ("the  Maltese 


*  Charles  II.  also  addressed  a  letter  to  the  English  Knight 
Nicholas  Cottoner  at  Malta  with  reference  to  the  purveying  uf 
slaves :  the  Order  at  this  time  purveying  slaves  to  the  Kings  of 
France  Spain  and  England.     The  letter  is  in  the  Record  Otilice. 

t  Paschal  II.,  l)y  Bull,  had  declared  that  the  election  should  be 
free  of  all  civil  and  ecclesiastical  control;  l)ut  the  Knights  thought 
well  to  put  teinptaliun  out  of  the  way  of  his  successors. 


238      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 

cross  "),  sewn  on  the  dress.  The  8  points  signified  the  8 
beatitudes,  the  4  arms  the  4  cardinal  virtues.  But  in  the 
middle  of  the  xiii.  century  a  Bull  of  Alexander  IV.  de- 
clares that  "  the  love  of  many  Brethren  of  noble  birth, 
who  have  cast  aside  the  allurements  of  the  world  "  "  has 
grown  cold  "  owing  to  the  absence  of  any  distinguishing 
mark  between  themselves  and  the  less  noble  brethren, 
and  he  therefore  assigns  to  the  Knights  a  black  majitie, 
and  in  place  of  the  ungarnished  surcoat  over  their  armour 
the  coats  and  military  accoutrements  are  to  be  red.* 
From  thenceforward  Knights  and  Ladies  of  Justice  wore 
a  black  mantle.  This  is  the  celebrated  manteau  a  bee. 
The  Austrian  Knights  wear  it  in  black  velvet,  lined  with 
white  satin,  the  cross  embroidered  on  the  left  shoulder, 
the  mantle  fastened  by  a  clasp  in  front  in  the  manner  of 
a  cope.  The  Ladies  of  Sixena  wore  a  scarlet  robe,  a 
rochet  and  a  black  mantle,  and  in  choir  carried  a  silver 
sceptre  in  memory  of  their  royal  founder.  The  red  sur- 
coat, with  a  plain  white  cross  behind  and  before,  can  still 
be  seen  in  Rome  at  great  papal  ceremonies,  when  the 
Grand  Master  of  the  Italian  Knights  appears  in  it.  The 
palco  of  the  Order  of  Malta  has  its  place  in  the  Cappella 
Sistina  with  that  of  Royal  visitors  and  of  the  Roman 
aristocracy. 
Insignia.  The  Insignia  of  Knights  and  Ladies  of  Justice  consist  in 

an  8-pointed  white  cross  enamelled  on  gold,  surmounted 
by  a  sovereign  crown  in  gold.  This  is  one  of  the  hand- 
somest of  all  knightly  insignia.  It  is  worn  suspended 
from  black  watered  silk  ribbon.  Knights  and  Ladies  of 
Grace  wear  the  cross  without  the  crown.  Donats  and 
Esquires  wear  a  demi-cross,  the  two  upper  points  being 
cut  off.  Men  wear  the  order  from  the  neck,  women  from 
the  left  shoulder.  A  miniature  cross  may  be  worn  in  day 
dress.  After  the  establishment  of  Langues  it  became 
customary  to   place   a   distinguishing   device   in    the   4 

*  The  naivete  of  this  nevertheless  wise  provision  is  enhanced  by 
the  usual  ecclesiastical  formula  that  any  one  infringing  this  Statute 
will  incur  thereby  "  the  indignation  of  Almighty  God,  and  of  the 
Apostles  I'eter  and  Paul." 


CJA'OjVS  239 

widest  angles  of  the  Cross  :  thus  France  had  the  fleur- 
de-lis,  England  the  leopard,  Germany  the  spread  eagle, 
Spain  a  Uon,  Castile  a  castle  ;  while  the  Italian  Knights 
adopted,  according  to  the  State  in  which  their  Priories 
were  situated,  the  Eagle  of  Austria  or  the  Bourbon  fleur- 
de-hs.  A  black  watered  silk  riband  woven  with  the 
emblems  of  the  Passion  is  also  worn  ;  and  a  crachat 
consisting  of  an  8-pointed  enamelled  cross. 

The  arms  of  the  Order  are  a  plain  white  cross  on  a  red   Arms  and 
field.*     The  badge   is  the  8-pointed  cross  on  a  black   B^^lg^- 
field.     All  Knights  and  Ladies  of  Justice  are  entitled  to 
bear  their  arms  on  a  mantle,  and  the  8-pointed  cross, 
and  to  have  the  shield  of  the  Order  in  chief .■\ 

The  Order  boasts  canonised  Saints,  of  both  sexes  ;  in  art  Saints  of 
they  are  only  met  with  in  churches  of  the  Order,  where  '^^  Order. 
the  cross  on  their  clothes  or  as  a  nimbus  easily  identifies 
them.  Clement  VII.,  nephew  of  Leo  X.,  a  Medici,  was 
a  Knight  of  S.  John ;  and  Bosio,  the  historian  of  the 
Catacombs  was  a  frere-servant  of  the  Order,  his  great 
work  being  published  at  its  expense.  The  chief  festivals 
of  the  Order  are  June  24,  August  29,  and  Our  Lady  of 
Philermos  in  September. 

When  in   1 798  the  last  and  69""  Grand  Master,  Von    Present 
Hompesch,  surrendered  Malta  to  Napoleon  without  stiik-    Condition 
ing  a  blow,  the  history  of  the  Order  under  the  conditions   orden 
described  above,  ceased.   Twenty-two  years  later  Durdent 
writes  of  the  Order  as  non-existent,  and  says  that  should 
its  great  memories  lead  to  its  reinstatement,  it  would  be  a 
veritable  resurrection. 

Of  the  332  Knights  resident  at  Malta  when  it  capitu- 
lated, 200  were  French:    in   1792   \\\t  Directoire  of  the   Action  in 
Revolution  suppressed  the  Order  in  France.    But  on  the    ^^"^• 
restoration  of  the  Bourbons,  the  Knights  took  heart,  and 

*  The  white  shield  charged  with  a  red  8-pointed  cross  is  the 
badge  of  the  Medici  Order  of  S.  Stefano,  and  may  be  seen  in  the 
church  of  these  Knights  at  Pisa. 

t  The  Order  coined  its  own  money  from  the  time  of  its  settlement 
at  Rhodes,  and  many  of  the  Rhodian  and  Maltese  coins  exist. 


240      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 

in  1 8 14,  the  3  French  Langues  placed  themselves  under 
De  Rohan,  Prior  of  Aquitaine,  and  formed  themselves 
into  a  Commission  in  which  they  declared  the  govern- 
ment of  the  Order  to  be  vested.  Spain  and  Portugal  con- 
curred, and  a  papal  Bull  confirmed  their  action,  which 
was  also  recognised  by  Louis  XVIII.  and  by  the  Italian 
Lieutenant  of  the  Mastery.  These  Knights  now  repre- 
sented the  Order,  and  as  a  step  to  its  re-inauguration  in 
England  presented  the  cross  to  George  IV. 
Action  in  Shortly  before   the   loss   of  Malta,  the  impoverished 

bureh"  German  and  English  Langues  had  been  supplemented 
at  the  chef-lieu  by  the  formation  of  2  new  combina- 
tions, the  '  Anglo-Bavarian  Langue  '  and  '  Bohemia,'  the 
former  of  which  comprised  the  2  Priories  of  Ebersberg 
and  Poland.  Paul  I.  of  Russia  erected  the  latter  into 
a  Russian  Priory  in  1797,  incorporating  it  afresh  into 
the  '  Anglo-Bavarian  '  Langue.  This  Russian  Priory  was 
flourishing  when  the  Knights  lost  their  home  at  Malta, 
and  thither  several  of  them  repaired,  and  begged  the 
Czar  to  constitute  himself  their  Grand  Master,  a  step 
the  legahty  of  which  no  one  now  ventures  to  defend.  But 
the  subsequent  history  of  the  Order  centres  round  the 
fate  of  the  Anglo-Bavarian  Langue  and  its  Russo-Polish 
Priory.  Paul  I.  accepted  the  honour,  constrained  the 
actual  Grand  Master  von  Hompesch  to  abdicate,  and  in 
1 799  created  a  6^;r^^-Russian  Priory.  His  successor 
Czar  Alexander,  having  nominated  Count  Soltykoff  Lieu- 
tenant of  the  Mastery,  directed  him  to  convene  a  Coun- 
cil and  proceed  to  the  regular  election  of  a  Master. 
This  Council  vested  the  nomination  in  the  Pope,  and 
Prince  Ruspoli  having  declined  the  honour  in  these 
irregular  conditions,  Pius  VII.  nominated  the  Count  di 
Tommasi,  who  was  thenceforth  styled  in  Italy  Grand 
Master,  residing  at  Catania.  A  curious  result  is  that  no 
single  Catholic  Power  has  accepted  the  Order  so  recon- 
stituted. On  Tommasi's  death  in  1805  the  pope  refused 
to  nominate  another  Grand  Master,  but  Tommasi's  suc- 
cessors continued  to  officiate  with  the  style  of 'Lieuten- 
ants of  the  Mastery.' 


CANONS  241 

In  1826  the  Permanent  Commission  of  French  Knights,  The  Order 
decreed  the  revival  of  the  Enghsh  Langue.  This  Langue  m  England, 
which  had  always  been  among  the  most  illustrious 
branches  of  the  Order  —  "  un  principal  membro  cotne  era 
sempre  staia  la  venerabile  lingua  (ringhilterra  "  writes 
Bosio  —  was  suppressed  in  England  by  Henry  VIII.,  but 
restored,  with  its  property,  by  Mary.  Elizabeth  again 
despoiled  it,  without  however  depriving  it  of  the  powers 
of  a  Corporation  with  perpetual  succession  restored  to  it 
by  the  Royal  charter  of  2  April  1557.  Its  existence  at 
the  chef-lieu  had  never  ceased,  and  the  Grand  Master  in 
apprising  George  III.  of  the  formation  of  the  '  Anglo- 
Bavarian  Langue  '  explained  that  the  privileges  of  the 
English  Langue  had  been  preserved.*  The  nephew  and 
heir  of  the  last  Grand  Master  von  Hompesch  was  eventu- 
ally received  into  this  revived  Langue,  as  were  also  some 
Portuguese  and  Italian  gendemen,  Philippe  de  Chaste- 
lain,  a  Knight  who  had  been  Secretary  to  the  French 
Langues,  and  Prince  Alexander  Labanoff. 

Its  recent  history  can  be  summed  in  a  few  words  :  in 
1888  the  Queen  by  Royal  Charter  restored  the  Order 
in  England  to  the  position  it  had  occupied  before  its 
confiscation  under  Henry  VIII.  The  Prince  of  Wales 
became  its  Grand  Prior,  and  the  Knights  and  Ladies 
continue  that  hospitaller  work,  in  its  xix'!*  century  form, 
for  which  the  Order  has  always  been  so  famous.  Classes 
for  First  Aid  to  the  injured  are  held  for  the  Police  force 
as  well  as  for  large  numbers  of  private  persons  ;  the  Am- 
bulance Service  has  reached  a  high  state  of  perfection  ; 
while  not  the  least  interesting  work  is  a  Hospital  at  Jeru- 
salem and  the  provision  of  convalescent  diets  for  those 
leaving  the  hospitals  in  England.  In  one  point  the 
Order  in  England  has  departed  from  all  historical  prece- 
dent :  none  but  royal  persons  are  received  at  once  into 
the  grade  of  Justice,  all  other  Knights  and  Ladies  enter- 
ing in  the  grade  of  Grace. f     The  Order  now  numbers 

*  The  Order  provided  for  its  representation  in  Council  to  the  last. 

t  The  Knights  and  Ladies  of  Justice  in  England  no  longer  wear 

the  crown,  a  traditional  decoration  recorded  only  in  that  now  worn 


242      CHRISTIAX  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 


The  Order 
in  Ger- 
many. 


'Johanniter. 


Maltese- 
rittdr. 


The  Order 
in  Spain 
and  Portu- 
gal. 


In  Italy  at 
the  present 
dav. 


some  47  Knights  of  Justice,  not  being  Royal  persons, 
and  19  non-Royal  Ladies  of  Justice. 

The  German  Knights  took  no  part  in  the  revivals 
above  described.  They  only  numbered  4  at  the  chef- 
lieu  in  1798,  and  the  German  Langue  had  suffered  a 
serious  secession  in  the  xiv.  century,  when  the  Bailiwick 
of  Brandenburg  separated  from  the  Grand  Priory,  and 
became  an  autonomous  member  of  the  Order ;  paying 
its  responsions  to  the  chef-lieu  until  the  loss  of  Malta. 
In  the  XVI.  century  these  Knights  became  Lutherans. 
This  branch  of  the  Order  can  show  a  more  imposing 
pedigree  than  any  of  the  others.  It  includes  the  States 
of  Saxony,  Pomerania,  and  Mecklenburg,  and  its  Grand 
Bailiff  is  always  a  member  of  the  Prussian  Royal  House. 
It  rendered  notable  hospitaller  service  during  the  Franco- 
Prussian  war. 

The  Order  of  S.  John  exists  as  an  imperial  Order,  with 
its  own  Constitutions,  in  Austria,  and  is  seated  with  much 
splendour  in  Vienna. 

The  33  Spanish  and  Portuguese  Knights  present  at 
Malta,  and  their  confreres  in  Spain  and  Portugal,  resisted 
the  intention  of  their  Sovereigns  to  form  those  Langues 
into  Royal  Orders.  They  concurred  as  we  have  seen 
with  the  French  Commission  in  its  efforts,  first  to  restore 
the  sovereignty  of  the  Order  (which  failed)  and  then  to 
resist  the  merging  of  the  Langues  in  royal  orders.  The 
French  Langues  are  to-day  non-existent,  and  the  Order 
of  S.  John  is  bestowed  as  a  decoration  by  the  King  of 
Spain.    In  Russia  the  Greek  Priory  remains. 

The  Grand  Priory  of  Bohemia  (see  p.  240)  joined  its 
fortunes  with  the  Russo-Roman  Order,  which  now  has  its 
seat  in  Rome  and  has  severed  all  connection  with  Russia. 
It  comprises  the  following  Grand  Priories  :  Rome,  Lom- 
bardo-Venice,  the  two  Sicilies,  \\'estphalia,  and  Bohemia  ; 
to  which  has  been  added  a  'British  Association'  com- 
posed of  English  Catholic  Knights  and  Chaplains.     Some 


by  the  Prince  and  Princess  of  Wales.     The  Knights  of  Grace,  fur 
distinction,  wear  the  Cross  mounted  on  silver, 


CANOXS  243 

years  ago  the  Order  followed  the  example  of  England  in 
"  applying  this  ancient  organisation  to  the  needs  of  our 
own  time,"  and  undertook  hospitaller  work;*  and  train- 
ing in  its  Ambulance  Corps  dispenses  young  men  from 
their  military  service.  It  also  retains  in  its  gift  some 
commanderies.  Its  members  do  not  lead  a  commmiity 
life,  but  take  the  vow  of  celibacy,  and  if  they  desire  to 
marry  must  exchange  the  Cross  of  Justice  for  a  lower 
grade  called  the  '  Cross  of  Devotion.'  The  Palazzo  of  In  Rome. 
the  Order  is  in  Via  Condotti,  and  it  has  re-acquired  an 
ancient  property  in  the  beautiful  old  Aventine  Villa  and 
church  of  S.  Maria  del  Priorato. 

Thus  the  Italian  and  the  English  Orders  are  the  outcome 
of  the  action  taken  after  the  loss  of  Malta  by  the  Czar  and 
the  French  Commission  respectively.  In  Spain,  Portugal, 
Russia,  Poland,  England,  Austria  and  Prussia  it  has  ceased 
to  be  Religious;  in  Rome,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  only  an 
Order  of  Chivalry  on  the  same  terms  and  with  the  same 
conditions  as  any  other  papal  Order.  Brandenburg,  which 
ceased  to  be  a  Religious  Fraternity,  continued  to  be  a 
member  of  the  knightly  Order.  As  a  Religious  Fraternity 
the  Roman  Order  alone  has  any  rights  ;  as  the  heir  of  the 
sovereign  and  knightly  Order  of  Rhodes  and  Malta  the 
Roman  Order  has  no  rights  at  all. 

The  Order  of  S.  John  always  in  fact  led  a  double  exist- 
ence, one  at  its  chef-lieu,  the  other  in  its  Commanderies. 
The  latter  was  not  only  autonomous  as  regarded  the  chef- 
lieu,  but  was  absolutely  dependent  for  its  privileges  prop- 
erty and  corporate  existence  on  the  pleasure  of  the  prince 
or  the  laws  of  the  land.  The  one  was  a  riational  exist- 
ence, the  other  an  international.  The  patronage  of  the 
Order  by  sovereigns  in  their  own  States  is  apparently  the 
modern  substitute  for  the  former.  The  latter  has  ceased  ; 
and  in  nothing  has  the  old  Order  so  changed  its  special 

*  "  Cartulaire  General  de  I'Ordre  des  Hospitaliers  de  St.  Jean  de 
Jerusalem."  J.  D.  Le  Roulx.  Major  General  Porter's  "  History  of 
the  Knights  of  Malta"  contains  a  graphic  account  of  the  Order 
and  its  sieges. 


244      CHRISTIAN  AXD  ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 


Grand 

Mastership 
in  Rome. 


character  as  in  the  abolition  of  its  international  chivalry, 
of  which  we  augur  the  restoration. 

Pius  IX.  having  steadily  refused  to  restore  the  Grand 
Mastership,  this  was  effected  by  Leo  XIII.  in  1879,  in  the 
person  of  Count  G.-B.  Ceschi  a  Santa  Croce  (elected 
Lieutenant  1872).  The  pope's  brother,  Cardinal  Pecci, 
was  a  chaplain  of  the  Order. 


Jerony- 
mites  (Ger- 
olamini). 

Spanish. 


Italian. 


In  Rome. 
Habit. 


THE   HERMITS   OF   S.   JEROME. 

No  kind  of  ascetic  has  been  more  tenacious  than  the 
hermit.  When,  after  the  incursions  of  the  Vandals,  num- 
bers took  refuge  in  Europe,  they  found  the  Benedictine 
Order  embracing  two  herinit  branches ;  the  Carmelites 
were  hermits,  and  a  large  company  of  hertnits  were  about 
to  range  themselves  under  the  Rule  of  Augustine.  In  the 
XIII.  and  XIV.  centuries  the  early  anchorites  were  well  rep- 
resented by  hermits  of  both  sexes,  attached  to  no  Order, 
living  in  huts  or  simple  dwellings,  and  known  as  romites, 
fraticelli,  and  cellani.  Such  were  Mother  Juliana  the  an- 
chorite of  Norwich  in  the  time  of  Edward  III.,  the  Tuscan 
romite  Blessed  Giovanna  of  Segni,  and  the  recluse  Eva 
who  brought  about  the  institution  of  the  feast  of  Corpus 
Domini. 

The  Hermits  of  S.  Jerome  were  companies  of  Spanish 
and  Italian  solitaries  formed  in  the  xiv.  century,  with  S. 
Jerome  as  Patron  and  model.  Gregory  XL  gave  the  Span- 
iards the  Rule  of  S.  Augustine,  these  hermits  having  begun 
as  Franciscan  Tertiaries.  Later  on  they  adopted  the  Cen- 
obitic  life,  became  an  illustrious  Order,  and  built  S.  Lau- 
rence of  the  Escurial,  and  Our  Lady  of  Guadaloupe  in 
Estrainadura.  In  the  xvi.  century  Pius  V.  obliged  them 
to  take  perpetual  vows.  In  1377  they  were  established 
in  Umbria  by  Pietro  Gambacorti  of  Pisa,  and  this  branch 
became  diffused  in  Italy  and  is  now  represented  in  Rome. 
These  Italian  hermits,  the  "  Lombard  Congregation,"  are 
called  "  Jeronymites  of  the  Observance."  They  are  set- 
tled at  S.  Onofrio,  and  at  S.  Francesco  on  Monte  Mario. 
The  original  habit  was  gray,  but  is  now  dark  chocolate 


CJXOXS 


245 


brown ;  it  consists  of  a  tunic,  leather  belt,  and  cloak  ;  with 
shoes  and  a  hat.     The  device  is  a  figure  of  S.  Jerome  in   Badge, 
scarlet,  on  a  shield.*     (S.  Jerome  September  30.)       (B. 
Peter  Gambacorti  June    17.)      (S.  Honuphrius,   hermit, 
June  12.) 


Hermits  cf 
S.  Paul 
the  First 
Hermit. 


There  are  2  Congregations  of  hermits  called  after 
Paul  the  First  Hermit.  The  Hermits  of  S.  Paul  in  Hun- 
gary were  founded  by  B.  Eusebius  of  Strigonia  in  1250, 
and  approved  by  John  XXH.  The  Order,  which  spread 
to  Poland,  Austria,  Swabia,  Croatia,  and  to  Italy,  was  re- 
formed by  Cardinal  Petrochino.  The  sole  Italian  monas- 
tery of  the  Order  used  to  be  that  of  S.  Stefano  Rotondo 
on  the  Celian,t  which  was  exchanged  in  the  pontificate 
of  Gregory  XIII.  for  the  little  monastery  of  S.  Paolo  primo 
Eremito  in  Via  delle  Quattro  Fontane  (now  Agostino  De- 
pretis).  The  church  was  only  secularised  some  12  years 
ago,  and  is  now  the  School  of  Hygiene.  The  habit,  scap- 
ular, cape  and  hood  are  white.  They  no  longer  exist  in 
Rome. 

The  second  company  of  hermits  of  this  name  was 
founded  in  Portugal  before  148 1  the  year  in  which  their 
founder  Mendo  Gomez  died.  A  previous  Congregation 
of  Portuguese  hermits  of  the  desert  of  Sierra  de  Ossa  may 
have  existed  since  11 86,  and  to  these  hermits  Gomez 
joined  his  community  in  the  xv.  century. 

Other  companies  of  hermits,  in  Naples,  the  Marches  of 
Ancona,  and  in  France,  have  had  the  same  appellation. 

There  is  a  monastery  of  women  hermits  also  in  Rome  :    Battistine. 
they  were  founded  by  the  Ven.  Jeanne  Marie  Baptiste  Sol- 
imani,  under  the  name  of  Missionaries  of  S.  John  Baptist,  or 
Baptists.     Born  in  Genoa  in  1688  she  made  religious  vows 


*  There  used  to  be  women  of  the  Order.  The  "Apostolic  Clerks, 
Gesuati  of  S.  Jerome,"  founded  by  S.  John  Colombino  of  Siena  were 
suppressed  by  Clement  IX.  This  Congregation  embraced  both  men 
and  women.  The  device  they  used  was  the  same  as  that  of  the 
Jesuits. 

t  Helyot. 


246      CHKISTTAX  AXD  ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 


In  Rome. 
Habit. 


at  15.  Her  ascetic  instincts  were  joined  to  a  missionary 
ardour  which  impelled  her  to  form  a  Religious  community, 
but  which  the  time  in  which  she  lived  made  it  difficult  to 
translate  into  active  work.  The  Order  was  finally  formed 
in  1746;  the  Religious  live  each  in  a  little  cell;  Matins 
are  said  at  i  a.m.  ;  and  no  meat  is  ever  eaten.  Widows  can- 
not join  the  Order.  The  founder  died  in  1 758.  She  also 
instituted,  in  conjunction  with  Domenico  Olivieri,  a  Con- 
gregation of  Secular  Missionary  Priests  of  S.  John  Baptist, 
of  which  Pius  VI.  was  a  member.  The  Ven.  Solimani's 
niece  came  to  Rome  in  1775,  founded  a  monastery  at  S. 
Nicola  da  Tolentino,  and  was  given  that  fine  church,  which 
had  originally  been  destined  for  the  Discalced  Augustin- 
ians.  The  present  Roman  monastery  is  in  Via  Varese  9. 
The  Hermits  {Ro?>iite)  of  S.  John  Baptist  dress  da  /rate, 
i.e.  in  brown  tunic  and  cloak  ;  the  girdle  is  a  hair  cord, 
and  the  sandals  are  made  of  cord.  They  wear  a  dark 
veil,  and  sleep,  as  do  some  other  Orders,  in  their  clothes. 
They  observe  strict  enclosure. 


Augustin- 

ian  Oblates 

of  the 

Seven 

Dolours 

(Sette 

Dolori). 


OBLATES*    IN    ROME. 

Besides  the  Benedictine  Oblates  of  Tor  de'  Specchi 
(p.  113),  and  the  Pxclesiastical  Congregation  of  Oblates 
of  Mary  Immaculate  (p.  313),  there  are  several  com- 
munities of  Augustinian  Oblates  in  Rome.  Oblates,  as 
the  name  implies,  are  not  bound  by  perpetual  vows  ; 
they  offer  themselves  and  their  life  and  work,  and  the 
offering  is  perpetual.  No  Communities  of  Oblates  are 
enclosed ;  they  are  free  to  quit  the  Community,  and 
in  some  cases  to  marry. 

{a)  In  1652  Donna  Camilla  Farnese  founded  a  con- 
gregation of  Augustinian  Oblates  0/  the  Seven  Dolours,  a 
title  which  up  till  then  had  not  been  assumed  by  any 
Community. I  Though  these  Oblates  take  no  vows,  mak- 
ing a  simple  offering  of  their  person  to  the  house,  they 
promise  perpetual  stability,  with  conversion  of  manners 

*  See  Chap.  II.,  paj^e  77. 
t  Cf.  Servites,  p.  196, 


C.LVO.VS 


247 


and  obedience  to  the  Constitutions.  The  Sisters  are 
divided  into  choir  and  lay  (in  maximum  proportion  of 
33  to  14)  ;  the  former  are  of  noble  families.  The 
founder  ordained  that  those  whose  infirmities  prevented 
their  reception  in  other  Communities,  should  be  received 
into  this.  The  Sisters  may  go  out  to  visit  the  3  great 
basihcas,  though  they  never  go  beyond  the  walls  of  the 
city.  For  the  rest,  their  house  and  charming  garden, 
Monastero  delle  Sette  Dolori  in  Via  Garibaldi  on  the 
ascent  to  S.  Pietro  in  Montorio,  content  them.  The 
habit  is  black,  with  a  stuff  girdle,  a  square  plaited  guimpe 
and  a  white  veil.  In  the  street  they  wear  a  long  black 
mantle  from  the  head  to  the  ankles,  the  two  ends  caught 
up  in  front  as  far  as  the  knees. 

{b)  The  Oblates  of  the  Bambin  Gesii  are  interesting 
as  a  pioneer  community  of  unenclosed  women  for  the 
education  of  girls  of  the  middle  class,  founded  by  Anna 
Moroni  in  1662.  Their  old  and  well  known  house  in 
the  Via  Urbana  opposite  S.  Pudenziana  is  a  boarding 
school,  and  the  Oblates  prepare  girls  for  their  first  Com- 
munion. The  habit  is  a  loose  black  robe  with  the 
Augustinian  girdle,  a  plain  coif  passing  above  the  ears, 
with  a  black  veilette  tied  under  the  chin. 

{c)  The  Obhtes  of  the  Monastery  oi  S.  Pasguale,  after 
which  they  are  called,  live  in  the  annexed  convent  Via 
Anicia  13.  They  have  a  gratuitous  elementary  school  for 
girls.  Black  habit  scapular  and  veil,  with  rosary  ;  and 
long  cloak  in  the  streets. 

(^/)  The  Oblate  Filippine  have  now  an  institute  for 
the  "  education  and  instruction  of  young  ladies,"  and 
occupy  the  Monastery  of  S.  Philip  Neri  in  the  Via  dei 
Quattro  Cantoni  50.  These  Oblates  were  founded  in  the 
time  of  Urban  VIII.  as  the  directors  and  teachers  of  100 
poor  girls  snatched  from  the  temptations  of  misery  and 
poverty.  They  occupied  the  old  Monastery  of  the  Cross 
on  Monte  Citorio  from  1669  to  1695,  '^^'hen  the  palace 
projected  by  Innocent  XII.  necessitated  their  return  to 
their  old  home  at  S.  Lucia  della  Chiavica.  Habit,  a  very 
dark  gray,  a  plaited  round  guimpe,  and  a  white  veil  in 


Augustin- 
ian Oblates 
oftheCliild 
Jesus 
(Bambin 
Gesij). 


Augustin- 
ian Oblates 
in  S.  Pas- 
quiile. 


Oblates  of 
S.  Philip 
Neri. 


248      CHRISTIAX  AXD  ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 


Oblates  of 
the  As- 
sumption. 


the  house.     According  to  Helyot  they  used  to  wear  a 
rochet,  tied  with  a  white  cord. 

(<^)  The  Augustinian  Oblates  of  the  Assumptio7i  (As- 
sunzionisti)  are  an  active  missionary  society  founded  in 
Paris  in  the  middle  of  this  century,  with  a  mission  in 
Constantinople.  They  enjoy  the  sinister  distinction  of 
editing  the  French  Catholic  newspaper  "  La  Croix." 
(Paris,  rue  Frangois  I.  8.)  Procura  Piazza  AracoeU  ii. 
Habit,  a  black  tunic,  leathern  belt,  capuce  and  hood,  a 
rosary,  and  the  priest's  hat. 


CHAPTER  V. 

SECTION  I.     THE   SISTERS   OF  CHARITY. 
The  Coming  of  the  Sisters  of  Charity:  —  Sisters  of 

Charity  of  S.  Vincent  de  Paul — Mary  Ward  and  the  Institute 
of  Mary  —  Filles  de   la  Sagesse — Petites  Sceurs  des  Pauvres 

—  the  Bon  Secours  of   Troyes.     Sisters  of  Charity  in   Rome 

—  Nursing  Sisterhoods —  Teaching  Sisterhoods  —  Missionary 
Sisterhoods —  Congregations  following  the  Jesuit  Rule  —  Semi- 
enclosed  Congregations  —  dress  of  the  active  Charitable  Con- 
gregations. 

SECTION  II.     CLERKS  REGULAR. 

The  Theatines — Somaschi  —  Barnabites  — -Jesuits —  Clerks  Minor 

—  Ministers  of  the  Infirm — Clerks  of  the  Mother  of  God — 
and  of  Pious  Schools.  Ecclesiastical  Congregations  —  Religious 
Institutes. 

Missionary  work —  Confraternities. 

Few  events  have  so  changed  and  renewed  the  face  of  The  Com- 
Christendom  as  the  Coming  of  the  Sisters  of  Charity,  ^gof'he 
The  '  Coming  of  the  friars  '  which  Dr.  Jessopp  describes  Charity, 
for  us  so  vividly  has  stirred  to  the  depths  the  monks  on 
the  one  hand  and  the  parish  priests  on  the  other,  but  the 
Sisters  of  Cliarity  have  influenced  still  more  profoundly 
the  great  lay  world.  Those  wider  i)ossibilities  which  had 
opened  before  the  saints  of  the  '  Catholic  Reaction  '  were 
stultified  by  the  ecclesiastical  atavism  in  favour  with 
Pius  V.  and  the  Council  of  Trent ;  and  it  is  significant 
that  the  laws  enforcing  enclosure  were  rigorously  carried 
out  on  the  very  eve  of  the  spontaneous  and  universal 
movement  towards  unenclosed  Orders,  while  the  Consti- 
tutions for  the  reform  of  the  clergy,  so  urgently  needed, 
have  remained  in  abeyance  to  the  present  day.  The 
scandals  which  had  culminated  in  the  xvi.  century  were 

249 


250      CHKISTIAX  AXD   ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 

ecclesiastical  scandals,  due  in  S.  Bernard's  words  5  cen- 
turies earlier,  to  "  ambition  how  boundless  !  avarice  how 
insatiable  !  "  They  had  left  the  laity  on  one  side.  That 
wholesome  intervention  of  women  in  the  life  of  the  xiii. 
century  noticed  by  Dandolo  had  given  place  to  the  igno- 
rance and  ineffectiveness  which  have  been  pointed  out  as 
one  of  the  causes  of  the  success  of  the  Reformation, 
This  ineffectiveness  was  swept  away  by  the  torrent  of 
workers  who  now  inundated  Christendom.  A  moral 
miracle  took  place  in  the  uprising  of  women  all  over  the 
world,  forming  themselves,  at  their  own  initiative,  into 
congregations  of  workers  —  those  energetic  figures  whose 
religious  dress  is  identified  with  importunate  activity  for 
their  neighbour  —  the  "active  Orders." 

The  Filles  In  1630  S.  Vincent  de  Paul  proposed  to  Louise  de 
i^  '*.  ,  Marillac,  widow  of  M.  Legras,  the  institution  of  a  society 
of  Dames  de  la  Charity  to  visit  the  domiciles  of  the  poor 
and  assist  the  sick.  The  work  began,  but  soon  outgrew 
the  resources  of  the  Ladies  of  Charity,  who  appointed 
some  women  of  the  peasant  class  to  assist  them,  their 
duties  being  at  once  those  of  servants  of  the  Dames  and 
of  the  poor.  Thus  arose  those  Filles  tie  ia  Ciiarite  whose 
loving  simple  and  holy  work  has  made  them  the  embodi- 
ment of  Charity.  No  one  acknowledged  these  peasant 
women,  in  peasant's  dress,  going  about  by  twos  and  threes, 
at  everybody's  beck  and  call.  Teresa's  Carmelites  and 
the  new  Visitation  Order  attracted  all  the  respect  of  the 
religious  world.  But  to-day  "  the  Daughter  of  France" 
is  blest  in  every  country,  and  follows  the  flag  of  every 
Catholic  nation  going  to  war.  For  they  are  one  of  the 
glories  of  France,  they  are  the  First  Sisters  of  Charity  ; 
the  preservation  of  the  religious  life  without  enclosure 
had  been  for  centuries  held  an  impossibility,  S.  Vincent 
taught  his  Daughters  to  find  the  presence  of  God  in  the 
Rules.  service  of  the  afflicted.     He  legislated  for  them  and  these 

are  his  rules:  "To  quit  all  things  on  earth,  and  not  to 
quit  oneself,"  he  said,  "  would  be  doing  nothing  :  "  The 
Daughters  of  Charity  are  to  have  no  grille,  no  veil,  no 


Sister  of  Charity  of  S.    Vincent 
DE   Paul. 


THE   SISTERS   OF  CHARITY  251 

cell,  no  cloister  :  "  the  streets  of  the  city  or  the  houses 
of  the  sick  shall  be  your  cells,  your  chapel  the  parish 
church,  obedience  your  solitude,  the  fear  of  God  your 
grating,  a  strict  and  holy  modesty  your  only  veil."  Pre- 
serving this  they  will  "  be  better  cloistered  than  Religious." 
He  tells  them  that  they  are  the  "  First  Called,"  "  for  such 
a  state  of  life  has  not  been  since  the  Apostles,  and  now 
simple  village  girls  are  called  to  it."  He  gave  them 
special  instructions  how  they  might  be  kept  in  peace 
amid  the  confusion  and  distraction  of  their  life,  the  Rule 
remitting  all  religious  exercises  when  needful  for  the  ser- 
vice of  the  poor.  "  Spiritual  persons  make  shipwreck  " 
he  said  "  because  they  seek  their  own  satisfaction  in  con- 
fession, communion,  prayer,  and  all  spiritual  conversa- 
tions." 

Their  name  was  to  be  "  Sisters  of  Charity,  Servants  of    Name. 
the   sick   poor."     S.  Vincent   had   seen    the   failure  of   Profession. 
S.  Francis  de  Sales'  scheme  in  founding  the  Visitation,    Govern- 
and  said  to  his  Daughters  :  "  You  are  not  ReHgious,  and   "^^"*- 
if  ever  you  become  so  the  society  will  be  at  extreme   Habit. 
unction^     The  Sisters  rise  at  4  or  5,  and  go  to  bed  at  9    Work. 
or  10,     They  never  go  to  the  dormitory,  and  have  no  rest 
between  these  hours,  which  are  spent  in  unremitting  works 
of  charity.     They  recite  prayers  together  morning  and 
night,  and  morning  and  evening  they  make  half  an  hour's 
meditation  ;  besides  this  they  spend  half  an  hour  in  read- 
ing, hear  mass,  make  two  examinations  of  conscience,  and 
recite  the  rosary.     The  Mother-house  is  in  Paris,  and  of 
the  5  years'  noviciate  required  most  of  the  first  year  is 
spent  there.     At  the  end  of  the  first  year  the  habit  is 
taken  and  when  the  5  years  are  completed  4  vows  are 
made,  poverty,  chastity,  obedience,  and  the  service  of  the 
poor.     The   vows   are   simply  annual,  and   are   renewed 
every  year  on  the  day  of  the  Annunciation.     The  Mother- 
General  is  elected  every  3  years,  is  Superior  of  the  Mother- 
house,  and  appoints  all  other  Superiors.     She  has  Sec- 
retaries  for  all    European    languages   and   no   religious 
Congregation  preserves  a  more  intimate  connection  with 
the  Mother-house  and  more  esprit  ite  corps  among  its 


252      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCIESIASTICAL   ROME 

members.  The  Superior-General  of  the  Filles  de  la 
Charity  is  the  Superior  for  the  time  being  of  the  Lazarist 
Fathers,  and  the  representative  of  S.  Vincent.  Their 
dress  was  at  first  and  has  always  remained  the  French 
peasant's  dress  of  that  time,  a  blue  gown  and  apron,  and 
a  stiff  white  cap  called  the  cornette.  In  Italy  they  are 
called  zoccolette  because  they  originally  wore  sabots,  zoccoli. 
They  wear  the  same  dress  and  keep  the  same  rule  every- 
where. The  Sisters  perform  every  work  of  charity,  nurs- 
ing in  hospitals,  teaching  in  poor-schools,  taking  charge  of 
orphans,  tending  the  sick  at  their  homes,  keeping  night 
refuges  for  poor  girls,  serving  on  missions.  They  are 
supposed  to  number  30,000 ;  in  France  alone  there  are 
nearly  10,000,  who  have  800  schools  and  nurse  in  300 
hospitals.  The  Filles  have  Missions  in  China,  Persia, 
Turkey,  Syria,  India,  and  America.  Some  300  or  400 
Sisters  reside  at  the  Mother-house  in  Paris,  Rue  du  Bac. 
It  is  here  that  a  novice  had  the  revelation  of  the  so-called 
"miraculous  medal"  of  the  B.  V.  M.,  and  in  the  same 
chapel  of  the  house  the  "Scapular  of  the  Passion"  was 
revealed  to  another  novice.*  A  greater  distinction  is 
that  Soeur  Rosalie,  "  the  Mother  of  the  poor  "  was  one 
of  their  number. 

Two  anecdotes  show  with  what  charming  liberty  of 
spirit  and  simple  piety  the  Filles  de  la  Charite  have  done 
their  work.  During  the  Revolution  it  is  said  that  the 
mob  having  met  some  of  the  Sisters  carrying  food  to  the 
poor,  stopped  them,  and  declared  that  if  they  were  good 
citoyeiuies  they  must  dance.  "  Very  well,"  they  acqui- 
esced at  once,  "  we  will  dance  with  all  our  hearts,  but  do 
not  make  us  forget  the  poor  ;  "  and  they  were  allowed, 
laughingly,  to  pass.  In  the  lifetime  of  S.  Vincent  a  Sister 
who  was  dying  told  him  that  she  had  no  trouble  about 
the  past,  except  perhaps  that  she  had  taken  too  much 
pleasure  in  serving  the  poor.  He  asked  her  how  this 
was,  and  she  replied  "  When  I  went  to  see  them  I 
seemed  not  to  walk,  but  to  have  wings  and  fly,  so  great 
was  my  happiness  in  serving  them." 

*  See  p.  192, 


THE   SISTERS   OF  CIlARfTY 


253 


S.  Vincent's  institution  was  introduced  into  Rome  by 
Donna  Teresa  Doria-Pamfili  in  18 19,  who  founded  a 
company  of  Roman  matrons,  married  women  and  widows 
at  S.  M.  de'  Monti,  the  work  spreading  to  other  parishes, 
such  as  S.  Agostino  and  S.  Salvatore  in  Lauro.  Later  she 
founded  the  Hospitaller  Sisters  described  on  page  271. 

In  Rome   the   Filles  de  la  Charite    have  9    houses 
Silita  di  S.  Onofrio  50;  and  35  ;  Via  dei  Bresciani  32 
Via  S.  Agata  de'  Goti  24  ;  Via  S.  Nicola  da  Tolentino  16 
Via  delle  Zoccolette  16  ;  Via  della  Scalaccia  29  ;  Via  di 
Porta  Angelica  2  ;  Via  di  S.  Maria  in  Cappella  6. 

At  the  last  named  house  in  Trastevere,  with  its  cool 
cloister  garden,  the  Filles  manage  the  Dormitory  of  100 
beds,  which  is  one  of  the  charities  of  the  Circolo  San 
Pietro. 


In  Rome, 


S.  Vincent  was  the  son  of  a  peasant,  and  as  a  lad  had 
been  sold  into  captivity  by  pirates.  Here  he  suffered  so 
many  hardships  that  he  determined  to  work  to  alleviate 
suffering  wherever  he  saw  it.  He  was  ordained  in  1600, 
and  being  called  by  the  Archbishop  of  Paris  to  direct 
the  "  College  des  Bons  Enfants,"  the  "  Congregation  of 
the  Mission  "  took  shape  during  the  work  of  catechising 
and  confessing  performed  by  him  at  this  time.  The 
huge  cloister  of  S.  Lazare  was  given  him  by  its  Prior, 
and  here  he  formed  the  apostles  whom  he  trained  to  serve 
the  disinherited  in  their  spiritual  and  temporal  miseries. 
The  Fathers  of  the  Mission*  are  called  Lazarists  after 
their  home,  and  Vincentian  Fathers  after  S.  Vincent. 
They  are  secular  priests,  living  a  community  Hfe.  Their 
Prociira  is  in  Via  della  Missione  2,  and  they  are  in  charge 
of  the  church  of  S.  Silvestro,  Via  del  Quirinale.  But  these 
two  great  works  do  not  exhaust  this  man's  genius  for  charity 
which  merited  for  him  the  title  of  "  Pere  des  pauvres." 
The  work  of  rescuing  abandoned  children  resulted  in  the 
foundation  of  the  first  Fo untiling  Hospital  (1640).     At 

*  It  has  been  thought  more  convenient  to  notice  Congregations 
of  men  and  women  by  the  same  founder  or  founded  for  the  same 
ends,  together,  in  this  and  the  next  section  of  the  chapter. 


S.  Vincent 
de  Paul 
and  the 
Lazarists, 


Lazarists 
in  Rome. 


S.  Vincent 
"  Father  of 
the  Poor." 


254      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 


In  Art. 


Mademoi- 
selle 
Legras. 


S.  Martin  a  Home  for  Incurables  was  opened  ;  and  the 
Salpetriere  originated  in  the  asylums  for  work  and  instruc- 
tion which  S.  Vincent  peopled  with  beggars  (1657).  In 
these,  and  many  other  works  for  those  stricken  with  pest 
and  famine,  the  Dames  and  the  FiHes  de  la  Charit^  took 
part. 

On  September  25,  1660,  being  nearly  85  years  old, 
S.  Vincent  breathed  his  last.  Asked  why  he  could  not 
conquer  his  sleeplessness,  he  answered  smiling :  "  C'est 
le  frere  qui  attend  sa  soeur  " — the  brother  Sleep  awaiting 
his  sister  Death.  Surely  no  human  being  ever  left  a  more 
wonderful  legacy  to  children  than  this  "  Father  of  the 
Poor's  "  love  for  his  neighbour  ! 

S.  Vincent  was  of  middle  height,  the  head  well  shaped, 
the  carriage  full  of  dignity,  the  glance  penetrating  and 
sweet,  the  countenance  benign  and  grave.  In  his  black 
priest's  soutane  and  berretta,  a  short  beard,  a  poor  child 
in  his  arms,  he  is  unmistakable  in  pictures.     (July  19.) 

Mademoiselle  Legras,  the  first  to  take  the  vows,  and 
the  first  Superior  of  the  Dames  and  Filles  de  la  Charity, 
also  died  in  1660.  Her  own  great  love  of  poverty  she 
would  recommend  to  her  Daughters  in  the  words  "  mak- 
ing your  state  like  that  in  which  our  Lord  and  His  holy 
Mother  so  often  found  themselves."  * 


Sisters  of 
S.  Vincent 
de  Paul. 

Sceiirs 
grises. 

Dress. 


In  Rome. 


The  Soeurs  de  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  are  distinct  from 
the  Filles  de  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  from  whom  they  sep- 
arated at  the  time  of  the  Revolution.  They  devote 
themselves  to  the  same  works,  and  have  an  illustrious 
record  of  charity.  Their  Rule  was  written  by  Soeur 
Thouret  in  1799,  and  their  Protector  is  S.  Vincent. 
Their  dress  is  dark  gray  with  wide  sleeves  and  a  black 
apron  ;  they  wear  a  black  veil  over  stiff  white  which 
shows  beyond  it,  with  a  bandeau  and  a  broad  guimpe 
divided  in  front. 

They  have  18  houses,  hospitals  and  institutes  in  Rome  ; 
the  Mother-house  at  the  Bocca  della  Verita,  Via  della 


*  Her  '  cause  '  is  before  the  Congregation  of  Rites. 


THE   SISTERS   OF  CHARITY  255 

Salara  2  ;  Via  Ferruccio  2 1  ;  Arco  de'  Banchi  3  ;  Piazza 
S.  M.  in  Trastevere  23  ;  Ospizio  Margherita  di  Savoia 
(orphanage)  Piazza  delle  Terme  15  (the  ex-Carthusian 
monastery)  ;  Vicolo  de'  Tabacchi  i  ;  Via  di  S.  Francesco 
129;  Hospital  of  S.  Spirito  (Via  dei  Penitenzieri  13)  ; 
Hospital  of  the  Consolazione,  near  the  Forum ;  Military 
Hospitals  in  Via  Celimontana,  and  Piazza  S.  Croce  in 
Gerusalemme  ;  Hospital  of  S.  Galla,  Via  Montanara  121  ; 
Hospital  of  S.  Antonio  by  S.  M.  Maggiore,  for  chronic 
cases  (ex-Camaldolese  nunnery)  ;  Hospice  for  beggars 
at  S.  Cosimato  ;  Public  Dormitory,  Vicolo  del  Falco  6  ; 
Ophthalmic  Institute  Vicolo  dei  Riari,  Letter  D  ;  Found- 
ling Hospital,  Villino  Sciarra,  S.  Pietro  in  -Montorio; 
Disinfecting  Establishment,  Via  S.  Sabina. 

The  Freres  de  St.  Vincent   de    Paul,  or  Vincentian   Preres  de 
Brothers,  form  a  lay  Religious  institute,  dedicated  to  the   St.  Vincent 
education  of  working  lads.      Their  Mother-house  is  in    ^^q^^  '" 
Paris,  and  their  house  in  Rome  is  in  Piazza  Campitelli  3.* 


MARY    WARD    AND    THE    INSTITUTE    OF    MARY. 

While    Francis    and    Dominic    were    projecting   their   MarvW'ard 
Orders  the  Lateran  Council  under  Innocent  III.  passed   and 'the 
a  decree  that  no  new  Order  should  be  added  to  the   of^Yarv 
Church.     Just  before  Mary  Ward  was  to  form  her  Insti- 
tute for  unenclosed  women,  and  so  be  the  pioneer  of 
the  great  work  now  accomplished,  the  Council  of  Trent 
under  Pius  V.  had  passed  a  decree  that  every  community 
of  women  should  be  strictly  enclosed. 

Mary  Ward,  a  Yorkshire  woman,  was  born  in  1585,  and 
keenly  aware  of  the  perils  of  ignorance,  formed  her  Insti- 
tute, a  band  of  strong  women  who  adopting  no  religious 

*  The  Couferenza  tU  S.  Viiicenzo  de'  Paoli  is  a  lay  association 
formed  in  Paris  by  S.  Vincent  himself,  with  a  view  to  enlisting  lay 
aid  in  parish  work.  It  is  established  in  several  Roman  parishes, 
and  affords  permanent  help  in  food  doles,  and  sometimes  in  clothes, 
to  well-attested  cases  of  poverty.  The  members  of  the  confereiiza 
are  men,  who  visit  and  infjuire  into  each  case;  and  all  the  work  is 
at  once  lay  and  gratuitous. 


256       CIIRISTIAX  AXD   ECCLESIASTICAL    ROME 

habit  were  to  devote  themselves  to  the  education  of  girls. 
But  her  scheme  required  two  points  which  in  the  age  of 
the  Catholic  reaction  met  with  no  favour  :  there  was  to 
be  no  enclosure,  and  the  institute  was  to  be  subject  only 
to  its  woman  superior,  under  the  Holy  See.  Though  this 
is  now  the  prevailing  usage,  it  was  then  unheard  of;  and 
Pope  Urban  VIII.  could  not  understand  an  Order  gov- 
erned by  a  woman.  A  Bull  was  issued  condemning  the 
Institute,  and  declaring  the  reason,  which  was  that  "the 
members  had  undertaken  a  task  beyond  the  strength  and 
resources  of  their  sex."  Mary  herself  was  imprisoned  in 
a  Franciscan  convent,  as  heretic,  schismatic,  and  rebel ; 
and  died  in  1645.  It  was  not  till  1703  that  after  im- 
mense difficulties  the  brave  band  of  women  who  had 
persisted  in  upholding  the  design  of  their  chief,  were 
approved  by  Clement  XL,  who  exclaimed  "  Let  women 
be  governed  by  themselves "  ("  Lasciate  governare  le 
donne  dalle  donne  !  "). 

The  original  Mother-house  is  at  Nymphenburg,  the 
Bavarian  Royal  Family  having  consistently  protected 
Mary  Ward  and  her  Institute.  They  are  there  known  as 
E?iglische  Fraiilein  {Dames  Anglaises)  .*  The  Institute 
was  again  approved  in  1877,  and  is  divided  into  several 
independent  branches  with  Mother-houses  in  Bavaria, 
Austria,  Italy  (Lodi),  England  (York)  and  Ireland.  The 
Irish  Sisters  in  all  parts  of  the  world  are  called  Loreto 
niifts,  on  account  of  their  practice  of  dedicating  all  their 
houses  to  our  Lady  of  Loreto.  A  division  has  occurred 
among  the  English  Religious,  the  York  Convent,  which 
had  been  subject  to  the  Bavarian,  applying  in  iSr6  for 
the  Generalate  authority,  under  the  belief  that  Napoleon 
had  dispersed  the  Sisterhood  in  Bavaria.  This  York 
house  proceeded  to  adopt  enclosure,  which  was  essen- 
tially opposed  to  the  scheme  of  the  Founder.  Hence 
the  other  English  Mother-house  at  Haverstock  Hill  is 
subject  to  the  Bavarian  Generalate,  is  of  course  unen- 
closed, and  has  been  active  lately  in  founding  a  house  in 

*  The  original  Congregation  (suppressed)  had  been  miscalled 
Jesuitesses. 


THE   SISTERS   OF   CHARITY  257 

Rome  (189S)  ;  while  the  'S'ork  House  has  just  (189S) 
undertaken  a  high  class  school  for  girls  at  Cambridge. 
Address  in  Rome  Via  Nazionale  87.  The  Habit  differs 
sHghtly,  but  the  constant  features  are  the  black  gown 
plaited  to  the  figure  and  tight  sleeves,  black  veil  over  a 
white  cap,  a  linen  tippet  tied  in  front  by  4  small  bows  of 
tape,  and  lawn  cuffs. 

FILLES    DE    LA    SAGESSE. 

The  Filles  de  la  Sagesse,  or  Sceurs  Crises,  are  among  Filles  de  la 
the  most  widely  extended  of  any  community  in  France,  ^^g^^^^- 
especially  in  the  West.  They  were  founded  in  Brittany 
in  the  first  years  of  the  last  century,  the  scheme  being 
entirely  due  to  B.  Louis  Grignon  de  Montfort.  The  first 
object  of  the  Sisters  was  to  be  the  nursing  of  the  sick, 
and  to  emphasise  this  the  community  was  "born  in  a 
hospital,"  the  first  members  being  hospital  girls.  But  the 
education  of  young  children  was  also  to  be  an  integral 
part  of  their  vocation,  and  hence  schools  were  started 
from  the  first  at  La  Rochelle  where  the  community  began 
work  in  1715. 

Louise  Trichet,  born  in  Poitiers  in  16S4,  was  the  first 
to  take  the  gray  habit  of  the  community  in  1703  ;  and 
Siie  is  the  actual  creator  of  the  Order ;  leaving  it,  after 
46  years  of  continual  work,  one  of  the  most  flourishing 
in  France.  The  Rule  is  Augustinian.  The  community 
passed  through  the  Revolution  and  was  one  of  the  few 
■which  escaped  destruction.  They  continued  to  tend  the 
sick  in  face  of  the  guillotine,  and  many  of  them  suffered 
"  with  pardon  in  their  hearts,  and  a  song  on  their  lips." 
The  Mother-house,  in  the  centre  of  the  war  raging  in 
La  Vendue,  became  a  hospital  for  the  wounded  of  both 
sides  ;  and  part  of  the  Sisters'  work  was  to  save  the 
Republicans  from  the  vengeance  of  the  people.  They 
were  rewarded  by  massacre  and  pillage  :  their  convent 
of  Saint-Laurent  was  set  on  fire,  2  Sisters  were  mas- 
sacred, and  26  led  away,  chained  in  couples,  and  taken 
before  the  Republican  chief.  Nine  died  in  prison,  6  were 
s 


258      CHRISTIAX  AXD   ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 


Present 
day. 


Company 
of  i\Liry. 


guillotined  at  Nantes,  Rennes,  and  Longeron  ;  one  mas- 
sacred at  Caron,  and  another  at  1-e  Mans  ;  while  4  died 
of  misery  in  the  prison  of  the  latter  place.  Several  were 
herded  together  on  a  barrow  on  the  way  to  the  prison, 
when  the  Republicans  ordered  two  to  get  down,  and  mas- 
sacred them  before  the  eyes  of  their  Sisters.  Others 
were  saved  through  the  timely  death  of  Robespierre. 
Soeur  Eugenie  of  La  Rochelle  after  a  Republican  dis- 
cussion which  lasted  several  hours  rose  up  and  thus 
addressed  them:  "C'est  assez.  Messieurs;  ma  parole 
definitive,  la  voici  :  La  guillotine  est  en  permanence, 
qu'on  m'y  conduise  ;  un  serment  contraire  a  ma  con- 
science, on  ne  I'obtiendra  jamais."  Later,  she  was  told 
that  all  her  companions  were  ordered  to  prison,  but  "  be 
consoled,"  they  added,  "you  will  not  go  into  exile  with 
them."  Then  Soeur  Eugenie  supplicated  them  not  to 
separate  her,  "  Save  them  with  me,  or  exile  me  with 
them."     And  she  was  then  led  to  share  their  prison. 

The  Sisters  number  4650,  and  have  384  houses  in 
France  and  Belgium.  Their  work  is,  in  Grignon  de  Mont- 
fort's  words,  "  the  consolation  of  all  the  wants  of  the 
poor."  They  wage  war  with  human  misery,  in  the  sick, 
the  abandoned,  the  blind,  the  deaf-mutes.  They  have  a 
house  in  England  at  Bromley,  Kent.  There  is  now  a 
house  in  Rome,  31  Corso  d'ltaha.  The  habit  is  a  coarse 
light  gray  gown  and  apron,  with  white  peasant's  cap,  a 
white  xnw'sWw fichu,  and  sandals  ;  and  a  large  crucifix  stuck 
in  the  chestpiece  of  the  apron.  In  winter  they  wear  a 
long  black  cloak  with  a  hood. 

Grignon  de  Montfort  also  instituted  a  company  of  Mis- 
sionary priests,  under  the  name  of  Company  of  Mary,  also 
called  Missionary  Priests  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  They  were 
approved  by  Brief  in  1853.  Their  sole  work  was  to  be  the 
preaching  of  missions  in  France  ;  they  were  to  have  no 
schools,  no  seminaries,  no  parochial  charge.  The  3  vows 
were  to  be  taken  annually  for  5  years,  and  then  made 
perpetual.  The  Company  of  Mary  and  the  Soeurs  de  la 
Sagesse  are  under  the  same  government.  When  the  con- 
stitutions of  the  former  were  re-approved  in  1872,  it  was 


THE   SISTERS   OF  CHARITY  259 

specified  that  the  members  should  be  recruited  not  only 
from  ecclesiastics  but  also  from  youths  who  had  attended 
the  preparatory  theological  classes,  in  order  to  replace  the 
Seminary  "du  Saint-Esprit."  *  All  are  bound  to  absolute 
poverty ;  in  their  own  words,  to  an  absolute  dependence 
on  Providence.  Lay  members  were  enrolled  from  the 
first,  to  attend  to  the  temporal  concerns  of  the  com- 
munity ;  and  from  the  first  these  taught  infant  classes. 
But  in  1 82 1  they  united  with  some  teaching  Brothers 
from  Brittany,  and  became  a  separate  Congregation  under 
the  name  of  Freres  de  Saint-Gabriel.  They  number  some  Fr^res  de 
600  in  different  French  dioceses.  Since  this  time  the  lay  S^-  ^^^"^' 
members  of  the  Company  of  Mary  no  longer  instruct ; 
they  wear  ordinary  laymen's  black  dress,  with  paletot.  In 
1 87 1  the  first  Fathers  imdertook  the  mission  to  Haiti. 
The  Company  of  Mary  also  received  its  baptism  of  blood, 
2  priests  and  4  lay  brethren  being  massacred  for  their 
faith. 

This  Company  has  just  settled  in  Rome  in  Via  Toscana.   In  Rome. 


PETiTES  sct:urs  des  pal^^res. 

In  the  first  half  of  this  century,  2  sempstresses,  Marie 
Jamet  and  Virginie  Tredaniel,  lived  at  S.  Serx^an,  by  S. 
Malo  in  Brittany.  Their  hearts  were  full  of  the  love  of 
God,  and  they  ardently  desired  to  do  something  to  help 
the  aged  poor.  In  the  same  place  there  Uved  a  good 
priest,  the  Abbe  le  Pailleur,  intent  on  a  similar  good  work, 
and  together  they  founded  a  Congregation  which  has  be- 
come one  of  the  best  known  and  one  of  the  most  popular 
in  the  Church.  To  them  was  joined  Jeanne  Jugan,  born 
at  a  fishing  village  in  Brittany  in  1792,  the  first  queteuse. 
They  gathered  together  12  poor  women,  to  begin  with, 
but  then  their  little  funds  would  not  sufiice  to  feed  them.t 

*  See  p.  309. 

t  Their  first  old  woman,  80  years  old  and  blind,  was  carried  to 
the  garret  in  S.  Servan,  which  is  the  cradle  of  their  Community,  in 
1840. 


26o      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 

It  was  now  that  Jeanne  seized  a  basket,  and  began  the 
qiiete,  that  begging  from  house  to  house  for  their  poor 
which  has  become  a  signal  feature  of  charitable  sister- 
hoods. But  the  Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor  are  to  be  seen 
everywhere  ;  for  Jeanne  once  saw  a  great  opportunity  of 
getting  money  for  her  poor  at  a  regatta  ;  at  first  she  hesi- 
tated, seeing  the  gay  fashionable  crowd,  then  she  went  on 
bravely,  and  returned  with  her  bag  heavy.  From  that  day 
the  Little  Sisters  have  frequented  race  courses,  regattas, 
fetes,  hotels.  They  sail  out  to  meet  ironclads,  making 
their  request  always  in  the  same  few  simple  words  "  Pour 
mes  pauvres,  s'il  vous  plait." 

"  Whoever  heard  of  making  a  community  of  a  few  poor 
sempstresses  ?  "  said  the  good  people,  when  they  heard 
of  it.  But  the  community  prospered,  a  piece  of  ground 
and  part  of  an  ex-convent  were  at  last  bought;  and  to 
purchase  it  the  Abbe  le  Pailleur  sold  his  furniture  and 
resigned  a  legacy,  and  Jeanne  gave  what  remained  of  3000 
francs  which  she  had  received  as  the  "Prix  de  vertu." 
For  this  good  woman's  name  was  known  throughout 
France  as  a  benefactor,  and  when  the  money  arrived  she 
regarded  it  as  an  entirely  impersonal  matter ;  she  had 
somehow  gained  3000  francs  for  the  poor,  and  that  was 
all  she  knew  about  it. 
Object.  The  object  of  the  Congregation  is  to  provide  a  refuge 

for  the  aged  destitute  of  both  sexes ;  here  they  are  loved 
and  tended  with  maternal  and  filial  care  ;  the  women  are 
known  as  bonnes  femmes,  the  men  as  petits  vieux,  and 
no  one  can  have  seen  one  of  their  houses  without  com- 
ing away  the  better  for  it.  But  it  was  not  without  grave 
difficulty  that  the  Congregation  attained  to  official  recog- 
nition. For  years  the  Little  Sisters  were  regarded  with 
suspicion  by  ecclesiastical  superiors,  and  only  at  length 
did  Cardinal  Matthieu  obtain  the  Papal  sanction.  Their 
troubles  indeed  are  rather  fresh  proof  that  opposition  is 
no  sign  of  ultimate  failure  in  good  works,  than  that  au- 
thority should  at  once  concede  every  new  thing  recom- 
mended. 

The   Rule  of  S.  Augustine  was  adapted  to  the    new 


THE   SISTERS   OF  CHARITY  261 

Congregation,  the  head  of  which  is  called  Bonne  Mere   Constitu- 
Superieure.     To  the  usual  3  vows  is  added  a  4':',  hospi-   ''""• 
tality.     Le  Pailleur  was  known  as  "  Bon  Pere  General " 
till  he  retired  in  1890.     There  is  a  simple  and  solemn 
ceremony  of  reception.      No  gold  or  silver  ornaments 
are  allowed  in  their  churches,  even  on  the  altar.     The 
Mother-house,  where  novices  are  trained,  is  at  Pern  near 
Becherel,   lUe    et   Vilaine ;   it   is   called    "  La   Tour   St. 
Joseph."     The  Little  Sisters  are  to  be  found  in  Belgium, 
Switzerland,   Italy,  Spain,   Portugal,  Germany,  England, 
Africa,  America,  Australia,  and  in   India,  and  they  have 
houses  in  nearly  every  great  town.     Thes"  number  about   Number  of 
260  ;  and  there  are  over  4000  sisters  having  the  care  of    Huuses. 
30,000  old  people.     They  have  no  invested  funds,  and 
rely  on  public  charity. 

Every  house  has  2  large  dormitories,  lighted  by  large  The 
windows  ;  a  pharmacy,  a  kitchen,  and  an  infirmary.     To   House. 
these  is  added  a  small  chapel,  and  a  walled  garden.    The 
Sisters  came  to  London  in  1851,  and  knowing  no  Eng-   in  Eng- 
lish, begged  with  the  simple  words  ''  no  money,  many  i^""^- 
poor."     They  were  prosecuted  as  mendicants,   but   the 
Press  took  up  their  cause,  and  declared  that   every  re- 
ligious and  charitable  institution  in  fact  begged.     The 
case  was   therefore  dismissed.     It  was  here   that   they 
began  to  leave  large  sacks  and  cans  for  refuse  at  the 
great  commercial  houses.     The  Little  Sisters  have  ma- 
chines  for  utilising  all  sorts  of  scraps.     They  were   ill 
received  in  Manchester  where  they  arrived  during  the 
cotton  famine ;  but  Protestants  and  Catholics  ended  by 
uniting  to  hold  a  great  bazaar  for  the  expenses  of  their 
Home.     They  were  received  with  special  respect  by  the 
colliers  of  the  Black  Country  through  which  they  trav- 
elled begging. 

Jeanne   Jugan    died    in     1S79,    aged    Z6.      "  Eternal   Jeanne 
Father,"  she  said,  "  open  Thy  gates  to  the  most  abject  of    J"g^"- 
Thy  little  daughters."     It  has  been  said  that  with  her  the 
religious  life  was  no  sudden  experience,  but  the  spiritu- 
alising of  a  noble  nature.     The  earlv  history  of  the  little 
congregation  teems  with  the  miracles  of  charitable  aid 


262      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 

which  attended  this  great  ministry  of  love  —  flour  and 
food  would  be  found  set  down  at  the  door,  when  the 
inmates  had  nothing  left  to  give  their  guests.  In  an 
office  where  she  was  rudely  received  Jeanne  replied  :  *•  I 
am  all  that  you  say,  but  what  will  you  give  me  for  my 
poor?"  A  Prefect  of  whom  she  begged  struck  her  — 
"That  is  for  myself,"  she  said,  "now  what  will  you  give 
me  for  my  poor?"  In  fact  they  vi^on  through  that  irre- 
sistible meekness,  courage,  and  love  to  which  Christ  has 
promised  victory.  It  was  not  till  1893  that  "  Bonne 
Mere  General"  (Marie  Jamet)  died.  The  Empress  Eu- 
genie warmly  supported  the  struggling  Community,  and 
the  Little  Sisters  always  mention  her  name  with  gratitude. 

In  Rome.  Their  house  in  Rome  is  in  Piazza  S.  Pietro  in  Vincoli, 
with  a  French  Superior.     Their  habit  is  black,  with  an 

Habit.  ample  black  cloak  and  hood,  gathered  at  the  back  of  the 

head. 

SCEURS    DE    NOTRE-DAME   AUXILIATRICE    OU    DE    BON 
SECOURS    DITES    GARDE-MALADES. 

This  Congregation  was  founded  at  Troyes  by  a  Canon 
of  that  diocese  (Paul  Sebastien  Millet)  in  1840.  It  is 
the  first  purely  nursing  order.  The  Mother-house  and 
Noviciate  are  at  Troyes,  and  there  the  Sisters  are  trained 
as  nurses.  They  not  only  tend  the  sick  at  their  own 
homes,  but  sleep  out  of  the  convent,  and  may  take  their 
meals  with  the  people  of  the  house  where  they  are  nurs- 
ing. They  nurse  every  one  without  distinction  of  creed 
or  class,  and  are  not  hampered  by  any  of  those  most 
unfitting  restrictions  with  which  many  religious  Commu- 
nities limit  the  usefulness  of  so  holy  a  task,  but  are  to 
perform  every  service  necessary  for  the  sick  person. 

The  Congregation  is  governed  by  a  Superior-General, 
and  is  under  the  Bishop  of  the  diocese  of  Troyes-Aube. 
The  title  of  the  Superiors  of  houses  is  Sister-Superior. 
The  Sisters  accept  the  necessary  hardships  of  their  call- 
ing in  place  of  fasts  and  similar  austerities.  The  keynote 
of  the  Community  is  charity  and  simplicity  ;  the  charity 


THE   SISTERS   OF  CHARITY  263 

which  '  leaves  Christ  for  Christ,'  and  simplicity  in  the 
conception  of  tlieir  life  and  duties.  One  characteristic 
is  that  this  Congregation  never  begs,  never  makes  any 
charge,  though  it  is  unendowed  and  therefore  dependent 
on  the  generosity  of  those  who  can  afford  to  recompense 
the  care  they  receive. 

There  are  120  houses  in  France  and  abroad,  and  about 
2000  Sisters.  The  Congregation  was  approved  by  Pius 
IX.  in  1877.  The  Address  in  Rome  is  Via  degli  Artisti  In  Rome, 
38,  near  Via  Sistina,  where  there  are  Sisters  of  different 
nationalities  to  meet  the  needs  of  sick  persons  in  this 
cosmopolitan  city.  The  Habit  and  veil  are  black,  and  Habit, 
under  the  guimpe  a  crucifix  is  suspended  from  a  violet 
ribbon,  which  serves  to  distinguish  them  :  they  are  known 
also  for  their  careful  and  clean  appearance.* 

OTHER   ACTIVE   CONGREGATIONS,  WITH    HOUSES    IN   ROME. 

Although  the  larger  number  and  the  more  important 
Congregations  of  charity  are  French  in  origin,  the  Italian 
and  Roman  foundations  appear  first  in  the  following 
descriptions. 

{Sisters  of  Chanty.)  the  sisters  of  charity,  daughters  of 
OUR  LADY  OF  MOUNT  CALVARY,  are  a  Gcnoese  Congregation 
founded  by  Virginia  Centurioni  Braccelli  in  1619.  Their 
work  is  among  the  blind  and  deaf-mutes,  and  all  the  hos- 
pitals in  Genoa  are  in  their  hands.  They  do  not  take 
vows,  but  bind  themselves  to  persevere.  The  Mother- 
house  (Casa  Generalizia)  is  at  the  ex-Premonstratensian 
Convent  of  S.  Norberto,  given  them  by  Gregory  XVI.,  Via 
Agostino  Depretis  52,  53  ;  they  have  the  Asilo  Tommaso 
Pendola  for  deaf-mutes,  with  a  creche  and  2  gratuitous 
girls'  schools,  in  Via  Napoli  21  B,  21  F;  and  have  charge 
of  the  blind  asylum  at  S.  Alessio  on  the  Aventine,  the 

*  There  is  another  Congregation  with  the  same  name,  the  Bon 
Secours  de  Paris,  founded  in  1810  by  Monseigneur  de  Quelen,  one 
of  whose  principal  objects  is  nursing.  They  wear  a  frilled  cap, 
and  a  crucifix  on  the  breast. 


264      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 

Pio  Ricovero  for  Deaf-mutes  in  Via  del  Colosseo  6r,  and 
the  R.  Istituto  for  Deaf-mutes  in  Via  Nomentana.  Habit, 
scapular  and  apron,  black ;  the  black  veil  falls  from  the 
centre  of  the  head,  showing  the  bandeau  and  half  the 
white  cap  ;  the  guimpe  is  round.  Out  of  doors  they  wear 
a  cloak.  Novices  wear  a  white  veil.  [These  sisters  are 
called  Norbertine  in  Rome  from  their  church  of  S.  Nor- 
bert,  and  Briguo/ine  elsewhere  after  their  Protector  Cardi- 
nal Brignoli.] 

THE  DAUGHTERS  OF  CHARITY,  Called  Catiossiane,  were  founded 
by  the  Ven.  Canossa  of  Verona,  sister  of  the  aged  Cardi- 
nal of  that  name  still  living.  They  have  orphanages  and 
asylums  for  the  aged  poor ;  the  Missione  Canossiana  at 
Hankow  in  China  employed  in  combatting  the  prejudices 
and  miseries  of  the  people  ;  and  a  mission  station  in 
Armenia.  Their  Mother-house  is  in  Milan.  Address  in 
Rome  :  Via  Zabaglia,  corner  of  Via  Alessandro  Volta. 
Habit,  brown,  with  a  black  frilled  cap,  over  which  they 
wear  a  brown  shoulder  cape  and  a  black  veil  out  of  doors. 

SISTERS  OF  CHARITY  OF  THE  VEN.  cAPiTANio,  fouudcd  by  hcr  in 
Milan  on  the  pattern  of  the  Sisters  of  S.  Vincent  de  Paul, 
with  the  Augustinian  Rule.  They  work  in  hospitals  and 
schools.  In  Rome,  however,  they  collect  the  poor  chil- 
dren of  the  quarter,  and  teach  them.  Address  :  Via  de' 
Penitenzieri  45.  Habit  black,  with  a  black  shawl  and 
black  silk  coif,  frilled  in  front ;  no  guimpe  or  other  white 
about  the  face. 

DAUGHTERS    OF    S.    MARIA    DELL'  ORTO,      foUndcd      by      thc      VcU. 

(Monsignor)  Giannelli  at  Chiavari  in  1835,  for  educa- 
tion and  hospitals ;  the  work  being  entirely  gratuitous. 
They  have  a  mission  at  Montevideo  in  S.  America. 
Address  in  Rome  :  Via  Quattro  Cantoni  45  ;  and  Palazzo 
De  Romanis,  Via  delle  Mura  outside  Porta  S.  Lorenzo. 
Habit,  black  with  a  black  veil,  and  the  bandeau  and 
guimpe  in  one  piece. 

DAUGHTERS  OF  THE  DIVINE  PROVIDENCE,  a  Romau  Congrcgatlou 
founded  in  1867  for  works  of  beneficence,  especially  the 
care  of  asylums  and  orphans.  The  Sisters  live  a  labori- 
ous life  of  charity  in  great  poverty.     Address  :  Via  Gal- 


THE   SISTERS    OF  CHARITY  265 

vani  51  (Mother-house);  via  Coronari  45-47;  Piazza 
del  INIonte  di  Pieta  30 ;  here  they  have  gratuitous  girls' 
schools,  and  conduct  the  asilo  di  S.  Filippo  Neri  (creches) 
for  children  from  3  to  7  years  old  of  both  sexes ;  Villa 
Gangalanti  outside  Porta  Salaria,  where  they  have  a  pay- 
ing school ;  in  Via  Mastro  Giorgio  70  they  direct  one  of 
the  Refuge  halls  for  children  of  workmen.  Habit,  black 
with  a  frilled  black  coif,  a  cape,  and  a  crucifix  on  the 
breast.     The  lay  sisters  have  the  coif  white. 

THE  PICCOLA  MISSIONS  AI  SORDO-MUTI  ABBANDONATI  (  Little  Mlssion 

to  deserted  Deaf-mutes),  was  founded  at  Bologna  in  1872, 
and  is  one  of  the  many  Religious  charities  existing  for 
this  end  in  Italy,  where  deaf-mutes  and  cripples  abound. 
The  founders,  Doctor  Cesare  Gualandi,  a  priest,  with  his 
brother  (now  the  head  of  the  institution)  and  some  asso- 
ciates, seeing  how  large  a  proportion  of  the  increasing 
number  of  deaf-mutes  in  Italy  *  live  without  the  knowl- 
edge necessary  to  the  moral,  civil  and  religious  life, 
established  his  Piccola  Missio7ie  comprising  3  classes 
{a)  Priests,  {I?)  Laymen,  and  (r)  Sisters.  The  last  class  is 
the  largest.  The  deaf-mutes,  boys  and  girls,  are  kept  for 
8  years,  the  boys  paying  35  and  the  girls  30  lire  a  month. 
The  Association  came  to  Rome  in  18S3  at  the  invitation 
of  the  Cardinal  Vicar,  and  has  an  establishment  in  Bologna 
and  in  Florence.  Approbation  was  applied  for  in  18S8, 
but  most  institutions  undergo  a  long  period  of  probation 
before  this  is  obtained.  A  useful  feature  of  this  congre- 
gation is  that  the  priests  hold  spiritual  conferences  every 
Sunday  for  all  deaf-mutes  who  wish  to  attend,  and  hold 
themselves  at  the  disposition  of  those  who  have  left  the 
institution.  x'\ddress  :  Palazzo  Bulla,  Via  dei  Gracchi, 
Prati  di  Castello.  Habit  (women)  black  dress,  with  a 
plain  net  veil  on  the  head. 

SORELLEDEI  POVERI   DI  S.   CATERINA   DA  SIENA.        Thc    IstitUtO  di 

S.  Caterina  in  Siena  was  founded  by  Madre  Savina  Petrilli 
in  1874.  By  her  energy  and  charitable  zeal  1200  poor 
children  were  fed,  clothed,  and  taught  a  trade  as  far  back 

*  In  Italy  they  number  20,000, 


266       CHRISTIAN  AND   ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 

as  1888  ;  the  Community  then  numbering  some  85  Sisters. 
In  this  year  a  branch  was  estabHshed  in  Rome,  and  is 
now  settled  in  Via  della  Lungara  231.  Habit,  black  dress 
with  3  little  shoulder  capes,  a  white  collar,  and  the  hair 
in  a  net ;  a  crucifix. 

SUCRE  DI  CAKITA,  FIGLIE  DELL'  IMMACOLATA  WCre   foUnded    SOmC 

25  years  ago  by  a  Calabrese,  who  is  the  present  Mother 
Superior.  They  are  intended  for  all  works  of  charity,  for 
the  care  of  orphans,  and  for  nursing  the  sick  at  home. 
They  have  5  hospitals  in  America.  They  teach  in  3 
gratuitous  schools  in  Rome.  Address  :  Villa  Mirafiori, 
outside  Porta  Pia  (paying  school)  ;  Via  SS.  Giovanni  e 
Paolo  4.  Habit,  light  blue,  with  a  broad  white  girdle,  a 
black  muslin  veil  over  stiff  white.  A  black  cloak,  and 
a  small  silver  medal  on  the  breast,  and  large  crucifix  in 
the  band.* 

THE  BATTisTiNE  DI  GESu  NAzzARENo,  wcre  foundcd  at  Salemo 
in  1877,  their  object  being  to  collect  poor  children  and 
orphans,  who  are  tended  at  their  creches  (Italian  asi/i). 
Address:  Via  Germanico  85.  Habit,  black  with  cloak 
and  red  pipings,  and  a  black  veil. 

Like  the  2  just  described  and  the  2  now  to  follow,  this 
Congregation  has  not  yet  received  its  approbation. 

PROTETTORATO  DI  s.  GIUSEPPE  (Protcctoratc  of  S.  Joscpli)  a 
cimnunity  founded  some  16  years  ago  by  a  French- 
woman, to  assume  the  charge  of  deserted  and  orphan  male 
children.  Babies  are  received,  the  Sisters  conducting 
creches,  and  the  children  being  housed  and  fed  until  7 
years  of  age,  when  they  are  old  enough  to  be  accepted 
l)y  other  institutions.  The  present  Superior  presides 
over  the  new  house  of  the  Community  outside  Porta  Pia, 
where  she  has  gathered  together  400  little  ones.  The 
church  of  S.  Costanza,  which  belonged  to  the  Lateran 
Canons  of  S.  Agnese  close  by  up  to  this  year  (1899)  has 
been  given  them.     Address:  Via  Nomentana  281-283.! 

*  Most  of  the  Sisterhoods,  whatever  their  original  scope,  keep  a 
school  or  a  creche.     When  the  latter  is  not  gratuitous  the  charge  is 

4  sous  a  day  or  4  francs  a  month,  and  the  children  are  kept  from 

5  A.M.  to  5  I'.M.  t  Since  the  above  was  written,  this  lias  ceased  to 
count  among  the  religious  institutes  of  Rome. 


THE   SISTERS   OF  CHARITY 


267 


Habit  scapular  and  girdle  black  ;  the  coarse  linen  guimpe 
reaches  to  the  waist,  with  a  crucifix  attached  to  a  broad 
black  string.  The  black  veil  is  fitted  over  the  stiff  white 
under  cap.  Rosary  on  the  left  side.  A  blue  cotton 
apron  in  the  house. 

FiGUE  Di  s.  GixTSEPPE  cmplov  thcmselves  in  church  needle- 
work and  teaching  Christian  doctrine,  and  live  in  Via 
S.  Salvatore  in  Lauro  15.  Habit  maroon  gown,  white 
frilled  coif,  crucifix. 


The  Soeurs  de  la  Providence  originated  in  France. 
Their  work  is  the  education  of  children  living  at  a  dis- 
tance from  the  towns,  the  assistance  of  the  sick  poor  in 
country  districts,  the  holding  of  evening  classes,  and  the 
visiting  of  the  poor  and  infirm.  There  are  several  local 
communities  of  the  name,  with  separate  rules,  habit,  and 
government.  The  Soeurs  de  la  Providence  founded  by 
M.  Dujarie,  cure  of  Ruill^-sur-Loir  with  the  help  of  2 
good  women,  in  1806,  became  a  vigorous  institution  in 
the  hands  of  Mademoiselle  de  Roscoat  and  Marie  Lecor, 
a  few  years  later.  The  French  Sisters  of  Providence  in 
county  Mayo,  Ireland,  are  well  known ;  as  are  the  Irish 
Sisters  of  Charity  of  Providence  founded  by  Mother 
Aikenhead.  The  Rosminian  Sisters  are  '  Sisters  of  Provi- 
dence of  the  Institute  of  Charity.'  In  Rome  there  are  4 
Congregations  of  the  name  :  (a)  the  scEtms  de  la  providence, 
founded  in  Paris  in  1 760  for  education  and  instruction,  who 
came  to  Rome  in  1840;  and  are  established  in  Piazza 
Fiammetta  19,  where  they  have  a  school.  Their  well 
known  Habit  consists  of  a  black  gown  and  apron,  with  a 
starched  white  cap,  turning  up  at  the  sides,  and  a  rosary. 

(yb^  The  sceurs  de  la  providence  et  de  l'xmmaculee  conception, 
founded  in  1823  at  Namur,  for  orphans.  Their  founder 
was  a  priest,  afterwards  papal  chamberlain  to  Pius  IX. 
They  have  several  houses  in  Rome,  and  until  lately  super- 
intended the  House  of  Correction  for  women.  Address  : 
Piazza  delle  Vaschette  loi  ;  Via  Trionfale,  opposite  S. 
Onofrio  in  Campagna ;  Via  Nomentana  261.  Habit, 
black,  with  a  large  starched _/?<■////  ending  in  a  collar,  and  a 


Soeurs  de 
!a  Provi- 
dence. 


French. 


Belgian. 


268      CllRISriAX  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 


wide  ribbon  waist  band ;  a  full  white  cap  over  forehead 
and  ears,  over  which  is  a  stiff  coal-scuttle  shaped  cap, 
projecting  beyond  the  head.  A  large  rosary,  and  a  brown 
cross  hanging  from  a  straight  black  ribbon  at  the  throat.* 
See  page  264  and  page  274. 

English.  POOR  servants  of  the  mother  of  god  incarnate  and  the  poor, 

founded  by  Mother  Taylor  in  London  recently.  These 
Sisters  manage  Refuges,  Asylums  for  the  aged  and  infirm, 
national  schools,  preservation  Homes,  Orphanages,  and 
free  Hospitals  ;  and  visit  the  poor.  They  have  houses  in 
Paris,  London,  Rome,  Dublin,  and  6  in  other  parts  of 
England.  Their  Mother-house  is  Via  S.  Sebastianello,  by 
their  little  church  of  S.  George  and  the  English  Martyrs, 
Piazza  di  Spagna.  Habit,  veil  and  cloak  black  ;  a  blue 
scapular,  and  a  large  black  and  metal  crucifix. 

German.  schwestern  von  der  schmerzhaften  mutter  (Snore  della  San- 

tissima  Addolorata)  founded  by  a  German  in  Rome  in 
1885.  The  scope  is  the  care  of  the  sick  and  of  children. 
Although  the  Mother-house  and  noviciate  is  in  Rome, 
the  houses  of  the  Congregation  are  in  America,  the  Su- 
perior going  to  Kansas  in  1898.  There  they  are  known 
as  Congregation  of  the  Sorrowful  Mother.  Roman  Ad- 
dress :  Borgo  Santo  Spirito  41  c.  on  the  steps  of  S. 
Michele  in  Borgo.  Habit,  gray,  with  guimpe  covering 
the  chest,  the  face  framed  with  the  cap  and  a  low 
bandeau  ;  a  black  veil,  and  rosary.  The  postulants  wear 
a  black  cap  with  a  white  frill  framing  the  face. 

The  suore  del  divin  salvatore  is  another  German  founda- 
tion established  at  Tivoli  1 1  years  ago,  and  now  moved  to 
Rome.  Its  scope,  education  and  hospitals.  Mother-house 
Via  della  Lungara  112  ;  Via  Gioberti  10.  Habit  ?i\\A  veil 
black,  small  guimpe,  black  woollen  cord,  rosary.  The 
Society  of  the  Divine  Sa%'ioiir  (men)  is  the  parent  society, 
the  present  Superior  being  the  founder.  Originally  in- 
tended for  lay  workers  and  the  diffusion  of  good  literature, 

*  Not  to  1)6  confused  with  the  Sisters  of  the  Immaculate  Concep- 
tion who  are  the  Teaching  branch  of  the  Sisters  of  the  Holy  P"amily, 
as  the  Sisters  of  Hope  are  its  Nursing  branch.  See  Oblates  of  Mary 
Immaculate,  Section  II. 


THE   SISTERS   OF  CHARITY  269 

it  now  comprises  also  missionary  priests.  Address : 
Borgo  Vecchio  165,  where  there  is  a  printing  press. 
Dress,  a  sack-shaped  soutane  and  a  long  cloak  with  a 
pointed  cape. 

The  STJORE  DELLA  SAGRA  FAMiGLiA,  Riiral  Sistcrs  {^Suore 
Agricole)  who  devote  themselves  to  the  country  districts,  Outside 
are  established  at  Tor  Pignattara  outside  Porta  Maggiore,  ^o""^- 
and  have  the  land  under  which  the  catacomb  of  Peter 
and  Marcellinus  extends.  They  direct  the  Orfanotrofio 
della  Sagra  Famiglia  which  receives  gratuitously  the 
daughters  of  poor  agricultural  labourers. 

This  charge  of  the  interests,  moral  and  physical,  of  the 
peasants  of  the  Roman  Campagna,  is  one  of  the  most 
urgent  works  of  charity.  With  so  large  a  number  of 
Congregations,  of  Sisters  of  Charity  and  companies  of 
priests,  more  might  be  done  for  Rome  in  this  respect 
than  for  most  other  provinces  of  Europe.  There  are 
peasants  a  few  miles  from  the  Gates  of  the  City  who  have 
never  heard  mass,  who  never  see  a  priest,  and  who  live 
in  a  state  of  moral  and  religious  degradation,  little  differ- 
ent from  animals.  The  energetic  Circolo  Sa?i  Pietro  has 
recently  taken  up  the  subject.  There  are  many  thousand 
masses  said  daily  in  Rome,  many  score  of  Benedictions, 
many  dozen  Expositions  of  the  Sacrament :  Some  of 
these  benefits  might  be  applied  with  more  expedition  to 
those  who  need  them  far  more,  were  the  Religious  Con- 
gregations to  move,  than  is  to  be  expected  from  the  urgent 
appeals  made  to  individual  priests. 

The  suoRE  DEL  BOON  E  PERPETuo  soccoRso,  is  an  Italian  Con- 
gregation founded  exactly  50  years  ago  in  Africa,  where 
it  counts  19  houses.  There  are  also  3  houses  in  Belgium 
and  10  in  Italy.  The  Roman  Address  is  Via  Merulana 
1 70.  The  Habit'\%  black,  with  the  customary  veil,  guimpe 
and  bandeau  ;  on  the  breast  a  silver  heart  with  the  image 
of  the  Blessed  Virgin  (of  "Good"  and  of  "Perpetual" 
Succour)  on  either  side.  The  lay  Sisters  wear  a  short 
cape  tied  with  three  bows  of  black  ribbon,  and  show 
white  sleeves  under  the  sleeves  of  the  habit. 


270      CHRISTLAN  AND   ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 

For  other  Sisters  of  Charity,  see  Franciscan  Tertiaries 
page  155  ;  Dominicans  of  the  Presentation  and  Domini- 
can Tertiaries  pages  175  and  177  ;  and  Section  II.  of  this 
Italian.         Chapter. 

{Nursing  Sisters.)  the  figlie  di  s.  anna  or  Daughters  of 
S.  Anna,  were  founded  by  Sister  Anna  Rosa  Gattorno, 
the  present  Superior-General  at  Piacenza  in  1864.  Their 
work  is  to  assist  the  sick  at  their  homes.  Each  Sister 
takes  the  name  of  Anna.  They  have  a  house  and  do  a 
good  work  in  Siena.  The  Mother-house  is  in  Rome,  Via 
Merulana  177.  They  are  also  attached  to  the  little  par- 
ish of  S.  Maria  del  Carmine  outside  Porta  Portese,  and 
to  the  Institute  of  Surgery  in  Via  Garibaldi ;  besides  hav- 
ing 2  houses  in  Vicolo  del  Piombo  7,  and  Piazza  Cola  da 
Rienzo.  Habit  and  veil  black,  the  latter  without  bandeau 
or  coif;  black  cord  tassel  and  rosary  right  side,  large 
metal  crucifix  left  side.* 
Swiss.  The  SUCRE  DEI  sACRi  cuoRi  DI  GEsu  E  MARIA  wcre  foundcd  re- 

cently for  nursing  the  sick  poor  at  their  homes  gratui- 
tously. They  live  under  the  shadow  of  S.  Peter's  at  Via 
della  Sagrestia  10,  but,  like  so  many  others,  have  not 
received  their  approbation.  The  Habit  and  veil  are 
black,  with  two  red  hearts  on  the  breast. 

KREuzscHWESTERN  (Suore  Delia  Croce  tedesca)  are  Sisters 
of  Charity  founded  in  1845  by  Father  Theodosius,  a  Capu- 
chin friar,  near  Lucerne  in  German  Switzerland.  The 
first  Mother  Superior  had  to  contend  with  many  difficul- 
ties and  with  great  poverty  while  planting  her  new  Com- 
munity. She  came  to  Rome  in  1868  and  founded  a 
Roman  house.  The  Sisters  are  prepared  for  every  work 
of  charity,  and  have  hospitals,  orphanages,  and  poor 
schools,  chiefly  in  Switzerland.  But  their  great  work  is 
the  gratuitous  nursing  of  the  sick  poor,  for  which  they 
are  trained  with  loving  zeal  in  their  own  Swiss  hospi- 
tals. They  now  number  some  3000,  and  have  about  400 
houses.  At  Via  S.  Basilio  8  they  have  also  a  pension  for 
convalescents.    Their  simple  dress  is  black  with  collarette 

*  Not  to  be  confused  with  the  earlier  Canadian  Congregation  of 
the  same  name. 


THE   SISTERS   OF  CHARITY  271 

and  cape  ;  a  very  narrow  whimple,  bandeau  reaching  to 
the  eyes,  and  a  small  black  and  metal  crucifix.  Indoors 
they  wear  a  blue  apron  ;  and  out  of  doors  a  long  cloak 
completely  covering  the  dress.  The  white  projects  be- 
yond the  black  of  the  veil. 

GAEDE-MALADES     DE      NOTRE-DAME      AUXILIATRICE      DE      MONTPELLIER     French. 

{Aiixiliatrices),  a  nursing  institute  founded  52  years  ago. 
They  nurse  sick  people  at  their  homes,  and  in  Rome  also 
receive  poor  children  of  both  sexes  up  to  5  years  old, 
for  the  day  hours,  a  work  highly  useful  to  the  Roman 
poor.  Address  :  Via  Principe  Amadeo  5.  Habit,  a  full 
black  serge  gown  and  cape  to  the  waist,  edged  with  blue- 
green  cord,  and  a  cord  and  tassel  of  the  same  colour.  The 
stiff  coif  reaches  to  the  chin  and  projects  far  beyond  the 
short  veil  over  the  face,  with  no  guimpe.  A  small  black 
crucifix  tipped  with  steel  is  pemient  from  a  black  ribbon. 

LITTLE  COMPANY  OF  MARY,  a  Nottingham  Institute  for  nurs-  English. 
ing  the  sick  at  their  homes.  Like  most  of  the  active 
Congregations  they  recite  the  Little  Office  of  our  Lady. 
At  their  house  in  Rome  they  also  receive  infirm  ladies. 
Address  :  Via  Castelfidardo  45.  Habit,  black,  tied  with 
a  red  knotted  cord,  a  blue  veil  indoors,  over  which  a 
black  veil  is  worn  out  of  doors. 

( Hospital  Sisters. )  the  hospitaller  sisters,  called  sisters  of 
MERCY  who  have  charge  of  the  hospital  of  S.  Giovanni  in 
Laterano,  were  founded  by  Donna  Teresa  Doria  78  years 
ago,  as  hospital  nurses.  The  Mother-house  is  at  the 
Lateran  hospital,  and  they  have,  besides,  charge  of  that 
of  S.  Giacomo  in  the  Corso,  and  of  S.  Gallicano  in  Piazza 
S.  Rufina. 

This  is  a  purely  Roman  foundation.  It  consists  of  a 
convent  of  ablates  and  one  of  converse  (lay  sisters).  The 
former  wear  a  black  dress  and  cape  and  a  black  frilled 
coif,  over  which  a  veil  is  worn  out  of  doors,  no  guimpe, 
and  in  place  of  the  bandeau  a  black  skull-cap.  The 
latter  wear  a  double  frilled  lohite  coif.  A  blue  check 
apron  is  worn  at  work. 

The  s(EUEs  DE  ST.  CHARLES  DE  NANCY  for  hospital  nursing,  had 
their  rise  in  the  middle  of  the  xvii.  century.     The  Con- 


272      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 

gregatioii  was  formed  as  a  uiemorial  of  the  devoted  works 
of  mercy  and  charity  of  Emmanuel  Chauvenet  of  Nancy, 
a  young  advocate  at  the  ParHament  of  Metz,  who  eventu- 
ally died  while  nursing  an  epidemic  disease  at  Toul  in 
165 1,  leaving  his  money  to  the  poor.  His  father  per- 
petuated his  good  works  by  the  formation  of  this  Congre- 
gation in  1652,  under  the  direction  of  Barbe  Thouvenin, 
who  with  others  offered  her  services.  But  it  was  not  till 
ten  years  later  that  the  institution  became  Religious.  It 
has  spread  from  France  to  Belgium,  Prussia,  Bohemii, 
and  Italy,  and  passed  through  the  horrors  of  the  Revolu- 
tion. The  work  of  the  Sisters  includes  hospitals  for  the 
sick  of  both  sexes,  military  hospitals,  hospices  for  the 
aged  of  both  sexes ;  Asylums  for  orphans,  beggars,  and 
the  demented  ;  and  Houses  of  Charity  with  ouvroirs, 
girls'  schools,  and  sick  visits.  The  Sisters  are  also  bound 
to  nurse  in  districts  visited  by  epidemics.  There  are  no 
lay  Sisters.  They  take  perpetual  vows,  with  a  4'.''  vow  of 
"charity."  Their  Rule  is  the  Augustinian,  adapted  to 
the  work  of  Hospitallers.  In  Rome,  they  have  charge 
of  the  lunatic  asylum  (manicomio)  Via  della  Lungara 
121  A.  Habit,  black,  a  white  linen  shoulder  cape,  a  stift^ 
white  bonnet  with  two  short  streamers,  covered  with  black 
sarcenet,  pointed  in  front ;  two  rosaries  on  the  left  side.* 
Italian,  {Teaching  Congregations.)      maestre  pie  filippini  (Pious 

Filippini  Schoolmistresses)  the  oklest  teaching  institution 
in  Rome,  founded  by  Suor  Lucia  Filippini  of  Corneto 
who  died  in  1732.  The  pope  sent  for  the  new  Com- 
munity to  Rome  where  they  have  ever  since  had  several 
schools.  There  are  also  several  other  houses  in  Italy  and 
three  orphanages.  At  the  Roman  Mother-house  they 
have  the  Noviciate,  and  also  a  school  for  boarders  who 
are  taught  housework.     All  the  work  of  these  Sisters  is 

*  Not  to  be  confused  with  the  Soeurs  de  St.  Charles,  School- 
teachers, instituted  by  the  Sulpician  M.  Demia;  nor  with  the 
Religious  of  S.  Charles  IJorromeo  (Germans)  whose  Mother-house 
is  in  Alexandria,  and  who  have  a  house  in  Jerusalem.  All  the 
Sisters  of  S.  Charles  are  called  after  the  sainted  Cardinal  Arch- 
bishop of  Milan,  S.  Charles  Borromeo. 


THE  SISTERS   OF  CHARITY  273 

gratuitous,  and  is  uniquely  for  the  poor.  They  hold 
Christian  doctrine  classes  on  Sunday,  and  devote  them- 
selves in  every  way  to  better  the  moral  and  religious  con- 
dition of  the  people.  No  vows  are  taken  —  the  sisters 
are  all  oblates  —  and  there  are  no  lay  sisters.  Address: 
Mother-house,  Via  Arco  dei  Ginnasi  20,  and  5  other 
Schools  :  Via  dei  Crociferi  33  ;  Via  Principe  Amadeo 
221  ;  Vicolo  del  Cinque  32  ;  Piazza  Rusticucci  18  ;  Pa- 
lazzo della  Banca  Tiberina,  Piazza  del  Risorgimento. 
Dress,  black  gown  and  shawl,  a  black  silk  coif  with  a 
frill,  and  a  little  white  cravat ;  no  guimpe,  bandeau,  or 
veil.     Out  of  doors  a  second  silk  coif  is  worn. 

MAESTRE  PIE  vENERiNi :  thcse  Schoolmistrcsses  originated 
at  the  same  time  and  place  (Montefiascone)  as  the  above  ; 
Suor  Filippini  having  sent  for  Suor  Venerini  to  assist  her 
in  her  enterprise.  Afterwards  they  divided,  the  latter 
preferring  to  dedicate  her  Community  to  the  education 
of  the  well-to-do  classes.  Mother-house,  Via  Palermo 
56,  with  two  other  institutions,  the  Consejvaiorio  delle 
Viperesche,*  Via  di  S.  Vito  10,  with  two  free  creches; 
and  Via  del  Governo  Vecchio  62.  Habit,  black  dress 
and  cape  to  the  waist ;  on  the  head  a  close  fitting  black 
silk  hood,  with  broad  pendent  ends,  lined  with  black 
net. 

The  FiGLiE  DEL  sAGEo  CHORE  DI  GEsu,  Were  founded  at  Ber- 
gamo at  the  beginning  of  this  century.  The  scope  is  the 
education  of  girl  children  of  noble  and  civil  condition. 
The  Mother-house  is  at  Bergamo  and  the  Congregation 
possesses  many  other  houses.  Besides  schools  in  Rome,t 
they  direct  the  opera  pia  of  the  Casa  dei  Neofiti  which 
was  formerly  in  the  charge  of  seculars.  This  work  origi- 
nated during  S.  Ignatius's  stay  in  Rome  :  it  is  a  house 
for  receiving  catechumens  and  neophytes,  and  convert 
Jews  of  both  sexes  are  entertained  there  for  40  days. 
Address:  Via  Cavour  218;  Via  Madonna  de'  Monti  40 

*  Founded  in  1868  by  Livia  Vipereschi  for  girls  of  civil  condition 
orphaned  of  one  parent. 

t  The  school  fees  are  600  lire  per  annum,  with  12.50  a  quarter 
extra  for  washing. 


274      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 

(Casa  dei  Neofiti).  Habit,  black,  a  black  frilled  coif, 
and  a  long  cape  reaching  below  the  waist. 

suoRE  MARiANE,  wcrc  foundcd  in  Rome  50  years  ago,  by 
an  Oratorian,  the  Mother-house  being  in  the  Via  della 
Carita  where  the  Oratorians  used  to  be.  Address  :  Via 
della  Carita  64  ;  Via  Arenula  83.  Habit  and  cape  black  ; 
a  black  coif  with  a  tulle  frille. 

SUORE  DI   S.  ANNA  E  DELLA  PROVVIDENZA,    fOUndcd    by    thc    Du- 

chessa  Barolo  at  Turin  in  1874.  Address:  Via  Buon- 
,  arroti  4.  Habit,  black  with  a  white  handkerchief  at  the 
throat ;  a  white  coif,  raised  on  the  top  of  the  head,  with 
large  flaps  projecting  beyond  the  face. 

STTORE  MARCELLiNE  DI  MiLANo :  thcsc  Sistcrs  are  of  the  same 
teaching  Community  as  the  well-known  Marcellifie  of 
Lombardy  and  Lucca,  an  ancient  educational  Order  which 
claims  to  decend  from  the  House  of  Virgins  established  in 
Milan  by  Marcellina  the  sister  of  S.  Ambrose.  To  per- 
petuate her  spirit  and  her  revered  name  these  Lombard 
Sisters  devote  themselves  to  the  work  of  education.  But 
the  house  in  Rome  is  a  separate  foundation  made  a  few 
years  back.  Address:  Via  Palestro  (Mother-house). 
Habit,  black,  with  a  white  coif  covered  with  black  net, 
and  a  bandeau. 

See  also  for  Italian  Teaching  Communities  Section  IL, 
pages  306  and  312;  pages  283,  289,  and  Chapter  IV., 
page  247. 

French.  The     CONGREGATION    DU   TRES-SAINT    SACREMENT     ('  MoSt      Holy 

Sacrament')  was  founded  in  1715  at  Le  Vivarais.  Their 
founder,  M.  Vigne,  when  a  young  man  on  his  way  to 
Geneva  to  prepare  himself  for  the  Protestant  ministry, 
was  converted  by  meeting  the  Holy  Sacrament  carried 
as  the  Viaticum.  The  work  of  the  Religious  was  to  be 
the  education  of  the  girls  of  the  neighbourhood,  and  they 
were  to  be  unenclosed.  The  work  of  tending  the  sick 
poor  in  the  hospitals  was  added  later.  Hence  their 
name  Religieuses  institutrices  et  Jwspitalieres  dii  tres- 
saint  Sacfement.  Dispersed  during  the  Revolution,  to 
make  room  for  hired  labourers,  they  were  re-established 
by  the  Prefect  of  the  Department  of  Drome,  who  placed 


THE   SISTERS    OF   CHARITY  275 

them  at  the  Abbey  of  Saint- Just  at  Romans  in  1804. 
This  good  man  had  been  touched  by  the  number  of  poor 
and  afflicted  left  without  succour,  and  he  determined  to 
restore  M.  Vigne's  Congregation  to  meet  the  need. 
The  Sisters  (whose  Mother-house  is  at  Romans)  now  con- 
duct schools  for  poor  and  rich  in  France  and  England, 
having  houses  in  Leicester  Square  and  Brompton  Square, 
London.  Address  in  Rome  :  Vicolo  de'  Riari  35-44  A., 
where  they  have  a  convent  dedicated  to  S.  Zita,  patron 
of  servant  maids,  and  direct  the  Institute  of  that  name 
founded  in  187 1  for  servants  and  deserted  children,  and 
where  they  find  places  for  the  girls  they  train.  Here 
also  they  direct  the  Conservatorio  degli  Angeli  Ciistodi 
(Guardian  Angels)  founded  for  orphan  girls  in  1879,  and 
the  Hospice  of  S.  INL  INLagdalene  Penitent,  established  by 
the  same  founder  in  1865  for  girls  led  astray.  In  other 
places  the  work  of  these  Religious  is  chiefly  educational. 
Habit  and  veil  black,  a  metal  monstrance  pendent  below 
the  wide  guimpe.* 

The  FiLL£s  DE  LA  CROIX,  ditcs  Filles  de  Saint-Andre,  were 
instituted  at  the  beginning  of  this  century  by  ]\Iademoi- 
selle  Bichier  des  Ages  and  Andr^  Fournet,  Vicar-General 
of  the  diocese  of  Poitiers.  The  Mother-house  is  at  La 
Puy,  and  they  hav'e  a  celebrated  house  at  Parma  founded 
in  185 1.  To  the  3  ordinary  vows  the  Sisters  add  a  4'^, 
the  gratuitous  instruction  of  the  ignorant  and  the  care 
of  the  sick.  They  retain  their  private  property,  but  the 
revenues  are  spent  on  the  work  of  the  Congregation. 
They  observe  silence,  "but  without  constraint,"  making 
all  yield  "  to  Charity  the  queen  of  virtues."  All  are 
called  '  Sister,'  including  the  Superior,  and  each  takes  and 
is  known  by  the  Religious  name  only.  Their  Roman  house 
was  established  by  the  Principessa  Borghese  in  1856. 
Address:  Via  dell'  Arancio  63;   Via  INIonte  d'Oro   27. 

*  A  congregation  of  Missionary  Priests  of  the  Most  Holy  Sacra- 
ment was  founded  in  the  xvii.  century  at  Romans,  Drome,  which 
was  destroyed  during  the  Revolution.  Another  Community,  the 
Reli^ieuses  dii  Saint-Sacieinetit,  called  Sreurs  de  Macon,  were 
founded  as  Hospitallers  in  the  middle  of  the  last  century. 


276       CI/BIS7VAX  AXD    ECCLESIASTICAL    ROME 

(Free  and  paying  girls'  schools;  a  free  cii'che  for  girl- 
babies  maintained  by  Princess  Borghese.)  Habit,  roug-h 
black  wool  gown  with  wide  sleeves,  scapular  embroidered 
with  sacred  devices,  and  a  black  silk  neck-handkerchief; 
a  plain  starched  cornette  or  coif  without  bandeau  or 
guimpe,  covered  out  of  doors  with  the  hood  of  the  ample 
black  cloak.  This  forms  a  charming  poke  hood,  leaving 
the  face  free.  On  the  breast  they  have  a  large  black  and 
brass  crucifix.* 

The  DAMES  DE  NAZARETH  wcrc  founded  at  Montmirail,  in 
the  diocese  of  Chalons,  in  1822,  by  the  Duchesse  de  la 
Rochefoucauld  Doudeauville  and  Mademoiselle  Rollat. 
The  aim  of  the  Dames  is  to  follow  the  hidden  life  of 
Christ,  and  for  love  of  this  divine  Man  poor  and 
annihilated  to  devote  themselves  to  the  solid  Christian 
education  of  poor  and  rich.  The  profit  of  their  work 
may  not  be  used  to  benefit  the  Community,  but  is 
employed  for  the  good  works  maintained  by  them,  which 
are  all  free.  They  are  served,  indoors  and  out,  by  extern 
Sisters.  The  life  led  is  simple  with  no  extraordinary 
mortifications.  The  Rule  is  Augustinian,  and  there  is  no 
enclosure.  In  1853  the  Dames  established  a  house  in 
Nazareth  itself,  where  they  teach  the  Palestinian  children, 
and  have  a  Dispensary.  This  is  one  of  the  earliest  of 
the  many  Communities  who  have  derived  their  inspira- 
tion from  the  life  at  Nazareth,  the  Holy  Family  and  the 
holy  Childhood.  This  Congregation  has  a  house  at 
Ealing.  Address  in  Rome  :  Via  Cola  di  Rienzo,  at  the 
corner  of  Via  Adriana.  Habit,  black  gown  and  cape, 
coif  and  collar,  and  a  black  veil ;  a  metal  and  black  wood 
cross.  Lay  Sisters  wear  a  maroon  gown  with  a  black 
veil  and  bandeau. t 

*  Not  to  be  confused  with  the  Sceiirs  de  la  Croix  .ounded  by 
Mere  Marie  Therese  in  Belgium;  or  with  the  Davtes  de  St.  Andre 
(Tournay),  a  well  known  Teaching  Community,  with  a  school  in 
Jersey. 

fThis  Congregation  is  to  be  distinguished  from  that  of  A^-D.  de 
Nazareth.,  which  originated  with  the  ladies  of  many  French  towns, 
who   dedicated  themselves  to  good  works  and  especially  to  the 


THE   SISTERS   OF  CHARITY  277 

DAMES  DE  LA  COMPASSION  (Ladlcs  of  Cumpassion),  founded 
at  Argenteuil  by  ?»Iarie-Anne  Gaborit,  and  removed  to 
Saint-Denis,  near  Paris,  in  1829.  Five  years  later  the 
care  of  the  sick  in  the  hospitals  was  added  to  the  work 
of  education.  In  1844  the  Community  was  approved 
by  the  Government,  and  in  1849  i'^s  Constitutions  based 
on  the  Rule  of  S.  Augustine  were  approved  by  ecclesias- 
tical authority.  Address  :  Vicolo  degli  Ibernesi  20,  where 
they  have  Homes  for  poor  orphan  girls  and  for  servants 
out  of  work,  the  former  dressed  in  gray.  Habit,  black 
gown,  cape,  and  apron  ;  wide  sleeves  piped  with  red,  a 
red  cord,  pendent  on  the  right  side ;  on  the  breast  a 
silver  heart  pierced  and  surmounted  by  a  cross,  attached 
to  red  cord.  The  head-dress  of  the  Sisters  is  a  white 
frilled  coif  under  a  black  veil ;  of  the  lay  Sisters  a  black 
coif  with  black  frill  and  veil.  They  wear  the  Rosary  of 
Dolours. 

THE  DAMES  DE  sioN  werc  foundcd  with  the  Freres  de  Sion 
by  Bernard  Ratisbonne,  the  brother  of  the  Jew  converted 
in  S.  Andrea  delle  Fratte,  in  the  middle  of  this  centur\'. 
The  Dames  are  a  well  known  and  widely  spread  Teaching 
Community,  and  are  to  be  found  in  Jerusalem,  Constanti- 
nople, Smyrna,  Cairo,  Armenia,  Roumania,  Austria,  and 
in  America  \  the  Mother-house  being  in  the  Rue  Notre- 
Dames-des-Champs,  Paris.  Like  the  Ladies  of  Compas- 
sion just  described  they  are  established  in  England,  where 
they  have  a  training-house  for  Teachers.  The  Freres  de 
Sion,  however,  are  a  dwindling  Community,  numbering 
some  30  members,  settled  in  the  East.  The  Rule  is  the 
Augustinian. 

Address  in  Rome:  Via  della  Mercede  11,  where  the 
Sisters  have  a  School.  Habit  and  cape  black,  with  a  long 
l)lack  cloak  out  of  doors.  A  black  veil  of  light  stuff  pro- 
jecting beyond  the  white.  A  crucifix  suspended  from  a 
steel  chain.     All  their  houses  are  called  Sion  House. 


education  of  orphans ;  having  vows  and  a  semi-enclosure,  but 
wearing  lay  dress:  and  from  little  Sisters  of  Xazaret/i,  an  Englisli 
offshoot  of  the  Petites  Si  eurs  des  Pauvrcs. 


278      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 

INSTITUTE    OF    THE    HOLY    FAMILY    OF    NAZARETH    {NaZZll rCttifie)    '. 

This  is  a  Polish  Community  founded  /;/  Rome  25  years 
ago  for  Education.  They  have  a  Mission  in  London  and 
one  in  America.  Address  in  Rome  (Mother-house  and 
noviciate,  but  no  school)  :  Via  Machiavelli  18.  Habit  ds\^ 
cloak  black  ;  the  black  veil  is  tied  behind,  no  bandeau, 
and  a  cream-white  plaited  guimpe.  The  lay  Sisters  wear 
a  white  veil. 

For  other  Teaching  Congregations  see  Ursuliiies,  page 
286  :  Congregations  with  the  Jesuit  Rule,  page  280. 

(^Missionary  Congregations.)  Soeurs  de  St.  Joseph. 
There  are  no  less  than  32  Mother-houses  in  France  alone 
belonging  to  congregations  called  after  S.  Joseph  ;  the 
modern  cult  of  the  Lord's  foster-father  has  multiplied 
these  Communities,  many  of  which  are  devoted  to  mis- 
sionary work.     In  Rome,  however,  — 

THE  SUCRE  Di  SAN  GIUSEPPE  arc  not  French  but  Italian  and 
Roman  in  origin,  having  been  founded  here  in  1600,  and 
remaining  for  many  years  an  enclosed  Community.  On 
adopting  the  active  life  they  became  Missionaries,  and  are 
one  of  the  largest  and  most  respected  Italian  Congrega- 
tions. They  are  governed  by  a  Mother-General  and 
Provincials.  They  have  a  large  school  in  Rome  in  Via 
Lucullo,  corner  of  Via  delle  Finanze.  Habit,  black,  with 
guimpe  and  bandeau,  a  black  veil,  and  rosary.  The  Lay 
Sisters  have  a  small  white  coif  covered  with  black  over  a 
bandeau,  in  place  of  the  veil. 

s.  JOSEPH  DE  CLUNY,  the  cxcellcnt  Community  for  Missions 
and  education  formed  at  Chalons  in  1807,  but  practically 
established  later  in  the  dioceses  of  Autun  (Cluny)  and 
Beauvais.  The  founder,  Anne  Javouhey,  possessed  by  the 
desire  to  convert  and  civilise  aboriginal  races,  established 
houses  in  most  of  the  French  colonies,  her  Community 
numbering  some  1300  members  at  the  time  of  her  death 
in  1851.  In  1822  she  established  her  Congregation  on 
the  West  Coast  of  Africa.  Her  scheme  was  to  plant 
Christian  civilisation  by  educating  the  young;  and  to 
girls'  schools  she  added  a  scheme  for  educating  native 
Africans  in  France  who  were  to    return   as  laymen  or 


THE   SISTERS    OF  CHARITY  279 

priests.  The  Congregation  undertook  in  fact  the  forma- 
tion of  an  indigenous  clergy.  In  1S28  she  went  to  French 
Guiana,  and  began  the  colonisation  of  its  waste  forests. 
The  French  Government  now  accepted  her  proposition 
for  the  abolition  of  slavery  in  French  Colonies,  to  be 
effected  by  giving  her  all  the  blacks  taken  from  slave- 
trading  vessels,  whom  she  collected  together  on  the  shores 
of  the  Mana.  She  was  to  prepare  them  by  education 
for  eventual  freedom  and  civilised  life.  Men  now  saw 
repeated  "  dans  les  forets  de  la  Mana,  les  merveilles  de 
civilisation  religieuse  operees  autrefois  par  les  Jesuites  au 
Paraguay."  *  She  exercised  an  extraordinary  ascendancy 
over  the  slave  population,  and  this  little  colony  is  still  the 
most  civilised  and  Christian  in  French  Guiana.  After 
establishing  her  Congregation  in  India,  Trinidad,  ISIada- 
gascar,  and  Tahiti,  Anne  Jahouvey  died  after  44  years  of 
government,  aged  72. 

The  work  of  the  Community  embraces  education,  and 
the  care  of  the  sick  and  poor.  The  Sisters  make  2  years 
noviciate,  then  take  the  vows  for  3  years,  after  which  these 
are  either  renewed  for  5  years  or  made  perpetual.  The 
Congregation,  which  depends  directly  from  the  Holy  See, 
is  divided  into  Provinces,  and  is  governed  by  a  Superior- 
General  elected  for  3  years.  The  Mother-house  and  Novi- 
ciate is  now  in  Paris,  21  Rue  Mechain.  Address  in 
Rome  :  Via  Buonarroti,  Casa  di  S.  Giuseppe  di  Cluny. 
Habit  of  choir  Sisters  is  dark  blue,  with  wide  sleeves,  a 
black  cape  and  wide  black  scapular ;  a  large  crucifix  on 
the  breast  suspended  from  a  blue  cord  ;  a  rosary  of  large 
beads  and  a  crucifix.  The  Lay  Sisters  wear  the  blue  robe 
with  a  black  handkerchief  and  apron  ;  a  white  cornette 
covered  with  a  small  black  veil ;  a  crucifix  round  the 
neck  attached  to  a  black  cord. 

s.  JOSEPH  DE  L' APPARITION,  foundcd  lu  1 83 2  in  the  South 
of  France  by  Madame  de  Vialard,  and  recognised  by  the 
State  in  1856.  This  important  and  interesting  society 
settled  in  Algeria  and  Australia  during  the  lifetime  of  its 

*  Helyot. 


28o      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 

holy  founder,  and  its  many  houses  are  chiefly  to  oe  met 
with  in  Mission  Stations.  They  undertake  all  works  of 
charity,  education,  and  hospital  work.  The  Mother-house 
was  moved  to  Marseilles  in  order  to  facilitate  the  depar- 
ture of  the  Sisters  for  the  Missions.  In  Rome  they  direct 
the  Opera  Apostolica,  founded  to  collect  offerings  of  vest- 
ments and  church  furniture  for  Catholic  missions. 

Address  in  Rome  :  Via  Margana  i8.  Habit  and  cloak 
black,  a  black  veil  over  a  stiff  white  coif  with  a  second 
ruched  coif  under. 

For  Missionary  Communities  see  also  Chapter  III. 
Franciscan  Tertiaries  ;  Missionary  Salesians  of  the  Sacred 
Heart,  page  285,  and  Section  II  of  this  Chapter,  Pallottine, 
page  316,  and  Risiirrezioniste,  page  315. 

CONGREGATIONS   WITH   THE   JESUIT   RULE. 

Theoretically  all  Congregations  of  the  foregoing  type 
are  based  on  the  Rule  of  S.  Augustine,  described  on 
page  216  :  those  to  be  now  described  have  adopted  the 
Jesuit  Rule.  The  earliest  of  these  Congregations  took 
their  rise  in  the  beginning  of  the  xix.  century  to  aid  the 
restoration  of  the  Jesuits,  and  keep  alive  their  methods 
of  education.     But  they  are  not  all  represented  in  Rome. 

CONGREGATION  OF  THE  SACRED  HEART  (Damcs  du  Sacr^  Cocur. ) 
At  the  end  of  the  last  century  a  body  of  men  had  formed 
themselves  into  a  company  of  the  Sacred  Heart  (known 
also  as  Peres  de  la  Foi)  awaiting  the  re-instatement  of 
the  Society  of  Jesus,  which  had  been  suppressed  in  1773. 
Of  these  Fathers,  Pere  de  Tourn^ly  designed  a  similar 
community  of  women  for  the  education  of  girls,  a  design 
realised  by  Pere  Varin,  who  chose  Sophie  Barat,  then 
18  years  of  age,  for  the  purpose.  The  young  girl  with 
some  companions  dedicated  herself  to  the  Sacred  Heart 
in  1800,  and  became  Superior,  under  Pere  Varin,  5  years 
later.  The  Religious  are  "  to  consecrate  themselves  as 
much  as  can  be  done  by  persons  of  their  sex,  to  the 
sanctification  of  their  neighbours,  as  the  work  dearest  to 
the  Heart  of  Jesus."     "  When  obliged  to  apply  to  worldly 


THE   SrSTERS   OF    CHARITY 


281 


Studies  for  the  sake  of  teaching  them  they  must  be  on 
their  guard  against  the  vain  pretensions  of  this  haughty 
age,  and  never  pass  the  bounds  that  humble  and  wise 
discretion  prescribes  to  their  sex."  These  ladies  were 
expected  to  take  up  learning  with  a  pair  of  tongs ;  and  it 
is  to  the  advantage  of  Mere  Barat's  daughters  that  they 
have  in  many  cases  overstepped  the  limited  views  of  M. 
Varin  as  an  educator.  For  the  whole  work  of  these 
Religious  was  avowedly  education,  and  they  are  known  in 
all  countries  for  their  convent  schools  for  the  well-to-do 
classes. 

There  is  a  two  years'  noviciate,  after  which  the  nun  Noviciate, 
takes  the  3  simple  vows ;  remaining  for  five  years  more 
an  '  aspirant,'  bound  to  the  Society  which  is  not  bound 
to  her.  At  the  end  of  this  time,  if  allowed  to  make  her 
final  profession,  she  makes  a  second  noviciate  for  six 
months,  after  which  she  takes  the  4'!'  vow  — '  devotion  to 
the  education  of  the  young'  —  and  exchanges  the  white 
for  the  black  veil.  The  profession  is  in  the  form  of  a 
marriage  service  ;  her  consent  is  asked,  and  a  ring  and 
cross  are  blessed.  The  Congregation  is  governed  by  a 
Superior-General,  resident  in  the  Boulevard  des  Invalides, 
Paris,*  assisted  by  a  permanent  council  of  3  assistants- 
general.  This  Superior  has  also  a  Procuratrix,  a  Secre- 
tary-General, and  an  Admonitrix,  or  "  exterior  con- 
science." Lay  sisters  discharge  the  external  business  of 
the  convent.  The  Religious  recite  the  "  Little  Office." 
All  have  the  title  of  Mother  and  retain  their  surnames. 
Each  house  is  obliged  to  conduct  a  school  for  poor  chil- 
dren also.  Their  large  school  in  Rome  is  at  the  Trinita  In  Rome, 
de'  Monti  at  the  top  of  the  Spanish  steps,  a  well-known 
spot  associated  with  them  since  1828.  They  have  also 
the  Villa  Lante  on  the  Janiculum,  a  house  set  apart  for 
Retreats  to  outsiders  ;  and  S.  Rufina  inTrastevere  (Lunga- 
retta  92).  The  dress  is  black,  with  a  pelerine  buttoned  Habit, 
in  front,  over  this  hangs  the  silver  cross  blessed  at  the 
profession.     The  cap  under  the  veil  is  worn  over  a  black 


*The  large  school  is  in  the  Rue  de  Varennes. 


282       CHRISTIAN  AXD   ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 

skull-cap  and  is  furnished  with  a  frill ;  they  wear  no 
guimpe  or  bandeau. 

Mother  Barat  instituted  the  well-known  "  Children  of 
Mary"  (Enfants  de  Marie). 

THE  COMPANY  OF  NOTRE  DAME,  fouuded  at  Bordcaux  in  1605 
by  the  Ven.  Jeanne  de  Lestonac,*  whose  mother  was 
sister  to  Montaigne.  The  Institution  was  to  imitate  the 
Society  of  Jesus,  "  having  the  Mother  for  patron  and 
model,"  as  the  Jesuits  had  the  Son  for  their  Head.  By 
a  Bull  of  Paul  V.  the  new  Community  was  required  to 
follow  one  of  the  4  ancient  Orders,  and  hence  its  aggre- 
gation in  1608  to  the  Benedictines.  The  Filles  de  Notre 
Dame  have  a  School  for  the  better  classes,  and  also  one 
for  the  poor,  in  all  their  houses.  Address  in  Rome  : 
Nostra  Signora  in  S.  Dionisio,  Via  Quattro  Fontane  121. 
The  gown  and  cincture  are  black,  with  a  black  veil  over 
the  usual  bandeau  and  whimple.  A  rosary  is  worn,  and  a 
crucifix  in  the  cincture. 

An  important  educational  Community  is  that  of  jesus 
AND  MARY  {Jesus-Muric)  (not  to  be  confused  with  the 
Eudistes)  founded  in  18 18  by  Claudine  Thevenet  at 
Lyon,  where  she  was  herself  born  in  1774.  Both  her 
brothers  had  died  on  the  scaffold  during  the  Reign  of 
Terror,  and  she  herself  had  stood  by  them  to  the  end. 
She  adopted  for  her  Congregation  "  the  Rule  of  S.  Augus- 
tine and  the  spirit  of  S.  Ignatius."  Its  object  was  to  cul- 
tivate a  love  of  virtue  in  children,  and  "  train  their  minds 
to  a  knowledge  of  Jesus  and  Mary."  Each  Religious 
takes  the  name  of  Mary  in  addition  to  a  saint's  name. 
The  Congregation  was  approved  by  Pius  IX.  in  1847.  It 
is  to  be  found  in  France,  England,  Switzerland,  Spain 
(introduced  in  1850),  Asia,  America,  and  in  Thibet 
where  there  are  1 1  convents  doing  missionary  work. 
They  have  now  a  small  house  in  Rome  at  8  Via  Pales- 
trina,  Prati  di  Castello ;  here  languages  are  taught  for  a 
very  small  sum.     The  Habit  and  cape  are  black,  with  a 

*  Her  cause  for  Beatification  has  been  introduced  at  Rome.  The 
Congregation  is  not  to  be  confused  with  the  Institute  0/  A'^oire  Dame 
founded  by  the  Ven.  Julie  Billiart  at  Amiens,  in  1805. 


THE  SISTERS   OE  CHARITY  283 

rosary,  and  a  black  veil  falling  from  a  frilled  white  cap. 
A  long  mantle  is  worn  in  choir.  Lay  Sisters  wear  a  black 
frilled  cap. 

THE  SISTERS  or  s.  DOROTHY  i^Dorotcc)  wcrc  founded  by  Suor 
Paola  Frassinetti  of  Genoa,  and  kept  their  5o'^  anniversary 
some  years  ago ;  the  Congregation  receiving  its  con- 
firmation in  1839.  Its  object  is  especially  the  education 
of  poor  and  neglected  children.  Two  priests  of  Bergamo, 
who  had  there  initiated  a  "  Pia  Opera  di  S.  Dorotea "  "  Pia 
designed  to  influence  in  each  parish  and  each  street  of  ^p^"^',? 

°  ,  .  '  ....  Dorotea. 

a  town  those  exposed  to  corrupt  surroundmgs,  havmg 
found  Suor  Paola's  work  existing  in  Genoa,  asked  her  to 
support  the  Pia  Opera.  This  she  consented  to  do,  and 
added  a  vow  to  co-operate  with  the  work,  which  is  taken 
by  all  the  Sisters.  It  was  not,  however,  planted  with 
much  ability  by  the  good  Bergamese  priests,  and  is  in 
no  sense  an  integral  part  of  the  institute  of  the  Dorotee, 
who  however  forward  the  work  wherever  they  are.  It  is 
attached  to  some  of  the  Roman  parishes,  and  exists  in 
many  towns  where  there  are  no  Dorotee.  The  latter 
teach  the  poor  children  in  their  care  such  work  as  they 
are  capable  of,  and  endeavour  to  make  them  good  and 
industrious  citizens.  Their  houses  are  chiefly  to  be 
found  in  the  North  of  Italy.  Mother-house  in  Rome  : 
Salita  di  S.  Onofrio  t^^  ;  other  houses,  Villa  Altieri,  Viale 
Manzoni  (boarding  school);  Piazza  dell'  Independenza 
14;  Via  Ripetta  231  ;  Via  Garibaldi  88.  Habit,  black, 
the  Mothers  wear  a  coif  with  a  small  tulle  frill ;  the  lay 
Sisters  a  coif  with  a  small  cambric  frill.  Out  of  doors 
they  wear  over  this  a  square  folded  handkerchief.  The 
dress  is  simple  and  unpretentious. 

THE  SOCIETY  OF  MARY  REPARATRicE  was  foundcd  by  a  Belgian 
on  December  8,  1854.  Its  object  is  "reparation  and 
atonement  in  union  with  the  B.  V.  M.  for  sins  and  out- 
rages committed  against  the  Divine  Majesty."  For  this 
purpose  the  Religious  have  perpetual  adoration  in  their 
Chapel  from  7.30  a.m.  to  5.15  p.m.  —  two  Religious 
being  always  present :  religious  conferences  and  retreats 
for  all  classes ;   the  preparation  of  young  people,  poor 


284      CHRISTIAN  AND   ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 

and  rich,  for  their  first  Communion ;  *  and  foreign  mis- 
sions. To  the  spirit  of  reparation,  they  add  a  special 
devotion  to  the  ApostoHc  See.  They  have  convents 
in  Belgium,  France,  Italy,  Spain,  England,  Germany, 
America,  and  Jerusalem.  Each  Religious  takes  the 
name  of  Mary  in  addition  to  a  saint's  name  with  the 
prefix  ^.  All  have  the  title  of  "  Mother."  Their  house 
in  Rome  is  in  Via  dei  Lucchesi  by  the  church  of  S.  M, 
dei  Lucchesi.  The  Habit  is  white  with  a  blue  scapular 
and  veil,  and  a  silver  heart  on  the  breast ;  blue  and 
white  being  the  colours  of  Mary.  In  choir,  where  they 
recite  the  daily  Office  of  our  Lady,  they  wear  a  long 
white  veil  and  train.  They  have  lay  extern  sisters,  who 
wear  the  usual  black  gown  and  cape,  frilled  white  cap, 
and  a  metal  heart  attached  to  a  blue  ribbon.f 

THE    RELIGIOUS    DE   L' ADORATION    PERPETUEL  ET  L'(EUVEE   DES  EGLISES 

FAuvREs  were  instituted  by  Mademoiselle  de  Meeus  who  is 
still  alive.  The  work  she  originally  contemplated  was 
aiding  poor  village  churches,  and  this  she  began  in  1848 
in  her  own  Belgian  village.  The  Perpetual  Adoration 
she  added  later,  and  eventually  formed  a  Religious 
Community  to  carry  out  these  objects.  The  centre  of 
the  work  is  now  in  Rome,  at  the  Church  of  the  Corpus 
Domini  just  outside  Porta  Pia.J  The  Mother-house  is 
in  Brussels,  but  the  work  is  also  to  be  found  in  Holland, 
England,  and  Germany.  The  Religious  wear  a  black 
dress  and  cape,  with  a  black  crape  cap  or  bonnet,  and 
a  silver  crucifix. 

The  ANCELLE  DEL  SAGRO  cuoRE  {Haiidiiiaids  of  tkc  Sacred 
Heart)  are  a  Neapolitan  foundation,  whose  object  is  to 
make  Jesus  known  and   loved  —  the   apostolate   of  the 

*  Thus,  every  month  they  have  a  day  of  retreat  for  working  girls; 
and  each  year  a  fortnight's  retreat  for  poor  girls  just  before  their  first 
Communion,  who  are  the  guests  of  the  Religious  during  this  period. 

t  Not  to  be  confused  with  the  "  Adoration  du  Saint  Sacre 
ment  Reparatrice,'''  founded  in  Paris  in  1848.  The  dress  of  these 
Religious  is  brown  with  a  black  veil  and  guinipe  and  a  crucifix 
suspended  from  a  red  ribbon.  No  bandeau.  A  black  cloak  out 
of  doors. 

\  See  Part  I.,  p.  157. 


THE   SISTERS   OE  CHARITY  2S5 

Sacred  Heart,  as  a  means  of  combating  the  evils  of  the 
age.  They  were  founded  by  Caterina  VolpicelH  of  whom 
it  was  said  that  her  mission  was  to  be  " pesca/n'ce  di 
aiiime  in  mezzo  al  secoloT  She  died  at  Naples  in  1895. 
The  Sisters  take  the  3  vows  of  Religion,  but  wear  a  plain 
black  dress,  and  have  no  distinctive  mark  whatever.  In 
1 87 1  they  adopted  the  Rule  of  the  last  named  Congrega- 
tion, with  the  work  for  poor  churches  in  Italy.  They 
have  a  school  for  the  poor  at  N?  4  Via  Sallustiana,  in  the 
Ludovisi  Quarter. 

THE   MISSIONARY   SALESIANS   OF   THE   SACRED   HEART    WerC    foUUdcd 

by  Suor  Francesca  Cabrini,  the  present  Superior-General. 
Her  Rule  is  based  on  the  Ignatian.  At  the  Mother- 
house  in  Rome,  besides  a  school,  the  Sisters  have  a 
pension  for  young  women  from  all  parts  of  Italy  who 
desire  to  attend  the  Superior  Schools  here.  They  were 
called  Salesians  at  the  request  of  the  Diocesan,  and 
because  they  fulfilled  the  original  intention  of  S.  Francis 
of  Sales.  The  Noviciate  is  at  Codogno.  The  habit  and 
cape  are  black,  the  under  cap  tied  at  the  neck  with  a 
large  bow,  and  a  net  veil.  A  black  and  brass  crucifix  is 
tucked  in  at  the  band,  and  professed  Sisters  wear  in 
addition  a  large  silver  crucifix.  A  black  check  apron  is 
worn  indoors,  and  out  of  doors  a  cloak  as  long  as  the 
dress.     Address:  Via  Montebello  i. 

SOEtTRS  DE   LA   RETRATTE   DANS  LE  CENACLE    (LADIES  OF  THE    CENACLEl, 

a  Community,  founded  in  France  in  1826.  Their  work 
is  catechist,  with  the  preparation  of  poor  and  rich  for 
their  first  Communion.  Their  house  in  Rome  is  Via  della 
Stamperia  78.  Their  habit  is  almost  identical  with  that 
of  the  Sacre  Coeur  Religious. 

For  the  Dames  Anglaises,  see  page  255. 

Of  the  above  10  Congregations,  the  Rules  of  the  Sacr^ 
Coeur,  Notre  Dame,  the  Soci^te  de  IMarie  R^paratrice, 
and  the  Ladies  of  the  Cenacle,  bind  their  members  to  live 
enclosed.  This  does  not  imply  the  Papal  Enclosure 
described  on  page  41  ;*  and  such  Communities  are 
therefore  rightly  called  semi-enclosed. 

*See  Franciscans,  p.  149;  Dominicans,  p.  173;  Carmelites, 
p.  189;    and  Augustinians,  pp.  21S,  220,  245. 


286      CHRIST/ AX  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 


SEMI-ENCLOSED   CONGREGATIONS. 

Ursnlines.  One  of  the  most  interesting  of  the  modern  semi- 
enclosed  Congregations  is  that  of  the  Ursulines.  I'hey 
were  instituted  by  S.  Angela  Merici  of  Brescia  in  1535,* 
under  the  name  of  Company  of  S.  Orsola,  their  patron 
being  Ursula,  the  British  Virgin  and  Martyr.  The  Order 
is  purely  educational,  and  a  school  is  attached  to  every 
convent.  It  is  moreover  the  first  educational  effort, 
having  been  projected  75  years  before  Mary  Ward's,  at 
the  moment  of  the  Reformation,  and  its  success  and 
importance  have  been  great  from  the  first.  The  Ursu- 
lines carried  out  their  plan,  and  lived  in  their  own  homes 
till  the  time  of  S.  Charles  Borromeo,  after  which  they 
formed  unenclosed  communities.  It  was  not  till  161 2 
that,  as  a  result  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  they  were 
obliged  to  accept  enclosure.  At  the  present  day  some 
are  enclosed  and  some  unenclosed.  There  are  a  large 
number  of  local  Congregations,  with  separate  names 
and  government :  thus  there  are  the  Ursulines  of  ilw 
Cross,  Ursulines  of  the  Presentation  (to  be  found  in 
France  and  Belgium  and  strictly  enclosed),  Ursulines  de 
Jesus,  dites  de  Chavagne,  Ursulines  of  the  Incarnation, 
Orsoline  di  faniiglia  of  Milan  (unenclosed),  Dames  de 
S'^  Ursula,  etc.  In  the  xvii.  century  the  Ven.  Mother 
Mary  of  the  Incarnation  set  out  from  Tours  for  Canada, 
and  founded  at  Quebec  the  first  educational  house  in 
the  new  world.  Ursulines  are  to  be  found  in  Louisiana 
and  Texas,  and  are  still  settled  at  Java.  In  France  alone 
they  number  7400.  In  Rome  there  is  a  Congregation  in 
Via  Vittoria  5,  off  the  Corso,  who  have  been  there  since 
168S,  having  kept  their  200"'  anniversary  in  1888.  They 
are  Italians,  and  occasionally  go  out  in  a  closed  carriage, 
to  visit  the  Pope  for  instance.  The  French  Ursulines  from 
Blois  have  recently  settled  at  the  Villa  Maria  outside  Porta 
Pia,  and  most  of  the  Roman  nuns  have  moved  to  that 

*rhis  remarkable  and  lioly  woman  was  a  Franciscan  Tertiary. 
She  died  in  1540  (May  ji). 


THE  SISTERS   OF  CHARITY  287 

House.  The  habit,  Rule,  and  work  of  both  Communities 
are  identical.  The  dress  is  a  full  black  tunic,  with  black 
girdle  and  veil,  and  a  square  plaited  whimple.  The  cap 
is  fulled  round  the  face. 

The  Order  of  the  Visitation  de  Notre  Dame  ( Visitan-  Tlie 
dines,  in  Italy  Saksiane)  was  founded  by  S.  Francis  de  Visitation, 
Sales  with  the  co-operation  of  S.  Jeanne  Frangoise  de 
Chantal,  in  16 10.  The  design  of  the  saint  was  "to  give 
daughters  to  S.  Martha,"  to  gather  together  a  band  of 
women  occupied  in  works  of  charity  for  the  poor  and 
sick ;  and  the  Community  was  to  take  its  name  from  the 
Visitation  which  Mary  made  to  Elizabeth.  But  this 
scheme  was  entirely  overruled ;  an  unenclosed  Com- 
munity could  not  be  tolerated,  and  though  the  first 
Mothers  of  the  Order  visited  the  sick  from  1611  to  1615, 
the  Order  has  been  enclosed  since  that  date.  They  now 
take  solemn  in  place  of  simple  vows,  and  even  ha\-e  a 
grille,  but  uncurtained.  Each  house  was  to  consist  of  2,3 
Sisters,  and  these  are  divided  into  3  classes  (^)  Choir 
Sisters,  who  recite  the  Office  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  to  a 
slow  simple  chant  {b)  Associate  Sisters,  consisting  of 
those  who  cannot  chant  {c)  Lay  Sisters,  who  do  the 
work  of  the  house.  The  Order  is  governed  by  the 
bishop,  there  is  no  Generalate,  and  each  house  is  inde- 
pendent. There  must  be  20  choir  nuns,  and  2  who  are 
called  SuiTeillantes ;  the  Superior  is  accompanied  by  an 
Aide,  who  receives  the  complaints  of  the  Community. 
A  '  Spiritual  Father'  is  appointed  by  the  bishop.-  Though 
the  scheme  of  the  founder  resulted  at  once  in  complete 
failure,  one  original  point  remained  :  the  Order  might 
accept  the  aged,  the  infirm,  and  widows.  With  this 
object  in  view  the  Rule  embraces  no  corporal  austerities, 
no  rising  at  midnight,  no  toil.  The  spirit  of  the  founder 
preferred  to  these  things  a  life  of  strict  obedience  and 
abnegation  of  one's  own  will,  sweetness,  simplicity,  resig- 
nation. Though  this  is  not  an  educational  Order,  the 
Visitandines  may  conduct  schools.  The  Religious  keep 
their  name  and  surname.     Their  house  in   Rome  is  the    In  Rome. 


288      CIIRlSrr.lN  AXD   ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 


S.  Francis 
de  Sales. 
1567-1622. 


only  building  on  the  Palatine,  the  Villa  Mills,  built  over 
Habit.  the  site  of  the  House  of  Augustus.     The  habit  is  like  that 

of  the  Ursulines  ;  full  black  gown  with  girdle  and  veil,  no 
bandeau,  and  a  square  guimpe  pinned  down  at  the 
corners  ;  under  which  a  cross  hangs  with  the  letters  i.  h.  s. 
They  number  some  2  700  in  France,  and  are  to  be  found 
out  of  Europe  in  America  and  Syria  ;  they  have  a  house  in 
Vienna,  and  one  at  Walmer,  in  Kent,  where  they  settled 
from  Hanover  during  the  Kulturkampf.  Mother  Margaret 
Mary  Alacoque  was  a  Visitation  nun. 

S.  Francis  de  Sales,  Archbishop  of  Geneva  and  a  Doctor 
of  the  Church,  was  the  author  of  the  "  Vie  devote,"  and 
has  been  called  the  Apostle  of  Sweetness  on  account  of 
his  constant  recommendation  of  this  virtue,  his  own  sweet 
and  serene  nature  being  the  result  of  a  victory  over  an 
originally  fiery  and  irascible  temperament.  To  the  end 
of  his  life,  however,  he  found  it  hard  "to  suffer  fools 
gladly,"  he  tells  us,  although  he  never  allowed  his  impa- 
tience to  appear  :  this  reputation  of  sweetness  made  his 
commonplace  visitors  frequently  assume  that  he  was  not 
a  man  of  intellect,  an  assumption  which  he  left  undis- 
turbed. The  greatest  contribution  he  made  to  the  Chris- 
tian life  of  his  day  was  his  urgent  vindication  of  love  as 
the  sole  acceptable  motive  for  good  works ;  he  even 
desired  that  this  should  be  defined  as  a  truth.*  He  lived 
in  a  day  full  of  displeasing  religious  elements,  which 
appear  in  even  his  devotional  literature,  and  from  which 
none  but  the  greatest  could  have  shaken  themselves  free. 
He  died  December  22,  1622.  Some  of  his  vestments  are 
preserved  at  the  Trinita  dei  Monti,  and  shown  on  his 
In  Art.  feast  day  January  29.  In  art  he  appears  in  cassock  and 
rochet,  or  in  a  cope,  bareheaded  ;  his  emblem  being  a 
pierced  heart  crowned  with  thorns  within  a  glory. 

S.  Jeanne  de  Chantal,  the  grandmother  of  Madame  de 
Sevigne,  had  been  left  a  widow  at  29  years  old,  and  died 
in  1 64 1,  after  seeing  75  houses  of  her  Order  established 

*lt  is  the  sole  perfect  motive:  it  has  been  pointed  out  that 
Christ  Himself  appealed  to  fear  as  a  motive  fur  working  righteous- 
ness. 


THE   SISTERS    OE  CHARITY 


289 


in  France  and  Sav^oy. 
1769). 


Feast  clay  August  21  (canonised 


There  are  several  Congregations  of  secular  priests 
formed  for  pastoral  work  under  the  patronage  of  S.  Francis 
de  Sales.  I.  The  Congregation  of  S.  Francis  de  Sales  of 
Annecy,  founded  as  missioners  for  home  and  abroad  in 
1830.  II.  The  Oratory  of  S.  Francis  de  Sales  founded 
in  1864  by  Don  Bosco  at  Turin,  and  hence  known  as 
"  Salesians  of  Don  Bosco."  This  good  priest  is  only 
lately  dead.  The  object  of  the  Congregation  is  the  edu- 
cation of  the  young,  especially  of  the  poor.  They  serve 
the  church  of  the  Sagro  Cuore  in  the  new  quarter  close 
by  the  railway  station,  a  church  remarkable  for  its  fine 
organ.  Their  Procura  is  on  the  same  site.  Via  Porta  S. 
Lorenzo  42-44,  where  they  have  a  free  Elementary  boys' 
school,  maintained  by  the  Pontifical  Commission  for 
Primary  schools.  Their  dress  is  undistinguishable  from 
that  of  other  secular  priests.  III.  The  Figlie  di  Maria 
Aiisiliatrice,  a  company  of  Sisters  also  founded  by  Don 
Bosco,  for  the  same  ends,  attached  to  the  same  missions, 
and  doing  the  same  good  work.  Address  :  Via  Marghera 
65.  Habit  ^.wdi  cape  black,  short  black  veil  with  nothing 
stiff  about  the  head  and  face  ;  a  bib-shaped  guimpe,  and 
a  large  black  and  white  metal  crucifix  on  the  breast. 
Indoors  a  blue  cotton  apron.*  IV.  Oblates  of  S.  Francis 
de  Sales.  V.  Missionary  Salesians  of  the  Sacred  Heart 
(page  285). 

The  Annonciade  Celeste  is  an  Order  founded  by  Maria 
Vittoria  Fornari,  a  Genoese  widow  who  died  in  161 7.  In 
Italy  it  is  known  as  the  Annunziata  and  the  nuns  as 
Celestine,  and  there  is  a  Community  at  Turin.  They  are 
strictly  enclosed,  devote  themselves  to  prayer,  and  follow 
the  Rule  of  S.  Francis  de  Sales,  though  with  austere 
additions.    The  Order  was  approved  in  1601,  and  is  to  be 

*  Not  to  be  confused  with  the  Congregation  <.){  Marie  Aiixiliatrice 
to  be  found  in  France  and  England,  an   unpretentious  C'(jinnuinity 
which  devotes  itself  to  the  neglected  and  outcast  of  the  population, 
U 


Congrega- 
tions of 
Salesian 
Secular 
priests. 

Salesians 
of  Don 
Bosco 
(men  and 
women). 

In  Rome. 


The  An- 
nonciade 
Celeste. 


290      CHRISTIAN  AND   ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 

found  in  Italy,  France,  Germany,  and  Denmark  where 
there  is  one  convent.  The  habit  is  white,  but  the  scapu- 
lar, girdle,  cloak  and  shoes  are  blue  ;  they  are  hence 
called  Filles  Bleiies,  and  in  Rome  Tiircliine.  Their 
Roman  house  is  at  13,  Via  S.  Agata  de'  Goti. 

The  Annonciades  Celestes  are  the  third  Community  of 
the  name.  There  used  to  exist  a  Congregation  of  Annon- 
ciades  Recluses ;  and  there  still  exists  an  Order  of 
Annonciades  with  some  145  members  in  France  and  Bel- 
gium, founded  in  1498  by  Jeanne  wife  of  Philip  XII. 
(Brown,  red  scapular,  white  cloak.) 

The  Good  The  Congregation  of  the  Bon  Pasteur  and  Immaculate 
Shepherd.  Conception  of  Angers  is  one  devoted  to  a  great  active 
work  of  mercy,  though  the  Religious  are  semi- enclosed. 
Madeleine  I'Amy  having  pointed  out  to  the  charitable 
Pere  Eudes  *  the  sad  state  of  women  once  fallen,  he 
established  a  Community  to  seek  "  the  lost  sheep  of 
their  Master's  flock."  The  work  was  begun  at  Caen 
in  1646,  and  the  Rule,  founded  on  that  of  the  Visitation, 
was  confirmed  in  1660.  "Our  large  towns"  say  the  Con- 
stitutions drawn  up  by  Pere  Eudes,  "  are  crowded  with 
young  women  who  hate  the  life  of  degradation  in  which 
they  are  plunged,  but  who  are  powerless  to  extricate  them- 
selves from  it."  The  Convent  receives  all:  "Neither 
age  nor  vice  nor  evil  habits  nor  poverty  can  exclude 
them  from  this  haven  of  refuge.  Neither  tlieir  history 
nor  their  form  of  belief  is  asked,  their  misery  and  their 
desire  to  rise  are  the  only  passports  required."  The 
Sisters  take  simple  perpetual  vows,  adding  a  4'?"  "  To 
employ  themselves  in  the  instruction  of  repentant  and 
wronged  girls  and  women."  There  are  two  years'  novi- 
ciate. No  great  austerities  or  fasts  are  practised.  Until 
1835  there  was  no  Generalate ;  but  in  that  year  the 
Angers  house  received  permission  to  establish  one,  and 
since  then  all  its  branches  are  ruled  from  there,  with 
Provincial   Superiors.      In   1854  a   house   for  receiving 

*  See  Eudists,  page  308. 


THE   SISTERS   OF   CHARITY  291 

prisoners  was  opened  at  Vienna :  the  Sisters  have  left  an 
interesting  account  of  their  work  there,  in  charge  of 
160  criminals  whose  turbulence  it  had  been  the  custom 
to  quell  by  calling  in  the  military,  before  the  arrival  of 
the  Sisters.  At  Tripoli  their  work  is  the  rescue  of  women 
slaves  sold  in  the  market.  They  have  also  a  mission  in 
Armenia.  The  Sisters  may  take  charge  of  5  classes : 
(i)  penitents  (2)  prisoners  (3)  reformatory  children 
(4)  preservation  (5)  destitute  orphans.  To  these  must 
be  added  the  class  called  Sainte-Ciermaine,  women  who 
wish  to  remain  for  life,  who  go  through  a  little  ceremony 
of  "  consecration,"  and  wear  a  different  dress.  There 
is  also  the  order  of  Magdalenes,  women  who  elect  to 
stay  as  Religious,  and  who  form  a  separate  Community, 
governed  by  a  Good  Shepherd  nun.  It  is  to  these  that 
the  Sisters  turn  for  their  consolation  ;  they  '•  love  much  "  ; 
they  are  the  crown  and  joy  of  their  labours.  When  we 
consider  that  each  of  these  classes  is  kept  distinct,  and 
that  the  'Preservation'  class  alone  at  Angers  numbers 
some  200  members,  we  may  picture  what  one  of  these 
convents  is.  There  is  a  wash  house  and  laundry,  their 
chief  employment ;  and  a  workroom  :  the  inmates  are 
never  left  alone,  a  Sister  being  always  with  them  while 
they  are  at  work,  and  in  the  dormitory.  The  work  is 
accomplished  in  complete  silence ;  all  are  at  perfect 
liberty  to  walk  out  of  the  house  at  will,  the  doors  being 
unlocked.  The  poor  women  are  called  their  "  children," 
and  they  call  their  preservers  "  Mother."  No  one  can 
see  this  life  of  devotion  without  being  moved. 

In  Rome  they  have  a  house  in  the  Lungara  19,  called  In  Rome. 
'Al  buon  Pastore,'  founded  in  1631  by  Pere  Eudes  ;  and 
two  others  in  Via  S.  Giovanni  in  Laterano  13  and  28, 
where  they  direct  the  Pia  unione  Laufefana  delle  Dame 
Romane,  and  are  hence  themselves  known  as  Lauretane ; 
in  the  one  house  girls  led  astray  who  wish  to  rehabilitate 
themselves,  in  the  other  poor  orphans  are  received. 
The  Sisters  lose  their  own  name  and  take  some  sacred 
or  saint's  name  in  addition  to  '  Mary.'  The  habit  and  Habit, 
scapular  are  white  serge,  a  blue  cord,  and  on  the  breast 


292      CIIRISriAX  AXD   ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 


a  silver  heart  with  the  image  of  the  Pastor  Bonus, 
veil  is  black.* 


The 


The  As- 
sumption. 


Suore  del 

Divino 

Amore. 


Ancelle  del 
Sagro 
Cuore 
di  Gesii. 


The  Congregation  of  the  Assumption  was  founded  in 
1839  by  the  martyred  Archbishop  of  Paris,  Monseigneur 
Affre,  the  object  being  the  perpetual  Adoration.  The 
Rule  is  Augustinian.  The  Sisters  also  give  private  re- 
treats, and  conduct  schools.  The  Mother-house  is  in 
Paris.  They  are  established  at  Kensington  Square  in 
London,  and  at  the  Villa  Spithoever,  Via  delle  Finanze 
in  Rome,  a  French  Congregation  with  a  good  school. f 
The  habit  is  purple,  with  a  large  white  flannel  cross  in 
front ;  an  ample  black  veil  and  a  guimpe  covering  the 
breast.  At  the  Adoration  they  wear  a  large  white  Car- 
melite cloak.  The  Lay  Sisters  wear  a  black  skirt  and 
cape,  the  bodice  blue,  and  a  white  Alsatian  cap. 

The  Sisters  of  the  Divine  Love  are  an  Italian  Congre- 
gation founded  some  time  ago  at  Montefiascone.  They 
have  no  connection  with  the  Missionary  society  of  the 
same  name.  Their  address  is  Via  Mantellate  9,  10  ; 
their  habit  is  a  black  tunic  cut  low  at  the  neck  with 
white  stuff  underneath,  a  black  veil  over  a  bandeau.  J 

The  Handmaids  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus  were 
founded  at  Madrid  in  1877,  and  are  a  Spanish  Congrega- 
tion. They  have  10  houses  in  Spain,  and  one  in  Rome. 
Their  scope  is  "  the  Adoration  of  the  Most  holy  Sacra- 
ment and  gratuitous  instruction."  Address :  Via  S. 
Lorenzo  ai  Monti  16  A.  by  the  church  of  the  name, 
called  S.  Lorenzo  del/a   Chiavica  or  delle  Chiavi  d'oro. 


*  Not  to  be  confused  with  the  Dutch  institution  of  Filks.  dn  Hon 
Pasteur  founded  by  Madame  de  Combe  in  1636,  for  the  same  kind 
of  works.  They  number  some  2700  in  France  alone,  and  are  to 
be  found  in  America,  Canada,  Enoland,  Italy,  and  Bavaria.  The 
Mother-house  is  in  Holland,  and  they  wear  a  brown  habit,  black 
leather  belt,  and  sandals. 

t  These  Sisters  are  about  to  move  to  the  Via  Salaria. 

X  They  are  not  connected  with  the  Polish  'Missionaries  of  the 
Divine  Love.' 


THE   SISTERS    OF  CHARITY 


293 


The  habit  is  a  black  gown  and  cape,  a  frilled  cap,  with 
a  badge  of  the  Sacred  Heart  on  the  breast. 

All  modern  Congregations  with  the  Perpetual  Adora- 
tion afford  a  good  type  of  the  modified  enclosure  adopted 
bv  the  above  Communities.  They  only  go  out  when  a 
journey  has  to  be  made  from  one  House  to  another, 
usually  travelling  in  a  plain  black  dress,  bonnet  and 
shawl ;  they  have  a  parloir  where  visitors  are  received, 
sometimes  several  rooms  devoted  to  this  purpose  ;  and 
they  employ  extern  lay  Sisters. 

The  Congregation  of  the  Immaculate  Conception  of 
Lourdes,  founded  at  that  place  35  years  ago,  received 
ladies  and  pilgrims  there  en  pension,  and  do  the  same  in 
Rome.  They  dress  at  Lourdes  in  blue  with  a  white 
cloak  ;  but  in  Rome,  Via  del  Tritone  61,  they  wear  a  full 
black  dress  and  veil  and  a  very  large  crucifix  attached  tu 
blue  braid.* 


THE  larger  number  of  the  existing  Congregations  enjoy 
a  simple  episcopal  approbation,  and  only  the  better  known 
Sisterhoods,  the  Communities  of  Clerks  Regular,  several 
Ecclesiastical  Congregations  and  a  few  others,  have  their 
confe7-ma  or  confirmation.  Local  communities,  tolerated 
or  approved  by  the  Diocesan,  may  exist  to-day  and  be 
gone  to-morrow ;  and  a  list  complete  to-day,  even  if 
sufficiently  important  to  be  interesting,  would  need 
amendment  the  day  after,  for  new  congregations  are 
always  springing  up. 

The  Congregations  of  women  far  outnumber  those  of 
men  :  moreover  the  dress  of  Clerks  Regular,  Ecclesiasti- 
cal Congregations,  and  lay  Religious  Listitutes  rarely 
differs  from  the  prescribed  priests'  dress  of  the  country. 
But  among  women-  three  types  are  followed  :  with  the 
tact  and  good    sense  common  to   French  women,  the 


Dress  of 
the  active 
Congrega- 
tions of 
women. 


*  This  Community  is  placed  here,  because  though  unenclosed  it 
is  not  one  of  the  active  charitable  Sisterhoods. 


294       CHRISTIAX  AXD   ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 

French  active  Orders  nearly  all  wear  a  simple  stuff  guwn, 
tied  at  the  waist,  and  some  sort  of  starched  cap  :  *  this 
is  the  type  of  the  Filles  de  S'  Vincent  de  Paul.  In 
England  and  Italy,  the  active  Congregations  nearly  all 
don  the  monastic  dress,  scapular,  guimpe,  and  veil.  The 
third  type  is  the  simple  gown  and  cape  with  a  starched 
cap  and  veil,  such  as  is  worn  by  Religious  of  the  Sacred 
Heart.  This  dress  —  gown,  cape  buttoning  in  front  (in 
all  respects  resembling  the  mozzctta),  and  a  little  head 
veil,  is  also  the  usual  costume  of  postulants  of  Orders  f 
and  of  the  lay  or  extern  Sisters  of  Congregations  like 
that  of  Marie  R^paratrice. 

Active  Congregations  of  women  wearing  black  (excluding  Terti- 
aries  and  Oblates),  pp.  255,  259,  262-279,  282-285,  306,  315,  316. 

Wearing  black  and  blue,  pp.  268,  271,  293. 

Wearing  black  and  red,  pp.  266,  270,  277,  305,  312. 

W^earing  f'VY/j',  pp.  254,  257,  268. 

Wearing  hrozun,  pp.  264,  267,  276. 

Wearing  blue,  pp.  250,  266,  278. 

For  P^anciscan  and  Dominican  Tertiaries  and  Augustinian 
Oblates,  see  pp.  155,  175,  177,  246-7. 


SECTION  II.      CLERKS  REGULAR. 

There  are  8  companies  of  Clerks  Regular,  all  of  which 
took  their  rise  in  the  xvi.  or  first  half  of  the  xvii.  century. 
They  are  all  of  Italian  origin,  except  the  Jesuits,  and  all 
except  the  Jesuits  have  their  Mother-house  in  Rome. 
Congregations  of  women,  engaged  in  work  similar  to  that 
of  the  Clerks,  have  been  attached  to  five  of  these  Societies. 

Clerks  Regular  wear  the  priests'  soutane,  tied  with  a 
black  sash,  and  a  small  white  collar  turned  down  over 
the  soutane  coUar.J 

*  Sometimes  a  veil  instead  of  the  cap,  the  type  of  the  Bon 
Secours  de  Troyes.  The  starched  guimpe  is  often  rather  z.  fichu, 
and  is  open  in  front;  sometimes  a  white  handkerchief  is  placed  on 
the  shoulders  instead. 

t  The  men  wear  a  dark  suit,  and  cloak. 

X  The  Jesuits  have  no  special  dress. 


CLERKS  REGULAR  295 


THEATINES. 

Gaetano,  or  Caetano  Tiene,  a  Venetian  patrician,  had   S.  Gaetano 
spent  some  of  his  early  years  in  Rome,  and  afterwards  '^^^"j^ 
served  in  the  hospitals  of  Vicenza  and  Venice.     In  the   Theatines, 
latter  place  he  became  familiar  with  Giampietro  Carafa,   origin  of 

1  •  Clerks 

afterwards  Paul  IV.,  and  at  that  time  Archbishop  of  Regular. 
Chieti  or  Teata.  With  him  he  matured  the  constitution 
of  a  Congregation  of  Clerks  Regular  (1524),  which  was 
approved  by  Clement  VIII.,  and  the  members  of  which 
were  known  as  Theatines  (Teata,  Teafiui).  The  Clerks 
Regular  are  under  the  Rule  of  S.  Augustine,  and  may  be 
parish  priests.  The  scope  of  the  institution  is  the  form- 
ation of  associations  of  pious  and  devoted  priests  who 
live  a  life  in  common,  abjure  all  emoluments,  follow  a 
strict  personal  poverty,  cehbacy,  and  obedience  to  a  Su- 
perior ;  and  endeavour  to  teach  by  the  example  of  a 
good  life.  To  these  general  ends,  each  Institution  has 
added  some  special  end :  thus  the  end  proposed  by 
S.  Gaetano  Tiene,  the  "patriarch"  of  Clerks  Regular, 
was  that  his  followers  should  combat  for  the  faith,  restore 
the  fervour  of  the  laity,  and  the  spirit  of  self  abnegation 
among  Religious,  with  the  love  of  study,  and  reverence  ' 

for  holy  things.  A  revision  of  the  Breviary  was  also 
designed.*  The  Theatine  Clerks  also  attempted,  in  vain, 
to  bring  back  apostolical  poverty  among  the  clergy. 
They  differ  from  all  subsequent  companies  of  Clerks  in  not 
undertaking  School  work.  Gaetano  died  in  1547,  having 
seen  his  Order  spread  throughout  Italy.  (August  7.) 
There  are  Religieuses  Theatines  also. 

Mother-house  and  Procura,  Church  of  S.  Andrea  della 
Valle,  entrance  Via  del  Chiavari  3. 

SOMASCHI. 

Girolamo  Emiliani,  the  friend  of  Gaetano  Tiene,  and  s.  yerome 

like  him  a  Venetian  patrician,  was  born  in  Venice  in  -Emiiian 

1481.     He  fought  in  the  war  which  the  Republic  waged  somaschi. 
*  See  Part  II.,  p.  139. 


296      CHRISTIAN  AXD   ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 

with  Charles  VIII.,  heroically  defended  the  Fort  of  Castel- 
novo  of  which  he  was  in  command,  was  captured,  and 
thrown  into  one  of  the  low  secret  dungeons  of  the  time. 
On  his  return  to  his  own  country,  his  mind  being  filled 
only  with  thoughts  of  charity,  he  attached  himself  to 
Gaetano  Tiene  and  Carafa  "ambo  solenni  Maestri  di 
Virtu  cristiane."  His  mind  was  now  turned  to  ameliorat- 
ing the  lot  of  little  children,  and  he  began  by  filling  his 
own  house  with  orphans,  or  little  ones  abandoned  by  their 
parents.  Here  he  tended  and  educated  them.  In  1528, 
the  year  of  the  great  famine  in  Italy,  Jerome  gave  nearly 
everything  he  possessed  to  alleviate  the  misery ;  assisted 
the  dying,  carrying  them  on  his  shoulders  to  his  palace 
until  that  was  full  to  overflowing,  and  then  to  other  places 
in  the  city.  He  carried  away  himself  those  who  died  in 
the  streets,  buried  them,  and  prayed  over  them.  But 
the  sickness  of  which  they  died  was  contagious,  and 
Jerome  sickened  and  was  at  the  point  of  death.  On 
his  recovery,  he  made  over  to  his  own  orphan  nephews 
what  remained  of  his  property,  and  solemnly  devoted 
himself  to  the  service  of  poor  orphans.  Moved  thereto 
by  Carafa  and  Tiene,  he  eventually  gathered  all  those 
who  had  helped  him  in  Venice  at  Somasca  on  the  banks 
of  the  Adda,  and  gave  them  a  Rule.  The  new  Congre- 
gation was  at  first  called  "  Company  of  the  Servants  of 
the  Poor."  These  first  followers  returned  to  work  each 
at  his  own  home,  but  another  company  formed  round 
S.  Jerome  later.  He  died  in  the  little  grotto  where  he 
lived  close  to  his  home  for  orphans,  in  1537.     (July  20.) 

Mother-house,  S.  Girolamo  della  Carita,*  Via  Mon- 
serrato ;  Procura,  Piazza  Capranica  72,  church  of  S. 
Maria  in  Aquiro,  and  here  they  have  an  orphanage  ; 
S.  Alessio,  Via  di  S.  Sabina ;  and  they  serve  the  R. 
Istituto  of  Deaf-mutes,  the  Blind  Institute  at  S.  Alessio, 
and  the  Collegio-Convitto  Angelo  Mai. 

The  white  collar  of  the  Somaschi  is  very  slightly  turned 
over. 

*S.  Pliilip  Neri's  first  residence.  The  Somaschi  had  S.  Cesareo 
also  ill  ihc  time  of  Clement  VIII. 


CLERKS  REGULAR 


297 


BARXABITES. 

The  Clerks  Regular  of  S.  Paul  Beheaded  (5.  Paolo  S.Antony 
DecoUato),  commonly  called  after  S.  Barnabas  which  fndThT 
was  the  dedication  of  their  first  church,  in  Milano,  were  Barnabites. 
instituted  by  S.  Antonio  Zaccaria  of  Cremona,  with  two 
other  Milanese  nobles.  (1533.)  Zaccaria  who  died  in 
1539,  aged  37,  was  canonised  in  1897.  (July  5.)  The 
first  intention  had  been  to  unite  the  exercise  of  the  usual 
ministerial  functions  with  the  practice  of  the  old  claustral 
Orders ;  but  the  education  of  the  young  gradually 
became  the  real  scope  of  the  Congregation,  especially 
after  the  suppression  of  the  Jesuits,  whose  teaching  func- 
tions were  assumed  by  the  Barnabites  in  the  north  of 
Italy  before  the  rise  of  that  Society.  Later,  these  Clerks 
were  diffused  throughout  Italy  and  France,  and  pene- 
trated to  Germany.  Like  most  of  the  Clerks  Regular 
they  are  governed  by  a  Provost-General.  The  Mother- 
house  is  in  Via  dei  Chiavari  6,  and  the  Procura  at  S.  Carlo 
ai  Catinari  (Via  Tattagiovanni  20  A).  The  dress  is 
that  of  the  Lombard  priests  of  the  xvi.  century ;  a  black 
cassock  and  sash,  the  former  crossed  over  in  front  and 
not  buttoned  •  the  collar  upright. 


THE    SOCIETY    OF   JESUS. 

S.  Ignatius,  a  Spaniard  by  birth,  was  born  in  1491  at  S.Ignatius 
Biscay.  He  was  brought  up  as  a  soldier,  and  it  was  after  Loyola, 
being  wounded  in  1521  at  Pampeluna,  that  the  "Lives 
of  the  Saints  "  which  he  read  during  his  long  convales- 
cence, determined  him  to  begin  a  new  life.  He  saw  that 
the  saint  was  the  true  hero,  the  ideal  complete  man. 
Making  his  confession  to  a  Benedictine  of  Monserrato,  he 
retired  to  the  cave  of  Manresa. 

It  is  here  that  he  projected  "  the  Spiritual  Exercises," 
the  only  work  of  the  kind  that  had  ever  been  attempted. 
In  these  exercises  Ignatius  applies  all  the  faculties  of  the 
soul  to  the  concepts  of  religion ;  the  intelligence,  as  well 
as  the  affections  and  the  will,  are  each  to  undergo  a  dis- 


The"  Exer- 
cises." 


298       CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 


The  Con 

stitutions 
or  Rule. 


cipline,  are  each  to  be  exercised  in  order  to  appreciate 
'  the  beauty  of  hoHness.'  He  considered  that  no  one 
could  pass  through  this  course  of  meditation  and  reflec- 
tion, which  in  its  full  extent  was  calculated  to  occupy  a 
month,  without  being  moved  to  amend  his  life.  At 
Manresa  S.  Ignatius  formed  the  idea  of  an  Order  to 
preach  and  preserve  Catholicism  ;  and  he  prepared  to 
become  a  priest.  In  1534,  being  still  a  layman,  he  con- 
ducted a  retreat  for  his  companions,  using  the  "  Exer- 
cises." They  all  took  the  vow  of  the  new  society  on  the 
feast  of  the  Assumption  :  to  renounce  the  world,  and  to 
preach  the  Gospel  in  Palestine  within  a  year  after  their 
studies,  or  if  not,  to  offer  their  services  to  the  pope.  It 
was  at  the  moment  when  Europe  was  torn  by  the  Reforma- 
tion that  this  disciplined  company  offered  itself  to  Paul 
III.  and  that  Ignatius  framed  his  "  Constitutions." 

The  Jesuit  exists  not  only  for  his  own  sanctification  but 
for  that  of  his  neighbour.  For  this  end  he  goes  from 
place  to  place,  leading  the  life  of  those  about  him.  He 
himself  is  bound  to  absolute  chastity,  to  a  poverty  which 
prohibits  the  possession  of  any  objects  of  value,  and  the 
constant  preference  of  meaner  things  to  richer.  Thirdly, 
Obedience,  he  is  bound  to  obedience,  which  is  valued  as  the  highest 
expression  of  religious  virtue,  and  differs  from  previous 
monastic  obedience  because  the  latter  had  always  been 
an  obedience  ad  hoc,  regulated,  more  or  less,  by  the 
claims  of  community  life.  The  Jesuit's  obedience 
reaches  every  moment  of  the  day,  and  claims  even  the 
interior  adhesion  of  the  judgment  and  will  to  what  is 
enjoined.  A  penance  imposed  for  a  fault  not  committed 
must  be  performed  without  pointing  out  the  mistake  ;  and 
Ignatius  sums  the  subjection  demanded  in  the  famous 
parallel  '  as  though  he  were  a  corpse  or  a  stick  to  be 
moved  by  another.' 

The  Jesuit  is  to  dress  as  other  priests  in  the  place 
where  he  resides,  to  keep  no  fasts  but  those  of  the  Uni- 
versal Church,  to  be  bound  to  no  austerities  but  such  as 
his  Superiors  may  impose  for  his  own  advancement.  Nor 
is  he  bound  to  the  recitation  of  the  Divine  Office,  which 


CLERKS   REGULAR 


299 


he  only  recites  as  a  priest.  He  must  eschew  all  exaggera- 
tion, pretentiousness,  affectation,  pride,  adulation  and  face- 
tiousness,  in  preaching  and  in  society,  showing  respect 
for  those  he  is  with,  and  a  religious  maturity  ;  rules  so  well 
kept  that  it  may  safely  be  said  a  Jesuit  may  be  known  by 
them. 

Jesuits  are  divided  into:  {a)  temporal  coadjutors,  or 
lay  brethren  (b)  Scholastics  ^c)  Spiritual  coadjutors 
{d)  Professed  fathers.  The  first  are  the  servants  of  the 
Domiis  or  Jesuit  house  ;  they  are  not  to  be  taught  any 
more  than  they  know  when  entering,  and  if  ignorant  of 
reading  and  writing  they  are  to  remain  so.  'I'he  second 
are  young  men  studying,  or  teaching  in  the  colleges. 
Nearly  all  become  in  time  priests.  The  third  are  priests 
who  take  the  3  final  vows.  The  fourth  are  priests  who 
take  the  4'!' Jesuit  vow  of  '  special  obedience  to  the  pope,' 
binding  them  to  go  wherever  he  sends  them.  The  novi- 
ciate lasts  2  years,  at  the  end  of  which  the  classes  {a)  and 
{b)  take  the  3  simple  vows.  The  final,  or  solemn,  vows  * 
of  class  {c)  are  taken  after  ordination,  that  is  after  a 
period  varying  from  11  to  16  years  since  entering  the 
Order.  These  final  vows  are  not,  as  a  rule,  taken  before 
a  man  completes  33  years.  The  vow  runs  :  "  Almighty 
Everlasting  God  IN...  moved  by  the  desire  to  serve 
Thee,  vow  before  the  most  sacred  Virgin  Mary  ...  to 
Thy  Divine  Majesty,  perpetual  poverty,  chastity,  and 
obedience  in  the  Society  of  Jesus,  and  promise  that  I  will 
enter  into  the  same  Society  for  ever  to  lead  my  life 
therein,  understanding  all  things  according  to  the  Con- 
stitutions of  the  same  Society." 

The  Order  is  ruled  absolutely  by  a  General  elected  for 
life.  Each  house  is  governed  by  a  Rector,  under  whom 
is  a  Minister,  and  under  him  is  a  Sub-Minister  "  the 
instrument  of  the  Minister  and  of  the  other  Superiors." 
He  is  the  superior  of  such  as  are  not  priests,  and  reports 
on  all  things  to  the  Minister  or  Rector.  The  chief  work 
of  the   Jesuit  is   the  hearing  of  confessions.     They  are 

*  The  Jesuits  wished  to  take  simple  vows,  the  complaints  of  the 
old  Orders  led  to  the  adoption  of  solemn. 


4  classes. 


Form  of 
the  Vow. 


Promise  to 
enter  the 
Society. 


Govern- 
ment. 


Special 
work  of  the 
Jesuit. 


:!00       CIIKJSTIAX  AXD   ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 


Rules  as 
Missioners. 


Originality 
of  the  Rule. 


As  it  affects 
the  Jesuit. 


bidden  to  go  with  alacrity  into  the  church  when  called, 
to  be  expeditious  in  hearing  them,  and  not  to  talk  of  any- 
thing impertinent  to  the  confession.  They  may  not 
undertake  the  direction  of  convents,  whether  of  men  or 
women.  Nor  are  they  to  undertake  the  correction  of 
Religious  or  of  the  manners  of  priests ;  their  field  is  the 
lay  world,  and  the  Rule  supplies  many  directions  regard- 
ing that  missionary  work  which  is  the  Jesuit's  other 
activity.  Thus,  want  and  injury  are  to  be  borne  with 
thanksgiving ;  the  Jesuit  is  to  be  superior  to  success  and 
adversity,  preserving  his  holy  liberty.  He  is  to  pray  for 
those  ill  affected  to  the  work,  and  also  try  to  give  them 
reasons,  and  satisfy  them  with  modesty,  as  pleading  the 
cause  of  Christ,  not  his  own.  Jesuits  are  not  to  take 
political  sides,  to  prefer  one  nation  to  another,  to  engage 
or  interfere  in  temporal  business.  No  money  is  to  be 
received  for  masses  or  confessions,*  No  honours  are  to 
be  accepted,  no  preferment  sought,  not  even  within  the 
Order  itself.  Hence  Jesuits  do  not  hold  canonries,  or 
accept  bishoprics,  prelacies,  or  the  cardinalate,  unless 
ordered  to  do  so  by  the  pope.  That  is,  they  hold  no 
office  except  as  priests. 

Though  the  Rule  does  not  rank  among  the  4  great 
Rules,  and  types  of  the  religious  life,  approved  by  the 
Church,  it  is  nevertheless  not  only  a  new  rule  but  differs 
from  all  its  predecessors,  as  an  interior  rule  entirely  con- 
cerned with  the  discipline  of  the  spirit.  If  all  others 
imply  this,  the  Rule  of  Ignatius  is  nothing  else.  But  the 
mainspring  by  which  this  interior  machinery  is  to  work 
is  not  interior  but  exterior,  the  religious  obedience  and 
subjection  of  the  will  are  to  be  obtained  and  preserved 
by  external  devices  —  obedience  is  to  substitute  for  clois- 
ter. Office,  habit,  austerities,  but  obedience  is  attained 
by  confession  and  the  '  manifestation  of  conscience.'     The 


*This  absolute  prohil)ition  by  S.  Ignatius,  the  horror  of  the  ]5rac- 
tice  shown  by  S.  Philip  Neri,  the  refusal  of  payment  by  the  Cure 
d'Ars,  and  the  rules  of  the  Sulpicians  are  sufficient  evidence  that 
the  latter  practice  was  the  custom  in  the  xvi'!'  ant!  prevailed  to  the 
present  century. 


CLERK'S  REGULAR 


Rule  begins  by  directions  for  the  former,  and  to  no  sub- 
ject is  there  such  frequent  recurrence.  It  becomes,  in 
the  Saint's  hands,  a  discipHnary  weapon  rather  than  a 
sacrament,  an  instrument  of  annihilation  rather  than  an 
expression  of  voluntariness.  Should  the  Jesuit  confess, 
in  his  absence,  to  another  than  his  appointed  confessor, 
he  must  repeat  the  confession.  The  confession  must  be 
made  every  8'^  day,  at  least.  It  is  not  limited  to  sins 
committed,  but  includes  the  'state  of  his  conscience.' 
He  must,  besides,  make  known  periodically  to  a  priest 
appointed  by  his  superior  his  whole  state  of  mind,  every 
temptation,  every  thought  about  his  vocation  and  his 
superiors,  according  to  a  scheme  of  14  questions  pro- 
pounded to  him.  Added  to  this  each  Jesuit  is  reported 
on  by  others,  and  each  is  accompanied  everywhere  by  a 
socius,  a  '  witness,'  who  notes  his  deportment,  his  defects 
and  mistakes,  and  reports  them  to  the  superior.* 

No  event  since  the  '  flight  to  the  desert '  has  so  affected 
the  interior  life  of  Christians  as  the  rise  of  this  Order. 
The  Ignatian  rule  was  swiftly  applied  to  individuals  out- 
side it  through  the  instrumentality  of  Jesuit  confessors. 
From  then  dates  direction,  from  then  the  Catholic  prac- 
tice of  the  Retreat,  from  then  an  obedience,  intended  for 
the  monastic  state,  invaded  the  ranks  of  the  laity.  And 
lastly  a  new  fashion  of  piety  arose,  and  is  chiefly  the  work 
of  the  Jesuits  —  being  on  its  beautiful  side  that  deepen- 
ing of  the  intimate  religious  life  which  has  always  been 
characteristic  of  the  Western,  and  Roman,  Church  as 
contrasted  with  the  Eastern,  and  on  its  meaner  side  that 
multiplication  of  little  '  devotions,'  which  in  the  case  of 
the  many  do  duty  for  the  sustained  interior  life  proposed 
by  Ignatius.  It  is  these  distortions  of  Christian  sentiment 
and  practice,  this  strained  and  flowery  religion,  which  has 
ahenated  French  intelligence  from  the  Church.  For  the 
spirit  of  the  Jesuit  Rule,  itself  in  part  the  outcome  of  bad 
days,  has  been  interpreted  by  jieriods  so  inferior  as  the 
XVII.  and  xviii.  centuries,  periods  which  have  witnessed 


As  it  affects 
the  world 
outside. 


*  This  rule  has  to  be  modified  in  some  countries. 


302       CNR  IS  r TAX  AXD   ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 


Suppres- 
sion of  the 
Jesuits. 


Saints  of 
tne  Order. 


the  lowest  depths  of  Christian  sentiment  —  which  without 
intellectual  distinction  or  spiritual  elevation,  or  sufificient 
reality  to  save  them  from  a  hopeless  falsity  of  sentiment, 
developed  within  the  Church  the  views  of  the  Catholic 
Reaction,  and  did  so  much  to  spoil  religion  elsewhere. 

In  the  xviii.  century,  many  charges  were  brought 
against  the  Jesuits  ;  they  were  expelled  from  all  Catholic 
countries,  and  the  Order  was  utterly  suppressed  by  Clem- 
ent XIV.  in  1773.  Among  the  charges  brought  against 
them  were  disobedience  to  the  Holy  See  and  laxity  of 
morals  as  directors  of  conscience.  Pius  VII.  in  1814 
restored  the  Order,  but  other  popes  including  Pius  IX. 
refused  to  restore  all  its  privileges.  This  has  been  prac- 
tically done  by  Leo  XIII.  The  late  Pope  however 
wished  them  to  wait,  saying  "  in  my  countries  they  are 
not  willing  to  tolerate  you."  S.  Ignatius  himself  said  : 
"The  Society  shall  adapt  itself  to  the  times  and  not  the 
times  to  the  Society."  In  the  xvii.  century  the  Jesuits 
had  their  famous  controversy  with  the  Jansenists,  rendered 
immortal  by  Pascal's  "  Lettres  Provinciales."  Joubert 
has  said  "  The  Jansenist  tells  us  we  ought  to  love  God, 
the  Jesuit  makes  us  love  Him." 

x\t  the  time  of  the  suppression  the  Order  numbered 
some  20,000  members;  it  now  numbers  about  15,000. 
Its  great  saints  have  been  Francis  Xavier  and  Francis 
Borgia,  both  contemporaries  of  the  Founder ;  Louis 
Gonzaga  (1568-1591.  Canonised  1726).  {June  21.) 
Stanislaus  Kotska  (15  72-1 589.  Canonised  1727). 
{November  ij.)  Peter  Claver  ( 1580-1650) ,  Francis  Regis 
{\t^C)']-\6/^o),JohnBerchmans  (1599-1621)  {Aug.  ij). 
Xavier  was  the  apostle  of  India,  the  first  of  the  line  of 
Jesuit  Missionaries  who,  in  China  and  Japan  especially, 
have  penetrated  places  where  no  European  had  trodden, 
their  lives  in  their  hands  :  the  7  Jesuit  Martyrs  crucified 
in  Japan  are  sometimes  represented  in  pictures.  Borgia, 
Duke  of  Gandia  and  grandee  of  Spain,  succeeded  Laynez 
as  General  of  the  Order,  and  perfected  Ignatius'  scheme 
of  education  :  he  refused  to  the  last  to  sanction  the  In- 
quisition, doubtless  in  this  following  the  mind  of  Ignatius. 


CLERKS  REGULAR  303 

Peter  Clave r,  a  Spanish  gentleman  of  Catalonia  spent  his 
life  among  the  slaves  in  America  and  Carthagena,  and 
called  himself  ^thioptun  sennis,  the  slave  of  the  Blacks. 
Francis  Regis,  born  at  Narbonne,  spent  his  life  as  a  mis- 
sionary in  France ;  he  was  canonised  in  1 704. 

Ignatius  is  represented  in  a  chasuble,  usually  red,  and  Jesuits 
with  the  book  of  the  Rule  on  which  is  written  "Ad  in  Art. 
Majorem  Dei  Gloriam  "  (A.  M.  D.  G.)  'to  the  greater 
glory  of  God  '  —  the  motto  of  the  Society.  He  has  a 
short  beard  and  commanding  presence.  (July  31.) 
Francis  Xavier  is  in  a  surplice,  with  a  crucifix  or  lily, 
sometimes  the  Martyrs  of  Japan  are  behind  him  holding 
palms.  (December  3.)  Francis  Borgia  in  the  Jesuit 
habit ;  the  face  long  and  thin,  with  an  aquiline  nose,  his 
proper  emblem  should  be  a  skull  with  a  diadem  on  it. 
(October  10  or  11.)  Kotska  caresses  the  infant  Christ, 
and  Gonzaga  has  a  lily ;  both  habited  as  Jesuits.  In  Art 
Jesuits  are  represented  in  a  flowing  black  soutane  with 
a  stiff  collar ;  but  the  Society  recognises  no  distinctive 
dress  :  in  England  however  they  wear  a  sleeveless  black 
gown  in  church ;  and  in  Rome  they  wear  the  clerk's 
soutane  and  sash. 

The  CoUegio  Romano  and  church  of  S.  Ignatius,  the  in  Rome. 
Gesi!i,  S.  Andrea  al  Quirinale,  and  S.  Vitale  all  belonged 
to  the  Jesuits  —  the  Gesu  is  still  in  their  charge,  and 
S.  Andrea  al  Quirinale  is  the  present  Noviciate.  They 
have  also  houses  at  Borgo  S.  Spirito  12,  Via  Gioacchino 
Belli  3,  the  Instituto  Massimo,  alle  Terme,  the  Seminary 
Via  S.  Nicola  da  Tolentino  8  (moved  from  S.  Machuto 
Via  S.  Ignazio)  ;  Via  della  Ripetta,  Palazzo  della  "  Civilta 
Cattolica,"  of  which  paper  the  Jesuits  are  editors.  The 
Pontifical  Gregorian  University  which  they  used  to  direct 
at  the  Collegio  Romano,  has  now  its  seat  in  Via  del 
Seminario  120.  It  was  founded  by  Gregory  XIII.  in 
1582,  and  is  frequented  by  more  than  1000  youths  of 
different  nationalities.  The  Procura  of  the  Society  is 
here,  the  Mother-house  being  at  Fiesole,  Florence. 

The  well-known  device  of  the  Jesuits,  I.  H.  S.,  popularly   Device. 
said  to  mean  Jesus  Honiinutn  Salvator,  is  in  reality  the 


304      CHRISTIAN  AND   ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 

three  first  letters,  or  root,  of  the  Holy  Name,  IH2-OY2, 
Jesus.  It  was  first  adopted  by  the  Franciscan  S.  Ber- 
nardino of  Siena,  who  had  the  holy  Name  painted  in  a 
gold  glory,  and  would  show  it  to  the  people  after  his 
sermons.  This  tablet  still  exists  at  Siena. 
Bollan-  The  Bollandists,  as  the  historians  of  the  Acta  Sa?ictoruin 

dists.  or  lives  of  the  saints  are  called,  after  their  founder  Bollan- 

dus  in  the  xvii.  century,  are  always  6  Belgian  Jesuits. 

MINISTERS   OF   THE   INFIRINI   (^CamiUilli). 

s.Camiiius  S.  Camillus  of  Lellis  in  the  Abruzzi  founded  his  Order 
of  Leiiis  j,i  the  tji-iie  of  Sixtus  V.  In  youth  he  had  suffered  greatly 
Ministers  from  bodily  pain,  and  knew  the  misery  that  poverty  adds 
of  the  to  sickness,  and  the  evils  that  had  to  be  endured  in  the 

Infirm.  l-iosi)itals  of  those  days.  In  his  mature  years  he  gave 
himself  wholly  to  the  care  of  the  sick  and  founded  the 
Clerks  Regular  Ministers  of  the  Infirm,  for  their  assist- 
ance. No  disease  repelled  him,  no  human  affliction  but 
received  his  tender  service  ;  and  with  this  he  joined  a 
great  gift  for  soothing  the  last  hours  of  those  about  to 
die,  and  it  was  in  order  to  help  them  more  effectually 
that  he  was  not  ashamed  when  he  was  32  years  old  to 
join  a  class  of  little  boys,  and  learn  the  elements  among 
them,  in  order  to  prepare  himself  to  become  a  priest. 

S.  Philip  Neri  used  to  go  to  confession  to  him.  Camil- 
lus, says  the  Breviary,  saw  Christ  in  the  sick,  and  with  a 
glad  and  prompt  spirit  served  them.  He  who  had  known 
so  well  how  to  comfort  the  dying  breathed  his  last  as 
these  words  of  the  Commendation  of  the  dying  were 
being  said  :  "  May  the  countenance  of  Jesus  Christ  ap- 
pear to  thee  benign  and  festive,"  Mitis  atqiie  festivus 
Christi  Jcsii  tibi  adspectus  apparcat.  He  died  in  Rome 
in  1614,  aged  65,  and  was  canonised  by  Benedict  XIV. 
(July  18.) 
In  Rome.  A  4'^  VOW  obliges  his  sons  to  tend  the  sick.     The 

Mother-house  is  at  the  Church  of  S.  Maria  Maddalena ; 
other  churches  are  :  SB.  Vincenzo  e  Anastasio  by  the 
Trevi  fountain ;  S.  Giovannino  della  Malva,  Via  di  Ponte 


CLERKS  REGULAR 


305 


Sisto  75  ;  and  the  little  branch  chapel  of  the  parish  of 
SS.  Vincenzo  and  Anastasio  in  Via  Veneto,  dedicated  to 
S.  Camillo.     They  also  serve  the  Lateran  Hospital. 

These  Clerks  wear  a  red  flannel  cross  on  the  breast  of 
the  soutane. 

The  Congregation  of  Daughters  of  S.  Camillo,  called 
Camilline  founded  long  ago,  became  extinct  during  the 
last  plague  in  Barcelona,  a  special  obligation  of  their 
Rule  being  to  nurse  in  cases  of  plague.  Seven  years 
ago  they  were  restored  in  Rome.  Address  :  Via  Giusti  7, 
where  they  render  free  assistance  to  sick  women,  and 
have  a  pension  for  the  sick  or  chronically  invalided. 
Habit  black,  over  a  white  linen  tunic  which  shows  at  the 
sleeve  ;  veil,  guirape,  and  bandeau.  A  red  flannel  cross 
like  the  Camillini,  and  a  rosary. 


Figlie  di 
S. Camillo. 


CLERKS    MINOR. 

The  Clerks  Minor  ( Cliierici  Minori)  were  instituted   S.  Francis 
in  Naples  by  S.  Francesco  Caracciolo  of  the  noble  family   Caraccioio 
of  that  name,  in  the  pontificate  of  Sixtus  V.  who  con-   cierks 
firmed  the  Rule.     The  founder  died  in  1608,  aged  44;   Minor, 
and  was  beatified  by  Clement  XIV.  and  canonised  in  1807. 
(June  4.)     The  object  of  the  institution  was  the  adora- 
tion of  Jesus  Christ  in  the  Sacrament.     A  4"*  vow  binds 
the  members  not  to  seek  dignities.     The  Mother-house 
is  at  the  Church  of  S.  Lorenzo  in  Lucina. 


CLERKS    REGULAR    OF    PIOUS    SCHOOLS    {ScolopH) . 

S.  Giuseppe  Calasanzio,  a  native  of  Aragon  in  Spain,    S.Joseph 
and  a  contemporarv  of  S.  Camillus  whom  he  assisted  in   ^^lasanc- 

r     1  •    1  1         1  1  T^  'lus  and 

the  care  of  those  stricken  by  the  plague,  came  to  Rome  the  Pious 
in  1592.  He  was  already  a  priest,  and  had  spent  eight  Schools, 
years  in  fervent  preaching.  Later  in  hfe  he  founded  the 
Congregation  entitled  Fathers  of  the  Scuola  Pia,  cor- 
rupted in  Italy  into  Scolopii.  S.  Joseph  had  desired  all 
his  life  to  do  something  for  the  training  of  the  young  : 
his  Order  is  specially  intended  for  the  education  of  the 


3o6      CHRISTIAN  AND   ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 


Suore 

Calasan- 

ziane. 


sons  of  the  people,  and  its  object  is  to  supply  them  with 
all  that  can  develop  the  intelligence  and  character.  After 
50  years  of  opposition  and  persecution,  deposed  from  the 
Generalship  of  his  own  Order  and  an  object  of  general 
vituperation,  S.  Joseph  Calasanctius  died  on  August  25, 
1648,  prophesying  the  spread  of  his  work,  which  is  now 
popular  throughout  Italy. 

Mother-house,  Via  della  Posta  Vecchia  31,  by  the 
church  of  S.  Pantaleo ;  Procura,  Via  del  Nazzareno, 
where  the  Fathers  have  the  Nobile  Collc^io  Nazzareno ; 
church  of  S.  Lorenzo  in  piscibus,  Piazza  Rusticucci  ; 
CoHegio  Calasanzio,  Via  Toscana  12  (elementary  school, 
first  Ginnasio  classes,  and  half  board,  gratuitous). 

The  Calasanziane  Sisiers  of  the  Sciiole  Pie  were 
founded  in  Rome  in  1885,  and  are  a  Third  Order  of  the 
above  institution  ;  with  the  same  scope,  i.e.  the  education 
and  instruction  of  children  (girls) .  Address  :  Via  Cavallini 
38,  corner  of  V.  Pietro  Cossa.  Habit  scapular  and  veil 
black,  the  tunic  tied  with  a  sash  like  the  Scolopii ;  the 
frill  of  the  coif  projects,  and  a  little  frill  takes  the  place 
of  a  guimpe.  Round  the  neck  the  badge  of  the  Institute, 
an  M,  attached  to  a  long  chain.  The  neatly  kept  school- 
children wear  the  same  badge  at  the  throat. 


B. John 
Leonard!. 


REGULAR  CLERKS  OF  THE   MOTHER  OF  GOD  {Madre  di  Dio)  . 

The  Clerks  of  the  Madre  di  Dio  were  founded  by 
Blessed  Giovanni  Leonardi  of  Lucca  in  1574,  and  were 
for  some  time  united  with  the  Scolopii.  Scope  :  Missions 
and  Schools. 

The  Mother-house  and  Procura  are  at  the  Church  of 
S.  Maria  in  Campitelli  in  the  piazza  of  that  name.  The 
collar  is  turned  over  slightly,  and  they  have  a  rosary  sus- 
pended from  the  sash. 


ECCLESIASTICAL  CONGREGATIONS. 

Ecclesiastical  Congregations  are  congregations  of  secu- 
lar priests  instituted  in  the  last  3  centuries  for  the  pur- 


CLERKS  REGULAR  307 

pose  of  forming  good  and  devoted  clergy,  and  generally 
with  some  special  work  as  their  scope.  They  have  a 
simple  papal  approbation,  but  not  the  Conferma,  as  in 
the  case  of  Clerks  Regular.  They  have  been  instituted 
almost  exclusively  by  two  nations,  the  French  and  Italian  ; 
a  Sisterhood  is  attached  to  most  of  them,  and  nearly  all 
are  engaged  in  missionary  work.  Only  two  of  these 
Congregations  wear  a  Religious  habit  —  the  Passionists 
and  the  Algerian  Missioners  ;  ordinary  priest's  dress  is 
worn  by  all  the  others. 

There  are  t^6  recognised  Ecclesiastical  Congregations, 
30  of  which  are  represented  in  Rome.  They  take  pre- 
cedence according  to  the  date  of  approbation,  but  are 
here  described  according  to  date  oi  foundation. 

THE  PEE-s  DE  LA  DOCTRINE  cHEETEENNE,  Called  Doctrinaires 
{Dottrinari)  were  founded  at  Avignon  by  the  Ven. 
Cesar  de  Bus  in  1592  (approved  1597),  for  the  education 
of  boys.  The  Bull  of  Pius  V.  ordering  the  establishment 
of  catechist  classes  of  Christian  doctrine  in  every  parish 
gave  the  idea  to  C^sar  de  Bus  of  a  permanent  Congrega- 
tion of  Catechists  for  boys.  This  is  a  xtxy  well  known 
and  active  Congregation.  The  Mother-house  is  at  the 
parish  Church  of  S.  Maria  in  Monticelli  and  they  have 
a  second  house  in  Via  della  Lungaretta,  church  of  S. 
Agata.  Dress,  a  cloak  over  the  cassock,  and  a  rosary  in 
the  sash. 

There  are  also  Soeurs  de  la  Doctrine  Chretienne,  called   Vateioties. 
Vatelottes,  after  their  founder  Jean  Vatelot,  instituted  in 
1 700  to  serve  the  poor  and  ignorant ;  but  they  have  no 
house  in  Rome. 

suLPiciANS:  Thc  Congregation  of  S.  Sulpice  was  founded 
by  M.  Olier  (1608-165 7).  The  Council  of  Trent  had 
ordered  the  establishment  of  ecclesiastical  Seminaries, 
but  none  had  been  permanently  instituted*  until  M.  Olier 

*The  Seminary  for  Foreign  Missions  was  established  in  the 
parish  of  S.  Sulpice  a  few  years  after  M.  Olier's  death.  No  effect 
had  been  given  to  the  decree  of  the  Council  in  France  for  80  years  ; 
and  the  College  des  Bans  F.ufants,  founded  by  the  Archbishop  of 
Paris  and  directed  by  S.  Vincent  de  Paul,  failed. 


3o8      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 

founded  his  Congregation  of  priests  for  the  following 
objects:  (i)  the  instruction  and  reformation  of  the 
people,  high  and  low  (2)  the  introduction  of  the  highest 
Christian  maxims  into  the  Schools  of  the  Sorbonne,  by 
means  of  Seminarists  who  should  there  proceed  to 
the  Doctorate  (3)  the  formation  of  young  ecclesiastics 
for  all  sacretl  functions.  The  care  of  S.  Sulpice,  in  a 
faubourg  of  Paris  was  given  to  M.  Olier  in  1643,  and 
hence  the  name.  Among  the  rules  was  a  prohibition  to 
take  fees  for  administering  the  Viaticum  or  for  hearing 
confessions.  No  priest  was  to  be  exempt  from  the  lowest 
duties,  as  carrying  the  cross  at  funerals,  ringing  the  bell 
before  the  Sacrament  (which  was  always  to  be  done  by  a 
priest),  and  accompanying  the  sacred  minister  to  give 
extreme  unction.  Their  method  of  meditation  is  that 
adopted  by  all  who  do  not  use  the  Ignatian  method,  and 
consists  in  exercises  of  the  will ;  they  hold  like  the 
Fathers  of  the  Desert,  that  for  the  converted  acts  of  the 
reason  are  no  longer  necessary  :  nor  is  there  any  *  com- 
position of  place '  as  with  Ignatius.  The  Sulpicians 
recite  publicly  the  Canonical  Hours.  Their  proper  style 
is  simply  Monsieur.  The  Procura  in  Rome  is  in  Via 
Quattro  Fontane  113,  where  they  direct  the  French 
Canadian  Seminary. 

EUDisTS:  The  Congregation  of  Jesus  and  Mary  was 
founded  by  the  priest  Jean  Eudes,  an  Oratorian,  in  1643 
at  Caen  (page  290).  Its  object  is  the  formation  of 
missionaries  and  good  priests ;  the  institution  resembles 
the  Sulpician.  Rome  :  Via  S.  Giovanni  in  Laterano  130. 
Dress,  soutane  with  long  turned-back  cuffs,  a  wide  sash, 
and  large  cloak.  In  the  house  they  also  wear  a  Heart  on 
the  breast. 

THE  pii  oPERAi,  or  Pious  Labourers,  is  an  institute  founded 
by  Carlo  Carafa  S.  J.  in  1689  at  Naples.  He  wished  to  name 
it  *  DottrinaCristiana,'  but  the  operosity  which  distinguished 
it  induced  the  Cardinal  who  examined  its  Constitutions 
to  entitle  the  new  Association  the  Pious  Labourers.  The 
object  proposed  was  to  comfort  the  condemned,  and  to 
save  women  of  evil  life  :  they  are  a  Missionary  Congre- 


CLERKS  REGULAR  309 

gation.  Carafa  had  to  wait  till  the  death  of  Clement 
VIII.,  for  Paul  V.  to  commend  and  Gregory  XV.  to 
e-itiblish  his  institute.  The  church  of  S.  Balbina  was 
originally  given  them  by  the  Chapter  of  S.  Peter's.  The 
Pii  Operai,  like  the  Sulpicians,  are  a  small  company  ;  no 
vows  were  to  be  taken,  but  the  life  prescribed  is  strict. 
They  wear  no  linen,  sleep  on  a  palliasse,  and  observe  a 
severe  poverty.  Like  the  Jesuits,  nothing  with  them  is 
kept  under  lock  and  key.  They  make  3  yearly  Lents, 
and  rise  at  night  for  Matins.  They  are  governed  by  a 
General,  with  a  Rector  at  the  head  of  each  house.  Dress, 
a  black  cassock,  collar  like  the  Somaschi,  black  sash  and 
rosary,  and  a  cloak.  There  are  no  Sisters  of  this  Con- 
gregation. Procura  Via  della  Lungara  45  (church  of 
S.  Giuseppe). 

SOCIETE  POUR   LES  MISSIONS    ETRANGERES    DE    PARIS     (MissionS     of 

France).  This  important  and  far-reaching  Association 
was  formed  at  the  instigation  of  the  Society  of  Jesus  and 
under  the  direction  of  Innocent  X.,  with  funds  furnished 
by  the  Dames  de  la  Charite  of  S!  Vincent  de  Paul,  in 
1649.  I'^s  work  is  the  formation  of  indigenous  priests 
and  an  indigenous  hierarchy,  especially  in  Japan,  China, 
and  the  Indies.  The  members  are  exclusively  French. 
Procura  Via  di  S.  Susanna  9.  (Mother-house  and 
Noviciate,  rue  du  Bac,  Paris.) 

MISSIONERS  OF  THE  HOLY  SPIRIT  AND  IMMACULATE    HEART  OF   MARY: 

the  French  Seminary  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  founded  in  1703 
by  M.  Desplaces  a  disciple  of  Grignon  de  Montfort,  for 
African  missions  and  for  the  conduct  of  Seminaries,  was 
united  by  Pere  Libermann  in  1842  to  the  Congregation 
of  the  Immaculate  Heart  of  Mary.  These  now  form  one 
Society  for  the  same  objects  as  the  older  institution. 
They  conduct  the  colonial  Seminary  in  Paris,  rue  Lhomond, 
and  the  French  Seminary  in  Rome.*  The  Community 
numbers  over  1000.  Procura  Via  di  S.  Chiara  42  (French 
Seminary)  with  the  private  chapel  of  S.  Chiara. 

PAssioNisTa :  this  which  is  one  of  the  best  known  Ecclesi- 

*  See  Part  I\'.,  p.  496, 


3IO      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 

astical  Congregations,  bears  the  impress  of  its  lioly  founder 
S.  Paul  of  the  Cross  (nat.  1694,  ob.  1775).*  'Hie  Con- 
gregation of  the  Passion  was  projected  in  1720,  but 
ecclesiastical  sanction  was  long  withheld.  S.  Paul  of  the 
Cross  in  whom  burnt  two  fires,  the  desire  to  call  sinners 
to  repentance  and  a  tender  and  constant  memory  of 
Christ's  Passion,  bound  on  his  followers  a  4*.*^  vow  "  To 
do  their  utmost  to  keep  alive  in  the  hearts  of  the  faithful 
the  memory  of  the  Lord's  Passion."  The  Society  con- 
sists of  priests  and  lay  brethren  ;  simple  vows  are  taken, 
but  a  vow  of  perseverance  in  the  Congregation  is  made 
on  the  day  of  final  profession.  They  rise  for  Matins  at 
night,  fast  three  days  in  the  week  and  throughout  Advent 
and  Lent,  and  occupy  themselves  in  Missions  and  Retreats, 
especially  for  persons  living  in  Community.  This  Con- 
gregation has  also  charge  of  those  Bulgarian  and  Rou- 
manian Catholics  who  adhere  to  the  Latin  Rite.  They 
are  to  be  found  in  Italy,  France,  and  Belgium,  and  have 
penetrated  to  New  South  Wales.  The  Passionists  went 
to  England  in  1843,  '^l'"^  conversion  of  this  country  being 
one  of  the  designs  of  the  founder,  and  it  was  an  English 
Passionist  who  received  Newman  into  the  Church.  They 
arrived  in  America  in  1852.  Clement  XIV.  conferred 
on  them  the  church  of  SS.  ( jiovanni  e  Paolo ;  and 
Pius  IX.  left  his  private  library  to  the  Roman  Passionists. 
Mother-house  and  Prociira,  church  of  SS.  Giovanni  and 
Paolo  on  the  Celian  ;  the  Scala  Santa,  of  which  they 
have  charge.  Their  houses  are  called  Retreats.  Habit, 
black  cassock  and  leathern  belt,  and  a  heavy  black  cloak  ; 
on  breast  and  cloak  (lay  brothers  on  the  tunic  only)  an 
embroidered  heart  surmounted  by  a  cross  with  3  nails 
and  the  words  Jesu  Christi  Passio,  all  in  white.  They 
wear  sandals,  the  usual  priest's  hat,  and  2  Rosaries. t 
There  is  also  an  enclosed  congregation  of  Passionist  nuns 
founded  at  Corneto  by  S.  Paul  of  the  Cross  himself,  with 
the  same  observances  and  habit. 

*  April  28.     In  Art  he  appears  in  the  habit  of  the  Congregation, 
the  ascetic  face  clean  shaven;    a  crucifix  in  his  hand. 
t  See  Part  I.,  p.  243. 


CLERKS  REGULAR  3" 

EEDEMPTORisTs :  Thc  Congregation  of  the  Most  H0I7 
Redeemer  was  founded  in  Rome  by  S.  Alphonsus  Maria 
Liguori  in  i  749.  S.  Alphonsus  was  a  Neapolitan  by  birth, 
and  remarkable  from  boyhood  for  his  piety  and  charity 
and  love  of  study.  Refusing  to  marry,  and  giving  up  the 
right  to  his  family  estates,  he  was  ordained  a  priest,  and 
showed  so  much  charity  in  winning  souls  and  fighting 
vice  that  the  institution  of  the  Redemptorists  was  founded  ; 
a  company  of  priests  who  were  to  follow  their  Master  by 
preaching  the  Gospel  in  fields  and  villages,  by  the  high- 
ways and  hedges.  S.  Alphonsus  preached  in  simple  lan- 
guage, for  Christ,  said  he,  "  who  knew  more  rhetoric  than 
I,"  had  chosen  the  parable.  He  desired  his  priests  to 
write  their  sermons,  and  then  learn  them  by  heart,  a 
{practice  very  commonly  followed  now.  The  new  Con- 
gregation was  approved  by  Benedict  XIV.  (1 749.)  S.  Al- 
phonsus accepted,  in  obedience  to  Clement  XIII.,  the 
Bishopric  of  S.  Agata  dei  Goti  and  the  government  of  that 
church,  but  continued,  under  the  outw-ard  habiliments  of 
his  rank,  to  lead  that  life  of  utmost  simplicity  and  penance 
which  he  loved.  He  suffered  many  trials  being  even 
deposed  from  the  generalship  of  the  Redemptorists,  and 
turned  out  of  the  Congregation,  into  which  however  he 
lived  to  be  restored.  He  died  in  1787,  at  90  years  old; 
was  beatified  in  18 16,  canonised  in  1839,  and  declared  a 
Doctor  of  the  Church  by  Pius  IX.  He  is  best  known  to 
the  outside  world  by  the  zeal  not  devoid  of  extravagance 
with  which  he  wrote  of  Mary,  and  by  his  system  of 
casuistry,  his  system  in  dealing  with  cases  of  conscience 
being  that  almost  universally  followed  to-day.  In  1751 
he  published  the  "  Glories  of  Mary,"  and  after  this  the 
"  Moral  Theology."  Another  well  known  work  of  his  is 
"  On  the  Love  of  Our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,"  and  his 
"Visits  to  the  Most  Holy  Sacrament"  appeared  in  1748. 

In  art  S.  Alphonsus  appears  in  bishop's  cope  and  mitre.    In  art. 
and  with  a  crozier  ;    usually  the    monstrance    is   in  his 
hands,  in  allusion  to  his  devotion  to  the  blessed  Sacrament. 

The    Redemptorists    are    established    at    S.    Alphonso    in  Rome. 
Liiiuori.  a  modern  Gothic  church  in  the  \'ia  Merulana  : 


3'- 


CHKISTIAiV  AND   ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 


Sucre  del 

I'rezioso 

iSancrue. 


Suore  del 
Preziosis- 
sinio 
Sangue. 


at  vS.  Maria  in  Monterone  (Teatro  Valle  58  A)  ;  and 
recently  (1898)  the  Pope  confided  to  them  the  church  and 
cure  of  S.  Gioacchino,  which  was  built  partly  with  monies 
collected  from  Catholics  of  all  nations,  as  a  homage  to 
Leo  XIII.  whose  name  is  Joachim.  They  wear  an  un- 
buttoned tunic  with  the  Clerks'  sash  and  turned  over 
collar.  The  Redemptorists  are  governed  by  a  Rector- 
Major;  they  are  to  be  found  in  North  and  South  America, 
Germany,  Holland,  Spain,  Belgium  and  England. 

There  are  also  Religieuses  Redemptoristines. 

The  Device  of  the  Redemptorists  is  the  words  :  Re- 
demptionem  inisit  Do  minus  populo  si/o. 

The  MissioNAEi  DEL  PREzioso  SANGUE  (Missioucrs  of  the 
Precious  Blood)  called  Bufalini,  after  their  founder  the 
Ven.  Bufalo  Canon  of  S.  Marco,  Rome,  who  founded 
these  missionary  priests  in  181 5  ;  and  afterwards  spent 
22  years  of  active  apostolic  work  in  the  towns  of  Italy. 
The  Bufalini  have  several  houses  in  America.  Mother- 
house  and  Prociira  Via  dei  Crociferi  by  the  church  of 
S.  Maria  in  Trivio.  Dress,  cassock  and  sash,  a  mantle 
in  summer  and  coat  in  winter.  When  preaching  they 
wear  a  large  crucifix  in  the  sash,  suspended  by  a  chain.  In 
papal  times  they  preached  from  a  platform  in  the  piazzas. 

Two  Communities  of  women  are  dedicated  to  the  same 
ends.  The  Suore  del  Prezioso  Sangue  were  founded  by 
Mother  Mary  De  Matteis  in  the  Roman  Campagna  in 
conjunction  with  the  Ven.  Bufelo  ;  they  employ  them- 
selves in  the  education  of  little  children.  According  to 
the  design  of  the  founder,  they  are  not  bound  by  vows. 
The  Mother-house  is  in  Via  delle  Muratte  70 ;  and  they 
have  another  house  in  Via  Veneto  95.  Habit,  a  black 
gown  tied  with  a  red  sash  ;  a  black  cape,  and  round 
the  face  a  broad  white  frill  over  a  black  skull-cap,  and 
covered  with  a  black  veil. 

The  Suore  del  Preziosissimo  Sangue  di  N.  S.  G.  C.  (of 
the  Most  Precious  Blood  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ), 
decided  to  bind  themselves  by  vows  and  separated  from 
the  above  Community.  They  have  a  large  number  of 
schools  in  Rome,  and  are  a  favourite  Institution  :  Mother- 


CLERKS  REGULAR  313 

house  Via  di  San  Giovanni  in  Laterano  64  ;  other  houses  : 
Via  Alessandrina  104  ;  Aracoeli  2  ;  Via  Brunetti  11  ;  Via 
Nomentana,  opposite  S.  Agnes  ;  Via  di  Porta  Leone  82, 
ZT)  ',  Via  Bucimazza  9.  The  habit  is  the  same  as  that  of 
the  Suore  del  Prezioso  Sangue,  with  the  addition  of  a  tiny 
metal  heart  suspended  by  a  chain  round  the  neck. 

MARisTS:  Thc  Socicty  of  IMary  was  founded  for  foreign 
missions  in  18 16  at  Lyon  and  Belley  (approved  1836). 
It  consists  of  (^r)  Priests  {b)  a  Third  Order  of  women 
for  teaching  and  the  care  of  the  sick,  and  (r)  the  Little 
Brothers  of  Mary  {Fratelli  Maristi),  a  separate  founda- 
tion made  in  181 7  by  a  INIarist  for  the  education  of  the 
young.  This  last  is  a  Religious  Institute  (page  351). 
The  Marists  sent  the  first  mission  to  New  Zealand,  and 
one  of  their  number  B.  Louis  Chanel  was  martyred  there. 
They  sent  a  mission  to  London  in  1856;  while  the 
Marist  Brothers,  who  number  5000,  have  houses  at 
Jarrow  and  Dumfries.  The  Society  is  divided  into  2 
branches,  with  Mother-houses  at  Lyon  and  Paris.  They 
are  governed  by  a  Provost- General.  Procura  (Lyon 
branch)  Via  Cernaia  14  A  (church  of  Rosario).  A 
wide  sash  and  black  cure's  rabat  are  worn ;  in  Rome, 
a  long  blue  cloak,  by  all  save  the  Superior.  Little  Marist 
Brothers  (College  of  S.  Leone  Magiw,  founded  and  di- 
rected by  themselves)  :  Via  Montebello,  M.  Dress,  sou- 
tane, double  twisted  cord,  white  rabat. 

DELATES  OF  MARY  IMMACULATE :  The  Oblatcs  arc  auioug  the 
most  interesting  of  the  Congregations  of  missionary 
priests,  and  were  founded  in  18 16  by  Charles  de  Maze- 
nod,  afterwards  Bishop  of  Marseilles.  They  were  in- 
tended as  missioners  for  country  districts  and  foreign 
parts,  but  are  prepared  ad  omnia,  i.e.  for  all  other  minis- 
terial works.  They  have  missions  in  Canada,  the  United 
States,  Ceylon,  and  South  Africa  —  all  founded  between 
1 84 1  and  1883.  The  Mother-house  is  at  26,  rue  de 
Sf  Petersbourg,  Paris,  and  they  are  the  Guardians  of  the 
Basilica  on  the  heights  of  Montmartre.  Their  Procura 
is  at  the  College  of  the  Oblates,  Piazza  S.  Pietro  in 
Vincoli.     They  have  no  determined  dress  but  wear  as  a 


314      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 

distinguishing  mark  a  crucifix  round  the  neck.  The  Supe- 
rior-General of  the  Oblates  is  also  Superior-General  of 
the  large  Congregation  of  the  "  Holy  Family,"  numbering 
6000  Sisters.* 

CONGREGATION  OF  THE  SACRED  HEARTS  (of  Jcsus  and  Mary)  a 
Neapolitan  society  of  priests  which  ranks  after  its  French 
namesake  of  Picpus,  and  before  the  Institute  of  Charity. 
Procura  Via  in  Publicolis  48. 

THE  INSTITUTE  OF  CHARITY  {Rosminiaus)  was  founded  in 
1828  by  the  priest  and  philosopher  Antonio  Rosmini. 
The  object  he  put  before  the  Fathers  of  Charity  was  "  to 
embrace  with  all  the  desire  of  their  souls  every  work  of 
charity."  The  Rosminians  were  the  first  to  begin,  inde- 
pendently in  ihe  same  week  of  1843  as  the  Passionists, 
mission  work  in  England.  The  late  Father  Lockhart  was 
Provost-General  of  the  Congregation,  which  has  9  Eng- 
lish houses,  including  S.  Etheldreda's,  Ely  Place,  the  last 
church  in  England  in  which  mass  was  said,  and  the  first 
in  which  it  was  restored. 

There  are  also  Sisters  of  the  Institute  of  Charity,  com- 
monly called  "  of  Providence." 

Antonio  Rosmini  (i  797-1855)  was  born  at  Rovereto 
in  the  Trentino  ;  he  was  the  friend  of  Popes  Gregory  XVI. 
and  Pius  IX.  His  book  "  Delle  cinque  piaghe  della  Santa 
Chiesa"  was  placed  on  the  Index. 

Mother-house  and  Procura  Via  Alessandrina  7. 

RisuRREzioNisTi,  the  Cougrcgation  of  Fathers  of  the  Resur- 
rection, a  society  of  Polish  priests  founded  nearly  70  years 
ago  for  missionary  work.  The  good  Fathers  have  missions 
in  Turkey  in  Europe.  Their  Mother-house  and  Procura 
is  in  Via  S.  Sebastianello  11,  with  their  church  of  the 
Resurrection,  on  the  incline  leading  to  the  Pincian  hill. 
Here  about  sunset  they  have  rosary  and  Benediction 
every  day  and  on  Sunday  with  Polish  chants. 

*This  institution,  founded  in  1820  by  M.  de  Noailles,  a  Sulpician, 
was  joined  to  the  Oblates  in  1850.  The  '  Sceurs  de  I'Esperance' 
are  its  nursing  branch,  and  the  '  Sisters  of  the  Immaculate  Concep- 
tion '  its  teaching  branch.     They  work  with  the  Oblates  in  their 

missions. 


CLERKS  REGULAR  315 

The  rector  uf  the  PoUsh  college  in  Via  dei  Maroniti 
22,  is  also  a  Resurrectionist  Father.  Their  dress  is  the 
soutane  tied  with  a  black  cord  with  a  rosary  and  large 
crucifix  on  the  left  side. 

In  1883  a  Congregation  of  Sisters  of  this  Order  was  Sisters  of 
founded  to  aid  and  teach  the  girls  in  the  Turkish  and   t'^^  f^^sur- 

o  ^  rection. 

Bulgarian  missions.     The  founders  Celine  Borzecka  and 

her  daughter  are  Polish  ladies,  and  the  former  rules  the 

Congregation.    There  are  no  lay  sisters.     The  chef-lieu  is 

at  Tirnowodjik  near  the  Black  Sea  :  here  the  Fathers  have 

charge  of  200  boys  and  the  Sisters  of  90  girls.     The  Greek 

Rite  has  been  adopted,  for  the  first  time  by  Religious 

women  of  the  Latin  Rite,  an  interesting  event  showing 

the  endless  adaptability  of  Catholic  missions  and  charities. 

This  is  very  acceptable  to  the  Bulgarian  Christians. 

Address  in  Rome  :  Via  Veneto  95,  where  they  have 
the  Italian  noviciate.  Habit,  black  plaited  gown  with 
the  black  cord  of  the  Resurrectionists  —  tied  several 
times  around  the  waist  and  ending  in  two  tassels.  The 
guimpe  is  pointed  and  plaited  ;  the  black  veil  fits  round 
the  head  over  a  narrow  bandeau.  The  novices  wear  a 
white  veil.  The  distinguishing  mark  is  the  Greek  cross 
on  the  breast,  given  at  the  Profession,  with  appropriate 
Christian  symbols  in  front,  and  at  the  back  the  legend  : 
"  By  the  Cross  and  death  to  Resurrection  and  Glory." 
In  church,  the  professed  wear  a  large  black,  and  the 
novices  a  large  white,  veil. 

THE  PIOUS  SOCIETY  OF  MISSIONS  {Pa/lottiui)  was  founded  in 
1835  W  the  Ven.  Vincenzo  Pallotti,  a  Roman.  The  insti- 
tution was  called  at  first  the  '  Pious  Society  of  the  Catholic 
.-^postolate  '  but  was  afterwards  changed  to  the  Society  of 
Missio7is  a  word  which  the  good  founder  could  never 
hear  pronounced  without  emotion.  The  end  proposed 
is  to  exhort  Christians  of  all  classes  to  contribute  to- 
wards the  reanimation  of  faith  and  charity,  the  forwarding 
of  the  kingdom  of  God  and  of  the  unity  of  all  peoples  in 
Christ.  To  this  end  the  society  consists  of  2  classes  : 
secular  priests  who  take  no  vows  but  are  bound  to  Com- 
munity life  under  the  rule  prescribed  for  them  by  the 


3i6      CHRISTIAX  AXD   ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 

founder  ;  and  secondly  priests,  Clerks  Regular  or  Secular, 
and  lay  persons  of  both  sexes  aggregated  to  the  Society 
and  aiding  it  either  by  their  work,  their  prayers,  or  their 
alms.  Pallotti  placed  his  institute  under  the  patronage 
of  the  Blessed  Virgin  Queen  of  the  Apostles.  In  1S38 
he  founded  the  Casa  della  Carita  (in  Borgo  S*  Agata)  for 
poor  girls  abandoned  by  their  parents,  and  gave  rules 
for  the  inmates  similar  to  those  of  the  Filippine  —  all 
observing  the  exercises  of  Franciscan  Tertiaries,  and 
wearing  a  kind  of  habit,  the  Franciscan  tertiary  gray  robe, 
which  used  also  to  be  worn  by  the  snore.  The  apostolic 
zeal,  the  great  patience,  and  the  humility  of  this  servant 
of  God  recall  the  work  of  Philip  Neri.  In  1844  he  sent 
one  of  his  priests  to  England  and  proceeded  to  form  a 
mission  there,  which  he  intended  to  join  had  not  the 
approach  of  death  prevented  him.  He  died  at  S.  Sal- 
vatore  in  Oiida  and  is  buried  there.     (1775-1850.) 

Gregory  XVI.  gave  him  the  convent  of  6".  Salvatore 
in  Onda,  Via  dei  Pettinari,  the  present  Mother-house. 
English  Pallottini  also  serve  the  church  set  apart  for 
English  Catholics  —  S.  Silvestro  in  Capite. 
Pallottine.  There  is  also  the  community  of  Pallottine,  engaged  in 
teaching  the  young.  These  Sisters  direct  the  Conserva- 
torio  Palloita  established  by  the  Ven.  Pallotti  in  1883 
for  the  education  of  deserted  orphans,  who  are  taken 
gratuitously  as  well  as  otherwise.  Their  houses  are 
called  Pia  Casa  di  Carita.  Address  :  Via  S.  Agata  dei 
Goti  8,  Conserva/orio  Pallotta  ;  Pia  Casa  di  Carita,  Pi- 
azza S.  Rufina  22,  branch  house;  and  Via  Salaria  14,  16. 

Their  habit  is  now  a  black  gown  and  cape,  and  the  usual 
ugly  black  woollen  frilled  coif,  the  shape  of  a  night-cap. 
An  apron  is  worn  indoors.  This  community  is  interesting 
as  a  purely  Roman  foundation. 

There  are  also  Englisii  Pallottine,  not  connected  with 
the  Roman  Sisterhood,  called  Sisters  of  the  Blessed  Vir- 
gin Queen  of  Apostles,  originally  intended  as  missionaries. 
They  now  direct  the  Casa  delta  Providenza  Via  Salaria 
126,  opened  for  deserted  orphans  in  1899.  Dress,  black 
with  a  guimpe,  and  a  black  veil  folded  outwards. 


CLERKS  REGULAR 


317 


CONGREGATION   OF  THE  HOLY   CROSS;     this    SOcicty  of  pHcStS  WaS 

founded  in  1839  by  Pere  Moreau  to  form  missionaries  for 
home  and  abroad,  and  teachers  for  the  Primary  and  Sec- 
ondary schools.  The  priests  also  conduct  agricultural 
colleges  and  orphanages.*  In  the  following  year  Pere 
Moreau  founded  the  Marianists  or  Sisters  of  the  Holy 
Cross,  who  were  to  take  charge  of  the  establishments  of 
the  Congregation,  and  to  teach  girls.  These  Sa'iirs 
Marianistes  de  la  Croix  are  to  be  found  in  France  and 
in  America,  but  not  in  Romcf 

Two  other  companies  were  added  :    the  Salvatorists,   Saivator- 
for  the  evangelisation  of  country  places  ;   and  the  Jose-   '^ts  and 
phites  for  school  work.     All  these  companies  form  one   J°^'^P^'^^- 
Congregation,  the  two  last  being //'a/r///,  not  priests,  and 
their  chief  work  is  the  education  of  boys  in  town  and 
country.     The  Congregation,  whose  Mother-house  is  at 
Neuilly,  has  invaded  Africa,  India,  and  the  New  World. 
It  was  approved  in  1856  ;  is  divided  into  Provinces  under 
a  single  head  or  Superior- General ;  and  proposes  to  its 
subjects  a  4'!^  vow   to   undertake    mission   work,  v/hich 
vow    however    is    entirely    voluntary.     Procura    Via    dei 
Cappuccini    19.     Habit  of  priests,  soutane   tied  with   a 
double  black  cord,  cape,  and  a  bronze  crucifix.     The 
Salvatorists  and  Josephites  wear  the  same,  without  the 
crucifix. 

PRETRES  DTT  SAINT-SACREMENT,  a  Congrcgation  devoted  to 
the  perpetual  adoration,  were  instituted  by  Pere  Eymard, 
"  the  Priest  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament,"  in  1855,  and  have 
their  Mother-house  in  Paris.  Procura  Via  del  Pozzetto 
160,  by  the  Burgundian  church  of  S.  Claudio  where 
there  is  perpetual  exposition  of  the  holy  Sacrament. 
The  priests  have  a  monstrance  worked  in  white  silk  on 
the  left  breast  of  the  cassock. 

THE    MISSIONERS    OF    OUR   LADY    OF    THE    AFRICAN    MISSION,     Called 


*  Pere  Moreau  formed  the  priests  of  the  Cross  out  of  an  associa- 
tion called  the  Patronage  of  S.  Joseph  for  educating  young  boys, 
founded  by  Pere  Dujarie  the  founder  of  the  Soeurs  de  la  Providence. 

t  These  Sisters  must  not  be  confused  with  the  Ecclesiastical 
Congregation  of  Marianists. 


3i8      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 

Algerian  Missioners  and  Peres  Blancs,  were  founded  by 
Cardinal  Lavigerie  the  opponent  of  the  African  slave- 
trade,  in  1868.  The  Community  is  exclusively  French, 
and  numbers  some  500  members.  Its  missions  are  to 
pagans  and  Mohammedans,  with  Procuras  in  Paris,  Mar- 
seilles and  Zanzibar.  The  Superior-General  is  titular 
Bishop  of  Pacando,  in  Cilicia.  Roman  Procu7-a,  Via 
degli  Artisti  22  (where  they  moved  from  S.  Nicola  in 
Agone).  Habit  white,  with  a  white  cloak  turned  back 
at  the  shoulders,  a  rosary  round  the  neck,  and  the  priest's 
hat.     As  missionaries,  beards  are  worn. 

Cardinal  I.avigerie  also  founded  a  Congregation  of 
women  with  the  same  title,  called  also  Soeiirs  Blatiches, 
who  fulfil  in  Africa  the  work  of  Sisters  of  Charity. 
There  are  two  Communities  in  the  French  Soudan. 

The  following  6  missionary  societies,  with  houses  in 
Rome,  have  been  founded  by  the  French  and  Spaniards 
in  the  last  half  of  the  xix.  century  : 

MI3SI0NAIRES  DTJ  SACRE-C(ETTR  DE  JESUS,    Called    "  of    thc     Sacr^- 

coeur  d'  Issoudun,"  founded  at  Issoudun,  Indre.  They 
have  an  international  College  for  Foreign  Missions  in 
Rome.  Frocura  (and  College)  Piazza  Navona,  with  the 
church  of  Nostra  Signora  del  Sacro  Cuore  di  Gesu,  where 
they  direct  the  Petite  oeuvre  du  Sacr6-coeur  for  sacerdotal 
and  missionary  vocations.  (Entrance  Via  della  Sapienza 
32.)     Dress,  the  ordinary  priest's  dress,  and  a  beard. 

MISSIONARY  SONS  OF  THE  IMMACULATE  HEART  OF  MARY  (MissloUari, 

Figli  del  Cuore  Immacolato  di  Maria)  is  the  title  of  a 
Spanish  Congregation  whose  Mother-house  is  in  Cervera. 
Frocura  Via  Giulia  163,  with  the  church  of  S.  Caterina 
da  Siena. 

MISSIONARIES  OF  THE  IMMACULATE  CONCEPTION  OF  OUR  LADY  OF  LOURDES, 

foiuided  at  Lourdes  where  the  Superior-General  resides. 
Frocura  Via  dei  Serpenti  3. 

MISSIONARIES  OF  s.  JOSEPH  (Giuseppini)  of  Mexico,  where 
they  were  founded  in  1862.  They  have  just  established  a 
Frocura  in  Rome,  Via  Sistina  11.*     They  wear  a  broad 

*  Not  to  be  confused  with  the  Josephites  of  the  Holy  Cross 
(p.  317),  or  with  the  Belgian  Josephites  founded  by  Canon  Van 


CLERKS  REGULAR  319 

sash  and  rosary.  There  are  Sisters  of  the  same  Congre- 
gation, engaged  in  works  of  charity. 

PRIESTS  OF  THE  SACRED  HEART  or  JESUS  {Sci figiiiiifiini)  with  a 
Procura,  this  year  (1899),  at  Via  di  Monte  Tarpeo  54. 
This  Congregation  was  founded  21  years  ago  at  Saint- 
Quentin,  and  interests  itself  in  the  problems  of  social 
democracy. 

PERES  MARIANI3TES,  a  Parisian  society,  having  in  Rome  the 
Collegio  Santa  Maria,  \'iale  Manzoni  37. 

Ecclesiastical  Congregations  described  elsewhere  are  : 
Fathers  of  the  Mission,  or  Vinceniiatis  (ranking  4"*)  Sec- 
tion I.,  page  253.  Company  of  Mary  (ranking  before 
the  Marists),  page  258.  Augiistinians  of  the  Assianption 
(oblates)  (ranking  after  the  Resurrectionists)  Chapter  IV., 
page  248.  Salesian  Congregation  of  Don  Bosco,  page  289. 
Societa  dci Frati della  Cariia  (FVanciscan  Tertiaries)  Chap- 
ter III.,  page  154.  Societa  del  Divin  Salvatore,  page  268. 


oRATORiANS.  Thc  Congrcgation  of  the  Oratory  is  not 
classed  among  Ecclesiastical  Congregations,  because  its 
members  are  recruited  from  priests  living  in  society,  and 
no  vows  are  taken.  They  are  not  bound  to  Community 
life,  and  they  retain  their  property.  But  the  Oratorians 
yield  to  few  Congregations  in  interest,  and  to  none  in  the 
lustre  shed  on  them  by  their  holy  founder  Philip  Neri. 

S.  Philip  was  born  in  Florence  in  15 15,  and  came  to   s.  Philip 
Rome  in  1533.     Here,  as  a  young  layman,  burning  with   ^*^"', 
the  love  of  God  and  the  desire  to  see  the  Christian  virtues   ot  Rome, 
practised  among  Christians,  he  began  his  great  apostolate, 
among  all  ranks  of  men  but  especially  among  the  youth 
of  the  upper  classes. 

Living  in  an  artificial  age,  surrounded  by  young  men 
whose  chief  temptation  came  from  their  fear  of  derision 

Crombrugghe  in  1817  for  the  education  of  boys  of  the  commercial 
classes,  which  flourishes  in  Belgium  and  has  a  house  in  Surrey. 


320      CHRISTIAN  AND   ECCIESIASTICAL   ROME 

and  want  of  simplicity,  he  concocted  absurd  tasks  for 
them,  which  he  often  gave  as  penances  ;  and  by  example, 
and  precept,  by  loving  interest  in  them,  by  a  never-failing 
bonhomie,  he  won  them  to  some  of  his  own  "  unearthly 
simplicity  and  spirit  of  prayer."  Every  lovely  garden  and 
hill  in  Rome  preserves  the  record  of  his  walks  and  picnics, 
and  seems  still  to  echo  the  mirth,  the  cheerfulness,  the 
holy  boldness  of  S.  Philip  and  his  companions.  S.  Philip 
despised  scruples,  he  measured  a  man's  progress  in  good- 
ness by  his  cheerful  mien.  After  receiving  the  visit  of 
an  old  and  a  young  Religious,  and  treating  the  latter  with 
contumely  and  complaining  of  his  manners,  the  saint  ran 
after  him  downstairs,  and  throwing  liis  arms  round  the 
smiling  face  which  all  his  harshness  had  not  perturbed, 
made  him  understand  that  he  thought  him  "not  far  from 
the  Kingdom  of  God." 

S.  Philip  was  ordained  a  priest  in  i55i,and  it  is  he 
who  insisted  on  frequent  confessions  for  those  beginning 
to  lead  a  good  life  :  many  were  the  hours  of  each  day  he 
spent  in  his  confessional  (still  preserved  at  the  Chiesa 
Nuova)  —  but  they  were  chiefly  the  confessions  of  men 
he  heard,  he  did  not  love  to  hear  those  of  women,  and 
he  did  not  think  it  did  them  the  same  good.  If  no  one 
came,  he  would  walk  about  outside,  praying  that  some 
poor  soul  he  might  help  should  be  sent  him.  As  he 
despised  pretence  and  assumption,  so  he  despised  great- 
ness ;  and  the  story  is  told  of  a  cardinal's  berretta  being 
brought  to  him  from  the  Pope,  and  of  S.  Philip  tossing  it 
up  like  a  ball  in  his  hands,  while  he  exclaimed  :  "  Vanity 
of  vanities  and  all  is  vanity  !  "  He  refused  the  Cardi- 
nalate  and  all  other  honours.  In  Art  S.  Philip  is  repre- 
sented either  in  black  cassock  and  berretta,  with  the  sash, 
and  broad  turned-over  collar  (the  Oratorian  dress),  or  in 
a  priest's  red  chasuble  and  kneeling  before  the  Madonna. 
The  thin  earnest  face  with  gray  hair  and  short  close  beard 
impresses  itself  on  the  memory  of  all  who  see  it.  (May  26.) 
[See  Part  I.,  pp.  238,  244,  354.     Part  II.,  pp.  155,  196.] 

One  of  the  greatest  sons  of  the  Oratory  was  John 
Henry  Newman,  who  became  an  Oratorian  by  the  pope's 


CLERKS  REGULAR  ^-zi 

request  after  his  conversion.  Baronins  also  was  an  Ora- 
torian,  and  cook  to  tlie  new-born  Community  ;  which 
numbers  among  its  members  a  canonised  saint  in  the  per- 
son of  S.  Sebastian  Valfr^,  a  Savoyard  priest,  and  the  con- 
fessor of  King  Victor  Amadeus.  He  died  in  1710  and  is 
buried  at  Turin. 

The  churches  of  this  Congregation  are  called  Oiatofies. 
In  Rome  it  possesses  the  CJiiesa  Niiova,  founded  by  S. 
Philip  when  he  instituted  his  society,  in  1564.  Here  the 
saint  is  buried.  At  S.  Girolamo  della  Carita  he  planted 
in  1536  the  Congregazione  della  Carita.  The  Orato- 
rians  are  also  established  at  SS.  Nereo  e  Achilleo  (See 
Part  L,  p.  305)  and  at  the  church  in  the  Via  delle  7 
Chiese  outside  the  walls,  mentioned  in  Part  H.,  page  155. 

The  French  Oratory  was  founded  by  Cardinal  de 
Berulle  in  161 1  in  imitation  of  the  Italian  Oratory.  The 
institution  was  short-lived  ;  its  second  Superior  was  the 
well  known  and  saintly  Pere  de  Condren. 

YoxFilippine  Oblatcs  (women)  see  Chapter  IV.,  page  247. 

Another  Congregation  of  priests  not  classed  among  the 
above  is  the  stimatini  or  Sacerdoti  delle  Santissime  Stim- 
fiiafe,  a  missionary  society  founded  in  Verona  and  called 
after  the  5  wounds  of  Christ's  Passion.  Like  the  Oratori- 
ans  they  live  in  common,  without  vows,  and  are  employed 
in  the  works  of  the  ministry  and  in  teaching.  Address  : 
S.  Nicola  dei  Prefetti,  Via  Prefetti  34  ;  S.  M.  dei  Miracoli 
Piazza  del  Popolo,  Via  del  Corso  531  ;  and  Via  dei  Ces- 
tari  with  the  church  of  the  Stimmate  (Stigmata  of  S. 
Francis). 

RELIGIOUS   INSTITUTES. 

Congregations  of  laymen  formed  for  charitable  or  mis- 
sionary work  are  called  Religious  Institutes.  The  chief 
of  the  small  existing  number  of  such  Associations  is  that 
of  the  BROTHERS  OF  CHRISTIAN  SCHOOLS  {Firres  Chretiens,  Fra- 
telli  delle  Scuole  Cristiane),  founded  by  Jean-Baptiste  de 
La  Salle  in  1 6  79.  He  is  called  the  '  Calasanzio  of  France,' 
and  as  the  contemporary  of  S.  Vincent  de  Paul,  Francis  de 
y 


322      CHRISTIAN  AXD   ECCIESIASTICAL   ROME 

Sales,  and  Ranc6,  was  one  of  the  four  Frenchmen  whom 
Rohrbacher  calls  "  4  streams  of  life  "  at  that  epoch.  This 
is  a  Community  of  rehgious  teachers,  who  dedicate  them- 
selves to  the  education  of  boys.  It  is  ruled  by  a  Superior- 
General,  resident  in  Paris,  rue  Oudinot  27,  who  has  the  tide 
of  Frere  (Itahan  Fratel*).  The  3  Monastic  vows  are 
taken,  but  the  members  are  not  in  priests'  orders.  Three 
Brothers,  at  least,  must  go  to  form  a  Community.  Dur- 
ing the  war  in  1870-71  these  Brothers  nursed  the  sick. 
They  are  known  as  Freres  iguorantius,  Fratclli  ignoranti, 
or  Ig?iorante/li,  because  they  instruct  the  ignorant.  They 
number  14,631,  of  whom  5227  are  novices,  and  in  the 
past  year  (1898)  taught  324,875  boys.  They  have  1475 
houses  with  more  than  2000  schools ;  10,000  of  the 
Brothers  are  resident  in  France. 

Procura  (and  school)  Via  S.  Sebastianello  3  ;  Via  Sis- 
tina  60;  Via  S.  Giovanni  in  Laterano  71  (free  boys' 
school) ;  Piazza  S.  Salvatore  in  Lauro  10  (free  boys' 
school)  ;  Via  de'  Zingari  13  (free  boys'  school)  ;  Viale  del 
Re  69  ;  Via  di  S.  Prisca  8,  Istituto  Pio  IX.  of  the  Little 
Artisans  of  S.  Joseph,  for  teaching  trades  to  boys  ;  besides 
which,  they  conduct  4  other  free  schools  in  Rome.  They 
wear  a  black  soutane  and  full  cloak,  and  the  French 
cleric's  bands  at  the  neck  {rabat). 

^  La  Salle  was  Canon  of  Reims  ;  he  instituted  the  first 
Ecoles  Normaks,  and  died  in  17 19.  The  decree  for  his 
Canonisation  has  just  been  promulgated  (May  1899) 
(May  4). 

There  are  also  sa'urs  des  Fcolcs  C/irefuuiies. 

THE  BKOTHERS  OF  OUR  LADY  OF  MERCY  WCrC  iustitutcd  by  CaUOU 

Scheppers  of  Malines,  Belgium,  for  the  Christian  educa- 
tion of  youth.  In  1855  they  were  invited  to  ^Vestminster, 
and  have  schools  in  England.  Their  Superior  is  styled 
Frere.  German  Brothers  of  Mercy  are  established  in 
Nazareth.  The  Procura  is  at  Palazzo  Pontificio,  Piazza 
Pia  ;  and  they  conduct  the  Istituto  di  Vigiia  Pia  founded 
by  Pius  IX.  for  instructing  boys  in  agricultural  pursuits 

*  See  title  Era,  p.  50. 


CLERKS  REGULAR  323 

(outside  Porta  Portese).  The  dress  is  a  tunic  not  but- 
toned down  the  front. 

THE  HOSPITALLERS  OF  THE  IMMACULATE  CONCEPTION,     Called     Con- 

cettini,  is  the  most  recently  formed  Congregation  of  men 
in  Rome.  They  are  male  nurses,  and  nurse  in  the  Hos- 
pital of  the  Baker's  Company.  Their  Mother-house  is  in 
Via  della  Luce  46;  Via  Boccea  i,  outside  Porta  Caval- 
leggieri ;  and  the  Ospedale  dei  Fornaci  Foro  Traiano. 
They  are  easily  recognised  in  their  blue  dress  and  cloak 
and  clerical  hat. 

There  are  only  6  of  these  lay  male  Congregations. 
For  the  Little  Marist  Brothers  and  the  Brothers  of 
Chiistian  Instruction  of  Pioerme/,  see  pp.  313,  325. 

MISSIONARY    WORK. 

The  great  missionary  work  of  the  Church,  accomplished 
by  the  Benedictine  Order  in  the  viii.  and  ix.  centuries, 
was  renewed  again  in  the  xiv.  century  by  the  Sons  of  S. 
Francis.  The  Observant  and  Capuchin  Missions  have 
been  at  work  since  the  xvi.-xvii.  century  ;  and  Mission 
work  was  reinforced  by  the  Jesuit  Missions  of  the  xvi., 
xvir.,  and  xviii.  centuries.  Congregations  founded  exclu- 
sively for  Mission  work  have  already  been  described  in 
this  Chapter  :  but  a  large  number  of  other  Congregations 
are  engaged  in  it,  and  this  is  especially  the  case  with 
the  Charitable  Sisterhoods.  In  Franciscan  Missions  the 
Minors  are  always  helped  by  Tertiary  Sisters,  the  Capu- 
chins by  Capuchin  Tertiaries.  There  are  several  local 
Communities  dedicated  to  catechising,  nursing,  and  civi- 
lising heathen  peoples:  the  Verona  Institute  of  Sons  of  In  Africa, 
the  Most  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus  for  the  Blacks  of  Central 
Africa,  is  assisted  by  a  Community  of  Fit?  Alatres  a 
Nigritia,  Loving  Mothers  of  the  Black  People.  There  is 
the  Society  of  Servants  of  the  Holy  Spirit —  Sisters  who 
educate  the  natives  and  effect  Christian  marriages  between 
them  ;  and  the  Sceurs  de  la  Delivrande.  Another  Asso- 
ciation working  in  Central  Africa  is  the  Sodality  of  Natives 


324      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 


In  India. 


In  China. 


Chinese 
African 
and  Indian 
Native 
Sister- 
hoods. 


Coadjutors  of  S.  Peter  Claver,  consisting  of  both  men  and 
women.  Tlie  Sisters  of  our  Lady  of  Missions  of  Lyons 
work  in  India  ;  so  do  the  discalced  Carmehtes  with  clois- 
tered and  Tertiary  Carmehte  women,  Jesuits,  Capuchins, 
Sylvestrian  Benedictines,  Oblates  of  Mary  Lnmaculate 
with  the  Catechist  Sisters,  the  Paris  Society  for  Foreign 
Missions,  the  Congregations  of  the  Oratory  of  S.  Francis, 
and  of  the  Holy  Cross,  the  Sisters  of  S.  Lewis  (Aloysius) 
Gonzaga,  and  the  Xaverian  Brothers  of  S.  Francis  Xavier  * 
with  Native  Sisters  of  the  same  inspiring  name  ;  while  a 
Congregation  of  "  Virgins  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus  " 
baptise  dying  infants. 

The  resources  of  the  Church  and  its  power  of  adapting 
itself  to  new  and  even  unique  conditions,  are  nowhere 
shown  in  a  way  more  worthy  and  moving  than  in  this 
Native  Mission  work  :  in  China  and  Japan,  for  example, 
there  is  an  "  Order  of  Virgins  "  —  societies  of  women 
living  under  prescribed  rules,  supported  by  their  own 
labour,  bound  by  no  vows,  who  catechise  girls  and  do 
other  charitable  works.  There  are  Chinese  native  Fran- 
ciscan Tertiaries  (women)  who  are  in  charge  of  orphan- 
ages, and  teach  catechumens  ;  certainly  a  sight  to  delight 
the  heart  of  S.  Francis.  One  hundred  and  twenty  Euro- 
pean Franciscan  Tertiaries  (women)  live  in  their  own 
families,  and  assist  the  Mission  of  the  Friars  Minor. 
Here  we  have  a  custom  of  the  iii.  and  iv.  centuries  revivi- 
fied to  meet  new  and  urgent  conditions.  There  are  also 
some  Native  Sisters  "  Helpers  of  the  Holy  Souls  in  Purga- 
tory," and  Native  Societies  of  Virgins  living  at  home  who 
educate  girls.  One  of  these  latter  Communities  is  called 
after  "  the  Most  holy  and  immaculate  Heart  of  the  B.  V. 
M.,"  another,  the  "  Daughters  of  S.  Joseph,"  while  a 
third  observe  (at  their  own  homes)  a  Rule  established  for 
them  at  a  local  Synod.  An  African  Native  Sisterhood  is 
called  "  Daughters  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Mary,"  and 
there  are  also  the  "  Daughters  of  Mary  "  ;  while  in  India 
there  are  "  Daughters  of  Blessed  Mary,"  "  Amantes  de  la 


*The  Xaverian  Brothers  work  also  in  America. 


CLERKS  REGULAR  325 

Croix,"  and  native  widows  living  under  the  patronage  of 
S.  Anna,  with  lay  native  widows  to  help  them  who  serve 
in  hospitals,  orphanages,  refuges,  and  schools  ;  while  yet 
another  native  Congregation  "  of  the  7  Dolours"  teaches 
in  the  native  Schools.  It  must  be  said  that  such  touch- 
ing titles  are  well  chosen  for  these  disinherited  daughters 
of  Eve. 

There  is  one  lay  Institute  of  men  founded  specially  for 
missionary  work,  the  Brothers  of  Ploermel  founded  in  the 
village  of  that  name  in  Brittany. 

All  the  Missions  of  the  Catholic  w^orld  are  directed 
from  Propaganda  Fide,  the  chef-lieu  of  the  Propagation 
of  the  Faith,  with  its  seat  at  the  well  known  building 
facing  the  column  of  the  Immaculate  Conception  in 
Piazza  di  Spagna.  A  polyglot  printing  and  publishing 
office  is  attached.  (Now  Piazza  Mignanelli.)  (Part  IV., 
page  493.) 

CONFRATERNITIES. 

Confraternities  are  lay  associations  banded  together 
for  some  pious  purpose.  They  have  a  specified  dress 
and  rules,  a  church,  and  often  a  cemetery  of  their  own. 
No  country  is  so  rich  in  Confraternities  as  Italy. 

y^/YVi-Confraternities  are  Corporations  to  which  other 
Confraternities  are  aggregated ;  they  have  a  Cardinal 
Protector  who  takes  possession  of  the  Confraternity 
church  with  a  prescribed  ceremonial,  and  whose  arms 
appear  outside  the  church.  One  of  the  duties  of  arch- 
confraternities  is  to  extend  hospitality  to  its  aggregated 
societies  during  Jubilee  years. 

These  lay  Associations  arose  in  the  middle  of  tlie  xin.  Origin, 
century,  it  is  said  as  a  consequence  of  the  fervent  preach- 
ing of  Antony  of  Padua,  whose  magical  influence  drew 
great  and  small,  so  that  no  building  could  hold  the 
thronging  crowds,  and  merchants  found  it  useless  to 
expose  their  wares  while  he  preached.  The  tears  of 
contrition  drowned  his  voice,  and  thousands  of  penitents, 
—  men,  even  Httle  children  —  scantily  clothed  and  in  the 
bleakest  winter,  responded  to  his  call,  making  the  round 


326      CHRISTIAN  AND   ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 


Dress  of 
Confrater- 
nities. 


First  Con- 
fraternity 
in  Rome. 


of  the  churches,  forming  long  processions  by  day  and 
night  along  the  towns,  villages  and  fields,  tapers  in  their 
hands,  a  cry  for  pardon  on  their  lips.  The  unjust  re- 
stored their  gains,  thieves  gave  back  stolen  things,  long 
feuds  were  healed  :  and  all  these  people,  still  following 
their  own  avocations  and  trades,  were  exhorted  to  asso- 
ciate themselves  as  permanent  confraternities  for  the 
preservation  and  bettering  of  their  religious  life. 

The  dress  common  to  all  Confraternities  is  a  gown 
completely  covering  the  clothes,  with  a  coarse  girdle, 
and  a  hood  which  can  be  drawn  over  the  face,  holes 
being  left  for  the  eyes.  The  gown  may  be  of  any  colour, 
hence  the  names  '  white  penitents,'  '  blue  penitents,'  etc. 
The  Confraternities  are  further  distinguished  by  a  circu- 
lar badge  on  the  left  shoulder  with  the  chosen  emblem 
of  the  association. 

The  earliest  Confraternity  in  Rome  dates  from  1264, 
when  one  was  formed  under  the  supervision  of  S.  Bona- 
venture,  the  members  of  which,  during  the  exile  at 
Avignon,  rose  up  against  the  violence  of  the  Roman 
seigneurs,  and,  having  elected  a  governor  of  the  Capitol, 
thenceforward  bore  the  proud  name  of  Confraternita 
della  Gonfalone,  i.e.  of  the  Standard  of  liberty  and 
justice.  This  Confraternity  gives  a  dot  annually  to 
several  poor  girls,  and  maintains  a  doctor  for  its  sick 
Confreres,  as  well  as  supporting  the  priests  for  its  pres- 
ent church  of  S.  Lucia  del  Gonfalone  in  Via  Banchi 
Vecchi.  Gregory  XIII.  added  to  their  duties  that  of 
ransoming  captives,  and  hence  their  official  name  of  S. 
Maria  della  Mercede.  They  used  also  to  have  charge 
of  the  image  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  painted  by  S.  Luke, 
in  S.  Maria  Maggiore,  where  the  Confraternity  was  origin- 
ally erected.  The  dress  is  white,  with  a  circle  on  the 
shoulder  charged  with  a  cross  pattee  white  and  red. 
Among  '  white  '  penitents  are  also  the  Archconfraternity 
of  the  Angeli  Custodi  at  the  church  of  that  name,  and 
the  Archconfraternity  of  the  B.  Sacrament  and  of  our 
Lady  of  the  Snow,  near  the  Colosseum. 

The  best  known  '  Black  '  penitents  are  those  of  S.  John 


CLERKS  REGULAR  327 

Baptist  Beheaded  {S.  Giovanni  Battista  Decollator  called 
the  Misericordia,  founded  in  1488  by  some  Florentines* 
in  Rome  for  assisting  condemned  criminals  and  helping 
them  to  make  a  good  end.  This  was  the  last  of  the 
Confraternities  to  retain  the  power  of  annually  releasing 
a  condemned  criminal  (a  power  of  which  all  the  others 
were  deprived  by  Innocent  X.),  and  Helyot  himself  saw 
it  exercised  by  the  Misericordia  when  he  was  in  Rome. 
The  endowment  of  this  Association,  which  has  its  seat 
near  the  Piazza  Montanara,  was  confiscated  by  the  Gov- 
ernment on  the  ground  that  capital  pmiishment  no  longer 
exists.  Another  excellent  '  Black '  Confraternity  is  that 
of  .S".  Maria  deW  Orazione  e  Morte  (of  '  Prayer  and 
Death')  at  the  church  of  that  name  in  Via  Giulia, 
formed  to  give  burial  to  those  found  dead  in  the  Cam- 
pagna  and  in  the  streets  of  the  city ;  members  being 
always  kept  in  readiness  to  go  in  search  of  the  body  and 
carry  it  to  the  church.  This  Confraternity  was  approved 
by  Pius  IV.  in  1560,  and  has  the  Exposition  of  the  40 
Hours  every  month.  Although  one  of  the  most  promi- 
nent duties  of  these  Congregations  oi  fraielloni  attached 
to  the  churches  and  parishes,  is  to  accompany  the  dead 
and  say  the  Office  of  the  Dead  for  them,  this  is  the  only 
one  of  the  73  Confraternities  in  Rome  which  attends  the 
funerals  of  the  poor  gratuitously.  It  also  charges  itself 
with  the  burial  of  the  poor  of  its  parish.  The  shoulder- 
badge  is  a  death's  head.  The  Archconfraternity  of  the 
Crocefisso  erected  in  S.  Marcello  in  the  Corso  is  another 
'  Black '  Confraternity ;  one  of  whose  works  was  the 
maintenance  of  the  Capuchin  Nuns'  Monastery  of  Corpus 
Domini  which  until  lately  existed  near  the  Quirinal.  This 
body  served  as  the  model  for  S.  Francis  de  Sales'  '  Con- 
fraternity of  Penitents.' 

The  best  known  '  Gray '  Confraternity  is  that  of  the 
Stigmata  of  S.  PVancis,  erected  in  1594  at  S.  Pietro  in 
Montorio,  but  moved  later  to  the  church  of  the  Stinimate 
(Stigmata)  near  the  Gesu.    The  privileges  immunities  and 

*  They  are  much  better  known  in  Florence,  where  they  carry 
the  sick,  and  the  dead. 


328      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 

spiritual  treasure  of  tlie  Franciscan  Order  were  granted 
to  this  confraternity,  which  consists  of  gentle  and  simple, 
assists  the  orphans  and  widows  of  its  poor  confreres, 
carries  the  bodies  of  deceased  members,  and  used  to  be 
well  known  for  its  imposing  processions,  when  some  500 
confreres  would  visit  processionally  the  7  Churches  and 
other  sanctuaries.  The  gray  gown  is  tied  with  a  stout 
cord,  they  wear  a  wooden  rosary,  and  have  as  a  badge 
the  arms  of  the  Franciscan  Order. 

There  are  also  'blue'  penitents  (for  example  \\^Q.Sacconi 
Tiirchini)  and  '  red '  penitents,  for  example  the  Archcon- 
fraternity  of  S.  Ursula  and  S.  Catherine  of  Tor  de'  Specchi, 
who  wear  a  green  girdle,  and  the  Sacconi  Rossi  on  the 
Island  of  the  Tiber.  Sacconi  was  also  the  name  of  a  con- 
fraternity of  nobles  and  prelates,  founded  in  1643  by  S. 
Hyacinthe,  a  Franciscan,  and  attached  to  the  church 
of  S.  Teodoro  under  the  Palatine,  which  used  to  beg  for 
the  poor  on  Friday  with  large  sacks  {^sacconi)  on  their 
shoulders ;  the  Confraternity  still  exists,  but  no  longer 
begs  for  the  poor.  Green  is  worn  by  the  Confraternity 
of  S.  Rocco  in  Via  Ripetta.  Several  of  the  Confraternities 
wear  a  gown  of  one  colour  and  a  cape  of  another :  thus 
one  of  the  Confraternities  of  the  Sacred  Heart  wears 
white  with  a  red  cape,  and  that  of  the  Anime  del  Purga- 
torio  black  with  a  white  cape  ;  the  Agouizzanti  white  and 
a  violet  cape.  Many  of  these  associations  are  national, 
the  Tuscans,  Siennese,  and  Neapolitans  have  Confrater- 
nities which  assist  their  compatriots  ;  and  there  are  purely 
religious  Confraternities  of  the  different  trades  —  the 
fish  vendors,  coachmen,  carpenters,  tailors,  booksellers 
(S.  Thomas  Aquinas  and  S.  Barbara,  white  with  a  red 
girdle  and  black  cape)  —  just  as  there  were  still  more 
anciently  trade  guilds  for  their  general  interests. 

These  Confraternities  not  only  form  a  company  of 
fratelli  of  the  church,  who  assist  at  all  its  processions 
and  feasts,  but  they  have  certain  religious  exercises  in 
common,  and  may  be  seen  in  many  a  church  reciting 
their  office  without  priest  or  parson  —  for  instance  in 
S.  Maria  in  Trastevere,  S.  M.  Egiziaca,  etc.     There  are 


CLERKS   REGULAR  329 

also  Sorelle  of  the  churches  (as  those  of  S.  Croce  to  be 
seen  on  Good  Friday)  but  they  have  no  distinctive 
costume. 

No  special  account  of  the  CathoHc  charities  of  Rome 
can  be  given  here.  As  will  be  seen  (especially  in  the 
foregoing  Chapter)  a  large  number  of  these  are  main- 
tained and  directed  by  Religious  ;  and  the  Roman  monas- 
teries feed  5000  poor  a  day.  Seventeen  of  the  chief  Opere 
pie  have  recently  been  agglomerated  under  the  title  of 
the  Federazione  Plana.  The  excellent  and  enlightened 
Circolo  San  Fie  fro*  was  the  first  to  have  economic 
kitchens  and  dormitories  in  Rome ;  and,  among  its  many 
other  useful  works,  has  done  most  towards  improving  the 
condition  of  the  peasants  of  the  Agro  Romano.  Now, 
during  the  harvest,  they  have  mass  celebrated  in  the 
fields  on  a  wain  drawn  by  oxen  :  the  simplicity  of  the 
first  ages  of  the  Faith  is  easily  evoked  by  that  Roman 
Church  whose  ritual  sits  lightly  on  her,  as  the  shadow  of 
a  substance.  (Seat  of  the  Circolo  San  Pietro  :  Palazzo 
Cini,  Piazza  di  Pietra  26.) 

Since  going  to  press  the  Figlie  del  Sagro  Ciiore  {Bctle- 
viiie),  an  old  instittition  founded  in  Colombia  by  the 
Ven.  Fietro  di  S.  Giuseppe  Betancour,  have  established 
their  mother-house  in  Rome.  They  have  houses  in  S. 
America  and  g  in  the  Naples  district,  ivhere  their  7vork 
is  teaching,  with  the  care  of  orphanages  and  creches. 
The  habit  is  black,  a  large  gilt  heart  is  fastened  to  the 
wide  whimple,  and  the  veil  fts  closely  round  the  head. 
Address  :    Villa  Maria,  Via  Emilia. 

*  Founded  1869  :  men  serve  on  it  till  they  are  40  years  old,  when, 
being  an  Association  of  the  GioventU  Cattolica,  they  must  retire. 


PART    IV. 
ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME. 


PART    IV. 

ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME. 

CHAPTER   I. 

THE  POPE. 

The  titles  —  dress  —  and  insignia  of  the  pope  —  Sedia  gestatoria  — • 
state  carriages —  Cavakata  — Papal  Orders  and  Titles  of  the 
Holy  Roman  Etnpire  —  Peter'' s  pence —  Law  of  Guarantees  — 
Pope's  court  and  household — Papal  troops  —  Diplomatic  Ccrps 
—  A'uncio — Legate  —  Papal  Offices  of  State  —  Bull — brief — 
encyclical —  Vicariate  of  Rome —  Palatine  offices. 

The  Pope  is  Head  of  the  Catholic  Church  ;  Patriarch  of   Titles  of 
the  West ;  Primate  of  Italy ;   Bishop  and  Metropolitan   *^^  P°P^- 
of  Rome.     Cyprian  (ob.  258)  calls  the  Roman  See  "  The 
Chair  of  Peter  and  principal  Church,  from  whence  has 
come  the  unity  of  the  episcopate."* 

The  Nicene  Council  divided  Christendom  into  3  Patri-  The  Patri- 
archates, that  of  Rome,  then,  next  in  dignity  to  Rome,  that  archate. 
of  .Alexandria,  and  thirdly  Antioch.  The  Bishop  of  Rome 
presided  over  the  ten  provinces  of  Italy,  and  possessed 
Patriarchal  authority  also  over  Africa  and  Illyria.  In  the 
time  of  Gregory  the  Great  some  of  the  Ligurian,  /Emilian, 
and  Venetian  Metropolitans  asserted  their  independence 
of  the  apostolic  authority  in  their  Sees,  and  were  opposed 
by  Gregory,  who  urged  the  supremacy  of  Peter's  suc- 
cessor. 

According  to  some  authorities  Rome  and  the  Pope  are   The  See  of 
inseparable,  but  others  say  that  the  Pope  might  be  bishop    '^^  ^°P^- 
of  another  See,  and  others  again  that  he  might  govern  the 
Church  without  a  See. 

*  Letter  to  Pope  Cornelius:   Petri  Cathedra  atqtie  ecclesia  princi- 
palis unde  unitas  sacerdotalis  exorta  est. 

Ill 


334      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 


"  Pope." 


"PP. 
Rom." 


"  Pontifex 
Maximus." 


"  Holy 
Father." 

"  Holi- 
ness." 


"Servus 

Servorum 

Dei." 


The  title  Po/>g  was  used  in  early  times  for  all  bishops  ; 
it  means  "Father."  About  510  Ennodius  of  Ticinum 
employs  it  to  denote  the  Bishop  of  Rome  exclusively ; 
but  it  is  from  the  vii.  century  that  it  became  customary, 
and  Gregory  VII.  (1073-1087)  made  it  the  lawful  and 
exclusive  title.* 

The  abbreviation  PP.  Rom.,  Papa  Romae,  pope  of 
Rome,  belongs  to  the  ix.  century,  when  the  word  Papa 
was  still  not  exclusively  confined  to  the  one  Bishop. 

Tertullian  (220)  in  his  indignant  remonstrance  about 
the  remitting  power,  ironically  refers  to  Callistus  by  the 
title  given  to  the  Roman  Emperors  as  high  priests,  and 
calls  the  pope  "  The  Pontifex  Maximus,  that  is,  Bishop 
of  Bishops  "  ;  this  Roman  title,  however,  actually  signi- 
fied the  pope  in  the  days  of  Leo  I.  (440-461),  and  is 
still  used  to-day. 

The  title  Holy  Father  was  applied  to  Patriarchs  and 
bishops,  and  therefore  to  the  pope,  from  the  earliest  days. 
That  of  "  Holiness  "  was  a  common  title  of  veneration  in 
addressing  great  prelates  and  others ;  Gregory  the  Great 
employs  it  when  writing  to  the  Bishops  of  Alexandria  and 
Antioch  and  Augustin  of  Canterbury ;  and  S.  Augustine 
in  a  letter  to  Juliana,  the  mother  of  Demetrias,  asks 
her  whether  a  certain  book  has  reached  "  Your  Holi- 
ness." In  the  West  the  title  has  been  confined  to  the 
Pope  since  the  time  of  Johannes  Diaconus  (vi.  century). 

"  Servant  of  the  Servants  of  God  "  was  a  title  adopted 
by  Gregory  the  Great  when  John  Patriarch  of  Constanti- 
nople assumed  that  of  CEcumenical  Bishop.\  It  be- 
came a  usual  episcopal  title,  and  Boniface,  the  English 
apostle  of  Germany,  calls  himself  "  Servant  of  the  servants 
of  God  "  in  a  letter  to  Eadburga.     It  is  still  employed 


*  In  a  catacomb  epitaph  we  have :  Sub  Liberia  Papa ;  his  suc- 
cessor Damasus  is  referred  to  as  sub  Damaso  episcopo. 

t  A  title  conferred  on  the  Patriarch  by  the  emperors  and  by  a 
synod  hekl  in  588.  Pelagius  Pope  of  Rome  protested  against  it. 
Leo  I.  had  declined  it  when  offered  to  him  at  the  council  of  Chal- 
cedon.  Gregory's  letters  on  the  subject  to  John  and  to  Eulogius  of 
Alexandria  are  full  of  noble  words. 


THE   POPE 


335 


"  Vicar  of 
Christ." 


by  the  Popes  ;  and  was  used  by  other  bishops  until  the 
style  Dei  et  Apostolicce  Sedis  gratia,  was  introduced. 
This  was  first  employed  by  a  Bishop  of  Cyprus  who  had 
been   granted    extended   jurisdiction   by  the   Holy  See. 

Originally  the  popes  styled  themselves  vicars  of  Peter, 
and  successors  of  Peter,  or  "Apostolic."  As  early  as 
202-220,  Pope  Zephyrinus  is  addressed  as  "  apostolice'' ; 
and  TertuUian  quotes  Matt.  xvi.  18,  with  reference  to  the 
position  of  this  pope.  Innocent  III.  spoke  of  himself 
as  Vicar  of  Christ,  and,  as  we  see  by  her  letters,  this  was 
perfectly  usual  by  the  time  of  S.  Catherine.  This  title, 
and  not  Vicar  of  God,  or  vice-regent  of  God  on  earth,  is 
the  proper  title  of  the  Popes,  the  other  being  an  abuse.* 

In  Italy  the  Pope  is  addressed  as  Santo  Padre,  or 
Santitix,  in  French  Saint  Pere  and  Saintet*^.  Vostra 
Beatitudine,  Your  Beatitude,  is  also  used  in  documents, 
being  a  title  in  all  ways  similar  in  origin  to  Sanctitns 
Vestra,  Your  HoHness.  The  popes  also  place  PP.  ( Papa) 
or  P.M.  (Pontifex  Maximus)  after  their  names. 

Up  to  1566  the  pope's  dress  used  to  be  red,  as  we  can   Papal 
see  in  the  pictures  of  that  and  previous  periods  :  but  in   ^ress. 
that  year  Pius  V.,  a  Dominican  friar,  was  elected  pope,    Colour. 
and  he  continued  to  wear  his  white  Dominican  habit.     A 
white  soutane,  called  zimarra,  has  been  worn  ever  since   Zimarra. 
by  the  pope  ;  but  his  hat,  mozzetta,  stole,  and  shoes  are   Mozzetta. 
still  red.     llie   mozzetta  f  is   a   short   red    velvet   cape 
edged  with  fur,  worn  in  winter  over  the  zimarra ;  with 
it  is  worn  a  soft  red  cap  of  the  same  colour  and  stuffs 
resembling  the  early  episcopal  bonnet  mentioned  in  Part 
II.,  page   III.     This  is  the  camauro,  identical  with  the    Camauro. 


*  When  Leo  III.  crowned  Charlemagne  in  800,  it  was  the 
Emperor  who  was  regarded  as  God's  Vice-regent.  The  same 
principle  was  assiduously  preached  from  English  pulpits  after  the 
Reformation,  with  reference  to  the  Tudors,  the  Stuarts,  and  the 
Georges. 

t  This  cape  is  worn  by  cardinals  in  red  silk,  and  by  bishops  in 
purple.  It  is  the  same  piece  of  costume  as  the  canon's  cape: 
p.  213,  cf.  with  priest's  dress,  p.  486. 


336      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 


SoUdeo. 
Shoes. 

Stole. 


White 
worn  at 
Easter. 


Liturgical 
dress. 


Fanone. 


Manto 
pontificale. 


Fa  Ida. 


canon's  and  doctor's  cap,  which  covered  the  ears,  as  we 
see  it  in  pictures  of  Sir  Thomas  More. 

The  pope  always  wears,  except  during  the  more  sacred 
portions  of  the  mass,  the  white  silk  skull-cap  called  soli- 
deo  *  ;  and  out  of  doors  he  wears  a  red  hat.  The  shoes 
are  red,  the  right  shoe  embroidered  with  a  gold  cross, 
which  those  who  visit  him  kiss  on  taking  leave. 

Until  the  xii.  century  the  pope  never  wore  a  stole ; 
now  he  is  the  only  ecclesiastic  who  wears  it  as  part  of  his 
ordinary  dress,  over  the  mozzetta.  He  would  not  how- 
ever wear  a  stole  in  private  within  the  Vatican. f 

At  Easter  the  pope's  dress  changes  :  after  the  cappella 
papale  of  Holy  Saturday  until  Saturday  in  Albis,  the 
mozzetta,  stole,  and  shoes  are  white,  and  the  camaw-o 
of  white  damask.  The  stuff  of  mozzetta  and  shoes 
also  varies  :  when  the  cardinals  wear  red  they  are  of  silk 
or  velvet  as  described  above,  but  when  they  wear  purple, 
the  stuff  is  wool  or  '  camlet.' 

The  pontiff  has  two  sets  of  sacred  vestments,  the  one 
worn  at  mass,  the  other  at  non-liturgical  functions.  At 
pontifical  mass  he  wears  in  addition  to  the  usual  vest- 
ments the  fatione,  subcincture,  and  the  pallium.  The 
former  is  a  kind  of  double  mozzetta,  the  lower  part  of 
which  lies  under  the  stole  and  chasuble,  the  upper  part 
(which  is  placed  over  the  pope's  head  while  vesting) 
falls  over  the  chasuble  and  has  the  pallium  above  it, 
attached  with  three  spilloni. 

At  public  Consistories,  and  on  similar  occasions,  the  pope 
wears  the  cope  or  manto,  which  is  clasped  by  the  for- 
niah',X  and  drags  on  the  ground;  under  this  he  has  the 
falda,  a  white  taffeta  train  which  hangs  from  the  waist. 

Thus  if  the  pope  is  carried  to  the  altar  to  say  mass,  he 


*  Part  II.,  p.  III. 

t  Ibid.  p.  loi.  The  stole  is  not  worn  in  Rome  by  ecclesiastics 
when  preaching;  because,  says  Macri,  the  pope  wears  a  stole  on  all 
occasions,  even  in  the  public  streets.  P'or  the  same  reason,  he  con- 
tinues, cardinals,  even  when  preaching  in  their  titular  churches, 
wear  it  under  the  mozzetta. 

J  Part  II.,  p.  270  zxiA  footnoie. 


THE  POPE  337 

appears  in  mitre  and  chasuble  ;  but  when  carried  to  a 
Consistory  or  to  the  Sistine  chapel  to  assist  at  mass  he 
wears  the  manto  and  tiara.  At  a  Secret  Consistory, 
(excepting  his  first),  the  pope  wears  rochet,  mozzetta, 
a  pectoral  cross,  and  the  ring. 

Up  to  the  time  of  Benedict  XIII.  the  popes  wore  both  Papal 
black  p.nd  purple  vestments  ;  but  since  that  time  red  has  I^q^qI^'s^^ 
been  the  colour  for  papal  mourning.  Red  is  therefore 
worn  in  the  penitential  seasons;  and  the  pope  is  buried 
in  the  same  colour.  The  liturgical  colours  in  which  the 
pope  is  seen  are  always  white  or  red,  the  stole  only  being 
sometimes  purple. 

A  cappa  magna  *  of  red  velvet  and  ermine  used  to  be    Cappa 
worn  by  the  popes,  and  Eugenius  IV.  is  represented  in   ^'^^SL'l^f 
it  at  the  Council  of  Florence.     The  cope  was  adopted  papa. 
as  less  precious  and  more  appropriate  during  Holy  Week 
and  for  the  Matins  of  Christmas,  and  there  is  no  example 
of  a  cappa  magna  being  worn  since  the  time  of  Pius  V. 
But  a  scarlet  or  red  cloak,  called  cappa  del  papa,  of  vel- 
vet silk  or  wool,  and  in  winter  lined  with  ermine,  is  worn 
on  November  2  and  on  Good  Friday,  as  less  splendid 
than  the  manto.     The  hood  is  drawn  over   the    head. 
The  popes  used  to  wear  the  hood  called  Clementina  on 
Christmas  night  and  at  other  solemnities,  as  the  Cardinal 
Vicar  does   now  when   he    enters   the  church  on  Good 
Friday. 

The  pope  also  can  wear  the  pallium  on  all  occasions.  Pallium. 
and  is  the  only  person  who  does  so.  The  paUium  is  a 
long  strip  of  lamb's  wool,  worn  round  the  neck,  and  sig- 
nifies "  the  fullness  of  episcopal  office."  As  signifying 
the  plenitude  of  jurisdiction,  the  pallium  is  sent  by  the 
pope  to  archbishops  and  metropolitans,  who  must  how- 
ever first  demand  it.  Vigilius  sent  it  to  Auxanius  of 
Aries  as  to  one  "  acting  in  our  stead."  Pelagius  to 
another  Bishop  of  Aries  as  "  Vicarius  noster."  Gregory 
the  Great  sent  it  to  many  bishops  including  Augustin  of 
Canterbury. 

*  See  p.  44S. 


338      CIIKISTIAX  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 

How  kept  Pallia  are  kept  in  the  Benvenuto  Cellini  gold  coffer  at 

and  blest.  ^|-jg  confession  of  S.  Peter  in  the  Vatican  basilica.  They 
are  always  called  "Palliion  de  corpore  sancti  Petri," 
because  they  come  from  his  tomb,  just  as  the  brandea  or 
cloths  lowered  to  touch  Peter's  sarcophagus  and  kept  as 
relics,  were  called  de  corpore,  "  from  the  body  of  Peter." 
The  pallium  is  blest  on  the  altar  of  the  confession,  and 
then  remains  there  as  we  see  ;  but  the  old  usage  was  to 
leave  the  pallium  there  on  the  night  after  the  blessing,  and 
then  it  was  kept  on  Peter's  chair  until  this  latter  was 
enclosed.  The  pallium  is  always  blest  on  the  day  of 
Peter's  death,  June  29. 
Mantle  of  For  it  has  been  assumed  that  the  pallium  represents 

Elijah.  [\-^Q  archaic  custom  of  handing  down  the  upper  garment, 

the  i7iantle,  of  the  teacher  to  his  disciples  and  successors, 
as  Elisha  received  that  of  Elijah,  and  as  the  Patriarch  of 
Constantinople  when  fully  vested  wore  "  the  venerable 
cloak  of  S.  James,  the  brother  of  the  Lord."  But  the  most 
striking  instance  is  that  of  the  Patriarch  of  Alexandria, 
who,  having  buried  his  predecessor  with  his  own  hands, 
used  to  take  the  pallium  or  mantle  of  S.  Mark  and  place 
it  on  his  own  shoulders,  which  act  constituted  legitimate 
occupation  of  his  office  ;  a  custom  found  in  Alexandria 
from  the  vi.  century.  This  view  of  the  Western  pallium 
can  only,  however,  have  arisen  from  the  name  pallium,  a 
mantle.  For  the  Abbe  Duchesne  has  demonstrated  that 
the  Roman  pallium  was  in  fact  an  imperial  ensign, 
accorded  to  the  popes  by  the  emperor  some  time,  he 
conjectures,  in  the  iv.  century ;  and  was  never  anything 
but  a  scarf.  By  the  time  of  'Fheodosius  it  was  worn  over 
the  pcenula  by  all  sorts  of  functionaries,  and  the  Abb6 
Duchesne  describes  the  manner  in  which  it  was  worn  by 
the  Roman  Consul.  He  shows  that  the  popes  in  the  vi. 
century  had  to  obtain  the  authority  of  the  Emperor  to 
bestow  it  on  other  than  subjects  of  the  Empire.  Eater,  a 
Symbolic  beautiful  meaning  attached  to  the  pallium  as  symbolising 
the  sheep  borne  on  the  shoulders  of  the  Good  Shepherd. 
Thus  S.  Isidore  (vii.  century)  says  it  is  made  of  wool  not 
of  linen  to  represent  the  wandering  sheep  of  whom  the 
Lord  went  in  quest. 


meaninE 


THE  POPE 


339 


The  pallium  is  marked  with  crosses;  these  were  placed    The 
at  either  extremity,  but  afterwards  are  found  repeated  on   ^^°^^"' 
the  shoulders.     The  painting  of  S.  Urban  in  the  Church 
of  S.  Cecilia  represents  the  latter  arrangement,  one  never 
found  in  mosaic  or  painting  earlier  than  the  x.  century. 
In  a  late  x.  century  representation  of  Augustin  of  Canter 
bury  there  are  3  crosses  at  the  extremity,  and  2  on  each 
shoulder.* 

There  is,  nevertheless,  no  Christian  vestment  with 
more  august  and  venerable  associations  than  the  Pope's 
pallium,  as  there  is  none  older  except  the  stole  of  the 
deacon.  The  pope  never  used  to  wear  both  these  vener- 
able vestments,  the  papal  stole  till  the  xii.  century  was 
the  pallium.  S.  Isidore,  already  cited,  calls  \\.,omophorion, 
that  is  an  episcopal  stole  ;  and  the  first  Council  of  Macon 
in  581  forbade  bishops  to  celebrate  mass  without  it.f 
From  ancient  times  it  was  taken  away  when  a  bishop  was 
deposed,  it  being  regarded  as  the  sign  of  his  jurisdiction. 
It  is  worn  over  the  chasuble,  as  it  was  by  the  ancient 
Romans.  The  occasions  on  which  it  is  worn  by  an  arch- 
bishop are —  in  his  own  diocese  —  on  the  great  festivals  of 
the  year  at  solemn  mass,  at  the  dedication  of  a  church, 
consecration  of  a  bishop,  ordination,  the  principal  feasts 
of  his  cathedral,  the  anniversary  of  his  reception  of  the 
pallium,  and  at  any  other  times  named  "  nel privilegio  t/i 
concessioner  For  the  manner  of  giving  the  pallium,  see 
Part  II.,  p.  181. 

The  special  headgear  of  the  supreme  pontiff  is  the 
tiara  or  triple  crown  ;  but  in  ceremonies  of  a  purely 
spiritual  character  he  wears  the  mitre.  The  tiara  is  not 
mentioned  until  708-715,  and  then  as  a  head-dress  cus- 
tomarily worn  in  state   by  the  pope  at   Rome.  |      But 


The    tiara, 
or  trireg- 
71  um 
(triple 
crown). 


*Harl.  MSS.  2908. 

t "  L'usage  remain  de  reserver  cet  ensigne  a  certains  evSques  et  de 
le  leur  envoyer  de  Rome,  parait  etre  une  modification  de  I'institution 
primitive."     Duchesne,  Origines  die  cnlte  chretien. 

X  KafjLT^XavKiov.  Later  called  RegnuDi  ;  "the  mitre  of  3  crowns 
which  is  called  Regnum  "  —  triplicis  corojiu  niitra,  qiue  rtgiittin 
dicitur. 


340      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 

there  are  no  representations  of  it  in  art  till  the  xii.  cen- 
tury. The  forged  Donation  of  Constantine  is  however 
very  explicit ;  it  tells  us  that  Sylvester  having  refused, 
from  humihty,  the  imperial  crown  offered  him  by  Con- 
stantine, the  Emperor  placed  on  his  head  a  Phrygian 
cap,  white  in  colour,  that  he  might  wear  it  in  processions 
in  imitation  of  the  pomp  of  sovereigns.  It  is  this  conic 
cap  which  first  appears  in  art  —  it  rests  on  a  gemmed 
crown,  of  which  however  the  viii.  century  compiler  of  the 
"  Donation  "  is  ignorant.  It  is  said  that  Nicholas  I. 
(858)  was  the  first  to  wear  such  a  cap  and  crown  united, 
and  that  the  second  circlet  was  added  by  Boniface  VIII. ; 
the  third  was  added  by  Urban  V.,  Benedict  XII.,  or  one 
of  the  Avignon  popes.  In  Giotto's  contemporary  picture 
of  the  declaration  of  the  Jubilee  of  1300,  Boniface  VIII. 
is  represented  in  the  tiara  with  one  crown.* 

The  tiara  or  regnum  is  white,  with  three  gold  circlets 
one  above  the  other.  It  was  and  is  always  worn  by  the 
Pope  on  certain  great  functions,  hence  called  Festuvi 
Coroncv.  One  of  these  days  is  the  anniversary  of  his 
coronation.  A  regni/m  was  brought  from  Avignon  to 
Rome  by  order  of  Eugenius  IV.  (1431),  said  to  be  that 
which  Constantine  gave  to  Sylvester;  and  Nicholas  V. 
(1447)  was  crowned  with  it.  In  an  Inventory  of  the 
Apostolic  palace  in  1297,  the  reguiim  sive  corona  of 
Boniface  VIII.  is  described  ;  rich  with  sapphires,  rubies, 
pearls,  and  smaragdi,  and  surmounted  by  a  large  ruby ; 
on  the  lower  part  was  one  enamelled  circlet.  The  use 
of  the  regnum  appears  to  have  gone  out  of  fashion,  and 
it  was  re-adopted  by  Paul  II.  (1464).  Paul  III.  (1534) 
made  a  triregnum  with  a  quantity  of  jewels  which  had 
been  found  under  the  foundations  of  S.  Peter's.  This 
tiara  was  undone  and  remade  and  modernised  "  con 
corone  rilevate  .  .  .  .  e  guarnite  di  perle  orientali,"  by 
Pius  VI.  In  this  precious  headgear  there  were  perhaps 
2000  gems. 

The  same  pope  in  the  following  year,  1790,  remodern- 

*See  Part  I.,  pp.  94,  99. 


THE  POPE 


341 


ised  that  of  Urban  VIII.,  and  in  1791,  appearing  to  have 
a  veritable  mania  for  arranging  tiaras,  he  undid  and  re- 
made the  tiara  of  S.  Pius  V.  These  were  so  heavy  to 
wear,  that  Leo  X.  (15 13),  it  appears,  had  a  very  light 
ijevissimiun)  tiara  made  of  peacocks'  feathers.  Inno- 
cent III.  had  been  crowned  with  a  tiara  and  circlet  of 
peacocks'  feathers,  signifying  that  the  eyes  of  the  pope 
were  directed  to  all  quarters  of  the  world,  and  a  similar 
quaint  crown  was  presented  by  Urban  III.  to  Prince  John, 
the  son  of  Henry  II.,  when  the  papal  legate  crowned 
him  King  of  Ireland. 

The  pope  is  the  only  Western  bishop  who  does  not   The 
make  use  of  the  crooked  '  crozier '  :  in  its  place  he  uses   straight 

.  .        .  cross 

the  pedum  rectum,  straight  staff  or  '  crozier '  terminating 
in  a  globe  and  Greek  cross.     (See  p.  470.) 

The  pope  has  3  rings,  for  different  occasions.  That 
worn  every  day  containing  a  precious  stone.  That  worn 
when  pontificating,  hence  called  pontificale.  And  the 
historical  Ring  of  the  Fisherman,  so  called  from  the  re- 
presentation on  it  of  Peter  in  the  act  of  fishing  from  his 
boat.  The  date  at  which  this  was  first  worn  is  not  known.* 
The  first  mention  we  have  of  it  is  in  a  letter  of  Clement 
IV.,  in  1265,  to  his  nephew.  The  pope  seals  his  letter 
with  it,  and  tells  his  nephew  that  he  does  not  use  the 
BuUa,  official  seal,  but  the  seal  which  the  Roman  pontiffs 
were  accustomed  to  use  for  their  private  correspondence  : 
7ion  sub  bulla,  sed  sub  pisca ton's  sigillo.  In  143 1  the 
then  Pope  writes  sub  anulo  nostro  secreto.  It  is  dis- 
puted whether  the  pope  should  in  fact  use  this  seal  for 
his  private  letters  only,  or  not.  The  aiiulus  piscatoris  is 
destroyed  at  the  first  meeting  of  the  conclave  convened 
to  elect  a  new  pope.  The  new  pope  is  immediately  pre- 
sented with  another,  which  he  returns  that  his  name  may 
be  inscribed  on  it.  It  is  customary  to  kiss  the  pope's 
ring  in  the  same  way  as  the  ring  of  other  bishops. 

The  kissing  of  the  foot  of  dignitaries  was  a  custom  of 
Oriental  origin  ;  it  was  observed  towards  emperors  and 


Ring. 


Attulus 
piscatoris. 


Kissing  tlie 
Pope's  foot. 


*  Mabillon. 


342       CHRISTIAN  AXD   ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 

other  personages,  and  the  popes  and  emperors  used  to 
reciprocate  this  niarlc  of  veneration.  The  Gelasian  Sacra- 
mentary  (vii.  century)  prescribes  that  the  deacon  shall 
kiss  the  pope's  foot  before  reading  the  Gospel.  Late  in 
the  middle  ages  when  the  salutation  was  confined  to  the 
pope,  a  cross  was  worked  on  his  slipper  to  show  that  the 
honour  was  done  "  not  to  the  mortal,  but  to  the  Son  of 
God."  * 


Sedia  When  the  pope  assists  at  a  great  ceremonial,  he  is 

gestatoria.  borne  OH  the  shoulders  of  12  bearers  on  the  portable 
throne  called  the  scdia  gestatoria.  There  are  many 
pictures  in  the  Vatican,  and  in  the  halls  which  the  pope 
passes  through  in  state,  which  represent  his  predecessors 
being  thus  carried.  The  sedia  gestatoria  was  used  in 
Fiance  in  the  v.  century,  where  it  was  the  custom  of  the 
Gallican  church  for  the  new  bishop  to  be  carried  by  all 
the  other  bishops.  According  to  Bonanni  the  custom  in 
Rome  dates  from  the  time  of  Damasus  (366)  but  with 
much  more  probability  it  is  to  be  assigned  to  the  time  of 
Pope  Stephen,  752.! 
Flabelli.  On  each  side  of  the  pope  are  borne  X\\eflal>c//i,  white 

ostrich  feathers,  on  long  poles  covered  with  crimson 
velvet,  which  are  carried  by  two  camerieri  segreti  when- 
ever he  is  borne  on  the  sedia  gestatoria,  and  also,  until 
1870,  at  the  feast  of  Corpus  Christi. 

The  history  of  the  flabelli  is  of  much  interest.  In  the 
"Apostolic"  Constitutions  the  Apostle  James  is  repre- 
sented as  saying  "  And  I  James  make  a  constitution  .  .  . 
let  2  of  the  deacons,  on  each  side  of  the  altar,  hold  a 
fan,  made  up  of  thin  membranes,  or  of  the  feathers  of 
the  peacock,  or  of  fine  cloth,  and  let  them  silently  drive 
away  the  small  insects  that  fly  about,  that  they  may  not 
come  near  the  chalices."  In  the  life  of  Epiphanius  the 
flabellum  is  called  Venti/abrum  Alinisterioriim  (fan  of  the 
ministers).  Flabella  or  inuscaria  formed  part  of  early 
Western  ritual  also.    S.  Udalric  in  his  '*  Cluny  Constitu- 

*  Kiaus,  article  Fiisskuss. 

X  See  the  chair  of  S.  Peter,  Part  I.,  p.  62. 


THE   POPE  343 

tions  "  says  that  one  of  the  two  deacons  at  mass  shall 
stand  with  a  fan.  Durandus  writes  :  "  But  lest  flies  should 
come  to  spoil  the  sweetness  of  the  ointment,  that  is  lest 
troublesome  thoughts  should  arise  and  destroy  the  devo- 
tion of  prayer,  they  are  to  be  driven  away  by  the  fan 
of  the  spirit.  And  to  signify  this,  in  summer  time,  a 
material  fan  should  be  used  while  the  secreta  "  (that  is 
the  private  prayers  over  the  oblation)  "  is  being  said." 
Cardinal  Bona  mentions  its  use  in  the  liturgy  during 
summer,  in  the  time  of  Nicholas  V.  (1447).  It  is  now 
no  longer  used  in  the  Roman  liturgy  proper,  but  only  in 
the  pope's  transit  to  celebrate  mass. 

Some  writers  tell  us  that  churches  used  to  be  adorned 
for  feast  days  with  flabelli  on  pillars  placed  in  the  corners 
of  the  church  ;  and  marble  flabelli  still  stand  between 
the  arches  of  S.  Sabina  on  festivals.* 

For  lesser  ceremonies,  when  the  Sedia  gestatoria  is  not   Portantina. 
used,  the  pope  is  carried  in  a  low  chair,  fashioned  like  a 
sedan  chair,  called  ihQ  portantina. 

From  the  Ordos  of  the  ix.  century  we  learn  that  the  White 
pope  used  to  ride  to  the  Stational  church  of  the  dayf  to  "!"'«•  ^nd 
celebrate  the  Solemn  Mass.  Until  the  xviii.  century  the 
popes  on  their  election  went  in  state  from  the  Vatican  to 
take  possession  of  the  Lateran,  riding  on  a  white  mule. 
This  imposing  ceremony  was  called  the  Cavalcata ;  and 
was  one  of  the  greatest  ever  seen  in  the  city.  The  whole 
college  of  Cardinals  awaited  the  Pope  in  the  portico  of 
the  Lateran,  vested  in  white.  The  Piazza  was  lined  with 
the  civic  guard,  and  the  Pope  was  received  by  the  chief 
Senator  of  Rome.  Detachments  of  all  the  papal  regi- 
ments formed  part  of  the  procession  which  started  from 
the  Vatican  (or  from  the  Quirinal),  cannon  being  fired  as 
the  Pope  left  the  palace.  All  the  camerieri  segreti,  eccle- 
siastics and  laymen,  attended,  and  the  Governor  of  Rome 
(always  a  Prelate)  rode  on  horseback  attired  in  lace  and 
purple.  The  Pope's  crocifero  bore  the  papal  '  crozier '  ; 
the  great  officers  of  State  followed  the  Pope,  attended  by 

*  Oriental  rites,  Part  II.,  Chapter  I. 
t  See  Part  II.,  p.  200. 


344      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 

servants  on  foot  in  gala  liveries.  A  brigade  of  the  Pala- 
tine guard  and  a  body  of  dragoons  closed  the  gorgeous 
procession.  Money  was  scattered  among  the  poor,  and 
pensions  bestowed  on  poor  students  of  painting  sculpture 
and  architecture.  The  last  pope  to  ride  to  the  Vatican 
was  Clement  XIV.*  Pius  VIII.  drove  in  a  coach  drawn 
by  6  horses,  his  white  mule  being  led. 
State  The  State  coach  of  the  popes,  a  splendid  vehicle  lined 

coach.  with  red  damask,  and  containing  a  red  velvet  chair  for 

the  pontiff,  and  a  cushion  opposite  for  his  attendant,  has 
not  been  used  since  1870.  It  may  be  seen  at  the  papal 
stables. 

Papal  The  Pope  confers  4  Knightly  Orders.     I.  The  first  and 

orders  of  most  ancient  of  these  is  the  Order  of  Christ,  founded  in 
luTod  '  Portugal  in  13 19  by  the  King,  who  having  refused  to  give 
effect  to  the  suppression  of  the  Templars,  changed  their 
name  to  that  of  the  Order  of  Christ :  the  Order  is  still 
conferred  by  the  Portuguese  sovereign.  The  insignia,  a 
red  enamelled  Latin  cross,  charged  with  a  white  enamelled 
cross,  surmounted  by  a  crown  and  worn  from  the  neck 
by  a  red  ribbon,  are  conferred  on  Italians  and  foreigners, 
who  need  not  be  nobles. 

II.  The  Order  ofS.  Sylvester  is  tliat  Order  of  the  Golden 
Spurs  whose  members  were  'Lateran  Counts  Palatine,'  said 
to  have  been  founded  by  Constantine  and  sanctioned  by 
Pope  Sylvester.  As  a  papal  Order  it  probably  originated 
in  the  middle  of  the  xvi.  century,  and  was  customarily  con- 
ferred on  members  of  the  Pope's  household  during  V\\^cav- 
alcata  and  on  the  anniversaries  of  his  accession.  Ciregory 
XVI,  re-instituted  it  as  a  public  mark  of  honour  to  be  be- 
stowed on  those  distinguished  by  their  zeal  for  religion  and 
the  Holy  See,  or  for  civil  artistic  or  scientific  merit.  The 
badge  is  a  white  enamelled  Greek  cross,  with  the  effigy 

*  See  "rultimaCavalcata,"  the  account  given  of  Clement's  pro- 
cession, in  Signor  Silvagni's  Corte  e  Socicta  Romatia. 

In  the  middle  ages  the  Prefect  of  Rome  walked  beside  the  pope, 
attired  in  a  red  silk  dalmatic,  a  gold-trimmed  mantle,  a  purple  vel- 
vet mitre,  one  of  his  stockings  red  and  the  other  gold. 


THE  POPE  345 

of  S.  Sylvester  in  the  centre,  and  on  the  reverse  Grego- 
rius  XVI.  restitiiit.  Commanders  wear  it  round  the  neck, 
Knights  on  the  breast.  The  riband  is  black,  striped 
white ;  and  the  uniform  is  a  red  military  coat,  white 
breeches,  sword  and  spurs. 

III.  Ordine  Piano,  so  called  because  instituted  in  1559 
by  Pius  IV.,  its  members  being  styled  Cavalieri  Pii  or 
Pios.  Pius  IX.,  in  1S47  restored  this  Order  which  has  two 
classes  for  those  possessing  ((z)  hereditary  or  (/^)  per- 
sonal noblesse.  The  insignia,  an  enamelled  blue  star 
with  the  words  "  Pius  IX."  on  the  obverse,  and  the  year 
MDCCCXLVII.  on  the  reverse.  Knights  of  the  I.  Class 
wear  a  blue  riband  with  red  borders  from  the  right  shoulder, 
Knights  of  the  II.  Class  wear  the  insignia  from  the  same 
coloured  ribbon.  The  uniform  is  a  blue  coat  with  red 
facings.* 

IV.  Order  of  S.  Gregory  the  Great,  founded  in  1831 
by  Gregory  XVI.  as  a  reward  for  zeal  and  devotion  in  the 
cause  of  Catholicism  and  of  papal  authority.  The  insig- 
nia, a  red  enamelled  cross  of  8  points  with  "  6".  Grego- 
riiis  Alagiius  "  and  the  words  "  Pro  Deo  et  Principe  "  on 
the  sides.  The  riband  is  red  with  yellow  borders  and  is 
worn  from  the  right  shoulder.  The  Grand  Cross  is  worn 
from  the  neck,  other  knights  wear  the  insignia  from  the 
buttonhole  ;  while  a  civil  service  branch  has  the  cross 
attached  to  a  green  enamelled  olive  branch,  and  the  mili- 
tary branch  adds  gold  trophies.  The  pope  also  confers 
a  medal  Pro  Ecclesia  et  Pontifice  which  was  originally 
intended  for  those  who  took  part  in  the  Jubilee  Years 
1887  and  1897.  It  is  now  given  to  those  who  have 
merited  well  of  the  Church  or  the  Pope.  It  is  in  3  classes, 
gold,  silver,  and  bronze,  and  is  given  to  both  men  and 
women. 

The  Holy  See  likewise  confers  the  titles  of  'Prince'  Titles  of 

and  *  Count ' '  of  the  Holy  Roman  l^npire.'     These  were  Roman^ 

conferred  by  the  Emperor  only,  until  the  remnants  of  the  Empire. 
'  Holy  Roman    Empire '  were   abolished    by   Napoleon. 

*  Since  1870  these  unifoniis  have  not  been  worn. 


346      CHRISTIAN  AXD  ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 

The  titles  of  '  Prince '  and  '  Count '  are  hereditary  in 
some  Italian  and  Austrian  families,  and  attach  also  to  cer- 
tain dignities.  The  honour  usually  conferred  by  the 
Pope  —  that  of '  Count  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire  '  —  is 
not  usually  hereditary. 
Peter's  PETER'S  pence.     This    is  a   contribution    to    the    See    of 

Pence.  Petcr,  Originating  in  England,  some  say  with  the  Kings 

of  Wessex  or  the  father  of  Alfred,  some  with  Offa  of 
Mercia.*  The  penny  was  paid  by  every  house  in  Eng- 
land, and  collected  at  Midsummer.  This  denarius  S. 
Petri,  or  Rom-Scot,  dener  de  la  meison,  was  paid  in  Eng- 
land till  1534.  The  Itahan  name  is  obolo  di  San  Pietro, 
and  this  is  still  paid  by  all  Catholic  peoples  ;  and  is  a  vol- 
untary offering  collected  periodically  in  the  churches. 

The  nunnery  of  Lucca  affords  the  first  instance  of  pay- 
ments to  Rome  for  its  "  eminent  domain."  Their  charter 
of  790  requires  them  to  furnish  oil  for  the  lights  of  S.  Peter's. 
In  the  Museo  Nazionale  of  Rome  are  a  quantity  of  silver 
coins  from  the  time  of  Alfred  the  Great  to  946.  These 
were  discovered  in  the  recent  important  excavation  of 
the  House  of  the  Vestals  in  the  Forum.  At  the  northern 
corner  were  found  the  remains  of  a  private  house  of  the 
vm.  or  IX.  century,  under  the  pavement  of  which  the 
insignia  of  an  officer  of  the  Pope's  Household  of  the  time 
of  Marinus  (943-946)  were  discovered  in  a  terra  cotta  jar. 
Of  the  835  coins  found  with  it,  830  are  English,  and  musf 
represent  the  offerings  of  Peter's  pence. 

Even  during  the  age  of  the  persecutions  Rome  had 
already  become  the  common  treasury  of  Christianity,  a 
treasury  administered  with  ability,  and  which  formed  a 
fund  of  propaganda  in  other  Churches,  and  of  relief  for 
the  suffering  confessors  in  other  lands  as  well  as  in  Rome. 
"  Un  merveilleux  esprit  de  direction  animait  cette  petite 
communaut^,  oil  la  Judt^e,  la  Grece  et  le  Latium  sem- 
blaient  avoir  confondu,  en  vue  d'un  prodigieux  avenir, 
leurs  dons  les  plus  divers  :  "  writes  Renan.f 

* ..'Ethelwolf,  and  perhaps  Offa,  bestowed  "royal  alms"  ;  other- 
wise the  above  conjecture  is  uncorroborated  from  authentic  sources, 
t  Marc  Aurele  et  la  tin  du  Monde  Antique. 


THE  POPE 


347 


By  the  Law  of  Guarantees  passed  by  the  Itahan  gov-  "Law  of 
eminent  in  187 1,  the  pope  was  to  receive  a  government  g^^ran- 
subsidy  of  3  and  a  quarter  million  francs  (_;^i 30,000) 
annually,  which  he  refused.  He  is  sovereign  in  his  resi- 
dences, into  which  the  Italian  guards  or  officials  cannot 
enter.  To  all  these,  exterriiorialisation  applies.  He 
can  also,  by  the  same  law,  retain  certain  companies  of 
soldiers  to  guard  his  person  and  residences.* 


THE    POPE  S    COURT    AND    HOUSEHOLD. 

As  early  as  the  vin.  century  a  body  of  seven  ministers 
surrounded  the  pope  and  discharged  the  various  functions 
of  the  pontifical  state.  They  were  known  as  jiidices  de 
clero  zvid^judices  palatini,  and  after  the  restoration  of  the 
empire,  formed  a  civil  court  of  justice.  Later,  they  be- 
came imperial  as  well  as  papal  officials.  They  prescribed 
the  ceremony  of  the  emperor's  coronation,  and  gave  legal 
form  to  the  papal  elections ;  two  of  them  acted  as  chan- 
cellors to  the  Western  emperor,  and  accompanied  him  on 
important  occasions.  These  ministers,  who  were  great 
personages  in  Rome,  and  lived  and  journeyed  with  much 
state  and  pomp,  retained  their  judicial  authority  through 
all  revolutions,  and  gradually  came  to  exert  an  omnipotent 
influence  over  the  votes  of  the  papal  electors. 

I.  The  first  of  these  seven  officials  was  known  as  the 
Primicerius-\  of  the  Notaries.  He  was  the  pope's  min- 
ister and  Secretary  of  State,  and  he  represented  the  papal 
office  during  a  vacancy  of  the  Holy  See. 

H.  The  Secimdarius  of  the  Notaries,  the  second  in 
importance,  was  the  under  secretary  of  State.  He  took 
precedence  of  bishops,  and  held  the  pope's  hand  in  pro- 
cessions and  during  solemn  functions. 

HI.  The  Arcarii/s  ox  Treasurer  assessed  the  taxes,  and 
administered  the  public  funds. 

*  Legge  suUe  prerogative  del  Sommo  Pontifice  e  della  Santa  Sede 
13  maggio  1871.      (Serie  2*).     X".  214.     Art.  4. 

t  The  name  is  preserved  to-day  in  the  President  <if  a  confraternity 
who  is  called  the  Primicerio. 


Seven 

yudices 

Palatini. 


348       CHRISriAX  AND   ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 


Reverenda 

Camera 

Apostolica. 


IV.  The  fourth  official  was  the  Saccellarius  or  Pay- 
master. 

V.  The  fifth,  the  Protoscriniar  or  Secretary.  He  was 
the  writer  of  letters,  drew  up  decrees  and  prepared  the 
acts  of  the  synods. 

VI.  The  Primus  Defensor  or  Advocate  of  the  church, 
administered  the  patrimonies  and  affairs  of  the  colonies. 
This  office  was  in  existence  under  Gregory  the  Great. 

VII.  The  Adviiniculator  was  minister  of  Peace  and 
protector  of  wards,  widows  and  prisoners. 

The  care  of  the  Pope's  jewels,  his  valuables,  his  books, 
his  wardrobe,  the  church  plate  and  property  and  the 
pontifical  archives,  all  fell  within  the  province  of  the 
Reverenda  Camera  Apostolica.  The  Camera  or  Treasury 
took  its  name  originally  from  the  camere  or  chambers 
built  as  early  as  the  v.  century  in  the  three  basilicas  of 
S.  Peter's,  S.  Paul's  and  the  Lateran,  wherein  Leo  I.  placed 
three  individuals  to  take  charge  of  the  bodies  and  relics 
of  the  martyrs.  Gradually  these  chambers  were  used  for 
the  deposit  of  money  and  valuables,  and  the  keeper  of 
valuables  was  known  as  the  thesauriiis  or  Treasurer. 
After  the  return  from  Avignon,  the  offices  of  the  Maggior- 
domo,  of  the  Maestro  di  Camera,  or  Steward,  and  of  the 
Treasury  were  divided  from  the  original  Camera,  the  two 
former  remaining  distinct  from  it. 

In  A.D.  1278  the  Pope's  household  numbered  some  300 
persons  of  all  ranks  from  the  Prefect  to  the  sergeant 
at  arms  and  the  grooms.  A  report  of  Alexander  V.'s 
household,  (1409-1410)  made  after  the  Council  of  Pisa, 
gives  an  account  of  the  different  kinds  of  chamberlains  in 
his  service  ;  his  honorary  chamberlains,  his  prelates  who 
read  the  Breviary  with  him,  assisted  him  at  mass,  and  had 
charge  of  his  jewels  and  wardrobe  ;  and  his  domestic 
chamberlains  who  waited  upon  him  and  slept  in  his  room. 
A  Comptroller  of  the  Household  kept  the  keys  ;  a  Steward 
of  the  Halls  attended  to  the  guests.  There  were  stjuires 
of  honour,  a  Master  of  works  and  repairs,  an  Almoner  and 
Confessor,  while  the  papal  bakery,  the  "  knives  and  forks," 
"wines  and  drinking  vessels,"  "candlesticks  and  tapers," 


THE  POPE 


349 


"  tapestries  and  beds,"  were  under  the  charge  of  different 
ecclesiastics. 

During  the  Avignon  exile  the  pontifical  court  reached 
to  hitherto  unknown  luxury  and  magnificence,  not  only 
the  pope  but  his  cardinals  also,  lived  in  more  than  princely 
state  and  maintained  retinues  of  several  hundred  persons. 
In  1555  the  papal  household  numbered  734  persons, 
and  the  revenues  amounted  to  12  or  18  million  francs, 
Clement  VII.  (1523-1534)  spending  in  one  year  6500 
florins  on  the  clothes  of  his  servants  alone.  Since  the 
Italian  occupation  in  1870,  and  the  pope's  permanent 
residence  in  the  Vatican,  the  pontifical  Household  has 
naturally  been  reduced,  and  many  state  offices  have  in 
the  nature  of  things  become  obsolete.  He  still  however 
keeps  up  a  royal  state  within  the  Vatican  wherein  he  is 
supreme  sovereign,  the  Vatican  having  been  rendered 
ex-territorial  by  the  Law  of  guarantees.* 

The  household  and  retinue  of  Leo  XIII.  numbers  some 
1200  persons,  but  this  includes  the  few  companies  of  sol- 
diers kept  for  service  in  the  palace.  In  the  pontifical 
court  of  to-day  are  found  much  the  same  offices  as  three 
centuries  ago,  and  we  meet  with  the  modern  descendants 
of  the  o\\%\xv2\judices  palatini  in  the  four  Cardinals  Pala- 
tine, and  four  Prelates  Palatine,  the  great  officials  of  the 
papal  court  and  Household. 

The  Cardinals  Palatine  are  as  follows  : 


I.   The    Chancellor 

Datario. 
II.    The  Secretary  of  State. 

III.  The  Secretary  of  Briefs. 

IV.  The  Secretary  of  Memo 

rials. 


Pro        (Cardinal  Masella) 


(Cardinal  Rampolla) 
(Cardinal  Macchi) 
(vacant) 


House- 
hold of 
Leo  XIII. 


Cardinals 
Palatine. 


The  four  Prelates  Palatine  are  : 

I.    The      Pope's      Maggior-       (Monsignor  Delia  Volpe) 
domo. 

*  See  ante  page  347. 


Prelates 
Palatine. 


350      CHRISTIAN  AND   ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 

II.    The    Pope's    Maestro    di       (Monsignor  Cagiano  de  Aze- 

Camera,    Steward    or         vedoj 

Lord  Chamberlain. 
III.    The      Pope's       Uditore*       (Monsignor  Guidi) 

Auditor. 
IV.    Master  of  the  Apostolic       (Fadre  Lepidi,  O.  P.) 

Palace     Maestro     del 

Sacro    Palazzo    Apos- 

tolico. 

Originally  one  lay  officer  the  Maestro  del  Sacro  Ospizio, 
fulfilled  the  duties  of  Master  of  the  Holy  Palaces,  Prefect, 
Maggiordomo,  Secretary  of  Ceremonies,  etc.,  and  received 
distinguished  guests  of  the  pope.  The  position  which  is 
also  that  of  Head  of  the  Lay  Chamberlains  ofSpada  e  cappa 
was  hereditary  in  the  Conti  family,  and  has  now  passed 
by  descent  to  Prince  Ruspoli  who  is  still  Maestro  del  Sacro 
Ospizio  although  the  office  is  almost  nominal.  It  is 
interesting  to  note  that  the  Maggiordomo  with  three  other 
Prelates,!  as  the  Secundariiis  of  old,  takes  precedence  of 
bishops  in  papal  processions. 
Chief  The  Secretaries  of  "  Briefs  to  Princes,"  of  "  Latin  let- 

officers,  ters,"  of  "  the  Embassies,"  the  Under  Secretary  of  State, 
and  the  Sotto  Datario  \  are  all  monsignori  and  important 
officers  of  the  pontifical  state.  The  Pope  has  a  private 
Almoner  who  is  an  archbishop  (Monsignor  Costantini),  a 
cupbearer  (Monsignor  Bisleti),  a  Master  of  the  Wardrobe 
(Monsignor  Merry  del  Val).  His  private  Sacristan 
(Mons.  Pifferi)  is  always  an  Augustinian,  he  is  likewise 
a  bishop  and  the  parish  priest  of  the  Apostolic  Palace. 
His  Director  of  Ceremonies  (Monsignor  Sambucetti)  is 
an  archbishop ;  this  officer  and  the  Maestro  del  S. 
Ospizio  would  receive  royal  visitors  at  the  foot  of  the 
steps  and  would  conduct  them  to  the  presence  of  the 
Pope,  they  would  also  have  the  charge  of  important 
guests  at  the  Vatican.  In  old  days,  when  the  pope  rode 
in  the  state  cavalcata,%  or  rode  and  drove  about  the  city, 

*  See  page  361.  J  See  page  361. 

t  See  page  476.  §  See  page  343. 


THE  POPE 


351 


his  Master  of  the  Horse,  cavallerizzo,  was  the  responsible 
functionary.  Although  the  pope  no  longer  leaves  the 
Vatican  this  office  still  exists,  and  is  held  by  Marchese 
Serlupi. 

Court  ceremonies  and  processions  within  the  palace 
are  under  the  charge  of  the  Marshal  Foriere,  Marchese 
Sacchetti.  Both  these  officers,  in  state  processions,  walk 
in  front  of  the  sedia  gestatoria  of  the  pope,  and  can  be 
distinguished  by  their  Elizabethan  dress  of  black,  resem- 
bling that  of  the  chamberlains  except  that  they  wear 
a  longer  tunic  with  full  sleeves,  and  no  cloak.  The  cav- 
allerizzo  wears  a  blue  riband  across  the  breast. 

All  the  above  officers  of  state,  the  "  Bearer  of  the 
Golden  Rose,"*  Count  Soderini,  the  officers  of  the  Noble 
guard,  the  Swiss  and  Palatine  guards,  and  the  pope's 
lay  chamberlains  belong  to  his  Household  or  Famiglia. 
The  chamberlains  wear  a  dress  of  black  silk  and  velvet,  a 
tunic  and  trunk  hose,  short  black  velvet  cloak  and  silk 
stockings.  They  carry  a  sword  and  wear  a  black  velvet 
bonnet,  a  white  Elizabethan  ruff  and  the  gold  chain  of 
their  office.  These  chamberlains  di  spada  e  cappa,  of  the 
sword  and  mantle,  are  gentlemen  of  every  nationality. 
About  nine  are  officers  in  ordinary,  and  there  are  about 
486  extraordinary,  in  two  grades.  The  difference  in  dress 
between  the  two  grades  is  however  so  slight,  that  they 
cannot  be  easily  distinguished. 

Some  hundreds  of  ecclesiastics  also  belong  to  the  Pope's 
Household,  ^.v  officio,  the  larger  number  of  whom  are  not 
in  attendance  in  the  Apostolic  Palace,  many  of  them 
being  resident  out  of  Rome.  These  are  firstly,  the  so- 
called  "  College  of  Assistants  at  the  Pontifical  Throne  " 
(Collegio  degli  assistenti  al  soglio  pontificio)  composed 
of  the  II  Eastern  Patriarchs,  53  Archbishops  and  93 
Bishops  t  of  Sees  in  and  out  of  Italy. 

Secondly,  the  Domestic  Prelates,  Monsignori  di  man- 
telletta.   given   on    page   475,   belonging  to    the    various 

*  See  Part  II.,  page  219. 

t  All  these  Prelates  swear  not  to  poison  the  pope,  and  to  inform 
him  if  they  know  of  such  an  intention. 


Cavaller- 
izzo. 


Foriere 


Pope's 
House- 
hold 
Famiglia. 

Lay 

Chamber- 
lains. 


Ecclesiasti- 
cal mem- 
bers of  the 
Pope's 
House- 
hold. 


352      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 

departments  of  the  papal  court,  and  the  Monsignori  di 
mantellone,  private  chamberlains  and  honorary  chamber- 
lains.*    Finally  a  certain  number  of  personal  attendants 

Famigliari.  upon  the  Pope,  his  Famigliari.  Among  those  are  the 
private  and  honorary  chaplains  who  attend  him  at  his 
Mass,  the  Apostolic  Preacher  and  the  Confessor  to  the 
Household. 

A  large  number  of  ushers,  htissolanti,  are  always  in 
attendance  in  the  Apostolic  palace  and  belong  to  the 
Household  ;  they  wear  a  purple  cassock,  sash  and  so- 
prana.  The  Pope  has  a  groom  of  the  stole,  a  personal 
attendant  at  meals  (scalco  segreto),  a  domestic  physician 
and  surgeon. 

Servants.  Responsible  servants  (scopatori  segreti),  attend  upon 

the  Pope  and  sleep  in  his  anteroom.  His  grooms  and 
bearers  are  magnificently  dressed  in  crimson  doublets 
and  hose.  The  former  used  to  walk  beside  the  Pope's 
white  mule,  when  he  rode  in  processions.  The  latter 
carry  the  sedia  gestatoria,  and  when  so  employed,  wear 
an  extra  surcoat  of  crimson  velvet. 


Urban 
militia. 


PAPAL  TROOPS. 

There  exists  a  tradition  that  Constantine  gave  Pope 
Sylvester  a  guard  of  twenty-five  soldiers  for  the  protection 
of  his  person.  We  know  however  that  during  the  Byzan- 
tine rule,  the  bishops  of  Rome  had  no  authority  whatever 
over  the  soldiers  of  the  city,  who  received  their  pay  from 
the  Emperor.  Later  these  seem  to  have  passed  under 
the  control  of  the  popes,  and  to  have  received  their  pay 
from  them,  owing  partly  no  doubt,  to  the  indifference  of 
the  Byzantine  officials  ;  and  we  find  Adrian  I.  (771-795) 
appointing  the  military  commanders  himself  Gradually 
this  Roman  militia  began  to  assume  a  national  and  civic 
character,  and  in  the  middle  ages  we  find  an  organised 
schola  militiinn,  or  defensive  guild,  beginning  to  repre- 
sent the  political  rights  of  Rome.  This  body  was  formed 
of  the  burgher  classes,  under  a  guild  captain,  and  recruited 

*  See  page  476. 


THE  POPE 


353 


according  to  the  twelve  ancient  regions  of  the  city,  to 
which  Trastevere  was  added  as  a  thirteenth  and  the  Leo- 
nine city  as  a  fourteenth  region. 

In  15 72-1585  this  ancient  urban  mihtia  was  re-organ- 
ised by  Gregory  XIII.  who  formed  from  it  a  pontifical 
guard  called  capotari,  popularly  slnrri,  a  body  from  which  Capotan 
the  modern  Palatine  guard  is  descended.  The  capotari  oi"jiJ/rr:. 
remained  a  militia  troop  recruited  from  the  citizens  of 
the  city  as  before,  according  to  the  ancient  regions. 
Their  special  duty  was  to  watch  by  night,  and  to  ensure 
jiublic  safety  by  day.  They  had  no  distinctive  dress  until 
1740,  and  in  1775  they  were  put  into  a  new  uniform  of 
red  and  yellow  by  Pius  VI.  \Vhen  Pius  VII.  was  elected 
at  Venice  in  1800,  all  other  troops  being  at  the  time  dis- 
banded, the  capotan  acted  as  the  pope's  body  guard 
when  he  entered  Rome,  and  offered  their  services  to 
protect  his  person  in  the  Quirinal.  As  a  reward  for  their 
loyalty,  they  were  created  a  permanent  troop,  and  a 
guard  of  the  "person  of  the  pontiff,"  with  right  to  be 
stationed  in  his  anterooms,  and  to  be  present  at  papal 
functions. 

Regular  troops   for  the  defence  of  the   Papal  States   Regular 
seem   to  have  been  first  organised  by  Gregory  VI.  in  troops. 
1044.     As  early  as  877,  John  VIII.  had  fitted  out  a  papal 
fieet  against  the  Saracens,  and  had  manned  men-of-war,    Marine, 
(juaint  ships  170  feet  long  with  a  wooden  tower  at  each 
end.     A  fleet  was  again  put  to  sea  by  Benedict  VIII. 
(1012-1024)  and  in  1455  Calixtus  III.  created  a  pon- 
tifical marine  for  fighting  the  Turks. 

Later  popes  kept  regular  troops  in  their  service,  and 
stores  of  arms  and  ammunition.  Leo  X.  (1513-1522) 
kept  arms  enough  in  Castel  S.  Angelo,  and  in  Ancona 
and  Ravenna  to  fit  out  100,000  men.  Pius  V.  (1566- 
1572)  sent  4500  horse  soldiers  and  8000  foot  to  assist 
Charles  IX.  of  France,  and  Clement  VIII.  (i 592-1 605) 
jealous  for  the  honour  of  the  papal  army,  instituted 
schools  of  artillery,  and  organised  a  confraternity  for  the 
members,  which  he  attached  to  the  church  of  S.  Eligio 
di  Consolazione  !    Urban  MIL  (1623-1644)  ordered  80 


354 


CIIRISTIAX  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 


Colours. 


Present 

Papal 

troops. 


Guardia 
Nobile. 


Uniform. 


Swiss 
guard. 


pieces  of  cannon  to  be  cast  from  the  bronze  torn  from 
the  Pantheon  roof,  and  this  pope  built  an  armoury  in  the 
Vatican  which  was  plentifully  stocked  by  Benedict  XIV. 
( 1 740-1 758).  When  this  pontiff  went  in  procession  to 
the  Lateran,  he  was  accompanied  by  eight  companies  of 
infantry  which  formed  up  in  the  Piazza  for  the  papal 
benediction. 

The  original  papal  colours  were  red  and  yellow,  but 
after  the  French  invasion  of  1798,  they  were  changed  to 
yellow  and  white,  the  red  and  yellow  cockade  having 
been  adopted  by  the  French. 

Since  1870,  the  pope's  forces  have  been  reduced  to 
portions  of  four  regiments  ;  the  noble  guard,  the  Swiss, 
the  Palatine  guard,  and  the  police  force  of  carabineers. 
These  soldiers  are  retained  for  service  in  the  Vatican. 
They  keep  guard  at  the  palace  gates  and  assist  at  papal 
functions  in  the  Vatican  and  S.  Peter's.  The  guards  of 
the  excise  department,  which  under  Gregory  X\T.  num- 
bered 1600  men,  are  now  of  course  disbanded. 

The  guardia  Nobile  or  regiment  of  nobles  was  origi- 
nally the  pope's  body  guard,  a  cavalry  troop  formed  by 
the  amalgamation  of  Paul  V.'s  lancers  with  a  still  older 
regiment.  They  rode  beside  the  pope's  carriage,  accom- 
panied him  on  journeys  and  attended  state  functions. 
When  the  Holy  See  was  vacant,  they  waited  on  the  car- 
dinals. The  present  regiment  dates  from  the  pontificate 
of  Pius  VII.,  and  is  formed  of  members  of  noble  families 
who  offer  their  services  gratuitously.  They  are  under 
the  command  of  a  lieutenant-general. 

Since  1841  \}i\Q  guardia  Nobile  has  numbered  between 
60  and  70  rnen.  Their  full  dress,  which  has  not  been 
worn  since  1870,  consists  of  a  scarlet  coat  braided  with 
gold,  white  breeches  and  riding  boots.  In  undress  they 
wear  a  black  coat  with  gold  epaulets,  dark  blue  trousers 
and  steel  helmets  with  a  gold  crest.  A  gold  band  crosses 
the  breast,  bearing  a  metal  plate  with  the  letters  G.  N.  P. 

The  Swiss  guard  seems  to  have  been  first  formed  in  1476 
by  Sixtus  IV.  who  selected  a  regiment  of  this  nationality 
on  account  of  its  incorruptible  loyalty,  firmness  and  trust- 


THE  POPE  355 

worthiness.  It  was  not  however  until  1505  that  a  defi- 
nite compact  was  made  with  the  Swiss  cantons  by  JuHus 

II.  for  the  regular  supply  of  troops,  a  document  being 
drawn  up,  embodying  all  the  mutual  privileges  and  con- 
ditions. This  compact  had  to  be  several  times  renewed, 
and  various  treaties  passed  between  the  popes  and  the 
cantons  of  Switzerland.  During  the  sack  of  the  Vatican 
in  1527  when  Clement  VII.  fled  to  the  Castel  S.  Angelo 
and  remained  in  hiding,  the  Swiss  barricaded  S.  Peter's 
and  fought  with  great  valour  for  6  hours  against  enormous 
odds  until  they  were  utterly  destroyed.  The  Swiss  nation 
did  not  sup])ly  fresh  soldiers  for  21  years.     In  1548  Paul 

III.  obtained  a  levy  of  200  men,  and  in  1550  two  new 
levies  of  120  men  were  accorded  to  Julius  III.  In  1557 
the  regiment  numbered  3000,  but  was  again  almost  de- 
stroyed fighting  for  Caraffa,  nephew  of  Paul  IV. 

The  duty  of  the  Swiss  guard  is  primarily  to  protect  the  Duties, 
pope's  person.  Their  quarters  are  in  the  Vatican  near 
the  colonnade,  and  here  Pius  V.  built  a  chapel  for  them 
which  he  dedicated  to  their  patron  S.  Martino.  In  old 
days  the  Swiss  guard  escorted  the  pope  from  his  apart- 
ments to  the  palace  gates  when  he  went  out,  and  met 
him  on  his  return  ;  they  accompanied  him  when  he  went 
in  vilkgiatura,  and  when  the  papal  court  moved  to  the  Quir- 
inal  during  the  summer  months,  they  occupied  the  ground 
floor.  They  assisted  at  all  the  great  church  funcdons;  at 
the  consecration  of  bishops  and  cardinals,  at  the  vesting 
of  a  nun,  at  the  taking  possession  of  a  titular  church. 
During  the  vacancy  of  tlie  Holy  See,  the  captain  offered 
his  services  to  the  Cardinal  Chamberlain  and  to  the 
Sacred  College,  and  would  accompany  the  former  home, 
and  remain  at  his  palace  until  the  election  of  a  new 
pope. 

The  Swiss  guard  of  Leo  XIII.  numbers  about  120  men 
including  officers,  sergeants  and  drummer.  They  are 
still  chosen  from  the  Catholic  cantons  of  Switzerland, 
and  are  under  the  command  of  a  captain  who  has  the  rank 
and  commission  of  a  colonel,  a  lieutenant  with  brevet  rank 
of  lieutenant-colonel,  and  a  sub-lieutenant  with  rank  of 


356      CHRISTIAN  AND   ECCLESIASTlCAI  ROME 

captain.  They  are  on  guard  day  and  night  at  the  gates 
of  the  Palace.* 

Uniform.  The  peculiar  dress  of  the  Swiss  guard  is  said  to  be  the 

ancient  doublet  and  hose  of  the  Swiss  national  costume, 
modified  by  designs  of  Michael  Angelo.  It  consists  of 
full  breeches  to  the  knee  of  alternate  wide  stripes  of  red 
yellow  and  black.  The  stockings  are  striped  yellow  and 
black,  and  they  wear  low  buckled  shoes.  Their  doublets, 
padded  at  the  shoulder  and  drawn  in  at  the  waist  with  a 
belt,  are  of  smaller  stripes  of  red  yellow  and  black,  and 
they  wear  black  helmets  with  white  horsehair  plumes. 
Before  1870,  they  wore  steel  cuirasses.  The  officers 
wear  breeches  of  striped  red  and  crimson,  black  doublets 
with  silver  bands,  crimson  stockings  and  shoes  with  large 
rosettes.  Before  1870,  their  uniform  was  iixr  more  m;ig- 
nificent,  an  example  of  it  can  be  seen  in  the  great  oil 
painting  in  the  Stanza  deW  Immacolata  in  the  Vatican. 
Officers  and  men  wear  a  stiff  white  Elizabethan  ruff. 

Arms.  The  colours  of  the  regiment  are  those  of  the  reigning 

pope,  divided  by  a  white  cross  with  the  papal  arms  in  the 
centre.  The  privates  of  the  Swiss  guard  carry  halberds  8 
feet  long,  with  fine  damaskeened  steel  blades.  Eight  of 
them  are  armed  with  enormous  two-handed  swords  said 
to  represent  the  Catholic  cantons  of  Switzerland,  and  it 
is  the  men  so  armed  who  walk  nearest  the  pope  when  he 
is  carried  on  his  sedia  gestatoria.  The  swords  are  said  to 
be  copies  of  that  worn  by  Francis  I.  when  taken  prisoner 
at  Pavia  (1525).  The  origin  of  the  halberds  is  uncertain  ; 
they  are  probably  a  Lombard  weapon.  The  small  brass 
cannon  kept  by  the  Swiss  at  their  quarters,  were  taken  by 
the  French  in  1 798. 

Upon  the  death  of  a  pope  and  until  the  election  of  his 
successor,  all  the  papal  troops  wear  a  black  sash  across 
their  uniform.  The  ancient  mourning  uniform  of  the 
Swiss  was  black  slashed  with  white.  During  the  solemn 
portions  of  the  mass,  the  papal  troops  present,  kneel,  and 
present  arms  at  the  elevation. 

*  See  May  "  Histoire  Miliiaire  de  la  Suisse  et  celle  des  Suisses 
dans  les  diffcrcnts  ser7>ices  de  I  Europe"  Lausanne,  178^, 


THE  POPE 


357 


The  Palatine  guard  is  a  militia  regiment  which  gives  its    Palatine 
services  in  the  Vatican  only  when  required  to  do  so.    The   g"^''^- 
uniform  of  the  regiment  consists  of  blue  trousers,  black   Uniform, 
coats  with  crimson  facings,  and  black  capots  with  crimson 
tufts. 

The  Pope's  carabineers  perform  police  duty  within  the   Carabin- 
Vatican,  and  can  be  always  seen  there  by  visitors,  at  the   ^^^^' 
entrance  to  the  court  of  Damasus,  the  Borgia  apartment, 
etc.    In  undress,  they  wear  blue  trousers,  black  coats  with   Uniform. 
white  braiding  and  the  three-cornered  hat,  familiar  to  all 
visitors  as  that  now  worn  by  the  Italian  carabinieri.     In 
full  dress  they  wear  white  buckskin  breeches,  riding  boots, 
and  black  bearskins. 

The  Pope's  firemen,  first  organized  by  Pius  VII.,  wear  Pompieri 
black  with  orange  facings,  and  brass  helmets. 


or  firemen. 


DIPLOMATIC    RELATIONS. 

Although  the  Pope  is  now  sovereign  only  within  the 
Vatican,  his  diplomatic  relations  with  foreign  States  are 
those  of  a  sovereign.  Thus  the  following  countries  of 
Europe  are  represented  by  ambassadors  to  the  Holy  See.* 

Austria- Hungary.  The  Embassy  is  in  Piazza  Venezia. 
France.  "         "  "     Palazzo  Rospigliosi. 

Spain.  "         "  "    Palazzo  di  Spagna. 

Portural.  *'         "  "    Palazzo  Fiano. 


Ministers  Plenipotentiary  represent : 

Bavaria  Chile  Peru 

Belgium  Colombia  Prussia 

Bolivia  Monaco  Principality  Russia 

Brazil  Nicaragua  San  Domingo 

The  officers  who  represent  the  pope  at  foreign  Courts 
are  two,  the  Nuncio  and  the  Legate  ;  a  third  office  is  that 
of  Apostolic  Representative. 

*The  English  Embassy  to  the  Pope  was  suppressed  by  Elizabeth. 


358      CHRISTIAN  AND   ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 

Nuncio.  The  Apostolic  Nuncio  is  a  prelate  or  bishop  acting  as 

the  Pope's  ambassador.  He  is  sent  as  an  ordinary  and 
permanent  delegate,  and  is  commonly  invested  with  Lega- 
tine  powers.  Apostolic  Nunciatures  exist  at  Brussels,* 
Lisbon,  Madrid,  Munich,  Vienna,  and  Paris,  with  inter- 
Nuncios  in  Holland,  Luxembourg,  and  Brazil.  There  is 
a  Swiss  Nunciature,  at  present  vacant.  Those  accredited 
to  Poland,  Venice,  England,  and  Cologne  f  no  longer 
exist.  The  papal  nuncio  takes  precedence  of  all  other 
ambassadors,  as  well  as  of  all  bishops  in  the  country  in 
which  he  is  Envoy.  The  title  of  an  Archbishop  in partibus 
is  usually  conferred  on  him. 

Apostolic  Representatives  of  the  Holy  See  are  further 
accredited  at  the  following  places  :  San  Domingo,  Co- 
lombia, Ecuador,  Bolivia  and  Peru. 

Legate.  The  Apostolic  Legate  is  an  Envoy  extraordinary,  sent 

by  the  pope  as  his  vicar  to  treat  of  urgent  or  grave 
affairs.  He  is  invested  with  plenary  and  extraordinary 
powers.  The  legate  is  now  always  a  cardinal,  though 
originally  the  office  was  filled  by  some  noble  Roman  lay- 
man, and  he  has  precedence  over  ambassadors,  metro- 
politans, and  bishops,  and  over  the  Nuncio  himself.  \ 

Papal  Legates  are  styled  Legatus  a  latere,  i.e.  sent  from 
the  pope's  side,  as  distinguished  from  Legati  nati,  the 
occupants  of  certain  privileged  Sees,  who  have  no  mission 
from  the  pope,  but  whose  dignity  carries  with  it  the  title 
of  Legate  Apostolic. 


I.  Cancel- 
leria. 


PAPAL    OFFICES    OF    STATE. 

The  great  offices  of  the  Papacy  can  be  divided  broadly 
into  those  which  are  concerned  with  functions  civil  and 
public,  and  those  which  are  purely  ecclesiastic. 

Among  the  former  the  chief  is  the  CanceUeria  or 
Papal  Chancery  from  which  emanate  all  the  public  acts 

*  The  present  Pope's  old  Nunciature. 

t  Machiavelli  was  Nuncio  at  Cologne,  and  created  cardinal  on  his 
return. 

X  In  the  A'ln.  century  S.  Boniface  styles  himself  legate  of  the 
Roman  Church. 


THE  POPE  359 

of  the  Pope.  This  office  is  concerned  with  his  relation 
to  foreign  States,  and  its  function  is  to  authenticate  all 
papal  public  acts  and  documents.  Thirty  signatures  are 
necessary  for  the  authentication  of  a  Bull. 

The  present  Vice  Chancellor  is  Cardinal  Parocchi,  and 
the  premises  of  this  office  are  in  the  Cancelleria  Palace. 

Collegia  del  Prelati  abbreviatori  del  Parco  Maggiore.  jj  pg^co 
These  Prelates  were  called  abbreviators  because  they  Maggiore. 
originally  transcribed  and  made  a  resume  of  Papal  Bulls, 
now  they  only  sign  them.  The  signing  takes  place  in  a 
hall  of  the  Cancelleria  Palace,  the  hall  of  the  "  loo  days." 
A  portion  of  this,  which  they  alone  might  enter,  is  called 
the  Parco  Maggiore  or  "  greater  corner  "  and  is  set  apart 
for  the  abbreviators  who  sit  round  an  immense  table  and 
sign  in  turn  until  the  circle  is  completed. 

In  addition  to  the  above,  the  following  secretariats  are 
also  concerned  with  the  public  and  foreign  relations  of  the 
Papacy : 

I.  The  Secretariat  of  State  under  Cardinal  Rampolla  ;    m  secre- 
II.  of  Briefs  under  Cardinal  IMacchi ;    III.  of  Briefs  to    tariats. 
Princes  under  Monsignor  Volpini ;  IV.  of  Latin  Letters 
under  Monsignor  Tarozzi.     These  offices  are  in  the  Vati- 
can with  the  exception  of  the  second,  which  is  at  Palazzo 
Altemps. 

A  Bull,  so  called  from  the  bulla  or  lead  seal  anciently  Bulls. 
appended  to  it,  is  the  document  by  which  papal  decrees 
are  promulgated.  It  corresponds  to  an  Edict  or  Letters 
Patent.  A  bull  is  issued  from  the  Cancelleria  at  Rome  ; 
it  is  written  in  Latin  without  lines  stops  or  diphthongs,  on 
rough  parchment,  and  in  Gothic  characters,  a  remnant  of 
the  sojourn  at  Avignon.  On  one  side  of  the  seal  Peter 
and  Paul  are  depicted,*  on  the  other  the  reigning  Pope  :  a 
white  string,  sometimes  a  yellow  and  red  one,  is  attached. 
Polidorus  Virgilius  opines  that  Stephen  III.  (768)  first 
used  the  seal  as  the  authentic  sign  of  the  Bull. 

*  A  bidla  of  Clement  VII.  has  the  head  of  Peter  only;  another 
of  the  same  pontiff  has  both  heads,  and  the  inscription  S.P.A.  S.P.E. 
ALMA  ROMA.  Other  seals  have  been  inscribed  AUREA  ROMA,  or 
other  legend  with  the  name  of  the  reigning  pope,  and  no  medaUions. 


36o      CHRISTIAN  AXD  ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 

A  Bull  begins  thus  :  "  N.  *  Episcopus  servus  servorum 
Dei  ad  perpetuam  rei  memoriam."  Below  these  words 
comes  the  text.  A  Bull  is  always  dated  from  the  year 
of  the  Incarnation  —  antio  Incarnationis  Donini.  It 
also  bears  the  date  Pojiiificatits  Nosiri ;  the  popes  how- 
ever never  mentioned  the  year  of  their  own  pontificate 
in  any  document  before  the  end  of  the  xiii.  century. 
The  "  year  of  the  Incarnation  "  is  never  found  up  to  the 

Buiiarium.  middle  of  the  x.  century.  The  Biillariuvi  Magnum  con- 
tains the  collection  of  all  existing  Bulls.  That  compiled 
by  Coquelines  in  1737  gives  the  extant  Papal  Bulls  from 
Leo  the  Great  to  Benedict  XIII. 

Encyclical.  An  P'.ncyclical  is  a  circular  letter  in  which  the  pope 
communicates  some  idea  of  his  to  the  bishops.  It  begins 
Vcncrabilcs  Fratres.  The  Letters  of  the  Apostles  and 
other  early  Christian  Epistles  were  addressed  to  the 
whole  Church  ;  or  from  one  Church  to  another,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  Letter  from  the  Roman  to  the  Corinthian 
Christians,  indited  by  S.  Clement  of  Rome.f  But  in  the 
middle  ages  and  up  to  now  Encyclicals  have  always  been 
addressed  by  the  pope  to  the  bishops.  The  present  Pope 
however  addressed  his  Encyclical  on  the  Labour  question 
and  his  Letter  to  the  English  to  the  people ;  and  last  year 
(1898)  two  more  such  Encyclicals  have  come  from  his 
pen,  one  to  the  Scotch,  and  the  other  to  the  Catholics 
of  Italy. 

Brief.  A  Brief,  that  is  a  Letter  addressed  to  a  Sovereign,  a 

Society,  or  an  individual,  begins  with  the  words  which 
form  the  heading  of  a  Bull,  but  the  text  immediately 
follows  them  on  the  same  line.  Briefs,  like  Encjclicals 
and  all  other  jiapal  documents,  are  dated  from  the  year 
of  our  Lord's  Nativity  —  antw  Nativitatis  Domini.  Vy\\\\ 
the  XV.  century  all  papal  Letters  were  written  "  under  the 
seal  of  the  Fisherman  ;  "  and  from  the  x.  to  the  xv.  centu- 
ries the  common  beginning  was  N.  Episcopus  sennis 
servonnn  Dei.  I 

*  Name  of  the  Pope.  f  Cp.  also  Acts  xv.  22,  23. 

t  See  page  334,  a>i(e. 


THE  POPE 


361 


V.  Segna- 
tura. 


The  law  courts  of  the  old  Papal  States  still  exist  in  the  IV.  Rota. 
Pontifical  Administration,  although  their  work  is  now 
little  more  than  nominal,  and  they  are  concerned  with 
ecclesiastical  cases  only.  The  most  famous  of  these  is 
the  S.  Rota  Romana,  so  called  from  the  fact  that  the 
judges  sat  in  a  circle  {^rota  a  wheel].  This  court  had 
acquired  European  celebrity  by  the  xii.  century.  It  was 
a  supreme  court  of  appeal  for  civil  and  economic  ques- 
tions and  was  composed  of  12  judges  of  different  nation- 
alities. 

The  Segnatura  Papale  di  giusiizia  was  a  court  of 
justice  for  both  civil  and  criminal  cases  ;  66  prelates 
belong  to  this  court  as  referees. 

The  Episcopal  and  Ecclesiastic  functions  of  the 
Papacy  are  conducted  through  the  following  offices  : 

I.  The  Dataria  Apostolica.     This  office  takes  its  name    i.  Dataria. 
from  data  a  date.     It  is  here  that  bulls  are  prepared,  graces 
granted,    benefices    conferred,    dispensations    obtained. 

About  40  persons  are  employed  in  this  department, 
which  has  its  offices  in  the  Dataria  Palace.  The  Datario 
is  Cardinal  Masella. 

II.  The  Secretariat  of  Memorials  is  also  concerned  with 
graces  and  benefices,  whenever  it  is  a  case  of  obtaining 
them  by  dispensation  in  a  less  elaborate  way  than  through 
the  office  of  the  Dataria.  The  post  of  secretary  in  this 
department  is  vacant.  The  offices  are  in  Palazzo  Migna- 
telli. 

III.  The   Apostolic   Penitentiary.     This   consists  of  a    ill.  Peni- 
body  of  Prelates  under  the  presidency  of  the   Cardinal   tentiary. 
Penitentiary,  S.  Vannutelli,  whose  duty  it  is  to  consider 
difficult  and  referred  cases  of  conscience,  the  ultimate 
referee  being  the  Pope  himself. 

IV.  The  Pope's  Uditore,  or  Auditor,  is  practically  his 
counsellor,  and  the  responsible  adviser  in  the  selection 
and  presentation  of  bishops.  A  certain  number  of  prel- 
ates and  others  work  under  the  auditor. 

The  Funds  of  the  Church  are  administered  by  the 
Treasury  or  Reverenda  Camera,  under  the  Vice-Cham- 
berlain  of  the    Church,    Cardinal    Oreglia.       About    20 


II.  Secre- 
tariat of 
Memorials. 


IV.  Udi- 
torio. 


Rev. 
Camera. 


362       CHElSTIAiV  AND   ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 


Cardinal 
Vicar, 


officials  belong  to  the  Treasury,  which  office  is  in  the 
Vatican. 

An  office  also  exists,  under  the  Pope's  Almoner,  for 
the  distribution  of  alms  and  the  giving  of  charity.  It  is 
the  custom  for  the  pope  to  make  a  periodical  dis- 
tribution of  alms  in  Rome  at  Easter,  Christmas  and  in 
August. 

The  Pope's  local  functions  as  Bishop  of  Rome  are  ful- 
filled by  a  vicar,  who  is  also  a  bishop  and  a  cardinal,  the 
Cardinal  Vicario.  He  is  assisted  by  a  vice-gerent, 
who  is  a  bishop  or  archbishop.  The  regular  and  secular 
parishes  of  the  city  and  the  suburbs,  the  seminaries,  col- 
leges, schools  and  lyceums,  and  an  office  for  the  custody 
of  relics,  are  all  under  the  vicariate  of  Rome.  A  com- 
mission of  Sacred  Archaeology  consisting  of  some  1 1 
commissioners  with  a  secretary,  has  lately  been  placed 
under  the  presidency  of  the  Cardinal  Vicar.  The  office 
of  the  Vicariate  is  in  Piazza  S.  Agostino  7. 


PALATINE    ADMINISTRATION. 

Prefecture.  The  care  of  the  sacred  Apostolic  Palaces  is  confided  to 
a  Prefecture  composed  of  the  various  palace  officials.  The 
museums  and  galleries  are  dependent  upon  the  Maggior- 
domo,  but  separate  curators  are  appointed  for  the  care 

Museums,  of  the  museums,  the  picture  gallery,  the  Egyptian  museum, 
the  Sale  Borgia,  the  Loggie  of  Raphael  and  the  Lateran 
Palace  and  Museum  ;  there  is  also  an  artistic  curator  of 
the  picture  galleries. 

Library.  The  Vatican  Library  is  under  the  'Protection'  of  Car- 

dinal Capecelatro  who  is  Cardinal  Librarian,  assisted  by 
a  sub-librarian,  two  prefects,  and  various  scribes  in  dif- 
ferent languages.  The  Christian  and  Profane  museums, 
and  the  Numismatic  Cabinet  are  under  separate  sub- 
directors. 

Archives.  The  Vadcan  archives  are  under  the  direction  of  Car- 

dinal Segna,  assisted  by  two  sub-archivistSj  writers  and 
custodians. 


THE  POPE  363 

The  Observatory  is  directed  by  P.  Rodriguez,  a  Romite   Observa- 
of  S.  Augustine,  and  his  assistants.  ^°''>- 

The  Vatican  Printing  Press  is  administered  by  a  lay-    Priming 
man,  Commendatore  Puccinelli.  Press. 

An  Inspector  of  Sanitation  and  Hygiene,  and  a  Direc- 
tor of  Police  are  attached  to  the  Vatican  ;  and  a  com- 
mission of  Prelates  assisted  by  legal  advisers,  has  been 
appointed  to  settle  all  matters  of  dispute  or  controversy 
which  may  arise  with  reference  to  the  Palatine  adminis 
tration. 


CHAPTER    II. 


PAPAL    CEREMONIES. 


Election  of  the  popes —  Conclave  —  history  and  rules  of — Funeral 
of  the  pope  —  Ordination  of  the  pope  —  Consistory  —  Cappella 
Papale- — -Beatification  and  Canonisation — process  and  cere- 
mony —  The  Roman  carnival. 


Election  of 
the  Popes. 
History. 


In  the  early  ages  of  the  Church,  the  election  of  the 
Bishops  of  Rome  (as  that  of  other  bishops,  of  priests, 
and  deacons),*  was  in  the  hands  of  the  assembled  clergy 
and  people  of  the  city.f  The  validity  of  the  election  was 
then  examined  by  an  official,  and  was  submitted  to  the 
Emperor  for  his  confirmation,  the  messenger  to  the  court 
of  Ravenna  or  Byzantium,  bearing  with  him  the  keys  of 
Peter's  tomb,  to  typify  the  authority  of  the  Emperor  over 
the  great  shrine  of  Rome. 

The  rights  of  the  Roman  people  we  find  expressed  in 
the  V.  century  by  the  words  "  Let  no  bishop  be  given  to 
those  unwilling  to  receive  him  ;  the  consent  and  desire 
of  clergy  and  people  are  requisite,"  and  by  the  statement 


*  The  archdeacon  of  Rome,  next  to  the  Pope  the  most  impor- 
tant person  in  the  city,  was  elected  by  the  pope  with  the  consent 
of  the  clergy  and  people.  Cardinal  Moroni  writing  of  the  diac- 
onate  says :  "  in  the  first  centuries  although  the  bishops  had  the 
principal  authority,  the  people  joined  in  it,  because  the  bishops  after 
the  example  of  the  apostles,  proposed  them  (the  deacons)  to  the 
clergy  and  the  people,  took  their  advice,  antl  heard  them  willingly." 
After  the  vi.  century,  he  adds,  the  people  and  clergy  were  dtpriv>_d 
of  this  pow'er,  and  henceforth  could  only  oppose  an  election  if  it 
was  contrary  to  the  good  of  the  Church.  For  traces  of  this  usage 
see  also  Part  II.  'ordination.' 

t  The  three  great  elective  bodies  were  the  clergy  people  and  the 
military. 

364 


PAPAL    CEREMONIES  365 

of  Leo  I.  (440-461)  :  when  the  saccrdos,  i.e.  bishop  is  to 
be  elected,  he  whom  the  clergy  and  people  demand  is  to 
be  preferred  beyond  all  others. 

In  the  VI.  and  vii.  centuries,  and  earlier,  the  pope  was 
usually  selected  from  the  deacons,  and  at  one  time  it  was 
usual  for  the  archdeacon  of  Rome  to  be  the  Pope's  suc- 
cessor. Paul  I.  writing  to  King  Pepin  in  757  still  styles 
himself  '  deacon.'  Pauliis  Diaconus  et  in  Dei  Jiomiue 
electiis  sanctce  sedis  apostolicce,  "  Paul  the  Deacon,  and 
in  the  name  of  God,  Elect  of  the  Holy  Apostolic  See."  * 

Doubtful  elections  were  decided  by  the  Magistrate  or 
the  Emperor.f  The  system  was  however  open  to  abuse. 
Felix  IV.  (526)  was  nominated  by  Theodoric,|  and  other 
popes  paid  for  the  confirmation  of  their  election,  until  a 
decree  had  to  be  issued  (532)  forbidding  the  sale  of  the 
papal  office  by  the  bribery  of  the  electors. 

Even  in  those  early  days  of  the  growth  of  the  papal 
dominion,  a  threefold  struggle  was  beginning  between  the 
papacy,  the  rights  of  the  Roman  people,  and  the  Impe- 
rium.  In  483  a  decree  was  issued,  forbidding  any  elec- 
tion without  the  co-operation  of  the  king's  plenipotentiary, 
in  defiance  of  the  emperor,  and  a  synod  of  Pope  Sym- 
machus,  in  502,  annulled  the  order  that  no  papal  election 
could  be  ratified  without  the  emperor's  plenipotentiary. 
It  was  also  agreed  that  no  secular  official  should  in  future 
take  part  in  the  elections. 

By  the  time  of  Honorius  I.  (625)  the  official  ratifica- 
tion of  the  papal  elections  had  probably  passed  over  to 
the  exarchs  of  the  Emperor,  but  the  system  was  irksome 
to  the  Romans  who  struggled  continuously  for  indepen- 
dence of  the  Byzantine  court.     Boniface  II.  (530)  had 


*  Benedict  I.  created  Gregory  a  deacon  "  (hdi  nt  ad  altare  luiti- 
isiraret,  turn  tit  in  partem  pontijicalis  sollicitudinis  succederet." 

t  Cyprian  in  discussing  the  election  of  Cornelius  (251-254),  con- 
sidered as  to  its  validity  the  snffragium  of  the  people  and  the 
iestiiuoniiim  of  the  clergy. 

X  This  election  o{  Fimbrins  (Felix  IV.)  nominated  to  the  Senate 
clergy  and  people  of  Rome  b)'  tlic  king,  is  termed  by  Muratori  un 
coinandamento,  an  order. 


366      CIIRISTIAX  AXD   ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 

already  attempted  to  appoint  his  successor,  but  had  been 

forced    by   the    emperor    to   withdraw   his    nomination. 

Benedict   II.   (683-684)    obtained  a  temporary  rescript 

allowing  the  three  elective  bodies  to  proceed  with  the 

election,  but  it  was  not  until  the  time  of  the  iconoclastic 

dispute  that  the  Church  gained  its  emancipation  from  the 

East. 

King  Its  independence  of  Byzantium  was  sealed  by  a  com- 

Pepin.  pact  with   King   Pepin.      The   new   Frankish   monarchy 

needed  the  support  of  Rome,  and  in  return,  promised 

military  aid  in  case  of  need,  and  ratified  to  the  Church 

the  temporal  dominion  over  the  Tuscan  provinces.     The 

Patricius       title  of  Patricius  of  the  Romans  and  Defender  of  the 

of  the  Church  was  conferred  upon  Pepin  and  his  descendants, 

Romans.  ,  ,  ,.         ',,         '_.  ,,  ' 

and  upon  the  election  of  Leo  111.  m  797,  the  keys  of 
Peter's  shrine  were  delivered  to  Charlemagne  with,  for  the 
first  time,  the  banner  of  the  city,  as  a  sign  that  the 
Emperor  was  its  military  defender.* 

From  this  time  we  find  the  German  kings  beginning  to 
play  the  part  of  the  Byzantine  Emperors  in  the  papal 
elections,  and  the  Roman  people  gradually  surrendering 
their  rights.  In  857  the  acts  for  the  election  of  Benedict 
III.  were  signed  by  the  clergy  and  people  of  Rome,  and 
presented  to  the  Emperor  for  ratification,  precisely  accord- 
ing to  Byzantine  usage,  and  in  963  Otto  I.  exacted  a 
promise  from  the  clergy  and  nobles  that  they  would  not 
elect  a  pope  without  his  consent  or  his  son's. 

The  old  struggle  had  only  shifted  its  ground.  The 
papal  elections  grew  to  be  the  occasions  for  the  most  riot- 
ous outbursts  between  rival  factions  in  the  city,  ending 
in  free  fights  and  bloodshed.  "  Freedom  of  choice  was 
overruled  by  the  tumults  of  a  city  that  no  longer  owned 
or  obeyed  a  superior,"  writes  Gibbon.  According  to 
ancient  usage,  upon  the  death  of  a  pope  all  prisoners 
were  liberated, t  amidst  festivities  and  rejoicings,  and  the 
palace  of  the  dead  pope  was  given  over  to  pillage  by 

*  Henry  III.  was  crowned  "  Patricius"  in  S.  Peter's  arrayed  in  a 
green  chlamys  and  wearing  a  ring  and  gold  diadem, 
t  This  practice  was  continued  until  1823. 


PAPAL    CEREMONIES 


367 


the  populace  which  again  clamoured  for  bounties  upon 
the  election  of  a  successor.  Not  infrequently,  rival  popes 
were  elected  by  rival  factions  at  the  same  time,*  and  the 
city  was  given  over  to  license  and  bloody  contests. 

It  was  to  avoid  all  these  evils  that  Nicholas  II.  (105S- 
1061)  acting  under  the  influence  of  Hildebrand,  after- 
wards Gregory  VII.,  enacted  a  decree  forming  the  College 
of  Cardinals  into  an  ecclesiastical  senate  who  should 
undertake  the  election  of  the  popes.  The  "assent"  of 
the  clergy  and  people  was  however  retained,  and  a  fur- 
ther clause  to  the  effect  that  this  should  be  enacted 
"  saving  the  honour  due  to  our  well  beloved  son  Henry  " 
IV.  whose  imperial  house  had  obtained  personally  from 
the  Holy  See  the  right  of  confirming  the  elections. 
Alexander  III.  (1159-1181)  definitely  abolished  the 
tumultuous  vote  of  the  Roman  clergy  and  people,  and 
vested  the  right  of  election  solely  in  the  College  of  Car- 
dinals, a  body  which  he  increased  from  the  original  20  or 
25  to  70  members,  to  correspond  with  the  number  of 
disciples  sent  out  by  Christ.!  He  also  decreed  that  the 
votes  of  two-thirds  of  the  Cardinals  sufficed  to  decide  an 
election.  After  the  death  of  Clement  IV.  ( 1 268)  the  Holy 
See  was  vacant  for  nearly  3  years,  the  conclave  sitting  in 
Viterbo,  while  the  people  of  the  city  rose  in  tumult  and 
climbed  upon  the  roof  of  the  palace  to  expedite  their 
deliberations.  As  a  consequence  of  this,  and  to  prevent 
its  recurrence  Gregory  X.  summoned  a  council  at  Lyons 
in  May  1274,  and  for  the  first  time  definite  rules  of  Con- 
clave were  drawn  up.  These  prescribed  that  the  conclave 
should  be  held  in  the  palace  of  the  dead  pope,  where  the 
absent  cardinals  should  be  awaited.  Each  cardinal  was 
to  be  attended  by  one  sen'ant  only,  and  the  whole  college 
was  to  inhabit  one  room,  all  doors  and  windows  being 
boarded  up  except  one,  through  which  food  was  to  be 
passed  in. 

*  Innocent  II.  and  Anacletus  II.  were  elected  on  the  same  day 
at  S.  Marco  and  at  S.  Gregorio  by  rival  parties  (a.D.  1130). 

t  Cf.  the  70  Assistants  of  Moses  (Xunib.  xi.  16),  and  the  70  mem- 
bers of  the  Sanhedrin. 


Decree  of 
1059. 

Election 
by  College 
of  Cardi- 
nals. 


Council 
of  1 159. 


Council  of 

Lyons, 

1274. 

Rules  of 
Conclave. 


368      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 

They  were  allowed  one  dish  at  meals  after  the  first 
three  days.  If  after  five,  no  election  had  taken  place,  the 
diet  was  to  be  reduced  to  bread  and  water.  No  com- 
munication whatever  was  allowed  with  the  outside  world, 
the  conclave  being  watched  from  without  by  the  secular 
authorities.  The  secular  governor,  inaresciallo  of  the 
conclave,  used  in  Rome  to  inhabit  a  temporary  building 
erected  at  the  foot  of  the  great  steps  of  S.  Peter's,*  and 
was  attended  by  a  detachment  of  the  Swiss  guard  in  their 
mourning  uniform  of  black  and  white. 

These  rigid  rules  proved  very  unpalatable,  and  were 
annulled  by  later  popes  and  again  revived.  They  did 
not  prevent  conclaves  taking  place  with  irregularities  and 
amidst  scenes  of  tumult  and  uproar,  five  popes  being  so 
elected  between  1277  and  1294.  During  the  conclave 
which  ended  with  the  election  of  Martin  V.  (12S1-1285) 
the  disagreements  between  the  Roman  party  and  the 
adherents  of  Charles  of  Anjou  were  so  violent,  that  a  con- 
clusion was  reached,  only  after  the  citizens  had  broken 
into  the  palace  and  forcibly  removed  and  shut  up  two  of 
the  cardinals.  The  election  of  Nicholas  III.  (12 77-1 280) 
was  effected  after  six  months  of  altercation,  watched  by 
the  impatient  citizens  of  Viterbo. 

When  Honorius  IV.  died  in  1287,  the  conclave  which 
took  place  in  S.  Sabina  lasted  from  the  Good  Friday  of 
one  year  until  January  of  the  following.  All  the  cardinals 
except  one,  fell  ill  during  the  hot  season,  and  six  of  them 
died  of  fever,  so  that  the  sitting  of  the  conclave  had  to 
be  postponed  until  the  winter  months.  After  the  death 
of  Nicholas  IV.  (1292)  the  cardinals  would  not  submit 
to  reclusion,'and  the  Holy  See  remained  vacant  for  two 
years,  the  cardinals  assembling  at  various  times  in  Perugia 
and  in  three  churches  in  Rome.  Finally  the  election  of 
Boniface  VIII.  following  upon  the  perhaps  forced  abdica- 
tion of  Celestine  V.  has  been  open  to  grave  question. 

*  The  first  conclave  held  in  the  Vatican  and  which  resulted  in  a 
schism,  was  in  1378,  for  the  election  of  a  successor  to  Gregory  XI. 


PAPAL    CEREMOXrF.S 


369 


COXCL.AVE    AT   THE    PRESENT    DAY. 

The  rules  of  Conclave  at  the  present  day  are  virtually  Conclave, 
the  same  as  those  of  Gregory  X.,  although  their  severity 
has  been  relaxed.  Even  of  late  years  *  it  has  been  neces- 
sary to  barricade  the  Leonine  City  during  conclave,  to 
prevent  forcible  interference,  and  troops  have  been  posted 
at  various  points  in  the  city  to  maintain  order  and  tran- 
quility. 

Ten  days  are  allowed  to  elapse  after  the  death  of  a 
pope,  in  which  to  summon  cardinals  from  a  distance,  and 
to  make  the  necessary  preparations.  During  this  interval 
the  obsequies  take  place.  Immediately  upon  the  death 
of  a  pope,  the  Cardinal  Camerlengo  (Chamberlain)  of  the 
Roman  Church  is  summoned  to  identify  the  body.  He 
comes  dressed  in  mantelletta  and  mozzetta  of  violet,  and 
kneeling  down  by  the  body,  calls  upon  the  dead  pope  Funeral  of 
three  times  by  his  baptismal  name ;  he  then  taps  his  *^^  Popes, 
forehead  three  times  with  a  silver  hammer.  This  old 
ceremony  is  to  assure  those  present  that  death  has  actually 
taken  place.  The  Chamberlain  then  receives  the  ring  of 
of  the  fisherman  f  which  is  to  be  broken  at  the  first  meet- 
ing of  the  curia,  and  the  death  is  announced  by  the  tolling 
of  bells ;  the  penitentiaries  of  the  Vatican  meanwhile 
watching  by  the  corpse.  After  24  hours,  the  body  of  the 
pope  is  embalmed,  and  the  inside  portions  are  carried  to 
the  parish  church  for  burial ;  when  the  popes  lived  at  the 
Quirinal  SS.  Vincenzo  e  Anastasio  a  Trevi  was  the  parish 
church.  In  the  case  of  Pius  IX.  the  Vatican  Grotte  were 
used  for  the  purpose.  On  the  second  day  the  body  is 
carried  by  night  to  the  Sistine  where  it  is  dressed  in  full 
pontificals,  with  dalmatic  and  chasuble  of  red,  Xki^  fanone,\ 
the  pallium  and  a  linen  mitre,  and  at  the  feet  are  placed 
two  red  velvet  caps.  On  the  following  day,  a  solemn 
procession  is  formed  ;  the  Swiss  guard  preceded  by  their 
captain,  the  cardinals  two  and  two,  all  the  prelates  reciting 
the  prayers  and  psalms  for  the  dead,  and  in  the  centre 


t  See  page  341. 


+  See  page  336. 


370      CHR/SriAX  AXD  ECCLESIASTICAL    ROME 

the  body,  burnc  by  eight  priests  into  S.  Peter's,  where  it 
is  laid  upon  an  open  bier  in  the  chapel  of  the  Sacrament, 
its  feet  towards  the  closed  gates  of  the  chapel ;  around 
it,  innumerable  torches,  and  a  detachment  of  the  Swiss 
Lying  in  Guard.  The  lying-in-state  lasts  for  three  days,  at  the  end 
State.  Qf  which  period  there  is  another  solemn  reunion  of  Car- 

dinals Prelates  and  Canons  in  the  Chapel.  The  face  and 
hands  of  the  dead  pope  are  covered  with  handkerchiefs 
of  white  taffeta  by  the  Maggiordomo,  (failing  a  cardinal 
who  is  a  relative  of  the  late  pontiff,)  the  body  is  wrapped 
in  a  coverlet  of  red,  lined  with  ermine  and  trimmed  with 
gold  fringes,  and  is  placed  in  three  coffins  one  within  the 
other  which  are  locked  by  the  canons  of  S.  Peter's  and 
Burial.  sealed  by  the  Maggiordomo  and  the  Chamberlain.     It  is 

then  buried  in  the  temporary  niche  in  S.  Peter's,*  near 
the  Choir  Chapel,  where  it  remains  until  a  permanent 
tomb  is  prepared  for  it,  or  until  room  has  to  be  made  for 
its  successor.  The  canons  solemnly  swear  to  produce 
the  body  so  buried  whenever  called  upon  to  do  so. 
I'hree  purses  of  gold,  silver  and  copper  coins,  of  the 
number  of  the  years  of  the  pope's  reign,  are  buried  with 
him. 

On  every  day  of  the  nine  preceding  Conclave,  a  solemn 
requiem  mass  is  celebrated  in  the  Choir  Chapel,  attended 
by  the  College  of  Cardinals  who  occupy  the  canons'  stalls, 
and  by  all  members  of  the  Cappella  Papale.  The  Noble 
guard  assist  in  their  scarlet  uniform  crossed  by  black 
sashes  and  the  mace  bearers  guard  the  entrance  to  the 
chapel  with  maces  reversed.  After  the  burial  of  the  pope, 
a  catafalque  is  erected  in  the  centre  of  the  nave,t  and 
absolution  is  given  in  the  usual  way  by  four  cardinals 
in  black  copes.  On  the  last  day  a  funeral  oration  is 
delivered  by  a  canon  of  the  basilica. 

With  the  exception  of  the  Cardinal  Chamberlain  the 
Cardinal  Penitentiary  and  the  ordinary  chaplains  and 
masters  of  ceremonies,  all  purely  papal  offices  cease  with 

*  See  Part  I.,  page  82. 

t  loco  11)S.  of  wax  are  consumed  daily  in  candles  round  the  cata- 
falque. 


PAPAL    CEREMONIES  371 

the  death  of  a  pope,  and  provisional  appointments  have 
therefore  to  be  made  to  last  until  the  election  of  a  suc- 
cessor. On  the  day  after  the  death,  therefore,  the  College 
of  Cardinals,  or  such  as  are  at  the  time  in  Rome,  assem- 
ble in  the  Hall  of  the  Paramenti  and  after  reading 
Gregory  X.'s  rules  of  Conclave,  they  proceed  with  true 
Italian  deliberation  to  the  election  of  the  necessary  offi- 
cers, a  task  which  occupies  them  for  nine  days.  On  the 
first  day,  they  elect  two  prelates  to  deliver  the  funeral 
oration  and  the  address  of  congratulation  to  the  future 
pope,  and  in  old  days,  they  likewise  appointed  the  governor 
of  Rome.  On  the  second  day  they  used  to  elect  all  the 
officers  for  the  city  of  Rome.  On  the  third,  they  elect  a  Officers  of 
confessor  to  attend  the  conclave  ;  on  the  fourth,  two  doc-  conclave, 
tors  and  a  surgeon ;  on  the  fifth,  a  chemist,  two  barbers 
and  their  assistants  ;  on  the  sixth  they  draw  lots  for  their 
cells  during  conclave,  and  appoint  the  6  masters  of  cere- 
monies to  be  admitted  ;  on  the  seventh,  the  35  servers  and 
servants  allowed  for  manual  service  ;  on  the  eighth,  two 
cardinals  to  receive  the  names  and  appoint  those  ad- 
mitted ;  on  the  ninth,  they  elect  three  Cardinals  to  super- 
intend the  conclave,  and  to  be  responsible  for  the  order, 
cleanliness  and  perfect  decorum  of  all  those  admitted  to 
it.  During  the  whole  interval  between  the  death  of  one 
pope,  and  the  election  of  another,  the  cardinals  wear 
purple,  and  during  conclave,  a  purple  soutane  and  un- 
covered rochet.  Those  created  by  the  late  pope  wear 
the  rochet  without  lace.  With  the  exception  of  the 
auditors  of  the  Rota,  and  the  consistorial  advocates,  all 
prelates  wear  black,  and  rochets  without  lace,  during  this 
interval. 

During  the  vacancy  of  the  Holy  See  the  Sacred  College 
rules  the  Church,  and  possesses  jurisdiction  wherever, 
either  directly  or  indirectly,  the  pontiff  possessed  it.  The 
College  may  appoint  legates,  and  may  coin  money,*  bear- 
ing the  seal  of  Sede  Vacante.  The  Swiss  guard  places 
itself  at  their  disposal  and  a  detachment  accompanies  the 

*No  money  has  of  course  been  coined  by  the  popes  since  1870. 


372      CHRISTIAN  AND   ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 

Cardinal  Camerlengo  to  his  house,  and  remains  on  guard 
in    his   anterooms.       Each   cardinal  is    provided    with   a 

throne  which  he  occupies  dur- 
ing conclave,  and  if  he  drives 
out,  no  person  of  whatever 
rank  is  permitted  to  sit  by  his 
side. 

In  old  days,  as  we  have 
seen,  separate  cells  were  pro- 
vided for  each  cardinal  in 
conclave,  within  a  single  hall. 
In  the  XVI.  and  xvii.  centuries, 
cells  were  built  in  the  Borgian 
apartment.  In  1484,  26  cells 
Avere  erected  in  the  Sistina,  13  on  each  side,  only  a  narrow 
passage  being  left  down  the  centre.  At  the  present  day, 
the  whole  of  one  floor  in  the  Vatican  is  given  up  to  the 
Cardinals  and  their  attendants,  each  being  allowed  a  ser- 
vant and  conclavista  or  personal  attendant.  This  portion 
of  the  palace  is  walled  up  and  shut  off  from  the  rest, 
being  entered  by  a  single  door  which  is  locked  with  three 
keys  which  are  kept  by  the  Maresciallo  of  conclave  without, 
and  by  the  Camerlengo  and  Maestro  di  Camera  within. 

Groups  of  officials  and  ecclesiastics  are  made  respon- 
sible for  each  of  the  great  entrances  to  the  Vatican,  and 
the  whole  is  under  the  superintendence  of  the  Mareseiallo 
of  Conclave,  who  for  the  time  being  is  secular  governor 
of  the  Palace.  Food  is  brought  to  the  Palace  from  the 
outside,  and  is  conveyed  to  each  cardinal  by  his  personal 
servant.  All  communication  with  the  outside  world 
ceases,  no  person  is  allowed  to  approach  the  neighbour- 
hood of  the  Vatican  without  a  permit  bearing  the  seal 
Sede  Vacante,  and  no  one  is  allowed  to  enter  or  to  leave 
the  palace  until  a  new  pope  is  elected.  Should  a  cardi- 
nal be  obliged  through  illness  to  leave  conclave,  he  is  not 
permitted  to  return. 

On  the  last  of  the  preliminary  ten  days,  when  it  is 
assumed  that  all  cardinals  who  can  attend  have  arrived  in 
Rome,  the  Sacred  College  assembles  for  the  last  time  in 


PAPAL    CEREMONIES  373 

S.  Peter's  to  hear  the  Mass  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  after  which 
a  procession  is  formed,  preceded  by  the  Swiss  guard  and 
an  acolyte  bearing  the  papal  cross,  and  while  the  great 
bell  of  the  basilica  tolls  three  times,  the  Cardinals  pass 
solemnly  into  conclave.  At  the  entrance  to  the  Paolina, 
the  soldiers  and  ecclesiastics  turn  back,  and  the  door  is 
shut  to  behind  them. 

On  each  day  of  the  conclave,  the  cardinals  say  Mass  in  Voting, 
the  Paolina,  six  additional  altars  being  erected  for  the 
purpose.  The  votes  are  recorded  twice  each  day  in  the 
Sistine,  in  the  morning  and  evening,  and  two-thirds  of 
the  total  number  suffice  for  an  election.  Each  cardinal 
writes  the  name  of  his  candidate  and  his  own  upon  a 
paper  which  is  sealed  and  placed  with  the  others  in  a  sil- 
ver bowl.  If  no  election  takes  place,  these  are  put  on  a 
brazier  at  the  back  of  the  altar,  which  is  connected  with 
a  chimney  passing  out  beyond  the  loggia  to  the  fagade  of 
S.  Peter's.  Straw  is  mixed  with  the  burning  papers,  and 
the  dense  smoke  issuing  from  the  chimney  outside,  an- 
nounces to  the  people,  and  in  the  old  days  to  the  watchers 
at  S.  Angelo,  that  no  election  has  taken  place. 

If  the  necessary  number  of  votes  are  recorded,  a  bell  is  Election  of 
immediately  rung  for  a  master  of  ceremonies,  and  the  "^^^  ^°P^" 
first  Cardinal  Deacon  in  the  presence  of  all,  asks  the 
chosen  member  of  the  college  *  if  he  will  consent  to  be 
elected,  and  the  name  he  wishes  to  bear,  which  he  then 
announces  to  the  others  in  a  loud  voice.  The  pope-elect 
then  proceeds  to  the  sacristy  and  is  dressed  in  papal 
robes  and  insignia  —  three  sets  of  different  sizes  lie  there 
waiting  for  him  —  and  returns  to  receive  the  first  homage 
of  the  cardinals,  who  kiss  his  foot,  his  hand,  and  then 
receive  a  double  embrace. 

Two  cardinals  afterwards  enter  the  Loggia  of  S.  Peter's, 
where  the  tearing  down  of  the  boarding  used  to  warn  the 
people  that  a  pope  had  been  chosen.  The  announce- 
ment is  then  made  to  the  city  from  the  Loggia  by  the 
first  Cardinal  Deacon  in  the  following  words  :  Nuutio  vobis 

*  It  is  not  necessary,  although  usual,  that  the  pope  should  lie  a 
cardinal;  the  college  may  elect  any  person,  lay  or  cleric. 


374      CHRISTIAN  AND   ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 

gaudii/m  magnum  :  hahemiis  pontificem,  eminentissimum 
cardina/c/n  N.  .  .  .  qui  nomen  imposuit  iV.  .  .  .  "  1  an- 
nounce to  you  a  great  joy,  we  have  a  pope,  the  most  emi- 
nent cardinal  N.  .  .  .  who  takes  the  name  of  N.  .  .  ." 
Guns  were  fired  from  Sant'  Angelo,  and  later,  the  pope- 
elect  came  himself  to  the  Loggia  to  give  his  first  benedic- 
tion. The  new  pope  also  receives  a  second  and  a  third 
homage  from  the  sacred  College,  in  the  Sistina  and  in  S. 
Peter's,  all  wearing  gala  dress.  France  Spain  and  Aus- 
tria retain  the  right  to  veto  any  candidate  for  the  papal 
throne.  This  right  was  put  in  force  in  1846,  when  Aus- 
tria vetoed,  although  too  late,  the  election  of  Pius  IX.* 

ORDINATION   OR   CONSECRATION   OF   THE   POPE. 

Ordination        During  the  first  8  centuries  the  pope  was  elected  from 
PoDeT  among  the  Roman  deacons,  and  for  nearly  9  centuries 

no  bishop  was  elected  pope.  The  ceremony  of  ordina- 
tion or  consecration  followed  the  election,  and  resembled 
in  all  respects  that  in  use  for  bishops.  It  took  place  on 
Sunday,  and  in  S.  Peter's.  At  the  ititroit  of  the  mass 
the  pope  entered  in  all  his  liturgical  vestments  except 
the  pallium.  After  the  chanting  of  the  Litanies,  during 
the  whole  of  which  the  pope  remained  prostrate,  the 
Bishops  of  Ostia,  Porto,  and  Albano  recited  two  prayers, 
which  were  followed  by  the  Eucharistic  Prayer  of  conse- 
cration pronounced  by  the  Bishop  of  Ostia ;  the  deacons 
holding  the  Gospel  over  the  pope's  head.  Cf.  Part  II., 
p.  1 79.  In  this  prayer  the  pope's  office  is  thus  ex- 
pressed :  "  This  thy  servant  to  whom  thou  hast  given  the 
headship  of  the  Apostolic  chair  and  the  primacy  of  all 
the  bishops  of  the  world,  and  to  be  doctor  of  thy  uni- 
versal Church,  and  whom  thou  hast  elected  to  the  min- 
istry of  the  high  priesthood."  The  last  words,  only, 
occur  in  the  consecration  of  a  bishop.     The  Archdeacon 

*  Cardinal  de  Retz  gives  an  account  of  the  conclave  for  the  elec- 
tion of  Clement  X.  at  which  he  assisted.  He  speaks  of  the  perfect 
amiability  and  good  humour  of  all  present,  and  the  courtesies  ob- 
served, as  if  the  conclave  had  been  a  drawing-room. 


PAPAL    CEREMOXIES 


375 


afterwards  placed  the  pallium  on  the  pope's  shoulders, 
and  the  latter,  ascending  his  throne,  intoned  the  Gloria 
in  excehis  of  the  mass,  which  proceeded  to  its  conclusion. 

The  ordination  of  the  pope  by  these  3  bishops  was 
already  in  force  at  the  election  of  Leo  II.  in  682  ;  the 
Bishop  of  Ostia  always  being  the  consecrator  as  Dean  of 
the  Sacred  College.  After  the  ceremony  the  great  pro- 
cession to  the  Lateran,  called  the  cavalcata,  took  place.* 

The  election  of  the  pope  itself  confers  on  him  those 
powers  which  distinguish  him  from  other  bishops.  But 
if  a  pope  were  again  chosen  who  was  not  in  priest's  or 
bishop's  orders,  he  would  be  ordained  with  the  episcopal 
rite  in  use  to-day. 

All  that  follows  the  election  otherwise,  is  the  Corona- 
tion on  the  Sunday  following.  The  pope  proceeding  to 
a  throne  in  the  Portico  of  S.  Peter's,  receives  the  homage 
of  the  cardinals  and  canons.  Then  he  pontificates  mass  ; 
after  which  he  passes  to  the  great  loggia,  and  there  in  the 
sight  of  all  the  people,  his  mitre  is  removed  by  the 
Second  Deacon,  and  the  First  Cardinal  Deacon  then 
places  the  tiara  on  his  head,  and  proclaims  him. 

Alms  are  distributed  in  the  Cortile  of  the  Belvedere, 
and  the  Vatican  is  illuminated. 

The  coronation  of  Leo  XIII.  took  place,  for  the  first 
time,  in  the  Sistine  Chapel.  See  anniversary  of  the  Coro- 
nation, page  379. 


Corona- 
tion. 


CONSISTORY  —  ELECTION    OF   CARDINALS. 

A  consistory  is  the  solemn  assembly  of  the  Pope  and 
his  College  of  Cardinals,  and  may  be  either  pubhc  or 
private. 

When  new  cardinals  are  to  be  created,  the  Pope  sum-   Secret 
mons  the  Sacred  College  in  consistor}',  and  proposes  to   consistory. 
them  the  names  of  those  he  wishes  to  nominate,  with  the 
words  :  quid  quis  videtiirj  "  has  any  one  aught  to  say?" 

*  Page  343. 

t  This  form  is  a  relic  of  the  ancient  custom  of  asking  for  the  con- 
sent of  the  people  to  the  election  of  either  bishop,  priest  or  deacon. 


376      CHRISTIAN  AXD  ECCLESIASTICAI   ROME 


Receiving 
the  rochet. 


Public 
consistory. 


Each  cardinal  rises  in  turn,  bows  and  takes  off  his  bcr- 
retta  as  a  sign  of  consent.  The  Pope  can  however  if 
he  thinks  expedient,  keep  back  the  name  of  any  candi- 
date he  nominates  from  the  college,  reserving  it  in  petto 
for  a  future  occasion.  Other  business  is  also  transacted 
at  such  a  consistory  ;  bishops  are  appointed  to  vacant 
sees,  petitions  concerning  iDeatifications  are  received. 
It  is  usual  for  the  Pope  to  make  an  allocution  concerning 
these  causes,  exhorting  the  cardinals  to  give  their  placet. 
He  also  says  a  few  words  in  commendation  of  the  new 
cardinals. 

This,  the  secret  consistory  is  followed  by  the  public 
consistory,  sometimes  on  the  same  day,  sometimes  after 
an  interval.  The  new  candidate  meanwhile  receives  the 
decretals  of  his  nomination  from  a  master  of  ceremonies, 
but  if  he  is  not  resident  in  Rome,  the  scarlet  berretta  is 
sent  him  by  the  hands  of  a  monsignor  ablegate.  New 
cardinals  also  repair  to  the  Vatican  and  are  presented 
with  their  rochets  by  the  pope,  and  they  are  paid  cere- 
monial visits  of  congratulation  by  the  chief  officials  of 
the  papal  court,  which  they  return. 

In  old  days,  a  public  consistory  was  the  occasion  for 
pomp  and  display.  The  new  Cardinals  rode  in  proces- 
sion from  vS.  Maria  del  Popolo  to  the  Palace.  Their 
horses  were  richly  caparisoned,  they  were  attended  by 
mace  bearers,  soldiers  of  the  Swiss  guard,  masters  of 
ceremonies,  a  deacon  and  sub- deacon,  and  grooms  hold- 
ing umbrellas  over  their  heads. 

Now,  a  public  consistory  is  usually  held  in  the  Sala 
Regia.  The  public  is  admitted  by  ticket,  and  balconies 
are  set  apart  to  the  left  and  right  for  the  diplomatic 
corps  and  the  Roman  aristocracy.  Two  small  palchi  on 
the  pope's  right  are  destined  for  Royal  visitors,  and  for 
the  Knights  of  Malta. 

The  Pope  is  carried  from  his  private  apartments 
through  the  Sala  Ducale  upon  his  sedia  f^estatoria.  He 
wears  a  red  cope  and  a  precious  mitre  which  is  changed 
to  a  plain  one  when  he  reaches  the  throne.     In  addition 


PAPAL    CEREMONIES 


377 


to  the  usual  members  of  his  court,*  he  is  accompanied 
by  all  the  cardinals  in  Rome  at  the  time.  He  seats 
himself  on  his  throne  at  the  end  of  the  hall,  and  the 
cardinals  are  ranged  in  a  semicircle  round  him  according 
to  seniority,  the  cardinal  bishops  and  priests  on  his  right, 
the  cardinal  deacons  on  his  left. 

Meanwhile  the  cardinals-elect  have  been  taking  the 
oaths  in  the  Sixtine  Chapel  in  the  presence  of  the  Cardi- 
nal Vice  Chancellor,  and  the  chamberlains  of  the  Church 
and  Sacred  College.  At  the  appointed  time,  they  are 
led  back,  each  one  between  two  cardinal  deacons,  into 
the  Hall  of  Consistory.  On  entering  they  make  three 
low  bows,  then  kneeling  on  the  lowest  step  of  the  pope's 
throne,  they  kiss  his  foot,  his  hand,  and  lastly  his  cheek. 
Each  then  retires  to  a  bench  at  the  left  of  the  throne. 

An  interval  now  occurs  in  which  the  consistorial  advo- 
cates, habited  in  purple,  stand  before  the  pope,  and  in 
turn  read  out  perorations  in  Latin  concerning  some  ap- 
proaching beatification  or  canonisation. j  To  these  peti- 
tions, the  pope  finally  makes  answer  through  his  Secre- 
tary of  '  Briefs  to  Princes,'  that  he  will  put  the  matter 
before  a  future  consistory. 

The  Preconisation  of  Bishops  also  takes  place  in  such 
an  interval,  the  pope  proclaiming  the  new  bishops  to  the 
people,  publishing  their  names,  and  the  See  to  which 
they  are  appointed. 

The  ceremony  now  proceeds,  the  new  cardinals  re- 
ceiving the  embrace  of  the  whole  College  :  accompanied 
by  two  cardinal  deacons  the  new  cardinal  approaches 
each  member  of  the  College  in  turn  according  to  seni- 
ority and  receives  an  embrace.  He  then  takes  his  place 
according  to  his  rank  of  priest  or  deacon  and  puts  on 
his  berretta. 

After  another  interval,  each  new  cardinal  again  kneels 
on  the  step  of  the  pope's  throne.  The  hood  of  his  cappa 
magna  is  drawn  over  his  head  by  two  masters  of  cere- 

*  See  Cappella  Papale. 

t  See  page  383.  The  '  cause  '  of  Joan  of  Arc  was  so  introduced 
at  a  consistory  held  on  June  25,  1896. 


Position  of 
Cardinals 
in  the  Hall 
of  consis- 
tory. 


Embrace 
of  the 
pope. 

Consis- 
torial 
advocates. 


Preconisa- 
tion of 
bishops. 


Giving  the 
hat. 


378      CHRISTIAN  AXD   ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 


Second 
Secret 
Consistory. 
Closing 
and  open- 
ing the 
mouths  of 
cardinals. 


monies  and  the  red  cardinal's  hat  is  held  over  it  for  a  few 
moments  by  the  pope,  who  repeats  the  words  of  presenta- 
tion. 

The  whole  ceremony  closes  with  the  papal  benediction, 
and  the  procession  is  formed  again.  Arrived  at  the 
pope's  apartments,  a  brief  oration  of  thanks  is  made  to 
him  by  the  new  cardinals.  After  which  the  whole  college 
adjourns  to  the  Sistina,  the  new  porporati  prostrating 
themselves  at  the  altar  steps  while  the  verse  of  the  Te 
Deum  te  ergo  qucesumiis  is  sung  by  the  choir.  Then 
follow  some  prayers  and  an  oration  recited  by  the  Cardinal 
Dean. 

A  final  ceremony  takes  place  in  another  secret  consistory, 
held  sometimes  on  the  same  day,  sometimes  after  an 
interval :  before  the  assembled  college,  the  pope  closes 
the  mouths  of  the  new  cardinals  with  the  words  :  "  I 
close  your  mouth  that  neither  in  consistory,  nor  in  con- 
gregations nor  in  other  functions  of  cardinals,  may  you  be 
heard."  He  then  opens  their  mouths  with  the  words  : 
"  I  open  your  mouth  that  in  consistory,  in  congregations, 
and  in  other  ecclesiastical  functions,  you  may  be  heard  in 
the  name  of  the  Father,  the  Son,  and  the  Holy  Ghost." 

In  the  evening  of  the  day  on  which  the  consistory  is 
held,  a  cardinal's  hat  is  carried  to  each  of  the  newly  made 
cardinals  by  a  '  monsignore  of  the  wardrobe.'  If  they  are 
at  a  distance  from  Rome,  the  hat  is  sent  by  the  hand  of 
an  ablegate  appointed  by  the  pope,  generally  a  member 
of  the  noble  guard,  who  also  conveys  the  congratulations 
of  the  sacred  College.  The  new  cardinal  in  this  case 
receives  his  honours  from  the  hands  of  the  sovereign  of 
his  country,  either  in  the  royal  chapel,  or  in  the  principal 
church  of  the  capital. 


CAPPELLA  PAPALE. 


On  the  removal  of  the  Papal  Court  from  Rome  in  1305, 
it  became  the  custom  to  celebrate  in  the  Palatine  Chapel 
at  Avignon  certain  feasts  and  ceremonies  which  had  tradi- 
tionally been  observed  in  the  different  historic  basilicas 


PAPAL    CEREMOXIES  379 

and  tituli  of  Rome.  These  functions  were  known  as 
Cappelle  Papali  because  the  pope  assisted  at  them,  sur- 
rounded by  all  those  dignitaries  who  have  the  entrc  on 
such  occasions.  After  the  return  to  Rome,  the  custom  of 
celebrating  these  festivals  in  the  pope's  chapel  was  re- 
tained, partly  owing  to  the  ruinous  state  of  the  Lateran 
and  other  basilicas,  and  partly  to  the  unsettled  political 
conditions.  Nicholas  V.  built  a  chapel  in  the  Vatican, 
the  predecessor  of  the  Paolina,  for  the  purpose.  These 
functions,  which  included  all  the  great  Christian  festivals, 
numbered  32  in  the  course  of  the  year.  Sixtus  V.  en- 
deavoured to  revive  the  ancient  stational  masses  in  the 
basilicas,  and  a  few  cappelle  cardiunlizie,  functions  at  which  Cappelle 
the  College  of  Cardinals  assisted,  were  instituted  by  him  Cardmalv- 
and  by  Benedict  XIV.  All  these  great  functions  are  now 
things  of  the  past,  and  with  them  have  ceased  the  elabo- 
rate illumination  of  S.  Peter's,*  and  the  solemn  benedic- 
tions from  the  balconies  of  this  church  and  of  the  Lateran 
on  Holy  Thursday  and  Ascension  Day.  Only  three  cap- 
pelle papali  are  now  (since  1870)  observed  ;  the  anni- 
versary of  the  Coronation  of  the  reigning  pope,!  March 
3  ;  the  Requiem  Mass  for  Pius  IX.,  February  7  ;  and  the 
Consistory  at  which  Cardinals  are  created. 

Ceremonies  of  this  description,  however,  occurred  in 
S.  Peter's  on  the  occasion  of  Leo  XIII. 's  sacerdotal  and 
episcopal  jubilees  in  1887  and  1892,  when  the  pope  said 
or  assisted  at  mass  ;|  and  again  in  1897  for  the  canonisa- 
tion of  the  two  saints,§  Peter  Fourier,  Canon  Regular,  and 
Antonio  Zaccaria,  Barnabite.  This  was  the  third  canoni- 
sation during  the  present  pontificate,  the  last  occurring 
in  1888. 

*  S.  Peter's  was  again  illuminated  in  1897  f""^  ^^  canonisation  ot 
two  saints. 

t  The  anniversary  of  a  pope's  coronation  is  a  festival  of  great 
antiquity.  Gregory  the  Great  gave  yearly  gifts  of  money  on  June 
29,  the  feast  of  the  Apostles;  on  November  30,  S.  Andrew's  Day; 
and  on  September  3,  the  day  of  his  own  coronation. 

X  For  an  account  of  Papal  High  Mass  see  Part  IL,  p.  80. 

5}  For  these  functions,  the  doors  of  S.  Peter's  were  closed,  and 
admission  was  by  ticket. 


38o       CHRISTIAN  AXD   ECCLESIASTICAI   ROME 


Persons 
form  ing  the 
L  'appella 
Papule. 
Cardinals. 


College  of 
Assist- 
ants. 

Princes 
Assistant. 


Arch- 
bishops 
;ind 

Bishops, 
Protonota- 


Heads  of 
Religious 
Orders. 


Prelates  of 
the  Rota, 
etc. 


The  persons  forming  the  Pope's  Cappella  Papule  2,xt  the 
following  ;  given  in  their  order  of  precedence  : 

Firstly  the  Sacred  College  of  Cardinals  according  to 
their  rank  of  Cardinal  bishop,  priest  or  deacon,  and  to 
their  precedence  in  date  of  creation. 

Secondly  the  College  of  Patriarchs,  Archbishops  and 
Bishops  "Assistant  at  the  Pontifical  Throne  "  (see  page 

35  0- 

The  Vice-chamberlain  of  the  Roman  Church  and  the 
two  Princes  "Assistant  at  the  Throne."  This  latter  posi- 
tion is  hereditary  in  the  Colonna  and  Orsini  families,  and 
the  present  Prince  Colonna  recently  gave  up  a  Household 
appointment  at. the  Quirinal,  in  order  to  fill  his  hereditary 
office.  The  dress  of  these  princes  when  on  duty  resem- 
bles the  ancient  dress  of  the  monsignori ;  a  full  black 
tunic,  longer  than  that  of  the  chamberlains,  a  short  cloak, 
and  a  white  lace  tie  at  the  throat. 

The  Auditor  and  Treasurer  of  the  Rcvcrenda  Camera 
(see  page  361),  the  Maggiordomo,  and  the  Minister  of 
the  Interior,  now  an  obsolete  office. 

Then  follow  all  the  Archbishops  and  Bishops  of  Sees 
and  the  College  of  Apostolic  Protonotaries  ;  the  Com- 
mendatore  of  S.  Spirito  *  and  the  Regent  of  the  Chan- 
cery. The  latter  can  be  distinguished  from  other  prelates 
by  the  green  cord  and  tassels  that  he  is  privileged  to 
wear  upon  his  hat. 

The  Abbat  of  Monte  Cassino  and  other  abbats  having 
episcopal  jurisdiction.  The  Abbat-General  of  the  Canons 
Regular  of  the  Lateran  and  S.  Salvatore.  The  Superiors 
of  the  Monastic  Orders  and  the  Generals  and  Vicar-Gen- 
erals of  the  Mendicant  Orders. 

The  magistrate  of  Rome,  an  obsolete  office,  and  the 
Maestro  del  Sacro  Ospizio  (see  p.  350).  Then  f)llow  the 
Prelates  of  the  Rota,  the  Maestro  del  Sacro  Palazzo  and 
the  Prelates  of  the  Rev.  Camera,  of  the  Sei^iiatura,  and 
of  the  Pareo  Maggiore. 

The  "  Companion  "  of  the  Maestro  del  Sacro  Palazzo 


*  See  Part  III.,  p.  207. 


PAPAL    CEKEMOXrES  381 

and  all  the  Masters  of  Ceremonies  ;  the  Pope's  Almoner, 
his  Cupbearer,  his  Master  of  the  Wardrobe,  the  Secreta- 
ries of  Briefs  to  Princes,  of  Latin  Letters,  of  the  Embassies, 
the  Under  Secretary  of  State  and  the  Sotto  Datario. 

Then  in  order  of  precedence  come  the  Private  Cham-    Chamber- 
berlains   supernumerary,  and  those   in   "Violet   Habit,"    ''""^• 
the  Advocates  of  consistory ;  the  Private  Chaplains  and   Chaplains. 
the  Honorary  Private  Chaplains ;  the  Pope's  grooms  of 
the  Stole. 

The  Procurators  General  of  the  Monastic  and  Mendi- 
cant Orders ;  the  Apostolic  Preacher,  the  Confessor  to 
the  Household,  and  the  Procurators  of  the  Holy  Palaces. 

The  following  are  the  Sacred  Ministers,*  etc.,  assisting   Ministers 
at  the  altar.  at  the 

The  Pope's  Sacristan,  and  the  Canons  of  the  three  '■^'^^''• 
Patriarchal  basilicas  of  Rome,  to  act  as  Assistant  Priest, 
Deacon  and  Subdeacon  in  the  Mass. 

The  papal  choristers,!  31  in  number;  the  under  sacris- 
tan; the  acolyte  light-bearers  (the  Pope's  ordinary  chap- 
lains act  as  acolytes)  ;  the  clerks  of  the  Cappella  ;  the  Acolytes. 
ostiarii  or  doorkeepers  of  the  red  rod  ;  the  bearer  of  the 
sacred  tiara ;  the  macebearers  \  and  the  apostolic  mes- 
sengers  {cursori). 

On  the  occasion  of  a  Cappella  Papale,  the  Pope  is  car-  Procession, 
ried  in  solemn  procession  from  his  private  apartments  to 
the  Sistina  or  S.  Peter's  or  wherever  the  function  is  held. 
The  halls  through  which  he  passes,  are  lined  with  soldiers 
of  the  Palatine  guard.  The  lay  chamberlains  act  as  ush- 
ers and  organise  the  acconmiodation  of  those  visitors  who 
are  admitted  either  by  ticket  or  invitation.  The  Pope 
wearing  a  rich  cope  and  the  famous  tiara,  is  carried  upon 
his  throne  §  raised  upon  the  shoulders  of  twelve  sedarii  or 

*  In  their  order  of  precedence  they  come  after  the  Prelates  of 
the  Parco  Maggiore. 

t  The  composer  Don  Lorenzo  Perosi  has  this  year  (1899)  been 
appointed  director  of  the  papal  choir. 

+  ResembHng  the  Roman  lictors  ;  they  wear  an  Elizal^ethan 
black  dress,  and  a  short  sleeveless  violet  coat.  The  ostiarii  no 
longer  carry  a  rod,  but  accompany  the  papal  cross  bearers. 

§  See  sedia  gestatoria  p.  342. 


382      CHRISTIA.y  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 

bearers  in  crimson  doublets  and  trunk  hose.  Beside  him 
are  carried  the  two  waving  fans*  of  white  ostrich  feathers, 
and  immediately  around  him  is  a  detachment  of  the  Swiss 
guard  carrying  their  two-handed  swords,  the  Noble  guard 
follow.  Close  beside  him  are  his  Marshal,  and  his  Mas- 
ter of  the  Horse,  and  the  two  Assistant  Princes.  The 
Cardinals  in  scarlet,  the  Prelates  di  mantelktta  in  purple 
and  the  monsignori  di  mantcllone  walk  in  the  Procession 
according  to  the  above  precedence,  the  latter  are  recog- 
nisable by  their  long  scarlet  coats  and  white  fur  capes  ; 
the  heads  of  Religious  Orders  wear  their  distinctive  dress. 
On  such  occasions,  the  Pope  does  not  as  a  rule  say 
Mass,  but  assists  from  his  throne,  mass  being  celebrated 
by  a  cardinal.  For  the  Requiem  of  Pius  IX.  the  Pope 
gives  the  final  absolution,  vested  in  a  red  cope  and  white 
linen  mitre.  When  mass  is  celebrated  in  S.  Peter's  at  a 
Cappella  Papale,  the  silver  trumpets  are  sounded  from 
the  dome  at  the  elevation. 


Beatifica- 
tion and 
Canonisa- 
tion. 


Beatifica- 
tion. 


BEATIFICATION    AND    CANONIS.ATION. 

The  custom  of  specially  venerating  the  memory  of 
those  who  had  died  for  the  faith,  dates  from  the  first  ages 
of  Christianity,  and  we  find  S.  Cyprian  in  the  iii.  century 
recommending  his  clergy  to  keep  careful  records  of  the 
martyrs.  Such  catalogues  or  diptychs  were  diligently 
preserved,  and,  until  the  xii.  century,  inscription  on  the 
local  calendar  was  sufficient  to  proclaim  a  saint.  Then, 
to  check  the  abuses  arising  out  of  a  to.o  ready  desire  to 
publicly  invoke  any  one  who  had  died  in  the  odour  of 
sanctity,  the  Roman  pontiffs  reserved  to  themselves  the 
power  to  make  this  proclamation. 

The  papal  decree  permitting  the  public  cult  of  some 
individual  who  has  lived  a  saintly  life,  is  known  as  canon- 
isation or  beatification,  according  to  the  degree  in  which 
he  or  she  is  proposed  to  the  veneration  of  the  faithful. 

The  decree  of  beatification  is  less  solemn  and  complete 

♦  See  flabcUi  p.  342. 


PAPAL    CEREMONIES 


383 


than  that  of  canonisation,  and  the  cult  of  a  beatified  per- 
son is  commonly  restricted  to  the  country  or  to  the  reli- 
gious Order  to  which  he  belongs.  He  cannot  be  chosen 
as  the  patron  of  a  country  or  city,  and  his  Office  has  no 
Octave.  The  diocesan  or  the  Order  to  which  the  pro- 
posed saint  belongs  supplies  the  preliminary  information, 
and  this,  which  is  called  his  "cause"  {causa),  is  sub- 
mitted for  the  approbation  of  the  pope.  If  obtained,  the 
approbation  confers  upon  him  the  title  of  "Venerable." 
The  process  of  Beatification  is  now  confided  to  the  Sacred 
Congregation  of  Rites,  which  institutes  a  minute  and 
searching  examination  into  the  virtues  and  life,  the  mer- 
its and  reputed  miracles  of  the  deceased.  This  is  con- 
ducted in  3  assemblies,  the  first  taking  place  at  an 
ordinary  meeting  of  the  Congregation,  a  second  in  pres- 
ence of  the  Sacred  College  of  Cardinals,  and  a  third  in 
presence  of  the  pope.  In  addition  to  this,  though  not 
absolutely  essential,  the  Consistorial  Advocates,  in  public 
Consistory,  make  a  series  of  perorations  before  the  pope 
in  favour  of  the  cause.  The  final  stage  is  reached  when 
the  pope  gives  his  decision  in  favour  of  the  beatification, 
and  a  day  is  then  appointed  for  the  solemn  function.  In 
former  days  it  was  the  custom  for  this  first  festival  in 
honour  of  the  new  beato  to  take  place  in  one  of  the 
Roman  churches,  until  Alexander  VII.  decreed  that  it 
should  be  held  in  the  Vatican. 

A  beatification  is  now  generally  held  in  the  great  hall 
(Sala  della  Beatificazione)  above  the  portico  of  S.  Peter's. 
It  is  gorgeously  draped  with  coloured  hangings,  and  the 
tribune  is  a  blaze  of  lights.  Among  these  lights  a  picture 
of  the  new  saint  in  glory  is  placed,  between  the  arms  of 
the  pope  and  of  the  country  or  Order  to  which  the  brafo 
belongs  :  on  either  side  paintings  of  two  miracles  per- 
formed by  him. 

Two  hours  before  midday,  the  College  of  Cardinals  in 
purple,  and  the  Chapter  of  S.  Peter's  with  their  Cardinal 
archpriest,  enter  the  hall,  and  seat  themselves  on  either 
side  of  the  tribune.  A  Latin  oration  follows,  addressed 
by  the  advocate  of  the  cause  to  the  Cardinal  Prefect  of 


"  Venera- 
ble." 


Ceremony 
of  Beatifi- 


384       CHRISTLIX  AXD   ECCI.ESfASTICAL   ROME 


Canonisa- 
tion. 


The 
process. 


the  Congregation  of  Rites,  begging  that  the  beatification 
granted  by  the  Pope  should  be  pubHcly  announced.  The 
Cardinal  Prefect  then  asks  leave  of  the  Cardinal  Arch- 
'  priest  of  S.  Peter's  to  publish  the  decree  in  that  church, 
after  which  the  picture  of  the  saint,  hitherto  covered,  is 
unveiled  amids,t  the  ringing  of  bells,  and  in  old  days,  the 
firing  of  the  cannon  of  S.  Angelo.  The  Te  DeiDii  fol- 
lows, the  picture  is  incensed,  and  mass,  of  a  confessor  or 
martyr  according  to  the  condition  of  the  new  saint,  is 
celebrated.  During  the  afternoon,  the  pope  accom- 
panied by  the  Sacred  College  in  their  scarlet  robes,  and 
received  by  the  canons  of  S.  Peter's  in  the  same  hall, 
pays  a  visit  of  veneration  to  the  picture  and  relics  of  the 
new  saint. 

This  act  may  be  followed  by  canonisation.  In  canon- 
isation the  pope  declares,  by  bull,  and  <^.v  catJiedrd,  that 
such  a  person  has  died  a  saint,  having  exercised  the 
Christian  virtues  in  an  heroic  degree.  His  intercession 
may  be  publicly  invoked,  and  his  picture  and  relics  vener- 
ated. A  proper  office  and  mass  are  appointed  for  his 
feast.  He  is,  in  popular  language,  "  raised  to  the  altars 
of  the  Church." 

Up  to  the  time  of  Alexander  HI.  bishops  had  occasion- 
ally canonised,  the  Archbishop  of  Rouen  being  the  last 
to  do  so,  in  1153.*  But  in  1159  the  pope  placed  canon- 
isation among  the  attributes  of  the  Holy  See.  The  pro- 
cess is  a  highly  complicated  one,  and  has  gathered  in 
complexity  since  the  canonisation  of  Raymund  of  Pen- 
nafort  in  1595.  Benedict  XIV.  issued  Constitutions 
concerning  it,  and  says  that  while  beatification  pertains 
to  the  episcopate,  canonisation  belongs  to  the  Roman 
pontiff.  He  endeavoured  to  restrict  the  number  of 
canonisations,  and  also  to  decrease  their  enormous  cost, 
and  leaves  it  on  record  that  a  single  canonisation  cost 


*  There  is  an  instance  at  the  end  of  the  XI.  century;  wliile  an 
instance  of  the  confusion  which  existed  before  it  was  finally  vested 
in  the  Holy  See,  may  ])e  found  in  the  case  of  Charlemagne,  to 
whom  a  local  cultus  as  a  hento  has  always  been  extended,  antl  who 
was  canonisedhy  the  anti-pope  Paschal  III.  (1164)  ! 


PAPAL    CEREMONIES 


385 


14000  scudi.*  In  1 741  the  Sacred  Congregation  of  Rites, 
under  his  direction,  reduced  this  expenditure,  and  de- 
cided that  those  who  postulated  a  "  cause  "  must  deposit 
part  of  the  expenses.  Up  to  the  pontificate  of  Pius  IX. 
there  had  been  115  canonisations.  The  first  act  of  the 
kind  seems  to  have  been  relative  to  S.  Swidborg,  pro- 
claimed a  saint  in  752  at  the  instance  of  Pepin,  although 
the  act  was  not  called  '  canonisation  '  till  John  XV.  de-   First 

clared  Ulrich  bishop  of  Augsburg  a  saint  "  in  the  Coun-   Canonisa- 

tions 
cil  Hall  of  the  Lateran  "  in  993.     This  was  20  years  after 

the  saint's  death ;  but  canonisations  within  a  century  of 
the  death  are  very  rare  indeed,  Thomas  a  Becket  was 
canonised  by  Alexander  III.  2  years  after  his  murder; 
and  Francis  of  Assisi  12  years  after  his  death,  the  first 
canonisation  accompanied  with  ritual  pomp. 

The  elaborate  examination  is  carried  out  as  in  the  case 
of  beatification,  which  is  regarded  as  a  preliminary  step  ; 
it  touches,  as  we  have  seen,  both  the  life  and  the  alleged 
miracles  of  the  proposed  saint  {^de  fama  and  de  inira-  Miracles. 
culis).  At  the  present  day  two  undoubted  miracles  are 
necessary,  which  must  have  happened  since  the  decease. 
It  is  supposed  that  by  these  post-obital  miracles  God 
signifies  His  will  that  His  servant  should  be  invoked.  It 
is  certain  that  the  power  of  working  miracles  has  been 
held  to  be  an  essential  qualification  since  the  time  of 
Alexander  III.  In  two  of  the  earliest  instances,  mira- 
cles are  prominent :  in  the  case  of  Hildegarde,  whose 
"cause"  was  commenced  in  1233  and  resumed  in  1243, 
many  years  after  her  decease,  the  necessary  proofs  were 
not  forthcoming,  because  the  miracles  worked  at  her 
tomb  at  the  time  of  her  death  so  deranged  the  Religious 
that  they  made  a  complaint  to  the  bishop,  who,  coming 
to  the  monastery,  enjoined  her  by  holy  obedience  to 
work  no  more  cures  !  It  was  therefore  found  impossible 
to  proceed  with  her  "  cause,"  this  prodigy  itself  having 


*  The  cost  of  the  canonisation  of  27  persons  in  1862  was 
;^ 600,000,  which  was  defrayed  by  the  religious  ( )rders  con- 
cerned. 


386      CIIRISriAX  AXD  ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 

left  the  good  fathers  without  material.*  In  the  case  of 
the  hermit-pope  Peter  Celestine,  whose  process  was  begun 
in  1306  and  completed  in  13 13,  a  large  number  of  mira- 
cles were  propounded,  and  the  two  questions  put  were  : 
Whether  it  be  a  miracle?  and  whether  it  be  proved?  Of 
the  7  miracles  after  death,  all  were  doubted  by  a  minority 
of  the  18  cardinals  investigating,  the  pope's  decision  at 
the  end  of  each  sitting  being  final.  In  this  process, 
interesting  as  being  both  an  early  one  and  fully  reported, 
Cardinal  James  Colonna  affirmed  that  "  Miracles  after 
death  are  to  be  specially  investigated.  For  he  who  is  holy 
at  a  certain  moment,  may  afterwards  become  unholy." 
"  Miraciila  vera  post  mortem  facta  sunt  finalis  bonce  et 
sanctce  vitce  propria  argiimenta."  f 

The  enquiry  is  often  protracted  for  years,  sometimes 
for  centuries.  Medical  evidence  is  on  occasion  sought, 
especially  in  the  case  of  alleged  miracles  since  the  beati- 
fication. One  of  the  examiners,  hence  popularly  called 
"  the  devil's  advocate,"  places  obstacles  in  the  way,  and 
contests  the  facts  produced.  After  the  cause  has  been 
once  more  discussed  in  3  consistories,  the  first  of  which 
^  is  secret,  the  second  public, J  and  the  final  one,  immedi- 

ately following,  semi-public ;  and  the  Congregation  of 
Rites  and  the  Sacred  College  are  united  in  their  judg- 
ment, the  pope  proclaims  the  result  by  a  Bull,  and  the 
Ceremony  great  ceremony  of  canonisation  follows.  In  old  days  it 
of^canoni-  was  the  occasion  of  magnificent  pomp  and  display. 
The  pope  was  carried  on  his  sedia  gestatoria  under  a 
baldacchino,  round  the  Piazza  and  under  the  Colonnades 
of  S.  Peter's.  His  cardinals,  prelates,  and  troops  walked 
in  procession.  The  interior  of  the  Basilica  was  abso- 
lutely covered  with  red  and  gold  drapery,  and  lighted 

*  John  XXII.  tried  again;  but  to  this  day  Hildegarde  is  uncanon- 
ised.  See  the  BoUandists,  Tome  V.  (September)  "  Actes  de  I'ln- 
quisition  sur  les  vertus  et  les  miracles  de  sainte  Hildegarde." 

t  Analecta  Bollatidiana,  Tome  XV.,  Fasc.  3  and  4.  "  S.  Pierre 
Celestin  et  ses  premiers  biographes,"  with  the  reports  of  the  process 
edited  by  Pere  Van  Orlroy,  S.  J. 

X  See  Consistory,  page  377. 


sation. 


PAPAL    CEREMOXIES  387 

by  thousands  of  candles.  Pictures  of  the  saint  and  of 
his  miracles  were  hung  within  and  without  the  church, 
and  were  carried  in  the  procession. 

The  procession  is  formed  with  the  lay  Chamberlains  The  pro- 
(page  351)  preceding.  The  Canons  of  collegiate  churches  cession, 
and  of  the  patriarchal  and  other  basilicas  in  choir  dress, 
with  the  consultors  of  the  Congregation  of  Rites,  and  the 
Monsignori  numbered  2-5  on  page  475,  who  wear  cotta 
and  rochet.  With  the  Auditors  of  the  Rota  walks  the 
Maestro  del  S.  Palazzo,  while  the  last  Auditor  has  his 
place  in  the  midst  of  the  8  acolytes  bearing  the  incense 
and  7  candlesticks.  The  pope  is  carried  on  the  sedia 
gestaioria  with  the  flabelli :  after  him  comes  the  Dean 
of  the  Rota,*  and  the  Proto-notaries.  After  adoring  the 
Sacrament,  the  pope  on  his  throne  receives  the  homage 
of  the  great  prelates  :  cardinals  kissing  his  hand,  patri- 
archs and  bishops  his  knee,  mitred  abbats,  the  Commen- 
datore  di  S.  Spirito,  the  Archimandrite  of  the  monastery 
of  Messina  (if  present)  and  the  Penitentiaries  of  the 
basilica,  his  foot. 

The  pope  having  his  cardinals  in  a  semicircle  round 
him,  the  Cardinal  Procurator  of  the  canonisation,  by 
means  of  the  Consistorial  advocate  standing  on  his  left, 
petitions  that  the  new  name  may  be  added  to  the  list 
of  Saints.  The  '  Secretary  for  Briefs  to  princes '  replies. 
The  Litanies  now  follow,  as  far  as  the  Agnus  Dei,  when 
the  petition  which  had  before  been  made  instanter,  is 
now  repeated  with  the  word  instantitis ;  after  which  the 
P^eni  Creator  is  sung.  For  a  third  time,  the  cardinal 
asks  the  pope,  instantissime  petit,  to  canonise  the  new 
saint,  and  the  reply  being  now  favourable,  the  great 
ceremony  proceeds,  the  Pope  solemnly  pronouncing  the 
decree  of  canonisation  from  his  throne.  Then  follows 
the  Te  Deiim,  accompanied  by  a  burst  of  music  from  the 
military  bands,  by  the  ringing  of  bells,  and  by  the  firing  Mass  of 
of  cannon.  As  the  Te  Deuin  ends,  the  Cardinal  Dean  Canomsa- 
invokes  the  new  saint  in  the  petition  :  "  ora  pro  Jiobis, 

*  He  carries  the  papal  mitre;    and  two  Auditors  walk   by  the 
sedia  gestaioria,  as  bearers  of  the  J'alda. 


388      CIIRISTIAX  AND   ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 

sancte  N.  .  .  ."  Then  follows  the  mass,  celebrated  by 
the  pope,  or  by  a  cardinal.  The  Gospel  is  chanted  in 
Latin  and  in  Greek.*  At  the  offertory  an  oblation  is 
made  of  wine,  bread,  candles  and  doves.t 

ROMAN    CARNIVAL. 

The  The  carnival  is  a  period  of  amusement  and  license 

Roman  preceding  Lent.  Substituting  the  orgies  of  the  liiper- 
calia  and  saturnalia,  two  days  were  kept  from  the  xi. 
century  till  1500;  viz.,  the  Thursday  in  Sexagesima 
week  called  giovcdi  grasso,  and  Quinquagesima  Sunday. 
Martin  V.  added  a  third  day,  the  Saturday,  devoted  to 
bull  fights.  The  revels  were  cruel  and  barbarous.  On 
Sunday  13  bulls  were  killed,  while  from  Monte  Testaccio 
6  cars  draped  in  red  were  precipitated,  a  live  pig  in  each. 
On  the  Thursday  the  games  took  place  in  Piazza  Navona 
{Agone),  and  consisted  chiefly  in  masquerades.  With 
growing  civilisation  some  of  this  barbarous  revelry  ceased, 
and  the  entertainment  was  confined  to  racing  riderless 
horses  down  the  Corso  \  —  the  famous  Corse  dei  Barberi 
—  the  prizes  being  national  stuffs,  intended  to  encourage 
manufactures,  but  which  were  paid  for  by  the  Jews. 
Clement  IX.  abolished  the  custom  by  which  the  Jews 
were  forced  to  run  races  "  in  the  capital  of  Catholicism," 
commuting  this  service  by  a  homage  —  to  our  present 
ideas  equally  indecorous  —  performable  in  Carnival  week. 
During  the  8  days  of  Carnival  the  great  bell  of  the  capi- 
tol  announced  when  the  masks  might  issue  forth.  On 
giovedi  grasso  the  authorities  with  Monsignor  the  Fiscal 
Procurator  made  the  first  round  of  the  Corso.     On  the 

*  See  Part  II.,  page  81. 

t  See  Fart  II.,  page  180.  The  oblation  of  the  cloves  at  canoni- 
sation is  represented  in  bas-relief  in  the  chapel  near  the  tribune 
of  S.  Peter's,  and  a  painting  of  the  same  subject  is  placed  over  the 
door  in  the  Rluseo  Profano  of  the  Vatican. 

%  Hence  the  substition  of  the  name  Corso  for  that  street  in  place 
of  Via  Lata,  and  the  name  of  the  piazza  '■' Kipresa  dei  Barberi" 
where  the  horses  were  caught. 


PAPAL    CEREMOXIES  389 

other  days  they  assisted  from  their  balconies,  and  12 
cars  representing  the  1 2  regions  of  the  city,  and  followed 
by  the  papal  car  in  which  the  pope  was  represented 
habited  in  pontificals,  paraded  the  Corso.  Paul  III.  it 
is  said  threw  money  from  the  windows. 

More  than  one  cause  in  the  first  half  of  this  century 
hastened  the  downfall  of  the  old  splendours.  Sixtus  V. 
and  Gregory  XIII.  had  abolished  the  Carnival,  and  a 
century  later  Clement  X.  gave  the  money  collected  for  it 
in  charity.  Pius  IX.  regulated  the  festivities  and  their 
duration.  It  was  also  the  custom  to  have  pious  exercises 
in  some  of  the  churches  during  Carnival  time,  and  this  is 
the  case  everywhere  to-day.  The  popes  used  to  attend 
them,  and  several  popes  have  opposed  these  revelries  of 
carni  vale,  "  goodbye  to  flesh  meat."  *  That  the  Romans 
did  not  welcome  involuntary  interference  with  their  carni- 
val may  be  inferred  from  the  pasquinade  which  appeared 
on  the  death  in  that  season  of  Innocent  X.  : 

Tre  mail  ci  facesti,  O  Padre  Three  evils  hast  thou  done  us, 
Santo  :  Holy  Father ! 

Accettare  il  papato,  viver  Accepting  the  tiara,  living  too 
tanto,  long. 

Morir  in  Carneval  per  esser  And  dying  to  spoil  our  Car- 
pianto.  nival. 


*  Or  on  the  contrary  from  Carna-aval ;  this  period  was  called 
in  late  Latin  the  clergy's  crt/v/Zi  lev  a  men  ;  either  derivation  appears 
likely. 


CHAPTER   III. 


PAPAL   PALACES. 


Vatican 
Palace. 


History. 


Vatican  Palace  —  Sisiiiia  —  Paolina — Chapel  of  S.  Lorenzo  — 
Borgia  Apartment — Stanze  of  Raphael — lilusewns — li- 
brary—  Secret  Archives  —  Mint —  Pope''s  Gardens  —  Poman 
Libraries —  Collegia  Romano —  Alessandrina  —  Casatenense  — 
A7igelica  —  Vallicelliana  —  l^apal  palaces  and  villas  :  Da- 
taria  —  Cancclleria  —  Castel  Gandolfo. 

The  Vatican  Palace  as  we  see  it  to-day  was  not  built 
according  to  any  complete  architectural  plan.  Its  vari- 
ous portions,  palaces,  galleries,  chapels,  courtyards,  were 
built  at  various  epochs  and  in  various  styles,  and  were 
gradually  merged  and  joined  together  to  form  the  present 
enormous  rambling  pile.  Neither  can  the  Vatican  boast 
of  any  architectural  beauty  taken  as  a  whole,  although 
portions  are  both  picturesque  and  beautiful.  Within,  are 
some  7000  rooms  and  over  200  staircases. 

There  seems  considerable  uncertainty  as  to  when  a 
palace  first  existed  upon  this  site.  Tradition  points  to 
the  time  of  Constantine,  and  Pope  Symmachus  (498) 
seems  to  have  restored  or  enlarged  some  Vatican  build- 
ing. It  is  said  that  Charlemagne  spent  the  winter  before 
his  coronation  800-801  in  a  palace  near  S.  Peter's,  and 
here  also  later  emperors  stayed  on  their  visits  to  Rome. 

In  the  XII.  century,  the  Vatican  was  a  mere  fortress. 
The  church  itself  was  an  entrenched  citadel,  and  cata- 
pults were  fired  from  the  tower  of  S.  Maria  in  Turrim 
which  stood  against  the  basilica  atrium.  This  church 
indeed  was  burnt,  and  the  portico  and  atrium  of  S. 
Peter's  were  destroyed  during  the  fighting  against  the 
Emperor  Frederick  in  1167. 

39" 


PAPAL  PALACES  391 

Very  little  is  known  about  the  history  of  the  Vatican 
Palace,  and  very  few  records  exist  for  its  compilation,  a 
task  which  has  never  yet  been  undertaken.  Eugenius  III. 
{1145)  and  Celestine  III.  (1191)  are  often  regarded 
as  the  founders  of  the  modern  Vatican  ;  Innocent  III. 
(1198)  and  Nicholas  III.  (1277)  also  restored  or  en- 
larged it,  the  latter  laying  out  the  gardens  and  employ- 
ing the  Florentine  architects  Fra  Sisto  and  Ristori.  The 
Popes  however  lived  in  the  Lateran,  and  the  Vatican  did 
not  become  a  papal  residence  until  after  Gregory  XL's 
(1370-1378)  return  from  Avignon.  This  pope  lived  in 
it  for  safety  on  account  of  its  nearness  to  the  fortress  of 
S.  Angelo,  and  later,  (1410-1417)  the  covered  way  which 
runs  along  the  Leonine  wall  uniting  the  palace  to  the 
fortress  was  built  as  a  means  of  communication,  and  if 
necessary,  of  escape. 

In  141 7  we  find  Martin  V.  inhabiting  a  palace  near  the 
church  of  SS.  Apostoli,  and  at  this  period  the  Vatican 
was  too  ruinous  for  habitation.  It  is  not  until  the  ponti- 
ficate of  Nicholas  V.  (1447-1455)  that  it  seems  to  have 
been  rebuilt  or  restored  on  any  large  scale.  Records  are 
very  scarce,*  and  are  derived  chiefly  from  treasury  ac- 
counts, and  inventories,  and  the  diary  of  one  Burchhardt,  Palace  of 
a  master  of  ceremonies,  who  lived  at  the  end  of  the  xv.   tl^e  xv. 

century, 

century.  The  buildings  of  this  period  are  those  immedi- 
ately surrounding  the  court  of  the  Pappagallo  (10  of 
plan),  and  include  the  Borgian  wing,  built  by  Nicholas 
v.;  the  Sistine  chapel,  built  by  Sixtus  IV.  (1471-1484) 
the  Torre  Borgia  added  by  Alexander  VI.  (1492-1503) 
and  the  Sale  Regia  and  Ducale.  This  was  the  palace  of 
the  popes  from  the  time  of  Nicholas  V.  for  nearly  another 
century.  Innocent  VIII.  (1484-1492)  erected  another 
building,  the  Palazzo  In?iocenziano,  against  the  court  of 
the  old  basilica  for  the  offices  of  the  Cancelleria,  while 
at  right  angles  to  this,  another  wing,  the  Palazzo  della 
Camera,  was  added  by  Paul  II.  for  the  offices  of  the 

*  We  are  indebted  for  much  of  the  following  information,  to  the 
work  of  P.  Ehrle  and  the  late  Mr.  Stevenson,  "  gli  affreschi  del  Ap- 
partamento  Borgia." 


Innocent 
VIII. 


392      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 

Reverenda  Camera  or  Treasury.     Both  buildings  perished 
with  old  S.  Peter's. 
Villa  of  P'inally,  Innocent  built  for  himself  in  the  midst  of  the 

palace  garden  at  some  distance  from  the  Vatican  a  villa 
which  was  flanked  by  the  Leonine  wall,  and  was  fortified 
and  strengthened  by  two  towers.  The  chapel  and  halls 
of  this  villa  were  painted  by  Pinturicchio  and  Mantegna, 
and  the  villa  itself  was  designed  by  PoUajuolo.  The  paint- 
ings have  all  perished,  and  the  villa  has  been  transformed 
into  the  Belvedere  of  to-day.  It  was  joined  to  the  exist- 
ing Vatican  building  under  Julius  II.  (1503-1513)  by 
means  of  two  long  parallel  wings,  and  in  the  original  de- 
sign, which  was  Bramante's,  the  space  between  was  to 
be  left  free  for  public  games.  Two  transverse  buildings 
were  however  erected  across  the  open  space,  joining  the 
parallel  wings,  one  containing  the  great  Hall  of  the  Li- 
brary(48),*  the  other  the  Braccio  Nuovo  (72),  the  for- 
mer was  built  by  Sixtus  V.  (1585-1590)  the  latter  by 
Pius  VII.  (1800-1823).  The  Belvedere  garden  was 
thus  divided  into  the  Cortile  della  Pigna  (73)  and  the 
Cortile  del  Belvedere  (58),  the  latter  terminating  semi- 
circularly  under  the  Borgian  apartment. 

The  Cortile  of  Damaso  (4)  originally  the  private  gar- 
den of  the  popes  was  built  under  Leo  X.  (1513-1522) 
while  the  great  wing  on  its  fourth  side  which  now  contains 
the  pope's  apartments  was  commenced  by  Sixtus  V. 
(1585-1590)  and  completed  by  Clement  VIII.  (1592- 
1605),  This  wing  is  the  most  conspicuous  portion  of 
the  Vatican,  as  one  stands  facing  S.  Peter's.  Beyond  it, 
one  can  discern  the  Loggie  upon  the  court  of  Damasus, 
and  a  portion  of  the  Sistine  Chapel,  while  the  great  mass 
of  the  palace  lies  behind,  and  can  only  be  imperfectly 
seen  from  the  Piazza. 

The  usual  entrance  to  the  Vatican  Palace  is  through 
the  Bronze  Gates  (103)  at  the  S.  Peter's  extremity  of  the 
colonnade  to  the  right  as  one  faces  the  church.  And 
here  one  leaves  the  kingdom  of  Italy  behind,  and  enters 

*  The  numbers  in  brackets  refer  to  the  plan. 


PAPAL   PALACES  393 

all  that  remains  of  the  papal  dominions.  Sentinels  in  the 
uniform  of  the  pope's  Swiss  guard  are  on  duty  at  all  the 
outer  gates,  while  within,  watch  is  kept  by  the  papal 
carabineers  and  firemen  in  dark  blue  and  orange  who 
are  posted  all  over  the  palace.  And  the  visitor  whatever 
his  views,  who  penetrates  at  all  beyond  the  circumscribed 
track  of  the  museums  and  galleries,  cannot  fail  to  be 
struck  by  much  that  he  sees ;  by  the  scrupulous  cleanli- 
ness and  order  of  this  huge  building,  and  by  a  certain 
sober  dignity  about  those  employed  within  it,  combined 
with  a  total  absence  of  offensive  officialism.  Let  the 
visitor  come  to  the  Vatican  as  a  student  or  to  seek  out 
some  friend  or  acquaintance  within  its  walls,  and  he 
cannot  but  be  impressed  by  the  precision  and  regularity 
with  which  its  affairs  are  conducted,  and  by  the  genial 
kindliness  of  those  he  appeals  to  in  his  quest.  And  per- 
haps he  will  be  most  impressed  by  what  he  sees  of  the 
ordinary  daily  routine  of  the  Vatican.  He  sees  students 
and  scholars  of  all  nationalities  coming  and  going ;  in- 
numerable officials  and  employes  who  live  within  the 
Vatican  precincts,  upon  their  daily  rounds  ;  a  continuous 
stream  of  carriages  bearing  visitors  to  the  pope  or  to  the 
great  officials  of  the  palace.  Then  the  occasional  glimpse 
of  a  papal  servant  in  gorgeous  crimson  livery,  or  of 
a  detachment  of  the  noble  guard  marching  to  relieve 
another  on  duty  in  the  pope's  apartments,  only  stimulates 
the  imagination  to  picture  the  varied  and  active  life  car- 
ried on  within  those  walls,  and  to  realise  the  parapher- 
nalia of  the  great  court,  where  hundreds  of  persons  are 
employed,  and  important  complicated  and  far  reaching 
administrations  are  conducted  under  apparently  such  a 
calm  surface.  This  life  and  activity  hidden  behind  this 
unpromising  exterior  is  a  revelation  to  the  visitor  on  the 
occasion  of  his  first  admittance  to  a  great  papal  fimc- 
tion,  when  he  sees  the  Vatican  in  gala  attire  and  the 
pope  in  state  surrounded  by  his  troops  and  his  household, 
one  of  the  most  gorgeous  sights  in  the  world. 

The  Bronze  gates  open  into  a  wide  and  lofty  gallery   Entrance 
leading  to  the  Scala  Regia,  to  be  described  later.     Imme-   *°  *'.^^ 

y  '^    '  Vatican. 


394      CHRISTIAN  AND   ECCLESIASTICAI  ROME 


Bronze 
Gates. 


Court  of 
Damasus. 


Pope's 
residence. 


Mosaic 
Factory. 


diately  within  them,  is  the  guard  room  of  the  pope's 
regiment  of  Swiss  and  beyond  it,  to  the  right,  a  wide 
staircase  leads  on  the  second  floor  into  the  court  of  Da- 
masus, and  one  reaUses  the  hilly  nature  of  the  ground 
upon  which  the  Vatican  stands.  On  the  first  landing  of 
this  staircase  (i)  is  the  apartment  of  the  pope's  J/a^i-- 
tro  di  Camera,  on  the  second,  (2)  that  of  his  Maggior- 
domo.* 

The  court  of  Damasus,  (4)  so  called  because  the  water 
which  supplied  the  baptistery  erected  by  Pope  Damasus 
in  old  S.  Peter's  still  flows  through  it,  is  surrounded  on 
three  of  its  sides  by  the  Loggie  of  Raphael. 

Royal  personages  and  visitors  to  the  pope,  enter  this 
court  by  a  carriage  drive  which  leads  into  it  by  an  easy 
and  gradual  ascent  from  the  Via  delle  Fondamenta.  To 
the  left  is  the  entrance  into  the  Vatican  Library,  for 
readers  only.  To  the  right  on  the  ground  floor,  the 
apartments  of  the  Maestro  dei  Sacri  Palazzi  (where  he 
fills  the  position  held  by  S.  Dominic  in  the  Vatican)  and 
the  great  entrance  (5)  to  the  Pope's  private  residence. f 
This  palace  (6)  contains  some  twenty-two  rooms,  sur- 
rounding a  central  courtyard  (<').  The  Pope's  private 
library  (;«)  faces  the  Piazza  of  S.  Peter's  and  its  three 
windows,  to  the  right  of  two  of  painted  glass  which  light 
the  staircase,  can  be  seen  above  the  colonnade.  Further 
to  the  right  are  the  windows  of  the  pope's  study  {ji),  his 
present  bedroom  (/?)  and  his  private  anterooms. 

Facing  the  entrance  into  the  cortile,  a  doorway  (8) 
leads  into  the  museum  and  manufactory  of  mosaics.  The 
factory  occupies  part  of  the  ground  floor  below  the  Gal- 
Icria  Lapidaria  (42).  Here  a  large  number  of  workmen 
are  employed  in  making  mosaic  pictures,  copies  of  pic- 


*  It  is  to  either  of  these  officials  that  apphcation  must  be  made  for 
permission  to  assist  at  any  of  the  pa]Dal  functions,  to  visit  the  Vati- 
can gardens,  and  for  audience  of  the  Pope.  The  apphcation  must 
i^e  personal,  but  ladies  are  recommended  to  accomplish  this  through 
some  priest  or  man  friend. 

t  The  Cardinal  Secretary  of  State  lives  in  the  Pope's  residence 
on  the  third  floor. 


PAPAL  PALACES  395 

tares,  and  decorations,  chiefly  for  the  ornamentation  of 
churches.* 

The  Scala  Regia,  a  wide  and  easy  flight  of  stone  stairs,   Scala 
springs  from  the  gallery  within  the  Bronze  Gates.     It  was   Regia. 
designed  by  Bernini  and  built  in  the  reign  of  Urban  VIII. 
(1623-1644).     The  first  flight  is  flanked  by  Ionic  col- 
imins  ;  the  ceiling  is  decorated  with  stucco  ornamentation, 
the  work  of  Algardi. 

This  staircase  leads  into  the  Sala  Regia  j  (26)  or  as  it  SalaRcgi; 
was  originally  called  the  Aula  Magna.  This  hall  was 
designed  for  the  reception  of  ambassadors  from  the  em- 
peror or  from  kings.  Public  consistories  were  occasion- 
ally held  in  it,  though  not  invariably  as  seems  the  case  now. 
In  1506,  the  stairs  leading  from  this  hall  were  so  arranged 
that  the  pope  could,  if  he  wished,  ride  down  them  on 
horseback  into  S.  Peter's.  Another  flight  of  stairs  led 
into  the  old  Paradise. \ 

The  Sala  Regia  measures  36  metres  by  16,  and  is  24 
metres  high.  The  stucco  decorations  are  by  Pierin  del 
Vaga,  da  Udine,  and  Daniele  da  Volterra.  Great  frescoes 
representing  scenes  in  the  lives  of  popes,  cover  the  walls. 
On  the  two  longest  walls  :  Paul  V.'s  League  with  the 
Venetians  by  Vasari,  and  the  Battle  of  Lepanto,  Vasari. 

Opposite  :  The  Return  from  Avignon,  Vasari. 

Alexander  III.  and  Barbarossa  in  Venice,  Giuseppe 
Porta. 

On  the  end  walls  :  Crregory  VII.  and  Henry  IV.  before 
Matilda,  Zucchero. 

The  Taking  of  Tunis  and  the  Night  of  S.  Bartholomew. 

Folding  doors  lead  into  the  Sistine  Chapel,  and  opposite 
is  the  entrance  to  the  Sala  Ducale.     This  hall  (24,  25)    j;^]^ 
which  is  in  two  portions  was  originally  known  as  the  Aula    Ducale. 

*  A  Permesso  is  necessary  for  visiting  the  factory  and  Museo,  to 
be  had  Via  della  Sagrestia  8.  The  factory  is  open  daily  from  10 
to  2. 

t  At  present  the  Sale  Regia  and  Ducale  and  the  Paolina  are  not 
open  to  visitors,  but  new  rules  for  the  admission  of  visitors  will  be 
made  when  the  present  restorations  are  completed. 

}  See  Ft.  I.,  page  56. 


396      CHRISTIAN  AXD   ECCIESIASTICAL   ROME 

Minor,  and  was  the  reception  hall  for  dukes  and  princes. 
Less  solemn  consistories  were  also  held  in  it  and  here 
the  function  of  the  washing  of  the  feet  took  place.*  At 
the  big  fireplace  in  this  hall,  the  members  of  the  curia 
used  to  warm  themselves  while  they  waited  for  the  mid- 
night papal  mass  on  Christmas  eve. 

The  present  decoration  of  the  Sala  Ducale  was  designed 
by  Bernini.  It  is  ornamented  with  arabesques  and  fres- 
coes, and  on  its  walls  are  landscapes  by  Paul  Brill.  It 
First  tier  of  opens  at  its  further  end  into  the  first  tier  of  Loggie.  The 
Loggie.  .^vest  branch  (20)  of  this  tier  is  said  to  have  been  de- 
signed by  Raphael  —  it  contains  a  bust  of  Giovanni  da 
Udine,  who  decorated  it  with  stuccoes  and  arabesques. 
The  frescoes  of  the  centre  branch  (21)  are  by  Roncalli 
and  have  been  recently  restored. 

Another  door  leads  from  the  Sala  Ducale  up  some 
Sale  of  the  Steps  into  the  Sala  dei  Parameiiti  (23),  a  hall  where  car- 
Paramenti,  dinals  assembled  and  were  robed  for  great  functions. 
Tnd  Audi-°  Next  to  this  is  the  Sala  del  Pappagallo  (35^?)  where  the 
entice.  popes  are  dressed  for  ceremonies  in  S.  Peter's.     Here  the 

bodies  of  Sixtus  IV.,  Alexander  VI.  and  Pius  III.  were 
laid  before  their  removal  in  state  to  S.  Peter's.     A  small 
passage  room  next  to  this  (35)  was  originally  used  for 
private  audiences. 
Paoiina  The  Paolina  Chapel  (34)  is  reached  through  the  Sala 

Chapel.  Regia.  The  present  building  replaces  a  much  older 
one,  the  capella  minor  built  for  Nicholas  V..  and  deco- 
rated by  Fra  Angelico.  The  Paolina  is  the  parish 
church  of  the  Apostolic  Palace,  a  parish  in  itself,  of 
which  the  Pope's  Sacristan,  who  is  also  a  bishop,  is  the 
parish  priest. 

The  present  Paolina  was  built  foi  Paul  III.  (1534- 
1550)  by  Sangallo.  It  has  been  always  used  for  the  cere- 
monies of  Holy  Week,  and  unfortunately  the  frescoes  on 
its  walls  by  Michael  Angelo,  have  been  much  blackened 
by  candle  smoke.  On  the  right  is  the  "  Crucifixion  of 
Peter "  by  this  artist   between  the   "  Miracle  of  Simon 

*See  Pt.  II.,  page  251. 


PAPAL   PALACES  397 

Magus  "  and  "  the  Baptism  of  the  House  of  CorneHus  " 
both  by  Sabbatini.  Opposite,  the  "  Conversion  of  Paul  " 
by  Michael  Angelo  between  the  "  Martyrdom  of  Stephen  " 
and  the  "  Baptism  of  Paul  "  the  work  of  Zucchero.  The 
roof  is  painted  by  the  latter  artist ;  over  the  door  is  a  copy 
by  him  of  Raphael's  "  Liberation  of  Peter."  The  choir 
has  been  recently  decorated. 

SISTINE    CHAPEL. 

On  ordinary  occasions  visitors  are  not  admitted  to  the   Sistine 
Sistina  (30)  by  the  great  entrance  from  the  Sala  Regia,   Chapel, 
but  through  a  smaller  door  to  the  left  of  it,  which  opens 
directly  on  to  the  Scala  Regia. 

This  rich  and  beautiful  chapel,  originally  called  the 
Capella  Magna  to  distinguish  it  from  the  Paolina,  takes 
its  present  name  from  Sixtus  IV.,  in  whose  pontificate  it 
was  built  in  the  year  1473,  from  designs  of  the  Floren- 
tine, Baccio  Pintelli.  It  is  quadrangular,  with  a  vaulted 
ceiling,  147  ft.  in  length  by  50  wide.  The  pavement  is 
fine  cosmatesque,  restored  with  marble.  A  beautiful 
marble  screen,  the  work  of  Mino  da  Fiesole  and  Gio- 
vanni Dalmata,  divides  the  chapel  into  two  portions. 
Immediately  within  the  screen,  to  the  right,  is  a  singers' 
gallery,  the  marble  balustrade  of  which  is  also  the  work 
of  Mino  da  Fiesole,  but  it  has  been  spoiled  by  gilding. 
A  marble  bench  runs  round  the  whole  length  of  the 
chapel.  The  altar,  a  modern  one,  and  the  dais  for  the 
pope's  throne  are  raised  some  6  or  7  steps  above  the  level 
of  the  pavement. 

The  chapel  is  lighted  by  twelve  narrow  windows  with 
round  arches,  high  in  the  walls.  Raphael's  tapestry  (see 
p.  424)  was  to  have  formed  a  dado  round  the  lower  portion 
of  the  walls ;  this  space  is  now  left  bare,  and  is  painted 
to  represent  silk  hangings.  Above  it,  and  beneath  the 
windows,  are  the  famous  frescoes,  a  series  in  separate 
compartments,  those  on  one  wall  representing  scenes  in 
the  life  of  Christ,  those  on  the  other,  scenes  in  the  life  of 
Moses. 


398      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAI.   ROME 

Series  on  The  series  commences  to  the  left  of  the  "  Last  Judg- 

the  left.         ment,"  (as  one  stands  facing  it). 

I.  Perugino  and  Pinturicchio.*  Moses  and  Zephorah 
on  their  journey  into  Egypt  and  the  circumcision  of  the 
son  of  Moses. 

II.  BotticeUi.  Moses  watering  the  sheep  of  the  daugh- 
ters of  Jethro  ;  the  Lord  appearing  in  the  burning  bush. 

III.  Piero  di  Cosimo.  The  destruction  of  Pharoah's 
army  in  the  Red  Sea. 

IV.  SignorelH.  Moses  receiving  the  tables  of  the 
Law,  their  destruction  and  the  worship  of  the  golden  calf. 

V.  Botticelli.  Korah,  Dathan  and  Abiram  and  their 
followers  destroyed  by  the  miraculous  fire. 

VI.  SignorelH.  The  death  of  Moses.  Promulgation 
of  the  Law. 

This  ends  the  series  on  this  wall.  Over  the  great 
entrance  is  a  much  retouched  fresco  by  Salviati,  of  the 
archangel  Michael  with  the  body  of  Moses. 

Series  on  The  second  series  begins  to  the  right  of  the  "  Last 

r'giit.  Judgment." 

I.  Perugino  and  Pinturicchio.    The  Baptism  of  Christ. 

II.  Botticelli.  The  Sacrifice  of  the  Leper  (Matthew 
viii.  4).     The  three  temptations  in  the  background. 

III.  Ghirlandajo.     The  calling  of  Peter  and  Andrew. 

IV.  Cosimo  Rosselli.  The  Sermon  on  the  mount  and 
the  healing  of  the  leper. 

V.  Perugino.     Christ  giving  the  keys  to  Peter. 

VI.  Cosimo  Rosselli.     The  Last  Supper. 

Over  the  entrance  on  this  side,  the  Ascension,  by 
Ghirlandajo. 

The  great  wall  opposite  the  doors  and  above  the  altar, 
Last  judg-  is  completely  covered  by  Michael  Angelo's  fresco  of  the 
"  Last  Judgment."  Three  frescoes  of  Perugino's  origi- 
nally decorated  this  space.  The  "Last  Judgment"  was 
begun  about  thirty  years  after  the  ceiling,  by  command 
of  Clement  VII.  (1523-1534)  and  was  finished  under 
Paul  III.   in    1 54 1.      It  took   eight  years    to   complete 

*  The  date  of  these  paintings  is  about  1483. 


nient. 


PAPAL  PALACES  399 

and  then  narrowly  escaped  utter  destruction  owing  to 
Paul  IV.'s  (i 555-1 559)  criticism  of  the  nudity  of  some 
of  the  figures.*  Instead  of  annihilation  however,  Vol- 
terra  was  commissioned  to  paint  drapery  to  the  obnoxious 
figures,  for  which  task  he  was  nicknamed  braghetione 
breeches  maker,  by  the  Roman  people.  A  similar  work 
was  given  to  Pozzi  by  Clement  XII.  (i  730-1 740),  and 
what  with  this  treatment,  damp  and  candle  smoke,  the 
painting  has  suffered  considerably. 

A  crowd  of  figures  appear  in  this  composition.  Christ 
stands  in  the  centre  with  the  Madonna  and  the  Apostles, 
and  on  either  side,  the  patriarchs  and  saints,  and  the 
martyrs  with  the  emblem  of  their  martyrdom.  Above, 
are  groups  of  angels  with  the  cross.  Beneath,  crowds  of 
the  saved  are  rising,  while  the  damned  are  being  dragged 
down  into  hell  by  devils.  Among  these  groups,  is  the 
boatman,  Charon.  The  donkey-eared  Midas  on  the  right 
is  a  portrait  of  Paul  III.'s  master  of  ceremonies,  who 
offended  Michael  Angelo  by  being  the  first  to  suggest  the 
unnecessary  nudity  of  the  figures.  He  complained  to 
Paul  III.  of  being  thus  located  in  the  netherworld,  and 
begged  him  to  give  orders  that  the  figure  should  be 
painted  out,  evoking  the  pope's  celebrated  answer  that 
he  had  "  power  over  purgatory,  but  none  over  hell." 

The  ceiling  of  the  chapel  was  painted  by  Michael  Ceiling. 
Angelo  at  the  desire  of  Julius  II.  between  the  years  1508 
and  15 1 2.  Many  stories  are  told  of  the  undertaking  History, 
which  was  as  usual  not  finished  without  many  heartaches 
and  outbursts  of  temper.  The  necessary  scaffolding  was 
prepared  for  Michael  Angelo  by  Bramante,  who  attached 
it  in  the  usual  way  to  the  walls  and  ceiling.  "  How," 
Michael  Angelo  asked,  "  am  I  to  fill  in  those  holes  when 
the  scaffolding  is  taken  down?"  He  thereupon  designed 
a  scaffolding  himself,  which  stood  upon  a  base  of  its  own, 
touching  neither  wall  nor  ceiling.  Bramante  adopted 
the  model  later  for  work  in  S.  Peter's,  where  one  of  the 
same  pattern  is  used  to  this  day. 

*  Already  Adrian  VI.  had  called  the  Sistine  "  una  stufa  d'ignudi " 
and  had  threatened  the  paintings  with  destruction. 


400      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 

Michael  Angelo  at  first  asked  for  the  assistance  of  some 
of  the  best  Florentine  artists,  but  when  they  had  been 
sent  for,  he  grew  disgusted  with  the  plan,  tore  up  all  their 
designs,  and  packed  them  back  to  Florence  again.  He 
then  shut  himself  alone  into  the  Sistine,  denying  entrance 
to  everyone,  and  even  refusing  to  see  visitors  at  his  own 
house.  As  time  went  on,  popular  curiosity  as  to  his 
doings  increased,  and  it  is  said  that  Julius  II.,  unable  to 
bear  the  suspense  any  longer,  had  himself  disguised, 
bribed  the  doorkeeper,  and  hid  in  the  chapel  to  watch 
the  artist  at  work.  According  to  the  story,  Michael 
Angelo  recognised  the  pope,  and  angry  at  his  intrusion, 
pushed  some  heavy  frames  off  the  scaffolding  where  he  sat 
at  work,  which  fell  with  a  terrific  crash  on  to  the  pavement. 
Then,  alarmed  at  the  pope's  probable  anger,  he  fled  to 
Florence,  and  was  only  induced  to  return  when  three 
papal  briefs  and  five  couriers  had  been  sent  after  him. 

When  the  work  was  all  but  finished,  mould  began  to 
appear  on  the  painting  where  it  was  not  exposed  to  the 
sun,  and  once  again  Michael  Angelo  in  despair,  wished  to 
throw  up  the  work.  Finally  Pope  Julius  grew  impatient, 
but  to  his  repeated  queries  as  to  when  it  would  be  finished, 
the  artist  merely  answered  that  he  would  complete  it 
when  he  could.  Vasari*  relates  that  annoyed  with  the 
constant  answer  "  quando  potro,  Padre  santo  "  ("  when 
I  can,  holy  Father")  the  pope  struck  Michael  Angelo 
with  the  stick  he  carried,  crying  out :  "  quando  potro, 
quando  potro,  te  la  faro  finire  ben  io  "  ("  '  when  I  can,' 
'  when  I  can'  indeed,  I  will  make  thee  finish  it  myself"). 
The  painter  returned  home  to  prepare  for  a  second  flight 
to  Florence,  but  the  pope's  chamberlain  was  sent  in  haste 
after  him,  with  excuses  and  promises  of  good  will,  and 
a  present  of  500  scudi. 

The  ceiling  was  finished  and  uncovered  on  the  morn- 
ing of  all  Saints  Day  15 12.  Julius  then  declared  that 
the  colours  should  have  been  gayer,  and  that  there 
should  have  been  more  gilding  to  match  the  other  paint- 
ings in  the  chapel,  to  which  Michael  Angelo  replied,  that 

*  Vasari  Vife  de'  Pitiori,  Vol.  VII.,  p.  214. 


PAPAL   PALACES  401 

the  people  on  his  ceiling  were  not  rich,  but  were  saints 
and  despised  splendour. 

For  this  great  work,  the  painter  received  3000  scudi, 
about  ^600,  having  spent  about  the  same  sum  on  the 
necessary  materials. 

It  is  perhaps  the  whole  design  of  the  Sistine  ceiling 
which  excites  one's  admiration  at  the  first  glance,  and  it 
is  only  later  that  one  realises  the  delicate  working  out  of 
each  detail.  Unhke  so  many  painted  ceilings  it  pro- 
duces no  sense  either  of  heaviness  or  of  incongruity,  and 
the  general  effect  is  extraordinarily  harmonious.  'I'his  is 
probably  due  to  the  decorativeness  of  the  design,  the 
whole  surface  of  the  ceiling  being  divided  into  distinct 
panels  by  means  of  painted  marble  and  masonry  divi- 
sions which  spring  from  the  sides  over  the  vaulted  pordon 
of  the  roof  and  form  ornamental  frames  to  each  subject 
throwing  into  strong  relief  the  figures  themselves.  The  Centre, 
centre  of  the  ceiling  is  painted  with  subjects  from  Gene- 
sis, arranged  in  successive  divisions  nine  in  number,  the 
alternate  divisions  being  smaller,  more  heavily  framed, 
and  decorated  with  ornamental  figures  and  medallions. 

The  series  begins  at  the  altar. 

I.  Separation  of  night  from  day  (this  subject  is  sur- 
rounded by  heavy  framing  and  four  figures,  one  at  each 
angle). 

II.  Creation  of  the  sun  and  moon. 

III.  The  Almighty  separating  the  earth  from  the 
waters.     (With  ornamental  figures.) 

IV.  Creation  of  Adam. 

V.  Birth  of  Eve.    (Ornamental  figures.) 

VI.  The  eating  of  the  apple  and  expulsion  from  Paradise, 

VII.  Noah's  sacrifice.     (Ornamental  figures.) 

VIII.  The  Flood. 

IX.  The  intoxication  of  Noah,  who  is  mocked  by  Ham. 

Next  this  series,  upon  the  arch  of  the  roof  are  massive   Sibyls  and 
sitting  figures  of  the  Prophets  and  Sibyls,  one  figure  at    P'ophets. 
each  end  of  the  ceiling,  and  five  on  either  side  in  the 
following  order  : 


402 


CHRISTIAX  AXD   ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 


Scenes  in 

ilie  Angles. 


Lunettes 
above  tlie 
windows. 


Jonah  —  above  last  judgment 
Jeremiah  Sibilla  Lybica 

Sibilla  Persica  Daniel 

Ezechiel  Sibilla  Cumaea 

Sibilla  Erithraea  Isaiah 

J°^^  Zacharias  S^^^^^^^  ^^^P^^^^ 

In  the  angles  of  the  ceiling  are  four  scenes  in  trian- 
gular framing.  Nearest  the  "last  judgment,"  on  the 
right,  the  people  healed  by  the  Brazen  Serpent ;  on  the 
left,  Haman  hanged  upon  the  gibbet ;  at  the  other  end 
of  the  chapel  David  kiUing  Goliath,  and  Judith  with 
the  head  of  Holofernes. 

Over  each  window  in  a  lunette,  are  two  seated  figures, 
or  groups  of  figures,  and  in  the  case  of  the  four  central 
windows  on  each  side,  each  lunette  is  crowned  by  a  tri- 
angular space  in  which  another  figure  sits.  These  figures 
are  the  progenitors  of  David.*  The  names  of  each 
group  are  painted  upon  a  tablet,  but  they  are  difficult 
to  read,  owing  to  the  great  height  of  the  chapel. 
The  groups  are  arranged  as  follows  : 

Altar 
Windows  on  the  one  side  Windows  on  the  other  side 


I 

Aminadab 

Nasson 

2 

Salmon,  Booz,Obeth(Obed) 

Jesse,  David,  Solomon 

3 

Roboam,  Abias 

Asa,  Josophat,  Joram 

4 

Ozias,  Joatham,  Achaz 

Ezechias,  Manasses,  Amon 

5 

Zorobabel,  Abiud,  Elio- 

chum  (Eliakim) 

Josiah,  Zechonias,  Salathiel 

6 

Achim,  Aliud  (Eliud) 

Azor,  Sadoch 

^  -.       ,         Entrance       ,  „, 

\  Jacob  ]  Eleazar 

"(  Joseph  (  Mathan 

*  Matthew  i.     For  the  chronological  order,  they  should  be  taken 
:cross  from  one  window  to  the  window  opposite. 


PAPAL  PALACES 


403 


Between  the  windows  are  full  length  figures  of  the  Portraits 
martyr  popes,  with  their  names  and  the  years  of  their  °'  Pop". 
reigns  beneath  them.     They  are  in  the  following  order : 


Altar 


On  either  side  of  windows 
on  the  one  sifle 


On  either  side  of  windows 
on  the  other  side 


Clement 

Evaristus  (Botticelli) 

AnacletUS  (Ghirlandajo) 
Alexander  (Fra  Diamante) 

Sixtus  I.  (restored) 
Hyginus  (Ghirlandajo) 

Telesphorus 

Pius  I.  (Ghirlandajo) 

Anicetus 

Eleutherius  (Fra  Diamante) 

Soter  (Botticelli) 
Victor  I.  (Ghirlandajo) 

Zephyrinus  (Ghirlandajo) 
Urban  I. 

Calixtus 
Pontianus 

Anthems  (Fra  Diamante; 
Cornelius  (Botticelli) 

Fabian 

Voius(Lucius)(Fra  Diamante) 

Stephen  (BotticelH) 
Dionysius 

Sixtus  II.  (Botticelli) 
Felix  (Ghirlandajo) 

Entrance 


(  Marcellus  (restored)  |  Damasus  (  ?)   (Ghirlandajo) 

{  Eutychianus  (Fra  Diamante)  (  Marcellinus  (Fra  Diamante) 


404      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 
APPARTAMENTO    BORGIA.* 

History.  The   block   of  building   which  contains    the  Borgian 

apartment,  formed  part,  as  we  have  seen,  of  the  palace 
of  Nicholas  V.  (1447-1455).  Its  windows  look  on  the 
one  side  into  the  court  of  the  Belvedere,  on  the  other, 
into  the  little  cortile  of  the  Pappagallo.  The  building 
seems  to  have  been  left  unfinished  by  Nicholas,  and  was 
completed  by  his  successors  and  by  Alexander  VI.  who 
added  the  Toi're  Borgia.  The  ground  floor  is  occupied 
by  the  series  of  halls  which  once  constituted  the  famous 
library  of  Sixtus  IV. ;  the  Stanze  of  Raphael  are  upon  the 
second  floor,  and  the  Borgian  Apartment  is  upon  the 
first.  The  rooms  of  this  apartment,  with  the  exception 
of  the  first,  were  used  as  private  dwelling  rooms  by  the 
popes  of  the  late  xv.  century.  While  Alexander  VI. 
lived  upon  the  first  floor,  Caesar  Borgia  occupied  the 
rooms  above.  Sixtus  IV.  preferred  the  upper  floor, 
where  he  eventually  died.  Julius  II.  did  the  same,  and 
during  his  pontificate,  the  lower  rooms  were  given  up  to 
his  nephews,  and  to  the  Cardinal  Secretary  of  State. 

When  Sixtus  V.  built  a  new  papal  palace,  the  Borgian 
apartment  was  deserted,  and  fell  into  a  state  of  dilapida- 
tion. During  the  sack  of  the  Vatican  in  1527,  it  was 
greatly  injured  by  Bourbon's  soldiers,  who  scratched 
their  names  upon  the  frescoed  walls,  and  blackened  them 
with  their  fires.  The  frescoes  were  further  mutilated  by 
the  erection  of  cells  for  the  cardinals,  in  the  conclaves 
which  were  held  in  the  Borgian  apartment  during  the 
XVI.  and  xvii.  centuries.  Eventually  the  rooms  degener- 
ated into  mere  eating  rooms  for  the  lesser  court  officials, 
and  became  more  and  more  ruinous.  In  1816  Pius  VI. 
used  the  apartment  as  a  picture  gallery,  a  coat  of  paint 
being  washed  over  the  dilapidated  frescoes.  In  1821,  it 
was  a  miscellaneous  museum,  and  in  1838,  the  various 
collections  were  moved  out,  and  the  printed  books  of 
the  Vatican  library  were  moved  in. 

*  Open  free  Tuesday  and  Friday,  but  must  be  entered  through 
the  Museums,  Via  delle  Fondamenla. 


PAPAL   PALACES 


405 


It  is  said  that  Leo  XIII.  while  Cardinal  Chamberlain 
to  Pius  IX.,  was  fond  of  wandering  about  the  Vatican 
with  an  immense  bunch  of  keys,  and  that  he  had  noticed 
and  taken  to  heart  the  pitiful  condition  of  this  beautiful 
portion  of  the  palace.  He  planned  its  restoration  upon 
being  elected  to  the  pontificate,  but  it  was  not  until 
March  1897  that  his  task  was  completed,  and  that  the 
Borgian  apartment  was  thrown  open  to  the  public.  The 
printed  books  were  removed  to  a  new  library  prepared 
for  them  upon  the  ground  floor.  The  frescoes  which 
remained  were  cleaned,  and  the  whole  was  put  into 
thorough  repair  under  able  direction.  The  beautiful 
majolica  pavement  was  restored  upon  the  old  models, 
that  of  the  first  four  halls  by  a  firm  at  Naples,  that  of  the 
other  two,  by  Cantagalli  of  Florence.  The  Appartamento 
Borgia  is  entered  by  double  doors  from  the  first  tier  of 
Loggie,  at  the  angle  where  the  west  and  north  branches 
meet.*  The  apartment  consists  of  six  rooms,  the  two 
furthest  and  smallest  being  in  the  Torre  Borgia. 

Room   I  (36)  Hall   of  the  Pontifice.      This  hall,  the   Room  I. 
largest  of  the  series,  seems  to  have  been  used  originally   ^^",°^''^*^ 
as  a  private  audience  hall.     Here  Julius  II.  entertained 
six  English  envoys  at  dinner  on  Corpus  Christi    1504; 
they  having  previously  given  in  their  sovereign's  obedience 
to  the  Holy  See.     The  frescoes  upon  the  walls  of  this 
hall  "were  entirely  destroyed,  and  it  has  been  hung  with 
tapestries  from  one  of  the  other  rooms.     The  ceiling  was   Ceiling, 
decorated  at   Leo  X.'s  desire,  by  Pierin  del  Vaga  and 
Giovanni  da   Udine.     Among   arabesques   and   wreaths 
appear  the  twelve  constellations  of  the  Zodiac  and  the 
seven  planets,  Apollo  for  the  sun,  Diana  for  the  moon, 
Saturn,   Jupiter,    Mars,   Venus    and    Mercury.      At   the 
four   corners    the   arms   of  Leo   X.    are    supported    by 
cherubs. 

A  fine  carved  stone  mantelpiece,  which  came  origin- 
ally from  the  Castel  S.  Angelo,  has  been  recently  moved 
from  this  hall  to  make  room  for  the  bust  of  Leo  XIII. 


*  Visitors  are  admitted  through  the  Galleria  Lapidaria,  on  Tues- 
days and  Fridays. 


4o6      CHRISTIAN  AND   ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 


Room  II. 
"  della  vita 
della 
Madonna." 


Ceiling. 


Walls. 


The  tapestries  represent  the  story  of  Cephalus.  Stands 
of  arms,  mostly  halberds,  swords,  and  helmets  of  an  obso- 
lete pattern  have  been  removed  to  this  hall  from  the  old 
Vatican  armoury.  Among  them  is  a  coat  of  mail  said  to 
have  belonged  to  Julius  II.,  and  the  suit  of  armour  worn 
by  Constable  Bourbon  when  he  was  killed  in  the  siege  of 
Rome  in  1527,  and  which  still  bears  on  the  leg  the  mark 
of  the  fatal  shell. 

The  following  rooms  were  decorated  by  Pinturicchio 
between  December  1492  and  1495,  probably  at  the 
desire  of  Alexander  VI.  The  last  two  rooms  were 
finished  last,  and  are  decidedly  inferior  to  the  others, 
both  in  execution  and  design.  In  every  case  the  general 
design  is  Pinturicchio's,  and  in  most  cases  the  principal 
figures,  but  there  is  evidence  that  he  was  helped  by  other 
artists  of  his  school.  The  marble  carving  of  cornices, 
door  jambs,  and  window  frames  is  said  to  be  the  work  of 
Andrea  Bregna,  a  disciple  of  Mino  da  Fiesole,  who  was 
born  in  1421  and  is  buried  in  the  Minerva. 

Room  II.  of  the  Mysteries  (37)  or  as  it  is  also  called 
della  vita  della  Madonna.  The  ancient  pavement  of 
this  room  was  entirely  destroyed,  and  has  been  replaced 
by  a  new  one  of  majolica. 

The  ceiling  is  extremely  rich.  Its  vaulting  divides  it 
into  two  portions,  which  are  again  divided  into  four 
triangular  spaces,  each  of  which  contains  a  circle  in 
which  is  represented  a  prophet.  In  the  circles  nearest 
the  window,  are  the  figures  of  Joel,  Jeremiah,  Micheas, 
and  Sophonias,  (Zephaniah).  On  the  left,  Solomon, 
David,  Isaiah,  and  Malachi.  The  figures  are  surrounded 
by  richly  ornamented  frames. 

In  the  lunettes  on  the  upper  part  of  the  walls  formed 
by  the  spring  of  the  arches,  are  the  following  seven  great 
frescoes : 


The  Magi  The  Resurrection 

Nativity  (Window)        Ascension 

Annunciation  (Entrance) 

Assumption  of  Mary        Pentecost 


PAPAL    PALACES 


407 


Room  III. 
"  Vita  dei 
Santi." 


Ceiling 


The  kneeling  figure  before  the  Virgin  in  the  fresco  of 
the  Ascension  is  Csesar  Borgia.  There  is  a  fine  stone 
mantelpiece  in  this  room,  carved  with  mythological  sub- 
jects. 

Room  III.  of  the  "  I'ifa  ,/ei  Santi''  (38).  The  ceiling 
of  this  room  is  again  very  rich.  In  the  centre  of  the 
vaulting  of  each  of  its  two  sections,  appear  the  arms  of 
Alexander  VI.  The  ox  of  Borgia  impaled  with  the  arms 
of  Doms,  an  ancestor  of  the  family.  Each  section  is  sub- 
divided into  four,  and  in  each  of  these  eight  divisions  is 
depicted  a  scene  in  the  story  of  Isis  and  Osiris,  framed 
by  ornamentation  of  the  most  delicate  design.  In  one 
section,  Osiris,  seated  upon  a  throne,  teaches  fruit  culture, 
he  marries  Isis,  he  teaches  agriculture  and  vine  culture. 
In  the  other,  the  bull  Apis  appears,  and  is  led  in  proces- 
sion, Osiris  is  murdered  by  Typhon,  and  Isis  finds  his 
mangled  remains. 

On  the  arches  of  the  ceiling  are  small  octagonal  paint- 
ings amidst  the  richest  decoration.  Here  we  have  the 
story  of  lo  and  Argus  ;  Zeus  and  lo,  Hera  taking  the 
white  heifer  into  which  lo  had  been  changed,  from  Zeus  ; 
Hermes  putting  Argus  to  sleep,  and  Hermes  killing  Argus  ; 
in  the  remaining  octagon  Argus  asleep. 

The  frescoes  upon  the  walls  are  in  lunettes  as  in  the   Walls. 
previous  hall : 

The  Visitation 

(Window) 

S.  Sebastian's  martyrdom 
S.  Susanna  and  the  elders, 
the  elders  stoned  in  the 
background 


S.Antony  visiting  Paul  the 
Hermit  in  the  Thebaid 
Catherine  of  Alexandria 
S.  Barbara,  her  flight  from 
the  tower  and  her 
martyrdom 


The  great  fresco  of  S.  Catherine  disputing  with  the 
philosophers  before  the  Emperor  Maximian,  covers  the 
whole  of  the  upper  part  of  the  wall  opposite  the  window. 
The  Emperor  is  seated  upon  a  throne,  S.  Catherine  is  a 
youthful  figure  wearing  a  jewelled  diadem.  Raised  stucco 
is  introduced  into  this  painting  to  increase  the  sense  of 
distance. 


4o8      CHRISTIAN  AXD   ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 


Room  IV. 
"of  the 
Liberal 
arts." 


Ceiling. 


Walls. 


The  Madonna  in  a  circular  frame  over  the  entrance 
door  in  this  room,  is  said  to  be  a  portrait  of  Giuha  Far- 
nese,  Alexander  VI. 's  mistress.  Inlaid  panelling  with  seats, 
forms  a  dado  round  the  walls. 

Room  IV.  "  0/  the  Liberal  Arts''  (39).  This  room 
has  erroneously  been  called  Alexander  VI. 's  bedroom  ;  it 
is  more  probable  that  the  room  he  used  as  a  bedroom, 
and  in  which  he  died,  was  a  smaller  room  at  right  angles 
to  it  (39^!)  which  with  a  second  (39/^)  which  leads  out 
of  it,  has  now  been  shut  off,  and  given  up  to  the  use  of 
the  Guardia  Nobile.  It  appears  however  that  after  his 
death,  the  body  of  the  pope  was  moved  into  the  hall 
of  the  Liberal  Arts,  to  await  its  transportation  to  the 
church. 

The  carved  stone  mantelpiece  from  the  hall  of  the 
Pontifice  has  been  moved  into  this  room,  all  the  rooms 
of  the  apartment  being  provided  with  chimneys,  though 
few  of  them  with  chimney  pieces.  In  the  thickness  of 
the  wall,  a  corridor  leads  into  the  tower  and  communi- 
cates with  the  apartment  of  the  Guardia  Nobile.  On  the 
opposite  side  of  the  room,  a  second  passage  also  in  the 
thickness  of  the  wall,  leads  to  the  loggie,  which  at  a  date 
posterior  to  the  building  of  the  apartment,  were  added  to 
it  to  enable  the  popes  to  watch  the  games  which  took 
place  in  the  court  beneath.  This  was  probably  under 
Leo  X.  or  Julius  II. 

The  ceiling  of  this  room  has  been  much  restored,  the 
stucco  having  fallen  away  and  been  replaced  by  painting. 
In  the  centre  is  a  large  figure  of  "  Justice  "  with  the  scales, 
and  in  the  octagon  framings,  paintings  of  Lot  saved  by  the 
angels,  Jacob  leaving  Lebanon,  and  "  Justice  "  again,  then 
the  widow  before  Trajan,  and  another  representation  of 
Justice. 

The  lunettes  upon  the  walls  are  painted  with  represen- 
tations of  the  arts  and  sciences ;  each  depicted  as  a 
seated  female  figure  upon  a  throne  surrounded  by 
groups  of  scholars.  The*  name  of  the  figure  is  in  some 
cases  written  beneath  the  throne.  The  order  is  as 
follows  : 


PAPAL   PALACES 


409 


Arithmetic  Music 

(Windows) 
Geometry 
Rhetoric 

(Entrance) 
Dialectic  Grammar 


Astrology 


Room  V. 
of  the 
"Credo." 

Ceiling. 


Room  V.  of  the  "  Credo'"  (40).  A  few  steps  lead  up 
into  this  room  which  is  in  the  Torre  Borgia.  It  was 
Alexander  VI. 's  treasury.  The  ceiling  is  covered  with 
delicate  and  intricate  ornamentation,  in  which  the  arms 
of  the  pope  occur  and  the  date  1494. 

The   walls    are   decorated    with  twelve   lunettes,  each   Walls, 
containing  a  prophet  and  an  apostle  holding  a  scroll  upon 
which  is  written  the  contribution  of  each  to  the  creed. 
(See    Pt.    II.,    page   -^t^.^       They   are    in    the   following 
groups : 

Peter  and  Jeremiah 

James  the  Greater  and  Zacharias 

Philip  and  Malachi 

Simon  and  Malachi 

Andrew  and  Isaiah 

James  the  Less  and  Amos 

Thomas  and  (  ?) 

Matthias  and  Abdias 


John  and  a  prophet 
Matthew  and  Osias 
Bartholomew  and  Joel 
Thaddeus  and  Zacharias 


Room  VI. 
"Sala  delle 
Sibille." 


Room  VI.  "  Sala  iklle  Sibille  "  (40^).  This  is  the  last 
room  of  the  apartment.  Its  rich  ceiling  is  decorated 
with  arabesques  and  stucco  reliefs,  and  the  arms  of  Alex- 
ander again  appear  in  its  centre.  Upon  the  vaulting  are  Ceiling, 
eight  octangular  paintings  representing  Astrology  and  the 
seven  planets.  The  planets  appear  as  figures  riding  in 
chariots,  while  beneath  them  are  groups  of  symbolic  per- 
sonages which  in  mediaeval  paintings  often  accompanied 
the  planets.  Thus  under  Luna,  are  persons  fishing ; 
under  Apollo,  the  pope  and  great  dignitaries,  to  symbolise 
power  ;  under  Saturn,  virtue  is  represented  succouring 
the  prisoner.  Mars  is  symliolised  by  war,  Venus  by  love, 
Mercury  by  learning,  Jupiter  by  the  chase.  Astrology  is 
depicted  by  a  group  of  savants  with  the  globe. 


4IO       CHRISTIAN  AND   ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 

In  each  angle  of  the  ceiHng,  are  small  circular  paint- 
ings, which  may  represent  Isis  and  Osiris  again,  but  it  is 
difificult  to  determine. 
Walls.  On  the  walls  are   twelve   sibyls  and  twelve  prophets 

holding  swords  upon  which  are  their  names.     They  are 
as  follows  : 

Baruch  and  Samo  Zacharias  and  Persia 

Hosea  and  Delfa  Daniel  and  Eritrea 

Abdia  and  Libia  Isaiah  and  EUesponta 

Ezechiel  and  Cimmeria  Aggeo  and  Cuma 

Jeremiah  and  Frigia 

Jeremiah  and  Agrippa 

Micah  and  Tivoli 

Amos  and  Europa 

Upon  the  same  floor  of  the  Vatican  palace,  are  the  great 
Hall  and  galleries  of  the  Library  (see  p.  425). 

STANZE    OF    RAPHAEL.* 

Turning  to  the  left  after  the  first  flight  of  the  Scala 
Regia,  a  second  staircase  leads  to  the  upper  floor  of  the 
Vatican  Palace.  Here  one  enters  an  anteroom  and  two 
small  rooms  containing  modern  pictures,  representing 
martyrdoms  and  events  in  the  lives  of  the  saints  canon- 
Sala  deir  ised  by  Pius  IX.  In  the  third  room,  Sala  dell'  Immaco- 
immaco-  lata,  are  huge  oil  paintings  by  Podesti,  of  the  declaration 
of  the  dogma  of  the  Immaculate  Conception  by  Pius  IX. 
In  the  centre  of  the  room  a  large  gilt  case  contains 
presents  and  offerings  to  Pius  IX.  The  pavement  is  an 
ancient  mosaic  from  Ostia. 

These  open  into  another  series  of  rooms  painted  by 

*  Pcritiessi,  tickets  of  admission  to  visit  the  Stanze  of  Raphael 
and  the  picture  gallerv  ( pinacofccn^  are  given  on  the  Scala  Regia 
(ist  floor).  The  admission  is  free,  every  day  from  10  to  3  except 
Sundays  and  Feast  da  vs.  Saturdavs  from  10  to  i.  The  I.oggie 
of  Raphael  and  the  Chapel  of  S.  Lorenzo  are  open  only  on  Tues- 
days and  Fridays. 


lata. 


PAPAL   PALACES 


411 


I.  Stanza 

])ELL'  IN- 
CENDIO. 


Raphael  in  fresco,  which  lead  eventually  into  the  centre  Stanze  of 
tier  of  Loggie.  The  Stanze  of  Raphael  as  they  are  now  Raphael, 
called,  were  decorated  originally  by  Sodoraa,  Perugino, 
Signorelli  and  others ;  but  even  before  it  was  completed, 
their  work  was  destroyed  by  order  of  Julius  II.  to  make 
room  for  Raphael's.  Raphael  began  his  task  probably 
about  the  year  150S,  and  his  idea  was  to  represent  the 
Church  triumphant  in  a  series  of  paintings,  but  he  died 
before  the  work  was  finished,  and  much  of  it  is  by  other 
hands.  All  the  frescoes  were  much  injured  during  the 
sack  of  Rome  in  1527,  when  soldiers  were  quartered  in 
the  rooms  and  lit  fires  on  the  ground. 

I.  The  room  (on  the  floor  above  39  of  plan)  first  in 
order,  though  not  chronologically,  is  called  the  S/anza  deW 
Incendio  and  was  painted  about  15  17.  The  ceiling  here 
is  Perugino's  ;  four  beautiful  circular  paintings,  the  figures 
on  a  blue  ground — (i)  God  amidst  angels,  (2)  Christ 
in  glory  between  Justice  and  Faith,  (3)  Christ  with  the 
12  apostles,  (4)  Christ  between  the  old  and  the  new  Law, 
Moses  and  S.  John. 

The  wall  paintings  represent  events  in  the  pontificates 
of  Leo  III.  and  IV.,  and  illustrate  the  greatness  of  the 
Church  during  the  reigns  of  these  popes. 

(i)  Opposite  the  window  :  the  burning  of  the  Leonine 
City  checked  by  the  prayers  of  Leo  IV.  In  the  fore- 
ground people  are  escaping  from  the  burning  houses,  be- 
hind is  depicted  old  S.  Peter's. 

(2)  The  coronation  of  Charlemagne  by  Leo  III.,  partly 
painted  by  Pierin  del  Vaga.  The  heads  of  the  pope  and 
of  the  emperor  are  portraits  of  Leo  X.  and  Francis  I. 
This  painting  shows  the  interior  of  old  S.  Peter's. 

(3)  Leo  IV.  defeating  the  Saracens  at  Ostia,  painted 
by  Giovanni  da  Udine  from  Raphael's  design. 

(4)  Over  the  window,  Leo  III.  before  Charlemagne 
justifying  himself  upon  oath  from  the  calumnies  brought 
against  him. 

Beneath  the  frescoes  are  painted  marble  decorations, 
and  huge  chiaroscuro  figures  in  shades  of  brown  by  Poli- 
doro  da  Caravaggio.    These  depict  various  benefactors  of 


412      CHRISTIAX  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 


II.  Stanza 

OF  THE 

Segna- 

TURA  OR 
OF  THE 
"  DlS- 
PUTA." 


(I)  The- 
ology. 


the  Church.  On  the  right,  Charlemagne,  to  the  left  Lo- 
thaire.  King  Ferdinand,  opposite  the  window,  Godfrey 
de  Bouillon  and  '  Aistulphus '  king  of  Britain. 

I'he  floor  is  of  Roman  mosaic,  from  an  ancient  villa ; 
the  carving  of  doors  and  window  is  by  Giovanni  Barile. 

II.  The  next  room  (above  38) ,  designed  for  the  signing 
of  papal  letters  and  hence  called  Stanza  del/a  Seguaiura 
was  the  first  painted,  about  1508-15 11.  The  arabesque 
decorations  of  the  ceihng  are  Sodoma's,  to  whom  is  also 
due  its  design  :  figures  in  four  circular  frames  upon  a  gold 
mosaic  background  ;  upon  the  ribs  of  the  vaulting  four 
square  panels.  The  figures  were  added  by  Raphael,  and 
correspond  with  the  subjects  of  the  great  paintings  on 
the  walls. 

The  four  circular  paintings  of  the  ceiling  represent 
Theology,  Poetry,  Philosophy  and  Justice,  the  four  square 
panels,  Adam  and  Eve  in  the  garden,  Apollo  and  Mar- 
syas,  a  figure  looking  at  the  globe,  and  the  Judgment  of 
Solomon. 

(i)  Theology  the  great  fresco  on  the  entrance  wall  rep- 
resents the  dispute  on  the  Sacrament.  In  the  upper 
portion,  Christ  sits  enthroned  between  the  Madonna  and 
John  the  Baptist.  Above  Him  the  half  figure  of  God  the 
Almighty,  with  hovering  angels.  Four  children  hold  open 
the  gospels,  at  the  feet  of  Christ  is  the  Dove,  and  on  the 
other  side  of  Him,  are  rows  of  seated  figures  upon  the 
clouds.  On  His  right,  a  figure  scarcely  seen,  then 
Stephen,  David,  John  the  Evangelist,  Adam  and  Peter. 
On  His  left,  Michael,  Laurence,  Moses,  James,  Abraham 
and  Paul. 

On  the  earth  beneath,  stands  an  altar  with  a  Host  in  a 
monstrance,  and  around  it,  a  crowd  of  theologians  and 
listeners.  On  the  right  of  the  painting,  sit  Ambrose  and 
Augustine,  with  Pope  Sixtus  IV.  in  front,  and  behind 
Thomas  Aquinas  and  Bonaventura.  On  this  side  also 
are  Dante,  Savonarola  in  a  cowl,  Nicholas  of  Lyra,  and 
Duns  Scotus. 

On  the  left  Gregory  and  Jerome  sit,  further  to  the  left 
are  Fra  Angelico  and  Raphael,  Perugino  and  Bramante. 


PAPAL  PALACES 


413 


Beneath  this  fresco  are  four  chiaroscuros,  a  Pagan  sacra- 
fice,  S.  Augustine,  Augustus,  and  the  Sibyl. 

(2)  Poetry.     In  the  great  fresco  above  the  window,    (2)  Poetry. 
Apollo  sits  playing  beneath  the  laurels   surrounded  by 

nine  muses.  On  his  right,  Homer  is  reciting,  a  young 
man  sits  watching  him,  and  around  him  stand  Dante  and 
Virgil.  In  the  foreground  on  the  same  side  Sappho  sits 
holding  a  scroll  and  turning  towards  four  figures,  Ovid 
in  yellow,  Petrarch,  Propertius,  and  Tibullus.  On  the 
other  side  of  the  painting,  Pindar  is  addressing  Horace 
and  Catullus ;  above  are  Boccaccio  and  Tebaldero,  often 
erroneously  called  Sannazaro.  The  chiaroscuros  beneath 
painted  by  Caravaggio  from  Raphael's  designs,  represent 
the  finding  of  the  sibylline  books,  and  Augustus  saving 
the  ^'Eneid  from  burning, 

(3)  Philosophy  or  the  School  of  Athens.  This  fresco  (3)  Phi- 
represents  groups  of  philosophers  and  scholars  with  the  losophy. 
temple  of  knowledge.     Plato  and  Aristotle  standing  within 

the  portico  form  the  centre  of  the  group.  Diogenes  lies 
on  the  steps  at  their  feet.  On  the  right  of  the  fresco  two 
figures  in  caps  holding  each  a  globe,  Ptolemy  and 
Zoroaster  turn  to  speak  to  two  other  figures  Raphael 
and  Sodoma.  Bramante,  as  Archimedes,  is  stooping  to 
draw  figures  on  a  slate  close  by,  next  to  him,  one  of  the 
pupils,  is  the  Duke  of  Mantua,  Federigo  II.  On  the 
left  of  the  painting  at  the  back,  Socrates  is  discoursing  to 
Alcibiades  and  others,  and  in  the  foreground  Pythagoras 
writes  in  a  book ;  beside  him,  the  white  cloaked  figure  is 
the  Duke  of  Urbino,  Francesco  della  Rovere. 

The  chiaroscuros  beneath  represent  Philosophy,  the 
death  of  Archimedes,  and  some  astrologers.  They  are 
by  Pierin  del  Vaga. 

(4)  Law.    Over  the  other  window  are  allegorical  figures    (4)  Law. 
of  Prudence  (with  two  faces)  Fortitude  and  Temperance. 
Below  to  the  left  Justinian  represents  civil   law,   to   the 

right  sits  Gregory  IX.  for  canon  law  giving  his  decretals 
to  a  consistorial  advocate.  He  is  painted  as  Julius  II., 
near  him  stand  the  three  cardinals,  Farnese,  Medici 
and  del  Monte  who  became  popes   Paul  III.,   Leo  X. 


414       CHRISTIAN  AND   ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 


III. 

Stanza 
OF  Helio- 

DORUS. 


(I)  Helio- 
dorus. 


(2)  Bol- 
sena. 


(3)  Leo 
and  Attila. 


(4)  Libera- 
tion of 
Peter. 


IV.  Hall 

OF  CON- 

STANTINE. 

.(i)  Con- 
staiitine's 
victory. 


and  Julius  III.  Beneath  are  chiaroscuros  of  Moses  and 
Solomon. 

The  next  room  (above  37),  the  Stanza  of  Heliodorus 
was  painted  between  151 1  and  15 14,  to  illustrate  the 
triumphs  of  the  Church. 

The  four  subjects  on  the  ceiling  of  this  room  represent : 
Moses  and  the  burning  bush,  the  Sacrifice  of  Abraham, 
the  Lord's  promise  to  Abraham,  and  Jacob's  ladder. 

( 1 )  The  great  fresco  on  the  left  represents  Heliodorus 
turned  out  of  Jerusalem,  to  typify  the  Church  being  freed 
from  her  enemies. 

The  high  priest  Onias  appears  in  the  fresco  praying. 
Julius  II.  is  borne  away  upon  his  throne,  while  Heliodorus 
laden  with  treasure,  is  being  struck  down  by  the  miracu- 
lous horse  and  rider.*  Beside  these  are  the  two  young 
men  who  appeared  to  expel  Heliodorus,  and  to  the  left 
are  groups  of  spectators. 

(2)  Over  the  window  is  the  Miracle  of  Bolse7ia.  A 
priest  disbelieving  in  transubstantiation,  at  the  moment  of 
the  elevation,  sees  the  Host  bleed. f  Behind  him  are  a 
crowd  of  people  and  acolytes.  Juhus  II.  and  Cardinal 
Riario  stand  beside  the  altar. 

(3)  On  the  other  large  wall  Leo  I.  warns  Attila  against 
entering  Rome.  Attila  and  his  army  fly  in  terror  from 
Leo  and  the  apparition  of  the  Apostles.  This  fresco  is 
supposed  to  allude  to  the  French  defeat  at  Novara  in  15 13. 

(4)  Over  the  remaining  window,  the  LiberatioJi  of  Peter 
from  prison  in  Jerusalem  is  painted  in  three  sections. 

The  chiaroscuros  are  small  pictures  of  events  in  the 
reigns  of  Julius  II.  and  Leo  X. 

These  three  small  rooms  lead  into  the  large  Hall  of 
Constantine  (above  36).  It  was  painted  after  Raphael's 
death  by  his  pupils  and  others. 

On  the  largest  wall  is  an  immense  painting  of  (i)  Con- 
stantine''s  victory  over  Maxentius  at  the  Milvian  Bridge, 
designed  by  Raphael  and  painted  by  Giulio  Romano. 

*  Maccabees  II.,  Chap.  iii.  25,  26,  27. 

t  The  beautiful  cathedral  of  Orvieto  was  built  to  commemorate 
this  miracle. 


PAPAL    PALACES 


415 


Maxentius'  army  is  flying  in  disorder,  followed  by  Con- 
stantine.  Maxentius  himself  is  driven  into  the  river. 
Pope  Sylvester  with  Faith  and  Religion,  and  Urban  I. 
with  Justice  and  Charity,  appear  at  the  sides  of  this 
painting. 

(2)  On  the  end  wall  Constantine  explains  his  Vision 
of  the  Cross  to  his  soldiers.  This  is  also  Giulio  Romano's. 
On  either  side  of  the  painting,  are  Peter  with  the  Church 
and  Eternity,  and  Clement  with  Moderation  and  Mercy. 

(3)  The  Baptism  of  Constantine  by  Sylvester  is  upon 
the  opposite  wall.  Damasus  with  Prudence  and  Peace, 
and  Leo  I.  with  Innocence  and  Vanity,  are  at  the  sides. 

(4)  Between  the  windows,  the  Gift  of  Rome  to  the 
Pope  by  Constantine.  This  painting,  which  is  by  Fran- 
cesco Penni,  gives  another  view  of  old  S.  Peter's. 

The  ceiling  of  this  hall,  The  Triumph  of  Faith  over 
paganism,  was  painted  by  Lauretti.  The  chiaroscuros 
below,  scenes  in  Constantine's  life,  are  by  Caravaggio.  The 
old  mosaic  pavement  was  found  in  a  church  by  the  Lateran. 
Crossing  the  Hall  of  Constantine,  a  ddbr  leads  into  the 
Sala  of  the  Chiaroscuro  (above  35),  the  old  Hall  of  the 
Palafrenieri  or  pope's  grooms.  This  hall  was  entirely 
decorated  in  chiaroscuro  style  by  Raphael  but  the  paint- 
ings have  been  retouched  and  spoiled  by  Maratta  and 
Zucchero.  A  glass  door  at  the  end  to  the  left  leads  into 
the  Loggie,  on  the  right,  is  the  chapel  of  S.  Lorenzo.* 

This  beautiful  little  chapel  was  built  and  decorated  by 
Fra  Angelico  as  the  private  oratory  of  Nicholas  V.  in 
1447.  It  was  walled  up  in  the  course  of  subsequent 
alterations  in  the  palace,  and  was  quite  forgotten  until 
brought  to  light  again  by  Pius  VII.  The  frescoes  which 
cover  its  walls  are  in  two  series,  the  upper  ones  illustrate 
the  life  of  S.  Stephen.  They  are  in  the  following  order, 
beginning  near  the  altar:  (i)  Stephen  ordained  to  the 
diaconate  by  Peter,  (2)  giving  alms,  (3)  his  teaching 
in  Jerusalem,  (over  the  door)  (4)  being  led  to  his 
martyrdom,  (5 )  the  stoning  of  Stephen. 


(2)  His 
Vision. 


(3)  His 
Baptism. 


(4)  Gift 
of  Rome. 


Sala  degli 
Chiaros- 


Chapel  of 
S.  Lorenzo. 


Open  on  Tuesdays  and  Fridays. 


4i6      CHRISriAX  AXD   ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 

Lower  series  :  (i)  Sixtus  II.  ordaining  Laurence  ;  Sixtus 
is  painted  as  Nicliolas  V.  (2)  Laurence  receives  the 
treasure  of  the  Church  from  Sixtus  (3)  he  distributes  the 
treasure  (4)  he  appears  to  be  judged  before  Decius  (5)  his 
martyrdom,  through  a  Httle  window  in  the  tower  he  is 
seen  converting  HyppoHtus. 

On  the  arch  over  the  altar  are  Athanasius  with  Leo  L, 
above  on  the  left,  Chrysostom,  above  him  Gregory. 

On  the  arch  at  the  further  end  Thomas  Aquinas  and 
Augustine,  Bonaventura  and  above  him,  Ambrose.  The 
four  Evangehsts  with  their  emblems  appear  on  the  ceiling. 
The  altarpiece  is  by  Vasari. 

LOGGIE    OF    RAPHAEL.* 

Loggie  of  The  Loggie  entered  from  the  Sala  degli  chiaroscuri  are 
Raphael.  those  of  the  middle  tier.  These  Loggie  were  designed 
by  Bramante  and  finished  under  Raphael's  directions. 
They  form  open  porticoes  in  three  stories  surrounding 
the  court  of  Daniasus  on  three  of  its  sides.  The  lower 
tiers  are  built  with  pilasters,  the  uppermost  with  columns. 
The  whole  was  enclosed  with  glass  by  Pius  IX.  as  a  pro- 
tection to  the  paintings. 

The  lowest  tier  as  we  have  seen,  was  decorated  by  Gio- 
vanni da   Udine   and    Roncalli.      Of    the    middle    tier 
(above  20)   only  that  branch  which  faces  the  city  was 
Centre         painted  by  Raphael.     This  portion  is  divided  into  thir- 
'iier.  teen  arcades  by  decorated  pilasters,  the  ceiling  vault  of 

each  arcade  is  painted  with  four  subjects  from  the  Old 
Testament,  decorated  framing  dividing  the  subjects  from 
one  another.  The  whole  is  rich  with  floral  and  stucco 
ornamentation  of  delicate  design.  The  subjects  of  the 
thirteenth  arcade  are  from  the  New  Testament. 

The  series  begins  at  the  end  furthest  from  the  visitors' 
entrance. 

I.  The  creation  of  the  world  in  four  subjects.  ( i )  The 
separation  of  light  and  darkness,  (2)  the  creation  of  earth 

*Open  Tuesdays  and  Fridays. 


PAPAL  PALACES  417 

and  water,  (3)  of  the  sun  and  the  moon,  (4)  of  animal 
life. 

II.  The  History  of  Adam  and  Eve.  (i)  The  birth  of 
Eve,  (2)  the  fall,  (3)  the  expulsion  from  Eden,  (4)  their 
toil. 

III.  The  History  of  Noah,  (i)  The  building  of  the  ark, 
(2)  the  deluge,  (3)  leaving  the  ark,  (4)  Noah's  first  sacrifice. 

IV.  History  of  Abraham,      (i)  The  burning  of  Sodom, 

(2)  the  meeting  of  Abraham  and  Melchizedek,  (3)  the 
Lord  promises  Abraham  his  seed  shall  be  multiplied, 
(4)  the  three  angels  appearing  to  Abraham. 

V.  History  of  Isaac,  (i)  The  Lord  enjoins  Isaac  to 
sojourn  in  Gerar,   (2)   Isaac,  Rebecca  and  Abimelech, 

(3)  Isaac  blesses  Jacob,  (4)  Esau  asking  for  Isaac's 
blessing. 

VI.  History  of  Jacob,  (i)  His  vision,  (2)  Jacob  at 
the  well,  (3)  Laban  receive^  Jacob,  (4)  Jacob  departs 
from  Laban. 

VII.  History  of  Joseph,  (i)  He  tells  his  dream, 
(2)  Joseph  drawn  out  of  the  well,  (3)  he  interprets 
Pharoah's  dream,  (4)  Joseph  and  the  wife  of  Potiphar. 

VIII.  The  History  of  Moses  (two  arcades),  (i)  The 
finding  of  Moses,  (2)  the  Lord  appearing  in  the  burning 
bush,  (3)  Moses  strikes  the  rock,  (4)  the  passage  of  the 
Red  Sea. 

IX.  (5)  The  adoration  of  the  golden  calf,  (6)  Moses 
prays  that  the  wrath  of  the  Lord  may  be  turned  away, 
(7)  Moses  receives  the  Tables  of  the  Law,  (8)  he  pre- 
sents the  Tables  of  the  Law. 

X.  History  of  Joshua,  (i)  The  ark  of  the  Covenant 
borne  by  the  Levites,  (2)  the  fall  of  Jericho,  (3)  the  sun 
stands  still  at  the  word  of  Joshua,  (4)  the  division  of  the 
Promised  Land. 

XL  History  of  David.  (i)  David  and  Goliath, 
(2)  David  triumphs  over  the  Assyrians,  (3)  David  sees 
Bathsheba,  (4)  Saul  anointed  by  Samuel. 

XII.  History  of  Solomon.  (i)  Solomon  anointed 
king,  (2)  Solomon's  judgment,  (3)  he  receives  the  queen 
of  Sheba,  (4)  the  building  of  the  temple  of  Solomon. 


4i8      CIIR/STIAX  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 


Third, 
upper  tier. 


XIII.  (i)  The  Magi,  (2)  the  adoration  of  the  Shep- 
herds, (3)  the  baptism  of  Christ,  (4)  the  Last  Supper. 

Of  these  compartments  II.,  III.,  VIL,  VIII.  and  XIII. 
were  painted  by  GiuHo  Romano  from  Raphael's  designs ; 
IV.  and  V.  by  Penni.  The  other  two  branches  of  this 
Loggia  were  decorated,  the  one  (above  21)  in  the  pontifi- 
cate of  Gregory  XIII.  by  Sicciolante  and  Sabbatini,  and 
the  other  (above  22)  next  the  pope's  apartments  by 
Mantovani  and  Consoni.  The  subjects  of  the  first  are  a 
continuation  of  New  Testament  scenes  ;  the  modern  deco- 
rations of  Mantovani,  are  chiefly  paintings  of  the  improve- 
ments and  buildings  due  to  Pius  IX.  The  doors  of 
carved  wood  are  of  the  xvi'^  century. 

A  staircase  leads  to  the  upper  tier  of  Loggie,  these 
were  decorated  with  landscapes  and  maps  under  Clement 
VII.  and  restored  under  Gregory  XVI.  From  this  Loggia 
a  door  leads  through  an  anteroom  into  the  Pinacoteca 
or  Picture  Gallery. 


Pinaco- 
teca or 
Picture 
gallery. 


Room  1, 


PINACOTECA. 

This  collection  of  pictures  which  is  a  very  small  one, 
contained  in  four  rooms,  was  begun  by  Pius  VIL  with  the 
pictures  taken  from  various  churches  by  the  French  and 
restored  to  Rome  in  1815.  It  numbers  about  50  pic- 
tures and  is  smaller  than  many  private  collections  in 
Rome.  The  subject  and  name  of  the  artist  is  affixed  to 
each  picture. 

Room  I.  contains  about  i  7  i)ictures,*  among  them  the 
"  Life  of  S.  Hyacinth  "  by  Benozzo  Gozzoli,  Fra  Angelico's 
"Nicholas  of  Pari,"  Da  Vinci's  "Sketch  of  S.  Jerome," 
and  a  triptych  by  Raphael  of  the  "  Annunciation,"  "  Pres- 
entation "  and  "  the  Alagi." 

In  Room  II.  are  three  great  pictures.  The  "  Com- 
munion of  S.  Jerome  "  considered  the  masterpiece  of 
Uomenichino,  ])ainted  for  the  church  of  Ara  Ceeli,  but 
transferred  to  S.  Girolomo  della  Carita  imtil  carried  to 

*  As  each  picture  is  ticketed  with  the  subject  aiul  name  of  the 
artist,  we  do  not  give  a  catalogue  here. 


PAPAL  PALACES  419 

Paris.  The  "  Madonna  of  Foligno  "  painted  by  Raphael 
in  15 1 2  and  kept  at  FoHgno  although  originally  intended 
for  Ara  Coeli.  The  donor  of  the  picture,  Sigismondo 
Conti,  secretary  to  Julius  II.,  appears  with  S.  Jerome. 
The  "Transfiguration"  by  Raphael,  his  last  work,  was 
painted  for  the  Narbonne  Cathedral  at  the  wish  of  Giulio 
de'  Medici,  the  patron  saints  of  whose  family,  Julian  and 
Laurence,  appear  in  the  painting.  This  picture  was  car- 
ried in  Raphael's  funeral  procession.  Before  its  removal 
to  Paris,  it  stood  in  S.  Pietro  in  Montorio. 

Room   III.,  the   largest,  contains   some    17   pictures,    HI  and 
among   them   works   of  Pinturicchio,  Perugino,  Titian.    ^^• 
This  room  leads  into  the  fourth  and  last  room,  a  smaller 
one,  containing  about  twelve  pictures. 

VATICAN    MUSEUMS.* 

The  Vatican  collection  of  antiquities,  now  one  of  the  Museo 
finest  in  existence,  was  begun  by  Julius  II.  (1503-15 13)  P'o-Cie- 
who  placed  it  in  the  Villa  Belvedere.  The  collection  in 
the  Belvedere  and  the  halls  immediately  around  it,  still 
forms  the  most  important  portion  of  the  whole,  and  is 
called  Pio-Clementino  after  the  popes  Pius  VI.  and 
Clement  XIV.,  its  most  generous  promoters.  Pius  VI. 
alone  presented  2000  specimens  to  the  collection  and 
added  several  halls  to  increase  the  accommodation. 
Julius  II.,  Leo  X.,  Clement  VII.  and  Paul  III.  were  also 
contributors. 

*  All  the  Museums  used  to  be  free,  and  it  is  only  of  recent  years 
that  a  franc  entrance  has  been  charged.  They  are  open  every  day 
from  September  i*.'  to  June  i*'  except  Sunday  and  feast  days,  from 
10  to  3.  Admission  one  franc.  On  Saturdays  the  admission  is  free, 
10  to  I. 

The  Etruscan  Museum  is  open  on  Monday  and  Friday.  The 
Egyi^tian,  Tuesday  and  Thursday.  The  Borgia  Apartment  and  the 
Galleria  Lapidaria,  Tuesday  and  Friday.  The  Galleria  dei  Cande- 
labri  and  Raphael's  Tapestry  are  visible  on  Wednesdays  only.  The 
cabinet  of  masks  and  Balcony  are  visible  on  Monday,  Wednesday 
and  Thursday.  From  June  !«'  to  September  i^'  the  Museums  are 
open  from  9  to  i.     Saturdays  9  to  12. 


420      CHRISTIAN  AND   ECCLESIASTICAI  ROME 


Hall  of  the 

Greek 

Cross. 

Egyptian 
Museum. 


Rotonda. 


Hall  of  the 
Muses. 


Hall  of  the 
animals. 


The  entrance  to  the  Museums  is  in  the  Via  delle  Fon- 
damenta,  behind  S.  Peter's.  A  wide  flight  of  stairs  leads 
directly  from  the  gates  to  the  Hall  of  the  Greek  Cross 
(loo).  From  the  Vestibule  (102)  to  this  Hall,  a  door 
on  the  right  leads  into  the  Egyptian  Museum*  (74,  76, 
84,  85,  86).  The  nucleus  of  this  collection  was  bought 
by  Pius  Vn.  from  Andrea  Gaddi,  and  was  increased  by 
Gregory  XVI.  It  occupies  ten  rooms. f  The  pavement 
of  the  Hall  of  the  Greek  Cross  is  of  ancient  mosaic,  the 
portion  with  the  head  of  Minerva  came  from  Cicero's 
villa  near  Tusculum,  that  representing  a  basket  of  flowers 
was  found  in  a  villa  near  the  Via  Appia.  Here  are  two 
colossal  sarcophagi  of  red  porphyry,  that  of  Constantia 
daughter  of  Constantine,  which  stood  in  S.  Costanza  near 
S.  Agnese  Fuori  (see  Pt.  I.,  p.  158)  and  that  of  the  Em- 
press Helena  from  her  mausoleum  at  Tor  Pignattara ; 
both  have  been  unfortunately  restored.  They  were  re- 
moved to  the  Vatican  by  Pius  VI. 

Rotonda  (99).  This  hall  which  is  circular,  as  its  name 
implies,  opens  out  of  the  Hall  of  the  Greek  Cross.  It 
was  built  by  Pius  VI.  from  Simonetti's  designs.  Its 
mosaic  pavement,  in  which  appears  the  head  of  Medusa 
and  the  centaurs,  was  found  at  Otricoli.  Another  portion 
of  mosaic,  with  Neptune  in  a  car,  came  from  the  Baths  of 
Caracalla.  The  enormous  porphyry  basin  in  the  centre  of 
the  hall  is  from  the  Baths  of  Diocletian. 

The  Hall  of  the  Muses  follows  (98).  This  hall  is  built 
with  two  anterooms  and  a  dome  supported  upon  16  col- 
umns brought  from  Hadrian's  villa.  The  mosaic  pave- 
ment in  its  centre  is  made  up  of  various  fragments  from 
various  places  and  is  also  ancient.  The  head  of  Medusa 
is  a  fragment  found  at  the  arch  of  Gallienus,  the  panther 
comes  from  Ancona.  The  specimens  in  this  hall  are 
almost  entirely  from  Tivoli. 

The  hall  of  the  animals  (92),  a  long  gallery  in  two 
portions   opens   at   right  angles  from    the    Hall  of  the 

*  Open  on  Tuesdays  and  Thursdays. 

fTo  give  a  detailed  catalogue  of  the  contents  of  the  Vatican 
Museums  does  not  fall  within  the  scope  of  this  guide  book. 


PAPA/.    PALACES  421 

Muses.  The  pavement  is  from  Palestrina.  The  collec- 
tion of  sculptured  animals  in  this  hall  is  unique,  and 
the  finest  in  existence. 

Two  halls  follow,  that  of  Statues    (94)  and  that   of    Hall  of 
Busts  (95)  a  highly  ornate  hall  in  three  divisions.     The     ''^'"*^s- 
specimens  here  are  nearly  all  of  them  named.     This  por-   ^^^^° 
tion  of  the  collection  was  added  by  Clement  XIV.  and 
Pius  VI.,  and  it   occupies  part  of  the  original  villa  of 
Innocent  VIII. 

A  small  cabinet  (97)  leads  out  of  the  hall  of  statues.   Cabinet  of 
Its  pavement  is  an  ancient  mosaic  from  the  Villa  Adriana,   "^^^^s- 
a   good    deal    restored,    representing    masks    within    an 
elaborate  border.* 

Beyond  is  an   external  balcony   (96)   also  containing   External 
marble  specimens.  balcony. 

The  central  court  (90)  of  the  Belvedere  villa,  octagonal   Court  of 
in  shape,  was  designed  by  Bramante.     It  is  surrounded   ^^^  Beive- 
by  open  porticoes,  and  at  the  four  angles  are  small  cabi- 
nets.    The  porticoes  contain  sarcophagi,  bas-reliefs,  etc. 
In  the  first  cabinet  (R)  to  the  left  on  entering  the  court 
from  the  Hall  of  the  animals,  is  the  Belvedere  Antinous   Cabinets. 
or  Mercury,  found  near  S.  Martino  ai  Monti.     Proceeding 
to  the  second  one,  (P)  Perseus  and  the  two  boxers,  the 
work  of  Canova.     In  the  next  cabinet,  (S)   the  Apollo 
Belvedere  found  at  Porto  d'Anzio  in  the  xv.  century  and 
one  of  the  first  possessions  of  the  Vatican  museum.     The 
remaining  cabinet  (T)  contains  the  Laocoon  group  found 
on  the  Esquiline  and  bought  by  Julius  II. 

On  the  further  side  of  the  court  ft^om  the  entrance.   Vestibules 
three   vestibules   open    into    each    other.     That   of  the   "['["^ 
Meleager  (89)containing  the  statue  of  Meleager  with  the   et^.^       ' 
dog  and  boar's  head  ;  the  round  vestibule  of  the  Vase, 
(8<8)  and  the  square  vestibule  of  the  Torso  (87)  which 
is  decorated  by  Daniel  da  Volterra  with  scenes  from  the 
Old  and  New  Testaments.     The  "  Torso  Belvedere  "  in 
this  room  was  found  on  the  site  of  Pompey's  theatre. 

This  completes  the  Museo  Pio-Clementino.     A  stair- 

*  This  Cabinet   and   the   Balcony  are  open  only  on  Mondays, 
Wednesdays  and  Thursdays. 


422      CHRISTIAX  AXD   ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 


Museo 
Chiara- 
inonti. 

Braccio 
Nuovo. 


Gallery  of 
Christian 
Inscrip- 
tions. 


case  (82)  leads  down  from  this  part  of  the  museum 
through  the  vestibule  of  the  Torso  into  the  Museo  Chiara- 
monti,  so  called  from  the  family  name  of  Pius  VII.  to 
whom  this  extension  of  the  collection  is  due. 

The  gallery  of  the  Museo  Chiaramonti  (77)  is  930  feet 
long.  It  is  divided  into  30  divisions  in  which  are  arranged 
the  sculptures,  about  700  specimens.     All  are  numbered. 

The  Braccio  Nuovo  (72)  another  wing  erected  by 
Pius  VII.,  opens  into  the  Museo  Chiaramonti  at  right 
angles.  It  dates  from  181 7.  The  arched  roof  of  this 
hall  is  supported  on  Corinthian  pillars,  and  the  light 
enters  from  above.  It  is  260  feet  in  length  and  contains 
about  1 20  specimens.  Some  ancient  mosaics  are  let  into 
the  pavement.  The  statues  here  also  have  their  names 
upon  tablets.  A  gate  at  the  further  end  of  the  Museo 
Chiaramonti  divides  it  from  the  Gallery  of  Christian 
Inscriptions  (42),  Galleria  Lapidaria*  The  walls  of 
this  hall,  which  is  690  feet  long,  are  covered  with  ancient 
inscriptions,  of  which  there  are  3000.  Fragments  of 
sarcophagi,  busts,  cippi,  are  arranged  along  the  walls. 

Nicholas  V.  had  intended  to  make  a  collection  of 
Christian  inscriptions,  and  already  Eugenius  IV.  and 
Calixtus  III.  had  forbidden  their  destruction  or  aliena- 
tion. Eventually  Benedict  XIV.  ordered  Mons.  Bianchini 
to  place  all  those  which  had  been  preserved  in  the  Vatican, 
The  actual  gallery  of  inscriptions  of  to-day  was  arranged 
by  Marini  under  Pius  VI.  Since  this  collection  was  formed 
at  the  Vatican,  De  Rossi  has  arranged  and  classified  a 
more  complete  one  in  the  Christian  Museum  at  the  Lateran 
(see  Pt.  I.,  Chap.  V).  Christian  inscriptions  are  also 
to  be  found  in  the  Christian  Museum  at  the  Vatican 
(see  page  433),  in  the  Museum  of  the  Collegio  Romano 
(Kircherian)  and  at  the  Roman  Seminary  of  S.  Appolinare 
(Pt.  I.,  page  184).  Many  epigraphs  also  remain  where 
they  were  first  placed  after  removal  from  the  cata- 
combs, in  the  porticoes  and  cloisters  of  basilicas  and 
monasteries  ;  at  S.  Paolo  Fuori,  S.  Lorenzo  Fuori,  S.  Marco, 


*  Open  Tuesday  and  Friday. 


PAPAL  PALACES 


423 


S.  Maria  in  Trastevere,  the  remains  of  "  thousands  "  which 
Marangoni  tells  us  were  removed  to  the  latter.  Of  the 
"seven  cart  loads"  of  inscriptions  taken  to  S.  Giovanni 
dei  Fiorentini,  and  two  to  another  S.  Giovanni,  not  one 
remains. 

In  the  gallery  of  Inscriptions  in  the  Vatican,  the  wall 
on  the  left  is  covered  with  Pagan  inscriptions  arranged 
according  to  the  trades  and  rank  of  the  persons.  On  the 
right,  are  the  Christian  inscriptions  (excepting  the  last  6 
divisions) .  These  are  unfortunately  not  classified.  By 
far  the  greater  number  are  from  the  catacombs.  For 
an  account  of  Christian  inscriptions  see  Part  I.  of  this 
Handbook,  Chap.  IX. 

To  reach  the  second  floor  of  the  Belvedere,  one  must 
return  once  more  to  the  original  entrance  and  the  Hall 
of  the  Greek  Cross.  Here  a  wide  flight  of  stairs  leads  to 
a  second  vestibule  and  the  entrance  to  the  Etruscan 
Museum  *  immediately  above  the  Egyptian  ]\Iuseum. 
The  Etruscan  Museum  occupies  twelve  rooms  :  it  was 
founded  by  Gregory  XVI.  and  is  commonly  known  as  the 
Museo  Gregoriaiio.  Haifa  flight  of  steps  lower  is  another 
vestibule  from  which  opens  a  circular  Hall,  the  Sala 
della  Biga,  so  called  from  a  marble  chariot  which  stands 
in  its  centre.  The  body  of  this  chariot  was  long  used  as 
a  bishop's  throne  in  S.  Marco,  and  so  much  of  it  has  been 
added  and  restored,  that  little  of  the  ancient  chariot 
remains.  Statues  named  and  numbered  are  placed  round 
the  walls. 

From  this  same  vestibule,  large  doors  open  into  the  Gallerie 
gallerie  delle  Candelabra  t  a  fine  series  of  six  halls  divided  deiie  Can 
from  one  another  by  arched  doorways  upon  marble  col- 
umns. The  ceiling  of  the  fourth  and  largest  hall  has  been 
decorated  by  Seitz.  This  museum  which  is  situated  above 
the  galleries  of  the  Library,  was  first  adapted  as  such  by 
Pius  VI.  It  contains  chiefly  vases  and  urns,  some  can- 
delabra, sarcophagi,  and  smaller  statues  and  fragments. 

The  furthest  hall  opens  into  \.h.Q  ga/leria  degli  Arrazzi,! 


Etruscan 
Museum. 


Sala  della 
Biga. 


delabra. 


*  Open  Mondays  and  Fridays, 
t  Open  on  Wednesdays  only. 


Ibid. 


424      CHRISriAX  AND   ECCLESIASTICAL    ROME 


Galleria 

degli 

Arrazzi. 


Raphael's 
Tapestries. 


Tapestries 
ot  his 
Pupils. 


Gallery  of 
Maps. 


which  is  hung  with  tapestries  worked  in  Flanders  under 
the  superintendence  of  a  pupil  of  Raphael's,  from  cartoons 
drawn  by  Raphael  himself  in  15 15,  and  designed  to  cover 
the  lower  portion  of  the  Sistine  chapel  walls.  These  tap- 
estries have  suffered  various  vicissitudes,  having  been  car- 
ried off  during  the  sack  of  Rome  in  1527,  again  in  1798, 
and  having  been  further  injured  during  the  fighting  in 
1849.  They  have  lately  been  entirely  re-arranged  ;  all 
the  original  tapestries  from  Raphael's  designs  have  been 
separated  from  a  second  and  later  series  designed  by  his 
pupils  for  the  most  part,  and  intended  for  the  decoration 
of  S.  Peter's  during  the  canonisation  of  Francesco  di 
Paola  in  1579.  Raphael's  tapestries  are  now  in  the  first 
room  j  most  of  them  have  been  covered  with  glass  by  the 
present  Pope.     They  are  in  the  following  order. 

Immediately  to  the  right:  (i)  Paul  in  Prison,  with 
an  allegorical  representation  of  an  earthquake,  (2)  The 
Miraculous  draught  of  fishes,  (3)  Martyrdom  of  Stephen. 
(4)  Conversion  of  Paul,  (5)  Coronation  of  the  Virgin, 
(6)  Death  of  Ananias. 

On  the  left  returning:  (7)  Paul  at  Athens,  (8)  Paul 
and  Barnabas,  (9)  The  paralytic  healed,  (10)  Peter  re- 
ceiving the  keys. 

Over  the  arch  into  the  next  hall  is  a  fragment  lately 
placed  here,  of  the  F^mperor  Trajan  sitting  in  judgment  (  ?) 
The  lower  part  of  the  tapestry  is  missing. 

The  next  hall  contains  the  tapestries  designed  by 
Raphael's  pupils. 

On  the  right:  (i)  (2)  (3)  Massacre  of  the  Innocents, 
in  three  portions,  (4)  Christ  with  the  apostles,  (5)  Christ 
falling  under  the  Cross,  (6)  Assumption  of  Mary. 

On  the  left  returning  (7)  Pentecost,  (8)  The  Resur- 
rection, (9)  The  visit  of  the  Magi,  (10)  The  Transfigura- 
tion, (11)  Adoration  of  the  Shei)herds,  (12)  Presenta- 
tion in  the  Temple,  (13)  The  Supper  at  Emmaus,  (14) 
Christ  appearing  to  tlie  Magdalene. 

Beyond  the  Hall  of  the  Tapestries  is  another  gallery, 
500  feet  in  length,  decorated  with  maps  of  Italy  and  her 
possessions  in  the   time   of  Gregory   XIII.     They   were 


PAPAL  PALACES  425 

painted  in  15 72-1 580.  This  gallery  forms  part  of  the 
papal  residence  and  can  only  be  visited  by  special  per- 
mission of  the  Maggiordomo. 

THE   VATICAN    LIBRARY. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  the  collection  and  preservation 
of  Church  records  and  archives  dates  from  a  very  early 
period.  Rome  of  all  the  Churches  possessed  the  most 
ancient  fasti  or  tables,  her  episcopal  catalogues  dating 
from  the  11.  century.*  Even  during  the  ages  of  persecu- 
tion she  preserved  archives  and  the  tradition  of  archives, 
for  Polycarp's  disciple  Irenaeus,  and  Hegesippus  had 
come  to  Rome  collecting  information  "  in  the  principal 
Church,  where  is  preserved,  for  all  the  faithful,  the  tradi- 
tion of  the  Apostles,"  and  had  left  treatises  about  what 
they  found.  During  the  Diocletian  persecutions  a.d.  284, 
the  Roman  archives  perished,  Eusebius  records,  and  we 
next  hear  of  a  Roman  anhiviiim  or  library  founded  by 
Pope  Damasus  (366-384)  in  the  basilica  of  S.  Lorenzo 
in  Damaso.  Later  Pope  Hilary  (461-467)  added  to 
Damasus'  collection  "  two  libraries,"  and  placed  the 
whole  in  the  Baptistery  of  the  Lateran. 

We  have  however  no  continuous  records  of  a  pontifical 
library  until  the  time  of  Boniface  VIIL  and  the  first  cata- 
logue of  books  made  by  command  of  this  pontiff  in  1295 
is  a  mere  inventory  in  which  they  are  enumerated  among 
the  articles  in  the  treasury.  Books  very  probably  at  first 
formed  part  of  the  sacristy  belongings,  and  were  under 
the  care  of  the  Sacristan,  and  were  transferred  later  to  the 
Treasury  under  the  thesaurius  or  Chamberlain,  and  were 
carried  about  with  other  articles  of  the  treasury  when  the 
papal  court  moved  from  place  to  place. 

Boniface's   collection  of  books   seems  to   have   been 

*  The  churches  of  Antioch,  Alexandria  and  Jerusalem  did  not 
possess  the  hsts  of  their  bishops  until  the  iv.  century,  when  they 
were  published  by  Eusebius  in  his  Chronicle.  The  Imperial  church 
of  Constantinople  can  boast  none  more  ancient  than  the  decline  of 
the  VII.  century. 


426       CIIRISTIAX  AXD   ECCLESIASTICAL    ROME 


Under 

Boniface 

VIII. 

I 294-1303. 


Under 

John 

XXII. 

1316-1334- 


Under 
Martin  V. 
1417-1431- 


Under 
Eugenius 
lV.""i43i- 
1447. 


scattered  in  the  xiv.  century  and  did  not  find  its  way  to 
Avignon.*  It  was  pillaged  at  Anagni  when  the  pope  was 
attacked  there,  some  of  it  was  carried  by  Benedict  XL  in 
1304  to  Perugia,  and  left  there  when  the  court  moved  to 
Avignon ;  some  went  to  Lyons  for  the  coronation  of 
Clement  V.  Another  portion,  apparently  on  its  way  to 
Avignon,  was  entirely  destroyed  in  a  Ghibelline  rising  at 
Lucca  in  13 14,  and  the  rest  was  transferred  for  safety  to 
the  church  of  S.  Francis  at  Assisi.  Of  this  latter  portion 
three  catalogues  were  made,  one  in  1327,  and  two  in 
1339.  All  efforts  to  regain  possession  of  these  books  for 
the  papal  library  failed,  a  small  number  were  sent  to 
Avignon,  some  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Ghibellines  in 
1319,  some  were  pledged  to  Arezzo,  but  the  bulk,  about 
2000  volumes,  remained  at  Assisi. 

Of  the  books  left  at  Perugia  a  catalogue  was  made  in 
131 1,  which  contains  645  entries,  of  which  ^iZ  ^re  Greek 
MSS.     Later  they  seem  to  have  entirely  disappeared. 

John  XXIL  began  the  formation  of  a  library  afresh  at 
Avignon,  and  in  1369  and  1375,  when  two  inventories 
were  made,  it  numbered  1667  volumes  of  MSS.,  chiefly 
of  law  and  theology.  Other  catalogues  were  made  by 
Gregory  XL,  the  antipope  Benedict  XIIL  (1394),  and  by 
Gregory  XII,  but  it  is  doubtful  how  many  of  John  XXII.'s 
books  returned  from  Avignon  with  the  papal  court.  AVe 
find  Gregory  XL  consenting  to  the  sale  of  books  for  the 
papal  treasury,  and  many  seem  to  have  found  their  way 
into  the  possession  of  Cardinal  de  Foix,  and  to  have 
been  dispersed  by  him. 

After  the  return  from  Avignon,  the  "  Registers  of  bulls  " 
were  kept  at  S.  ]\Iaria  sopra  Minerva,  and  were  transferred 
by  order  of  Martin  V.  to  the  papal  palace  of  SS.  Apostoli 
where  a  place  had  been  prepared  for  them,  and  where 
this  pope  himself  lived. 

His  successor  Eugenius  IV.  was  a  bibliophile,  and 
during  his  pontificate  books  began  again  to  accumulate. 
He  seems  to  have  recovered   part  of  the  treasures  of 


*  It  was  removed  from  the  Vatican  it  is  said,  in  3239  cases. 


PAPAL  PALACES 


427 


Under 
Nicholas 
V. 1447- 
1455- 


Avignon,  since  books  are  mentioned  in  a  bull  of  1441 
among  other  objects  originally  carried  to  Avignon  from 
the  "  Mother  City."  A  catalogue  was  made  by  order  of 
Eugenius  IV.  in  1445,  and  at  this  time  the  collection 
included  books  on  scholastic  theology,  philosophy,  canon 
law,  and  some  classics. 

His  successor  Nicholas  V.  must  however  be  considered 
the  real  founder  of  the  Vatican  library.  His  aim  was  to 
collect  books  "  for  the  common  convenience  of  all  learned 
men."  This  pope  was  a  true  lover  of  books,  his  delight 
was  to  walk  about  among  them,  arranging  and  rearranging 
them,  admiring  the  bindings,  and  dwelling  upon  the  pleas- 
ure of  future  scholars.  His  own  private  collection  and 
the  papal  register  series  formed  the  nucleus  of  his  library, 
and  he  sent  all  over  Europe  in  quest  of  books.  Many  of 
the  treasures  of  Constantinople,  then  dispersed,  came  into 
his  hands.  He  is  said  to  have  spent  40,000  scudi  upon 
books,  and  even  to  have  run  into  debt  to  buy  them.  To 
this  pope  are  due  translations  from  many  Greek  authors, 
and  although  he  died  before  its  completion,  a  translation 
of  the  Bible  from  Greek  and  Hebrew  texts  had  been 
begun  by  his  command. 

Calixtus  HI.  has  been  accused  of  wantonly  dispersing  Under 
many  of  the  valuable  MSS.  collected  by  his  ])redecessor. 
He  had  a  catalogue  of  the  library  made,  and  notes  upon 
its  margin  show  that  many  books  had  been  alienated  and 
lent  on  perpetual  loan  to  cardinals  and  others. 

Under  Sixtus  IV.  we  first  hear  of  a  separate  building   under 
being  erected  for  the  reception  of  the  Vatican  collection.   Sixtus  IV. 
Under  this  pope  a  great  hall  was  opened  for  the  purpose   ^"^71-14  4- 
with  much  pomp.     It  was  decorated  by  the  two  Ghir- 
landaji  and  by  Melozzo  da  Forli.     Its  doors  were  inlaid 
by  Milanese  artists,  the  presses  were  carved  by  Dolci,  and 
its  painted  glass  windows  came  from  Venice.     Platina 
who  wrote  verses  to  celebrate  the  occasion  was  created 
Librarian,  and  a  great  painting  in  the  hall  represented 
the  whole  function. 

Sixtus  IV.  endowed  the  Vatican  Library  with  separate 
revenues,  and  during   his   reign  and  those  of  his  suc- 


Calixtus 

111.1455- 

1458. 


I585-I590. 


428      CHRISTIAX  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 

cessors,  it  rapidly  grew.  He  also  separated  the  MSS.  and 
books  from  the  state  documents  and  archives  which  he  sent 
for  safety  to  the  Castel  S.  Angelo,  and  he  granted  every 
facility  to  borrowers  of  all  ranks  and  estates,  men  and 
women,  cardinals  and  members  of  religious  orders  ;  facili- 
ties curtailed  later,  owing  to  the  systematic  pillage  that 
went  on.  Under  Julius  II.  visitors  could  read  upon  the 
library  walls  the  rules  for  students  :  that  they  were  not  to 
converse  contentiously,  nor  to  clamber  over  the  seats  and 
soil  them  with  their  feet,  and  that  the  books  were  to  be 
put  back  into  their  places  after  use. 
Under  The  Vatican  Library  grew  so  rapidly  from  this  time, 

TcRrlrX'^  that  Sixtus  IV. 's  hall  became  too  small,  and  Sixtus  V. 
added  the  present  building  to  the  Vatican  Palace.  The 
great  hall  of  the  library,  designed  by  Fontana,  bears  his 
name  and  is  known  as  the  Sala  Sistina.  Whole  libraries, 
either  by  gift  or  purchase,  passed  into  the  possession  of 
the  Vatican,  most  of  which  are  preserved  and  catalogued 
separately.  What  are  now  known  as  the  "  Greek  "  and 
"  Codices  "  Libraries  were  acquired  by  Sixtus  IV.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  xvii.  century,  a  Benedictine  collection 
of  Palimpsests  from  Bobbio  was  added  to  the  Vatican 
collection,  followed  in  162 1  by  the  Elector  Palatine's 
library  seized  at  Heidelberg,  and  presented  by  Duke 
Maximilian  of  Bavaria  to  Gregory  XV.  It  is  composed 
of  2000  to  3000  MSS. 

In  1658  and  in  the  next  century,  the  Vatican  Library 
was  enriched  by  three  collections.  The  Urbino,  belong- 
ing to  Duke  Federigo  da  Montefeltro,  about  1 700  Greek 
and  Latin  MSS.;  the  Alexandrian,  2291  MSS.  collected 
by  Queen  Christina  of  Sweden,  and  the  Ottobuoni,  con- 
sisting of  3862  MSS.  bought  by  Alexander  VIII.  The 
private  collection  of  Pius  II.,  mostly  Greek  MSS.,  was 
acquired  by  Clement  XL  and  in  the  last  century,  the 
Marchese  Capponi  presented  about  300  MSS.  to  the 
library,  and  162  were  transferred  thither  from  the  mon- 
astery at  Grotta  Ferratta.  The  whole  collection  of  MSS. 
the  finest  in  the  world  numbers  30,000  of  which  19,000 
are  Latin,  2000  Oriental,  and  about  4000  Greek. 


PAPAL  PALACES 


429 


The  printed  books  number  250,000  volumes,  and  in- 
clude the  collections  of  Cardinal  Angelo  Mai,  presented 
in  1855,  and  of  Cardinal  Zelada  acquired  by  Pius  VII. 

In  1888  Leo  XIII.  threw  open  the  Vatican  Library 
to  students  of  all  nations.* 

The   Vatican   collection    of   MSS.    occupies  the    Sala   Vatican 
Sistina  built  by  Sixtus  V.  and  the  lona:  gallery  which  it  1''^!',^,''7 

•    11  •         •  1        r>    1       1  buildings. 

joms  at  right  angles  openmg  mto  the  Belvedere  at  one 
end  and  extending  as  far  as  the  Borgia  apartment  at  the 
other.  The  entrance  to  the  library  for  readers  is  through 
the  court  of  Damasus.  A  door  (43)  from  the  gallery 
of  inscriptions  leads  into  two  anterooms  (44  and  45),  the 
walls  of  the  first  finely  panelled  by  Fra  Giovanni  da 
Verona.  The  vaulted  ceiling  is  painted  by  Paul  Brill 
and  Faenza,  and  round  the  walls  are  hung  portraits  of  all 
the  Cardinal  librarians.  In  this  room  are  desks  for  the 
convenience  of  readers.  The  second  room  contains 
Domenichino's  portraits  of  Cardinals  Giustiniani  and  Mez- 
zofanti.  Beyond  are  the  librarian's  room  and  reading 
room  (46  and  47)  and  the  stairs  leading  to  the  new 
library  of  Printed  Books. 

The  great  Hall  (48)  or  Sala  Sistina  is  entered  from  Great  Hall 
the  first  anteroom.  It  is  220  ft.  long,  and  down  its  en-  ^r  ^^'^ 
tire  length,  great  pilasters  support  the  vaulted  ceiling, 
and  divide  the  hall  into  two  portions.  The  walls  and 
ceiling  are  gorgeously  decorated  in  fresco  by  Cesare  Neb- 
bia,  and  Nogari ;  on  the  w-alls  to  the  right,  are  scenes 
representing  the  councils  of  the  Church,  on  the  left,  the 
presentations  of  the  various  collections  to  the  Vatican. 
Presses  containing  the  jNISS.  line  the  walls  and  surround 
the  pilasters,  but  as  they  are  all  closed,  no  books  are 
visible  as  one  walks  through  the  halls.  Between  the 
pilasters  are  tables  and  various  articles  of  value  and 
interest,  presented  to  different  popes  by  the  sovereigns 
of  Europe. 

Among  these,  two  vases  given  by  Frederick  William  IV. 
of  Prussia  to  Pius  IX. 

*  Closed  to  readers  on  Thursdays.  Open  free  daily  to  visitors, 
10  to  3.     Entrance  in  Via  delle  Fondamenta. 


430      CHRISTIAN  AXD  ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 

A  malachite  urn  presented  by  the  Emperor  of  Russia. 

Two  Sevres  candelabra  given  by  Napoleon  I.  to  Pius 
VII.,  and  another  given  by  Charles  X.  to  Leo  XII. 

A  Se^Tes  vase  used  as  a  baptismal  font  for  the  Prince 
Imperial. 

Two  vases  given  by  President  Carnot,  and  two  pre- 
sented by  Marshal  Macmahon  to  Pius  IX.  An  ala- 
baster urn  made  from  a  block  given  by  the  Pasha  of 
Egypt. 

A  huge  block  of  malachite  presented  by  Prince 
Demidoff. 

Some  of  the  most  interesting  and  valuable  of  the  Vati- 

Glass  can  MSS.  are  kept  in  5  glass  cases  in  this  hall  for  the 

cases.  benefit  of  visitors.     These  are  as  follows  : 

Case  I.  Case   I.   on   the    left   from   reading   room.*      Dante, 

Divina  Commedia,   an   autograph   copy  with   miniatures 

of  Giulio  Clovio,  an  "office "  of  the  B.V.M.,  and  a  History 

of  the  Dukes  of  Urbino,  all  with  miniatures  by  Clovius. 

Virgils  of  the  iv.  vi.  and  vii.  centuries  known  as  the 
'  Vaticano,'  '  Romano  '  and  '  Palatino.' 
Case  II.  Case  II.     An  autograph  of  Thomas  Aquinas. 

A  Sacramentary  of  the  v.  or  vi.  century,  and  one  of 
Boniface  IX.  (1389). 

A  Palimpsest  from  the  Mai  collection. 

A  Life  of  the  Fathers,  with  the  Rule  of  S.  Benedict 
of  the  XII.  century  with  miniatures. 

History  of  Dion  Cassius. 
Case  III.  Case  III.     A   Terence,   which   belonged  to  Cardinal 

Bembo,  of  the  vi.  century,  another  copy  illustrated,  of 
tlie  VIII.  century,  but  copied  from  a  much  older  version, 
some  say  of  the  iv.  century. 

Henry  VIII.'s  Treaty  on  the  Sacraments,  in  which  he 
is  styled  "  Regni  nostri  Protector,"  and  a  letter  of  his 
asking  the  Cardinal  of  S.  Damaso  to  present  his  book  to 
the  pope.  It  was  for  this  treatise  that  he  received  from 
.  the  pope  the  title  Fidci  Defensor,  still  possessed  by  our 
sovereigns  and  impressed  on  all  our  coinage. 

*  Visitors  who  enter  the  hall  from  the  other  end  must  take  these 
in  the  inverse  order. 


PAPAL   PALACES  431 

Palimpsest  cf  a  portion  of  Cicero's  Republic  of  vi.  cen- 
tury under  Augustine's  Commentaries  on  the  Psalms. 

Autographs  of  Tasso  and  Petrarch. 

Autograph  and  some  miniatures  of  Michael  Angelo. 

Some  Letters  of  Anne  Boleyn. 

Case  IV.     On  the  opposite  side.     Greek  MS.  of  the   Case  iv. 
Old  and  Nev  Testament,  known  as  Codex  B.  the  codex 
Vaticaniis  Alexandrimis.     This  is  of  the  iv.  century,  the 
oldest  known. 

A  Breviary  with  miniatures  which  belonged  to  Mat- 
thew Corvinus  (a.d.  1492). 

A  Dante  in  Boccaccio's  handwriting,  edited  by  Petrarch. 

A  book  on  Natural  History  with  illustrations,  the  silk- 
worm drawn  by  Raphael. 

A  Mexican  calendar,  recently  published  in  facsimile. 

A  sketch  by  Raphael. 

A  '  Menologia  '  of  a  Byzantine  Emperor. 

Case  V.     Four  or  five  folios  of  a  very  ancient  Bible   Case  V. 
known  as   the    Codex  piirpuyeiis.       Silver  writing  upon 
purple  parchment,  the  name  of  Jesus  written  in  gold. 

Life  in  verse  of  Countess  Matilda. 

A  letter  from  the  Emperor  of  l^urmah  to  Pius  IX. 
enclosed  in  an  elephant  tooth. 

In  the  closed  cases  in  this  hall,  are  a  Bible  with  minia- 
tures by  Pinturicchio  from  the  L^rbino  Collection,  and  a 
copy  of  the  "  Acts  of  the  Apostles  "  with  beautiful  minia- 
tures of  the  apostles,  presented  to  Innocent  VIIL* 

At  the  end  furthest  from  the  reading  room,  the  Sala  Sis- 
tina  opens  into  the  long  Gallery  mentioned  above.  In  the 
anteroom  is  the  private  door  into  the  archives  (63).  The 
gallery  which  measures  318  metres  from  end  to  end,  is  Galleries 
lined  throughout  with  closed  cases  containing  MSS.,  and  ?*^J'''^ 
is  divided  into  a  series  of  halls  by  pilasters  and  pillars. 
The  visitor's  entrance  is  in  the  Via  delle  Fondamenta  (68) 

*  In  December  1898  the  original  MS.  of  Galileo's  treatise  on 
the  tides,  was  found  among  some  State  documents  in  the  Vatican 
library.  The  MS.  is  all  in  (jalileo's  handwriting:  it  is  dedicated  to 
Cardinal  Orsino,  and  ends  with  the  words:  "Written  in  Rome  in 
the  Medici  Gardens,  on  the  8th  of  January  1616." 


432      CHRISTIAN  AND   ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 

and  it   is  therefore   simplest  to   take    the  halls  in  that 
order. 
Hall  I.  Hall  I.  (67)  is  called  the  Museo  Prof  a  no.     It  contains 

a  fine  head  of  Augustus  in  bronze,  and  one  of  Nero.     The 
following  halls  are  decorated  with  modern  paintings  repre- 
senting scenes  in  the  lives  of  the  popes. 
II.  and  Halls  H.  and  HI.  (66)  contain  a  miscellaneous  coUec- 

^'^-  tion  of  MSS.  and  some   printed  books.     Here  are  two 

porphyry  pillars  from  the  Baths  of  Constantine. 

IV.  Hall  IV.  (65)  contains  part  of  the  Capponi  collection 
of  MSS.,  presented  in  i  746,  and  the  Borghigiana  collec- 
tion added  three  years  ago  to  the  Library. 

V.  Hall  V.  (62).  This  hall  contains  the  rest  of  the 
Capponi  collection. 

VI.  Hall  VI.  (61).  The  paintings  in  this  hall  represent 
events  in  the  reign  of  Pius  VI.  This  which  is  a  large 
hall  contains  the  Ottobuoni  MSS. 

VII.  Hall  VII.  (60)  contains  the  Alessandrinan  Library, 
belonging  to  Queen  Christina  of  Sweden,  and  presented 
to  Rome  in  1690.  The  paintings,  all  of  which  refer  to 
Paul  v.,  are  by  d'Arpino. 

VIII.  Hall  VIII.  (59).  This  hall  and  the  Sala  Sistina  con- 
tain the  so-called  Vatican  MSS.  Over  the  two  doors  are 
paintings  of  the  canonisation  of  Carlo  Borromeo  and  of 
Francesca  Romana.     Just  beyond  this  hall  is  the  ante- 

IX.  room  to  the  Sala  Sistina,  —  and  further  on  the  IX.  Hall 
(50)  which  is  known  as  the  Sala  Bonaventura.  Over 
one  entrance  is  a  painting  of  the  interior  of  old  S.  Peter's, 
over  the  other,  of  the  ancient  church  of  the  XII.  Apostoli. 
This  and  the  next  hall  contain  the  Urbino  MSS.  in  the 
presses  on  the  right,  the  Palatine  on  the  left.  Here  also 
are  some  specimens  in  glass  cases  of  xvi.  century  bind- 
ings from  the  Palatine  collection. 

X.  X.  (51).  Hall  of  the  Obelisk.  The  frescoes  in  this 
hall  represent  at  one  end  the  raising  of  the  Vatican 
Obelisk,  painted  by  Fontana,  at  the  other,  Michael 
Angelo's  design  for  S.  Peter's  with  the  square  portico. 

XI.  XL  (52).  Hall  of  Aristides,  so  called  from  a  paint- 
ing of  the  orator,  beside  it  one  of  Lysias.  This  Hall  con- 
tains the  Oriental  MSS. 


PAPAL   PALACES  433 

XII.  (53).  This  Hall  is  known  as  the  Christian  Mu-  Xll. 
seum.  Cases  in  the  centre  contain  objects  found  in  the 
catacombs,  instruments  used  in  the  torture  of  the  early 
Christians  ;  the  copper  ball  pendant  from  a  chain  was 
found  by  the  side  of  a  martyr.  The  greater  number 
come  from  the  catacomb  of  S.  Agnese.  Here  also  is  a 
diptych  of  the  v.  century,  lamps,  medallions,  gems,  orna- 
ments, and  carved  ivories.  In  the  last  case  to  the  left,  is  a 
large  collection  of  the  "  Vetri  dipinti"  gilt  and  painted 
glass  from  the  catacombs.*     There  are  other  collections 

of  this  glass  in  the  Ufifizi  at  Florence,  and  a  small  one 
at  the  Propaganda  College  ;  the  Sicilian  collection  was 
bought  by  England. 

In  this  room  also  are  some  catacomb  inscriptions, 
Byzantine  paintings,  pictures  by  Fra  Angelico  and  Vasari, 
some  Delia  Robbia  bas  reliefs,  and  coins  by  Benvenuto 
Cellini. 

XIII.  (54).     A  small    hall  called  dei  Papiri.      The   XIII. 
walls  and  ceiling  are  decorated  by  Mengs,  and  on  the 
walls  are  hung  contracts,   charters,  etc.,   brought    from 
Ravenna  and  dating  from  the  v.  to  the  ix.  century. 

XIV.  (55).  This  room  contains  Christian  paintings,  XIV. 
some  of  them  Byzantine  of  the  v.,  vni.,  xii.,  xiii.  and  xiv. 
centuries.  They  are  framed  and  enclosed  in  glass  cases. 
Here  also  is  a  Greek-Russian  calendar  of  the  ix.  century, 
painted  on  cypress  wood,  and  two  tables,  one  of  which  is 
made  of  fragments  of  marble  from  the  catacomb  of  Callis- 

tus,  the  other,  with  the  Good  Shepherd,  a  sheep  on  his 
shoulders,  and  the  pail,  in  mosaic,  is  from  the  crypt  of 
CorneHus  in  the  same  catacomb.  A  door  to  the  right  now 
leads  into  two  small  rooms.  The  first  (55^)  called  of  the 
"  Nozze  Aldobrandini  "  has  a  decorated  ceiling  represent- 
ing the  story  of  Samson,  by  Guido  Reni.  The  floor  is 
ancient  mosaic  from  a  villa.  Upon  the  walls  are  six 
ancient  frescoes  removed  from  the  walls  of  a  house  on 
the  Esquiline  depicting  the  travels  of  Ulysses.  Another 
fresco  discovered  in  1606  near  the  arch  of  Gallienus  was 

♦  See  Part  I.,  Chap.  IX.,  405-406. 
2  F 


434      CHRISTIAN  AXD  ECCIESIASTICAT.   ROME 

kept  for  a  long  time  at  the  Villa  Aldobrandini  until 
bought  from  that  family  by  Pius  VII.  It  is  supposed  to 
represent  the  marriage  of  Thetis  and  Peleus  and  is  known 
as  the  Nozze  Aldobrandini.  The  other  paintings  of  the 
unloading  of  a  vessel  at  Ostia,  boys  dragging  a  boat, 
figures  of  mythological  women,  are  also  ancient.  In  the 
same  room  are  kept  a  gold  vase  presented  to  Pius  IX.  by 
the  king  of  Siam,  and  a  model  of  the  Strasburg  clock. 

The  next  small  room  (57)  contains  a  collection  of  tile 
stamps,  and  some  Delia  Robbia  plates. 
XV.  XV.    (56) .    The  last  room  of  the  gallery  was  the  oratory 

of  S.  Pius  V.  Here  are  frescoes  by  Vasari  representing 
Peter  Martyr,  and  a  full  length  portrait  of  Pius  IX.  on 
glass,  a  prie-dieu  presented  to  the  pope  by  the  ladies  of 
Touraine,  and  in  cases  missals  and  portfolios  presented 
to  Pius  IX. 

Leading  out  of  this  room  to  the  left  is  a  small  cabinet 
(56^7)  in  the  Torretta  which  used  to  open  into  the 
Appartamento  Borgia.  This  room  is  entirely  filled  with 
cases  containing  presentations  to  Pius  IX.,  books  of  sig- 
natures, addresses  and  visiting  cards. 


Library  of 

printed 

books. 


Bihlioteca 
Leonina. 


LIBRARY   OF   PRINTED    BOOKS. 

The  printed  books  of  the  Vatican  collection  were  kept 
with  the  MSS.  when  the  library  was  built  by  Sixtus  V. 
They  were  afterwards  separated  from  the  MSS.,  and  have 
been  lodged  in  almost  every  hall  of  the  Vatican  in  turn. 
Until  recently,  they  were  kept  in  the  Appartamento 
Borgia,  where  they  were  so  crowded  that  they  were 
almost  entirely  unavailable  for  reference.  A  new  and 
commodius  library  has  now  been  constructed  by  Leo 
XIII.,  who  adapted  for  the  purpose  the  whole  of  the 
ground  floor  beneath  the  Sala  Sistina,  which  was  used  as 
the  pontifical  armoury.  The  level  of  the  small  courtyard 
of  the  Stamperia,  situated  between  the  Sala  Sistina  and  the 
Braccio  Nuovo,  has  been  lowered  to  admit  more  air  and 
light  into  the  new  halls,  and  communication  has  been 
established  with  the  library  on  the  one  hand  by  means 


PAPAL  PALACES  435 

of  a  short  flight  of  steps,  and  with  the  Archivium  on  the 
other.  The  250,000  vohimes  were  moved  from  the  Bor- 
gian  Apartment  into  the  new  library,  and  it  was  declared 
open  in  November  1892. 

The  Leonina  is  divided  down  its  centre  into  two  long 
halls,  which  are  again  transversely  divided  by  tall  book- 
cases, making  altogether  eight  compartments,  6  smaller 
ones  in  the  centre,  and  a  larger  hall  at  each  end. 

The  divisions  to  the  right,  as  one  enters  from  the 
library  above,  contain  (i)  the  printed  books  of  the  Pala- 
tine library,  and  the  earliest  of  three  ancient  collections 
made  by  the  Vatican  Library  and  which  are  known  as 
the  i''  2"**  and  3'**  raccolte. 

(2)  division,  a  collection  from  Ara  Cceli,  and  the 
second  raccolta. 

(3)  the  Ubrary  of  Cardinal  Zelada,  and  the  3^*^  raccolta. 
The  first  transverse  hall  contains  the  books  presented 

by  Antonio  Ruland,  librarian  of  Wurtzburg,  and  all  recent 
acquisitions;  the  further  hall,  nearest  the  archivium,  con- 
tains the  collection  of  Cardinal  Mai. 

The  remaining  three  divisions  on  the  left  are  devoted 
to  a  reference  Hbrary,  founded  by  Leo  XIIL,  to  which 
many  valuable  presentations  have  been  made  by  foreign 
governments  and  libraries. 

The  books  in  the  first  hall  and  in  part  of  the  second, 
are  classified  according  to  subject.  The  remainder  are 
arranged  under  the  different  countries  from  which  they 
come. 

ARCHIVIUM. 

The  entrance  to  the  Vatican  Archivium  is  in  the  Via  Vatican 
delle  Fondamenta,  at  the  foot  of  the  slope  which  leads  to  ^'"'^^ives. 
the  Belvedere.  Before  1880  the  papal  archives  were 
locked  away  with  the  most  rigid  secrecy,  and  it  is  only 
since  this  date  that  Leo  XIIL  has  allowed  students  to 
consult  the  documents.  A  more  convenient  reading  room 
was  also  added  to  the  archive  library  by  this  pope,  which 
is  now  daily  thronged  with  students,  the  greater  number 
foreigners.      A  portion   of   the   old   papal   stables   and 


436       CHRISTIAN  AND   ECCLF.SFASTICAI.    ROME 

coach  houses  was  further  taken  over,  and  four  additional 
rooms  were  built  to  receive  the  documents  of  the  Dataria* 
bulls  and  petitions,  which  were  removed  to  the  Vatican 
from  the  Lateran.  P>om  the  second  of  these  rooms  a 
door  leads  into  the  new  Leonina  library,  and  thence  into 
the  reading  rooms  of  the  Vatican  library.  The  upper 
floors  of  the  archiviiim  are  still  forbidden  to  outsiders, 
although  MSS.  are  brought  down  from  them  for  consul- 
tation. A  large  reading  room,  and  a  small  room,  where 
the  indices  are  kept,  and  which  serves  as  the  librarian's 
room,  constituted  the  whole  of  the  ground  floor  of  the 
airhivium  prior  to  the  additions  of  Leo  XIII.  On  an 
upper  floor,  a  room  is  set  apart  for  binding  MSS.,  and 
here  also  are  the  original  cases  containing  the  Castel  S. 
Angelo  archives,  which  relate  chiefly  to  the  pontifical  states. 

The  archives  are  for  the  most  part  documents  relating 
to  the  administration  of  the  Holy  See  and  its  relation 
with  foreign  states.  Among  them  are  the  Regesta  of  the 
Popes,  in  two  series,  the  Vatican  and  the  Avignon. 
These  are  papal  annals  drawn  from  the  official  chancery, 
the  acts  of  which  are  almost  intact  from  the  time  of 
Innocent  III.  (1198).  Papal  letters  and  diaries,  bulls, 
briefs,  letters  of  princes,  of  bishops,  of  private  persons, 
documents  relating  to  the  nunciature,  to  licenses,  to 
indulgences,  to  appointments  of  all  sorts,  are  included 
among  the  archives.  A  large  proportion  is  not  cata- 
logued ;  although  the  various  European  nations  are  now 
beginning  to  describe  and  catalogue  separately  the  docu- 
ments relating  to  their  own  states. 

A  chair  of  palaeography  is  attached  to  the  archive 
department,  and  a  lecture  upon  the  subject  is  delivered 
in  the  rooms  of  the  archiviuni  once  a  week  to  students. 
The  a/rhiviiim  is  under  a  different  cardinal,  and  under 
quite  distinct  management  from  the  Vatican  Library. 

Archivio  Another  collection  of  archives,  relating  especially  to  the 

^'^'  .    .         Vatican  chapter,  is  kept  separately  in  the  residence  of  the 

*  See  page  361. 


PAPAL  PALACES  437 

canons  or  canonico.  This  building  stands  to  the  left  of 
S.  Peter's,  and  is  connected  with  its  sacristy  by  a  covered 
passage.  The  library  is  upon  the  second  floor  and  is 
under  the  charge  of  a  librarian  appointed*  by  the 
canons.  This  collection  consists  of  some  408  MSS.  pre- 
sented to  the  Vatican  chapter  by  Cardinal  Orsini  in  1434. 
It  has  been  enriched  by  various  bequests  from  dead 
canons. 

Close  to  the  Aychiviuin  of  the  Vatican  and  reached   Stamperia 
through  the  same   doorway,  is   the  small   court  of  the   ?""*'"& 

.  press, 

Stamperia,  into  which  open  the  Vatican  printing  presses 
—  which  are  still  in  use. 

Here  also  is  the  entrance  to  the  Observatory,  built  by   Observa- 
Leo  XIII.,  and  in  which  is  carried  on  the  astronomical   ^°'^'' 
work  of  the  CoUegio    Romano,    taken   over   since    the 
death  of  Padre  Secchi  by  the  Italian  Government. 

The  old  Vatican  Armoury  which  has  been  located  in  Armoury, 
many  of  the  halls  of  the  Vatican,  and  which  used  to  be 
visited  from  the  Belvedere,  has  now  practically  ceased  to 
exist.  The  arms  of  most  interest  have  been  moved  into 
the  Borgia  Apartment,  and  the  rest,  for  the  most  part 
obsolete  guns  and  swords,  have  been  stored  in  an  attic 
above  the  gallery  of  inscriptions. 

Behind  S.  Peter's,  on  the  rising  ground  of  the  Via  Zecca  or 
della  Zecca  is  the  old  papal  mint,  now  under  the  control  ™'"*- 
of,  and  worked  by  the  Italian  Government.  In  a  small 
room  upon  an  upper  floor,  a  collection  of  coins  can  be 
visited.  These  are  mostly  medals  and  coins  struck 
between  the  years  141 7  and  1870.  Some  of  them  were 
designed  by  Benvenuto  Cellini.  10,000,000  francs  worth 
of  -bullion,  destined  for  medals  to  commemorate  the 
Vatican  Council,  was  found  in  the  mint  and  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  Italians  in  1870. 

Higher  up  in  this  road  are  the  pope's  stables  and  coach  Popes 
houses  ;  in  the  latter  are  kept  his  state  carriages,  not  used  stables, 
since  1870. 

The  Via  delle  Fondamenta  or  del  Giardino  ends  in  an 
arched  gateway.     Within  is  the  entrance  to  the  Museums, 


438      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 

and   two  lateral   doorways,  to  the  left  into  the  pope's 
gardens,  to  the  right  into  the  Cortile  della  Pigna. 
Cortiie  This  court  (73)  part  of  the  old  Belvedere  garden  is 

p?"^  enclosed* by  the  wings  of  the  library,  and  of  the  gallery 

of  Inscriptions,  and  by  the  Sala  Sistina.  It  takes  its 
name  from  the  huge  bronze  fir-cone  at  its  upper  end, 
which  once  crowned  Hadrian's  mausoleum,  and  after- 
wards with  the  two  bronze  peacocks  beside  it,  decorated 
a  fountain  in  the  entrance  court  of  old  S.  Peter's.* 
Pope's  The  pope's  gardens  f  cover  many  acres  of  ground  of 

gardens.  the  old  Alons  Vaticanus.  They  are  bounded  to  the  north- 
west by  portions  of  the  old  Leonine  Wall,  two  towers  of 
which  still  stand  on  the  high  ground.  This  wall  was 
extended  by  Pius  IV.  and  Urban  VIII.  to  enclose  the 
whole.  Portions  of  the  grounds  are  laid  out  in  flower 
beds,  portions  are  planted  with  fruit  trees  and  vines,  in 
which  Leo  XIII.  takes  a  great  interest ;  and  a  large 
portion  is  left  in  a  wild  state.  There  is  a  large  aviary  for 
white  peacocks,  golden  pheasants,  etc.,  and  there  is  an 
abundant  supply  of  water  from  the  Acqiia  Paola  source. 
The  present  Pope  has  constructed  a  winding  carriage 
drive  through  the  whole,  upon  which  he  drives  daily 
with  a  pair  of  fast  trotting  horses.  He  has  also  built  a 
villa  upon  the  high  ground,  "  the  palazzina  di  Leone  IV." 
where  he  spends  the  hot  months  of  the  summer.  Another 
casino  nearer  the  gate  was  built  by  Pius  IV. ;  it  is  richly 
decorated  with  paintings  by  Barocio,  Zucchero,  and  Santi 
di  Tito,  and  with  terra- cotta  bas-rehefs  by  d'Agincourt 
and  Canova, 

ROMAN    LIBRARIES. 

Collegio  The  CoUegio  Romano,  or  Gregorian  University,  was 

Romano.      founded  by  Gregory  XIII.  in  1583  and  was  directed  by 

the  Jesuits  until  1870.     The  church  of  S.  Ignazio  forms 

part  of  the  same  block  of  building.     The  college  is  now 

a  secular  lyceum.     Its  observatory  to  which  the  Jesuits 

*See  Part  I.,  p.  57. 

t  A  Permesso  from  the  niaggiordomo  is  necessary  for  visiting  the 
gardens. 


PAPAL   PALACES 


439 


and  Pius  IX.  liberally  contributed  was  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  well  known  astronomer  Padre  Secchi.  Since 
Secchi's  death  in  1879,  it  has  been  under  the  care  of 
professors  appointed  by  the  Italian  government.  It  can 
be  visited  on  Sundays. 

The  library  of  the  Jesuit  College  has  been  merged  in   Biblioteca 
the  Biblioteca  Vittorio  Emanuele,  itself  formed  of  the   p'"°'''°, 
spoils  of   74  convents,  confiscated   in   1870.     In    1883      '"^""'^s. 
the   Eborense    Library   from   Ara    Coeli   was    added   to 
the  collection  which  now  numbers  880,000  printed  books 
and  about  5100  MSS.     This  library  is  the  most  complete 
in  the  city,  and  the  widest  facilities  are  afforded  to  stu- 
dents for  consulting  and  borrowing  books.     It  is  however 
a  lamentable  fact  that  there  are  still  whole  rooms  full  of 
books  once  cared  for  in  convent  libraries,  which  are  now 
lying  in  confusion  in  heaps  upon  the  floor  uncatalogued, 
and  apparently  given  over  to  rats  and  moths.    The  Library 
is  open  daily,  Sundays  excepted,  from  9  to  3.     Via  Del 
Collegio  Romano  27. 

Attached  to  the  College  was  the  Kircherian  Museum 
founded  in  1618  by  the  Jesuit  Kircher,  Professor  of  Mathe- 
matics in  the  College.  It  has  of  course  now  passed  into 
the  hands  of  the  Italian  Government,  and  has  been  con- 
siderably enriched  of  late  years.  A  small  portion  of  the 
museum  is  devoted  to  Christian  antiquities,  among  them 
bas-reliefs  from  the  fronts  of  sarcophagi,  terra-cotta 
lamps,  a  few  Byzantine  paintings,  and  inscriptions  from 
the  catacombs.  Here  also  is  the  caricature  of  the  cruci- 
fixion found  scratched  upon  a  wall  of  a  guardroom  or 
schoolroom  on  the  Palatine.* 

The  Sapienza,  "Wisdom,"  the  LTniversity  of  Rome,  was 
founded  by  Boniface  VIII.  in  1303.  This  pope  ordered 
a  general  course  of  studies,  appointed  professors,  whom 
he  dispensed  from  taxes,  and  endowed  the  university 
with  the  rents  of  Tivoli.  Clement  V.  (1310)  created 
professorships  of  philology,  and  scientific  studies  were 
introduced  by   later  popes  who  further  endowed   it  by 


Kircherian 
Museum. 


The 
Sapienza. 


*  See  Pari  I.,  p.  24, 


440      CHRISTIAN/  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 


Biblioteca 

Alessan- 

drina. 


Casa- 

natense 

Library. 


Angelica 
Library. 


Vallicellian 
Library. 


charges  on  the  excise  revenues.  The  building  as  we 
now  see  it  was  designed  by  Michael  Angelo  under  Leo  X., 
and  completed  by  G.  della  Porta.  The  Library  of  the 
University  is  known  as  the  Alessandrina  from  its  founder 
Alexander  VIL  Large  additions  were  made  to  it  by 
Leo  XIL  and  it  now  contains  152,000  printed  books, 
13,000  of  which  formed  part  of  the  LTrbino  Library.  At- 
tached to  it  is  a  small  museum  of  gems  and  fossils  from 
the  environs,  and  marbles  and  stones  from  the  ruins  of 
ancient  Rome.  The  library  is  open  daily  from  9  to  3. 
Via  deir  Universita. 

The  Casanatense  is  the  original  monastic  library  of  the 
Dominican  friars  of  S.  Maria  sopra  Minerva,  and  was 
founded  by  Cardinal  Casanete  in  1697.  The  monastic 
buildings  have,  with  the  exception  of  a  small  portion, 
been  taken  over  by  the  Italian  Government  and  are  used 
for  the  Ministry  of  Public  Instruction,  and  the  library  is 
under  the  same  management  as  the  Vittorio  Emanuele. 
It  contains  200,000  j^rinted  books  and  5000  MSS.  It  is 
open  every  day  except  .Sunday  from  9  to  3.  Piazza  della 
Minerva  42. 

The  Angelica  Library  was  founded  in  the  convent  of  S. 
Agostino  by  Cardinal  Angelo  Rocca  in  1605.  The  con- 
vent is  now  the  Ministry  of  Marine.  The  Library,  a 
fine  hall  with  smaller  rooms  adjoining,  contains  150,000 
printed  books,  and  about  2950  MSS.,  among  them  col- 
lections presented  by  Cardinals  Barberini  and  Norris,  and 
some  Chinese  and  Coptic  MSS.  The  library,  like  all  the 
monastic  libraries  of  Rome,  has  been  taken  over  by  the 
government,  but  one  or  two  of  the  original  Augustinian 
librarians  from  the  monastery  are  allowed  to  assist  in  the 
care  of  the  books.  It  is  open  for  readers  from  8  to  12  — 
holidays  excepted.     Piazza  S.  Agostino. 

The  Vallicellian  Library  was  founded  by  Cardinal 
Baronius  in  the  xvi.  century  in  the  Oratorian  House  of  S. 
Philip  Neri,  to  which  was  attached  the  Chiesa  Nuova.  It 
is  now  managed  by  the  government,  and  the  house  has 
been  converted  into  Assize  and  Law  Courts.  The  library 
contains  29,000  printed  books  and  2500  MSS.,  among 


PAPAL   PALACES  441 

them  some  unedited  MSS.  of  Baronius.  It  is  open  from 
8  to  1 2,  Wednesdays,  Thursdays  and  Saturdays.  Piazza 
Jella  Chiesa  Nuova. 


PAPAL    PALACES    AND    VILLAS 

In  addition  to  the  Vatican  and  Lateran  (for  the  latter 
see  Part  I.,  p.  93  seq.^  the  following  palaces  in  Rome  still 
belong  to  the  pope. 

The  Palace  of  the  Holy  Office,  Via  del  S.  Uffizio  outside   Other 
the  colonnade  to  the  left  of  S.  Peter's.  Jh?pre°^ 

The  Dataria  Palace  in  the  street  of  that  name  on  the      ^    °^^^' 
slopes  of  the  Quirinal. 

The  Palace  of  S.  Maria  Maggiore,  conceded  to  the 
pope  in  place  of  the  Quirinal. 

The  Cancelleria  Palace  one  of  the  finest  in  the  city  was  Cancel- 
built  in  1495  by  Cardinal  Riario,  nephew  of  Sixtus  IV.  'e"^- 
Fontana  designed  the  fagade,  the  rest  is  the  work  of 
Bramante.  It  is  built  of  travertine  robbed  from  the 
Colosseum,  and  the  columns  of  granite  supporting  porti- 
coes in  two  stories  round  the  central  court,  are  said  to 
have  belonged  to  the  theatre  of  Pompey  which  stood 
close  by.  This  is  the  scene  of  Pius  IX. 's  Parliament  of 
1S48  and  of  the  assassination  of  his  prime  minister  Rossi. 

The  above   pal.ices  in  Rome  and  the  villa  of  Castel  Castel 
Gandolfo  were  declared  extra-territorial  by  the  Italian   Gandoifo. 
government  in  May  1871,  and  are  the  only  portions  of 
his  kingdom  now  left  to  the  pope.* 

The  Palace  of  Castel  Gandolfo  perched  above  the  Lake 
of  Albano  and  overlooking  the  whole  Campagna,  has  been 
a  summer  residence  of  the  popes  from  the  time  of  Urban 
VIII.  (1623)  to  that  of  Pius  IX.  who  was  a  familiar  sight 
upon  his  white  mule  in  the  lanes  near  the  town.  A 
baronial  family  of  Germanic  origin,  the  Gandulfi,  built 

*  Anagni  was  a  favourite  resort  of  the  early  popes.  It  was  the 
property  of  the  Conti,  and  was  used  ])y  Innocent  III.,  himself  a 
member  of  this  family,  as  a  residence,  becoming  afterwards  a  papal 
possession.  Several  elections  took  place  at  Anagni,  among  them 
that  of  Robert  of  Geneva,  the  antipope  Clement  VII.  (1387). 


442      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 

themselves  a  castle  in  the  little  town  in  the  xii.  century, 
but  in  the  next,  it  passed  to  the  Savelli,  who  for  hundreds 
of  years  held  their  mountain  fortress  and  waged  war  upon 
their  neighbours.  At  last  their  fallen  fortunes  forced  them 
to  sell  their  possessions,  and  Castel  Gandolfo  passed  into 
the  hands  of  the  popes.  The  palace  of  Urban  VIII.  was 
designed  by  Carlo  Maderno,  but  it  was  restored  and 
finally  rebuilt  as  it  now  stands  by  Clement  VIII.  A 
church  designed  by  Bernini  was  added  to  the  palace  by 
Alexander  VII.  As  the  popes  have  never  left  the  Vatican 
since  1870,  the  great  palace  of  Castel  Gandolfo  stands 
empty.  To  visit  it  a  '  permesso  '  from  the  Maggiordomo 
is  necessary.  A  community  of  Basilian  nuns  and  one  of 
Carmelite  nuns  have  of  late  years  been  established  on  the 
ground  floor  of  this  great  palace. 


GROUND   PLAN   OF   THE   VATICAN   PALACE. 


1.  Stairs  leading  to  the  court 

of  Damasus. 

2.  Apartment  of  the  Maggior- 

domo. 

3.  (^7)  court  of  the  Rota. 

(^)  position  of  second 
court  of  the  Rota. 

(f)  court  of  the  Pala- 
frenie7-i  (grooms). 

((/)  court  of  Torrione. 

(^)  court  of  the  Palace  of 
Sixtus  V. 

4.  Cortile  of  S.  Damaso. 

5.  Principal  entrance  to  Pa- 

pal Residence. 

6.  Apostolic  Residence. 

(/)  Sala  Clementina  or 
hall  of  the  Swiss. 

{g)  Hall  of  the  Fala- 
frenieri. 

(Ji)  first  anticamera  (ante- 
room). 

(/)  second  anticamera. 

(_/')  hall  of  the  secret  con- 
sistories. 


(/(')  room  of  the  Swiss  guard. 

(;«)  pope's  library. 

(«)   pope's  study. 

((?)    pope's  bedroom. 

(/)  pope's  small  reception 
room. 

(?)  pope's  private  ante- 
room. 

(;-)   anteroom. 

\s)  private  chapel  and 
anteroom. 

(/)  throne  room. 

L.  wall  of  Nicholas  V. 

7.  Algardi's  fountain. 

8.  Passage     leading     to     the 

studio  of  Mosaics. 

9.  Stairs. 

10.  Court  of  the  Pappagallo. 

11.  Court    of    the    Portone    di 

Ferro. 

12.  Court  of  the  Sentinella. 

13.  Passage  and  stairs  to  upper 

floor  and  library. 

14.  Court    of    the    Maresciallo 

of  Conclave. 


62    ■  65 


■|..^  — iprfi..  ,f 


M 


66    .   66    'G7  ,68 


nnnn 

73 

nnnn 


Romanl. 


ALACE. 


-ir* 


irf-i 


nonDnci 


59         60 


jtmt^j^^jammMmmmmm^m-jmmJ^  v^b^i^ 


61  62        65    ,        66   .  G6T67  ,68;  = 


DDnnn 
DDDnn 


^  "  ^  "  '^  " 


?io  so  so        ""  ""''  300  400  500 

Palmi  liiMl       I  I  I  I   = 


Romani. 


(  /  Roman  Palm  "8  ^lo  Inches^ 


Ground  Plan  of  the  VATICAN  PALACE  . 

From  Pistoles  V  "Jj.  Vatic  AN  o." 


PAPAL   PALACES 


443 


15- 

Court  of  the  Maggiordomo. 

38- 

1 6. 

Stairs   to   the  court  of  the 
Maresciallo. 

17- 

Pedestal       of     equestrian 
statue  of  Conslantine. 

39- 

1 8. 

Stairs    from    the    court  of 

the    Maresciallo    to    the 

39 

Sala  Regia. 

19. 

Entrance  to  the  1^'  tier  of 

40. 

20. 

Loggie. 
Branch  of  Loggie  by  Gio- 
vanni   da   Udine,  under 

40 
41. 

21. 

Raphael's. 
Centre     Branch.      (Pome- 

42. 

22. 

rancio.) 
East  branch. 

43- 
44. 

21- 

Hall  of  the  Paramenti. 

45- 

24. 

Sala  Ducale. 

46. 

25- 

Sala    Ducale,  2""^  portion, 
also     called    della     La- 

47- 
48 

van  da. 

50- 

26. 

Sala  Regia. 

51- 

27- 

Stairs  leading  to  the  Sala 

52- 

28. 

Regia. 
Stairs  beneath    leading   to 

53- 
54- 

the  vestibule  of  the  Sis- 

55- 

tina. 

29. 

Vestibule  of  the  Sistina. 

55 

30. 
31- 

Sistina  chapel. 
Sacristies. 

56- 

32. 

Stairs    leading    from     the 

56 

Sistina  to  S.  Peter's. 

57- 

33- 

Entrance  to  the  Eoggia  of 
benediction. 

58. 
59- 

34- 
35- 

Paolina  Chapel. 
Galkriola      or      audience 

60. 
61. 

room. 

62. 

35 
36- 

(a)    Spogliatoio,  or  Hall  of 

the  Pappagallo. 
Borgia    Apartment,     Sa/a 
del     Pontiftci,     on     the 
floor     above,     Hall     of 

63- 
64. 

65- 

Constantine. 

66. 

37- 

Second  Borgia  room,  Sala 

della    Madonna,    above 

67. 

it,  Stanza  of  the  Helio- 

68. 

dorus. 

Third  Borgia,  Vita  dei 
Santi,  above  it.  Stanza 
of  the  Dispiita. 
Fourth  Borgia  "  of  the  Lib- 
eral arts,"  above  it, 
Stanza  of  the  Lnccndio. 
a   and    39  b.    Halls  of  the 

Ciuardia  Nobile. 
Hall  of  the  Credo, 
(a).  Hall  of  the  Sibyls. 
Entrance  to  the  gallery  of 
Inscriptions     from     the 
Loggie. 
Gallery  of  Inscriptions. 
Entrance  to  Library. 
Writer's  room. 
Small  reading  room. 
Room  of  the  papiri. 
Librarian's  room, 
and  49.  Sala  Sistina. 
Hall  of  the  Bonaventura. 
Hall  of  the  Obelisk. 
Hall  of  Aristides. 
Christian  Museum. 
Hall  of  the  papiri. 
Hall  of  the  Christian  paint- 
ings. 
a.  Hall  of  the  Xozze  Aldo- 

brandini. 
Chapel  of  Pius  V. 
a.  Small  room  of  cabinets. 
Terra-cotta  room. 
Court  of  the  Belvedere. 
Hall  of  the  Vatican  MSS. 
Alessandrinan  Coll  -ction. 
Oltobuoni  Collection. 
,  Capponi  Collection. 

Archivium. 
.  Giardino  of  the  Library  or 

of  the  Stamperia. 
.  Capponi  and    Borghigiana 

Collection. 
,  First    two    halls     of    the 

Library. 
.  ALuseo  Profatzo. 
.  Visitors'    entrance    to    the 
Librarj'. 


444      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAI   ROME 


\  Gates  between  the  Chia- 

69.  J       ramonti   Museum  arnl 

70.  I       the  Gallery  of  Insciip- 
[      tions. 

71.  Entrance    to   the    Biaccio 

Nuovo. 

72.  Braccio  Nuovo. 

73.  Giardino  della  Pigna. 

74  and  76.   Egyptian  Museum. 

77.  Chiaramonti  Museum. 

78.  Door     from     Chiaramonte 

Museum  to  "Cnt  giardino 

della  Pigna. 
80.  Pine  cone  and  peacocks. 
82.  Stairs   to    Pio   Clementino 

jSIuseum. 
84,  85,  86.     Rooms     of      the 

Egyptian  Museum. 

87.  Vestibule  of  the  Torso. 

88.  Vestibule  of  the  Vase. 

89.  Vestibule  of  the  Meleager. 

90.  Octagonal  tlall. 


91.  Porticoes  of   the  court  of 

the  Belvedere. 
'  S.  Cabinet  of  the  Apollo 
Belvedere. 
T.  Cabinet    of   the    La- 

ocoon. 
R.  Cabinet  of  Antinous. 
P.  Cabinet  of  the  Boxers. 

92.  Hall  of  the  animals. 

94.  Hall  of  the  Statues. 

95.  Hall  of  the  Busts. 

96.  External  balcony. 

97.  Cabinet  of  Masks. 

98.  Hall  of  the  Muses. 

99.  Rotonda. 

100.  Hall  of  the  Greek  Cross. 
loi.  Hall  of  the  Biga. 

102.  Vestibule  to  Hall  of  Greek 

Cross    and    entrance    to 
the  Egyptian  Museum. 

103.  Bronze  gales. 


CHAPTER   IV. 

CARDhVALS. 

Cardinals  —  their  origin  —  their  lilular  churches — dress  —  cere- 
monial  regarding — the  three  grades  of  Cardinals  —  list  of  the 
Cardinals  —  Sacred  congregations.  Inquisition,  Index,  etc. — 
Patriarchates —  Bishops  —  titular  bishops- — episcopal  insignia 
and  dress — tnsit  ad  limina  • —  Prelates  and  Alonsignori  — 
Canons  —  priests  —  origin  of  ecclesiastical  dress  —  Style  and 
titles  of  ecclesiastics —  Seminaries  and  seminarists. 

The  Pope's  College  of  Cardinals,  who  compose  his  Curia   Cardinals. 
or  Council,  are  the  modern  representatives  of  the  ancient 
parish  priests  of  Rome. 

We  first  find  the  word  applied  to  the  chief  among  the 
seven  deacons,  who  was  called  archi-diaconits  or  diacomis 
cardinalis.  Later,  owing  to  the  increase  of  the  Christian 
population,  it  became  necessary  to  appoint  two  deacons 
to  each  region  of  the  city,  where  previously  one  regionary 
deacon  had  sufficed  ;  the  first  of  these  was  then  called 
cardinal  deacon.  Similarly  the  presbyters  of  the  ancient 
titiili*  of  Rome  came  to  be  styled  presbyter  cardinalis  ^ 
in  distinction  to  the  other  priests  appointed  to  the  same 
church.J 

*  See  Part  I.,  Chap.  I. 

t  In  Italian,  the  wurds  incardinato  for  the  induction  to  a  parish, 
and  scardinato  when  the  incumljent  is  removed  from  it,  are  still 
employed. 

\  Gregory  the  Great  writing  to  Liberatus,  tells  him  not  to  set 
himself  above  the  other  deacons,  unless  he  had  been  made  cardinal 
by  the  bishop.  In  Charlemagne's  'Capitularies  '  a  Roman  Cardinal 
Deacon  is  mentioned  with  peculiar  distinction  :  "  Diaconus  in  car- 
dine  constitutus  in  urbe  Roma." 

445 


446      CHRTSTTAA'  AND   F.CCLESIASTICAL   ROME 

These  deacons  and  presbyters  formed  the  council  of 
their  bishop,  and  as  early  as  251-254,  they  presided  over 
the  Church  with  absolute  authority  upon  the  death  of 
Pope  Fabian,  just  as  the  Cardinals  rule  the  Church  to-day 
when  the  papal  see  becomes  vacant.  At  first  simply  the 
parish  clergy  of  Rome,  these  deacons  and  presbyters 
gradually  acquired  a  position  of  power  and  importance 
owing  to  the  fact  that  the  papal  elections,  originally  the 
right  of  the  "  assembled  people  and  clergy  of  Rome," 
passed  gradually  from  a  variety  of  causes  into  their  hands. 
Thus  in  time  the  office  of  priest  of  a  Roman  titiilus 
became  merely  nominal,  while  the  position  it  conveyed 
grew  to  be  so  much  coveted  that  it  was  conferred  by 
the  pope  as  a  title  of  honour  upon  foreign  and  Roman 
personages,  ecclesiastics  or  otherwise.  By  the  xi.  century, 
we  find  the  ancient  regionary  deacons,  parish  priests,  and 
suffragan  bishops  of  Rome  developed  into  the  cardinal 
deacons,  priests  and  bishops  of  the  Roman  Church. 

It  was  not  however  till  11 79  that  their  prerogative  as 
papal  electors  was  actually  confirmed  and  assured  to 
them  by  a  Lateran  council  under  Alexander  III.  In 
1297  a  constitution  of  Boniface  VIII.  increased  their 
dignities,  and  decreed  heavy  penalties  against  all  who 
should  maltreat  them. 
Titular  To  this  day  every  cardinal  is  "  titular  "  of  one  of  the 

churches  ancient  parish  churches  of  Rome,*  in  which  he  nominally 
nais!"^  *'  possesses  jurisdiction.  If  he  is  non-resident  in  the  city, 
he  must  appoint  a  vicar,  generally  a  prelate  as  his  sub- 
stitute, not  necessarily  the  parish  priest.  If  the  cardinal 
be  a  layman,  he  must  in  any  case  appoint  a  presbyter  as 
his  vicario. 

In  his  titular  church,  a  cardinal  does  not  assist  at  mass 
or  celebrate  from  a  f aids  fool  but  from  a  throne,  and  this 
he  does  as  titular  cardinal,  not  as  bishop.  On  entering 
or  leaving  the  church,  he  gives  his  blessing  to  the  people, 
as  a  bishop  would  do  in  his  own  diocese. 

*  Cardinal  Manning  was  cardinal  priest  of  S.  Gregorio  on  the 
Coelian.  Cardinal  Vaughan  has  succeeded  him.  Cardinal  New- 
man was  cardinal  deacon  of  S.  Giorgio  in  Velabro. 


CARDINALS 


447 


Upon  his  creation,  a  new  cardinal  must  take  solemn 
possession  of  his  titular  church.  He  arrives  at  the  church 
door  in  state,  dressed  in  his  scarlet  robes.  He  is  here 
met  by  the  priest  and  clergy  of  the  parish,  who  offer  him 
holy  water.  He  enters  the  church  and  proceeds  sol- 
emnly up  the  nave,  genuflecting  three  times.  Then, 
seated  upon  his  throne,  he  receives  the  addresses  which 
are  read  to  him  by  the  parish  priest. 

To  these  he  replies,  after  which  all  the  clergy,  accord- 
ing to  their  precedence,  come  up  to  receive  his  embrace, 
those  of  lower  rank  merely  kissing  his  ring.  Before  1870, 
a  detachment  of  the  Swiss  Guard  used  to  attend  such 
ceremonies.  Each  cardinal  must  present  a  painted  por- 
trait of  himself  to  his  titular  church,  which  is  hung  with 
that  of  the  reigning  pope  in  the  nave.  A  painted  shield 
with  his  arms  surmounted  by  a  cardinal's  hat,  hangs  with 
the  arms  of  the  pope,  outside  the  church,  over  the  main 
entrance.  It  is  a  custom  for  cardinals  to  bequeath  their 
hats  at  their  death  to  their  titular  churches,  where  they 
can  often  be  seen  hanging  from  the  ceiling  in  some  side 
chapel. 

It  was  enacted  in  a  constitution  of  Boniface  VIII.  in 
1297  that  cardinals  should  wear  the  royal  purple.*  Their 
red  hats  had  been  granted  to  them  at  the  council  of 
Lyons  in  1145  by  Innocent  IV.,  at  the  instigation,  it  is 
said,  of  the  Countess  of  Flanders,  who  complained  that 
she  could  not  distinguish  cardinals  from  abbats  and  other 
great  personages.  The  red  robes  have  been  worn  since 
1464  ;  the  purple  is  now  only  worn  in  Lent  and  Advent, 
when  cardinals  can  be  distinguished  from  bishops  by  the 
red  skull-cap,  stockings  and  berretta  which  they  retain. 

In  ordinary  life,  a  cardinal  wears  a  black  soutane  and 
short  cape  over  the  shoulders,  with  scarlet  pipings  buttons 
and  button  holes,  scarlet  stock  sash  and  stockings.  Out 
of  doors,  a  long  black  cloak,  and  an  ordinary  priest's  hat 
trimmed  with  a  red  silk  ribbon  and  gold  tassels,  15  in 
number.     In  society,  a  full  cloak  of  scarlet  silk  or  fer- 


Function 
of  taking 
possession 


Portrait  in 
the  titular 
church. 

Arms. 


Dress. 


Everyday 
dress. 


In  society. 


*  They  are  called  to  this  day  \\\e.  porporati,  wearers  of  purple. 


44S      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 


For 

Cappelle 

Papali. 


Cardinal's 
Hat. 


raiuolonc  is  worn  over  the  black  soutane.  At  court,  or 
for  state  occasions,  the  soutane  would  be  scarlet,  a  rochet 
would  be  worn  and  a  short  round  cape  to  the  knee,  with 
openings  for  the  arms,  known  as  the  mantelkita. 

For  cappelle  Papali,*  and  other  great  church  or  papal 
functions,  a  cardinal's  dress  would  consist  of  a  scarlet 
soutane  with  a  train,  white  lace  rochet,  and  great  circular 
scarlet  silk  cloak,  made  like  the  ancient  Roman  pcenula,! 
which  is  drawn  up  over  the  arms  in  front,  and  spreads 
into  an  immense  ample  train  behind.  This  is  the  cappa 
7/iagna.  Attached  to  it,  is  a  hood  having  the  appearance 
in  front  of  a  small  shoulder  cape,  and  prolonged  behind 
into  a  point.  The  hood  is  of  scarlet  silk ;  from  the 
5'!"  of  October  until  April  25"',  it  is  covered  with  an 
additional  cape  of  white  ermine  for  warmtli.  In  old 
days  the  hood  used  to  be  drawn  up  over  the  head  and 
worn  under  the  hat,  which  is  still  done  when  the  hat  is 
given  in  consistory.  The  zucchetto  or  small  cap,  berrctia, 
stockings  and  gloves  are  scarlet.  When  dressed  in  state 
clothes,  a  long  purple  cloth  cloak  with  cape  and  velvet 
collar,  is  worn  out  of  doors,  with  a  red  hat,  of  the  shape 
and  texture  of  an  ordinary  priest's.  These  are  removed  at 
the  church  door,  and  the  cappa  magna  and  berretta  put  on. 

For  the  cardinal's  inozzetia  see  pages  335  and  486. 

The  red  hat  of  the  cardinal  which  is  given  him  in  con- 
sistory, and  which  is  the  sign  of  his  office,  used  to  have  a 
conical  crown,  and  was  habitually  worn  with  the  scarlet 
robes,  over  the  drawn-up  hood  of  the  cappa.  Its  use 
was  sanctioned  instead  of  a  mitre  in  1245.  Under 
Paul  II.,  a  berretta  was  allowed  on  certain  occasions 
instead  of  the  hat,  and  now  the  hat  is  never  worn  at  all, 
and  has  become  a  mere  symbol.  Its  crown  has  prac- 
tically ceased  to  exist,  the  modern  hat  having  a  wide  stiff 
brim,  hardly  any  crown,  and  hanging  cords  and  tassels. 
These  tassels  or  fiocchetti  should  be  fifteen  in  number 
for  a  cardinal,  and  when  the  hat  is  represented  upon 
the   coat   of    arms   the   tassels   should    hang   down   on 


■  See  page  378. 


fSee  Part  II.,  page  106. 


CARDIXALS 


449 


either  side  of  the  shield  in  five  rows.      The  number  of 

tassels  was  however  often  varied  at  pleasure,  or  mistakes 

were  made  in  the  number, 

so    that    it   is    sometimes 

difficult   to  distinguish  a 

cardinal's    coat    from    an 

archbishop's  in  sculpture 

or  upon  tombstones,  unless 

the  colour  is  indicated. 

Cardinals  who  are  mem- 
bers of  religious  Orders 
wear  their  own  dress  in 
the  colours  of  the  Order  ; 
retaining  only  the  red  hat,  berreita,  and  zucchetto.  Fran- 
ciscan cardinals,  however,  wear  no  red. 

The  only  occasion  on  which  a  distinction  was  made  in 
the  dress  of  the  three  grades  *  of  cardinals,  was  when  they 
assisted  at  the  pope's  solemn  mass.  The  cardinal  bishop 
then  wore  a  cope,  the  cardinal  priest  a  chasuble,  and  the 
cardinal  deacon  a  dalmatic. 

From  the  xiii.  century  at  least,  cardinals  have  ranked 
as  princes,  and  have  been  treated  with  royal  state  in  every 
country.  In  1523  the  household  of  Cardinal  Farnese 
numbered  306  persons,  that  of  Cardinal  Cesarini,  275. 
Even  now  much  formality  is  observed  in  their  regard  in 
Rome.  In  ecclesiastical  circles  and  in  the  old  Roman 
families,  a  cardinal  is  received  at  the  foot  of  the  stairs  by 
two  ser\'ants  with  lighted  torches,  who  escort  him  to  the 
reception  rooms  and  await  his  departure  in  the  corridors. 
He  is  accompanied  wherever  he  goes  by  a  gentlemen  in 
waiting,  his  gentihiomo,  who  sits  in  his  carriage,  stands 
near  him  at  church  functions,  vests  him  in  his  buskins,! 
holds  his  berretta,  and  gives  him  the  water  for  the  lavabo 


Upon  the 
coat  of 
arms. 


Ancient 
State. 


Ceremo- 
nial. 


W\sgentil- 
uomo. 


*  See  below.  t  See  Part  II.,  p.  78. 

Council  of  Trent  sess.  XXV.  decrees  for  the  reformation  of  the 
clergy.  Cardinals  and  all  prelates  shall  be  content  with  modest 
furniture  and  a  frugal  table,  and  are  not  to  enrich  themselves  or 
their  dependants  out  of  the  property  of  the  Church.  All  things  in 
their  houses  to  show  simplicity  and  contempt  of  vanities. 
2  G 


450      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 


Throne 
room. 


Cardinals 
di  curia. 


at  mass.  This  gentiluomo  is  dressed  in  knee  breeches, 
silk  stockings  and  ruffled  shirt,  and  wears  a  sword  and 
cocked  hat.  In  rank  this  attendant  belongs  to  the  good 
borghesia,  and  usually  has  some  decoration  or  the  title 
of  Cavaliere.  At  church  functions,  a  cardinal  would 
probably  be  accompanied  also  by  a  servant  and  his  chap- 
lain. He  drives  in  a  sombre  and  heavy  vehicle  drawn  by 
two  black  stallions  with  flowing  manes.  His  servant  sits 
on  the  box,  and  walks  behind  him  if  he  gets  out  of  his 
carriage  for  a  little  exercise  outside  the  walls  of  the  city. 
In  processions,  a  cardinal's  train  is  held  up  by  a  page  or 
acolyte. 

Cardinals  have  a  throne  room  in  their  houses,  but  the 
throne  is  turned  to  the  wall  and  may  never  be  sat  upon 
except  when  the  papal  see  is  vacant.  It  is  then  turned 
round  for  use,  as  a  sign  that  the  cardinals  have  become 
reigning  and  temporal  princes.  Similarly  each  cardinal 
is  provided  with  a  throne  for  use  during  a  conclave.* 

The  cardinals  di  curia,  i.e.  resident  in  Rome,  and  form- 
ing a  permanent  court  and  council  round  the  pope,  each 
receive  the  modest  annual  sum  of  24,000  francs  (^960), 
which  is  called  the  piatto  cardiualizio.  In  addition  to 
this  the  cardinals  employed  on  the  different  Congregations 
have  a  special  pay. 

Cardinals  or  Monsignori  were  at  the  head  of  every 
sort  of  department  in  Rome  in  old  days ;  a  remnant  of 
this  may  be  seen  in  the  inscriptions  on  marble  let  into  the 
walls  in  different  parts  of  the  city,  informing  the  citizens 
that  Monsignore  the  sanitary  Inspector,  did  not  allow 
dust  men  to  throw  their  refuse  in  those  places.  There 
is  one  of  these  inscriptions  in  Piazza  di  Spagna,  another 
on  the  Convent  of  the  Nuns  by  S.  Croce  dei  Lucchesi. 


The  full  number  of  the  Sacred  College  is  seventy.! 
Of  the   cardinals   now   composing   the  College    T)^   "^"^^ 

*  For  conclave  and  the  creation  of  cardinals  in  consistory  see 
Chapter  II. 

fThis  number  was  fixed  by  Sixtus  V.  in  1586.  See  ante,  p.  367, 
footnote. 


CARDINALS 


451 


Cardinals. 


Italians,  and  26  foreigners.  Of  these,  seven  are  French, 
seven  German,  Austrian,  and  Hungarian,  five  Spanish, 
four  EngUsh  and  American,  there  is  one  Pole,  a  Dutch- 
man and  a  Portuguese.  There  are  at  the  present  eleven 
vacant  hats. 

There  are  three  grades  of  cardinals.  Cardinal  Bishops  Three 
who  seem  to  have  been  first  heard  of  in  the  time  of  grades  of 
Stephen  III.-IV.  (768-777)  as  the  seven  bishops  who 
officiated  in  turn  in  the  Lateran,  and  were  called 
"  Ecclesi^e  Lateranensis  Cardinales."  They  were  ipso 
facto  bishops  of  the  six  suburban  Sees  of  Rome,  origin- 
ally local  suffragans  of  the  pope.  Secondly  and  thirdly, 
cardinal  priests  and  deacons  derived  as  we  have  seen 
from  the  presbyteral  and  diaconal  titles  of  Rome.  In 
the  latter  rank,  the  cardinal's  hat  has  been  sometimes 
bestowed  upon  laymen.  Cardinal  Antonelli  was  a  lay- 
man, and  Cardinal  Mertel  who  died  this  year  (1899) 
was  in  deacon's  orders.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  however, 
most  of  the  cardinal  priests  are  now  bishops,  and  all  the 
cardinal  deacons  are  priests. 


LIST    OF    CARDINALS    WITH    THEIR    TITULAR    CHURCHES. 


See. 
Ostia*  and  Velletri 

Porto  and  S.  Rufina 


Albano 
Palestrina 
Frascati  % 
Sabina 


Cardinal  Bishops. 


Date  of  Creation. 


Luigi  Oreglia  di  S.  Stefano,  Dean  of 

the  Sacred  College  f 
Lucido  Maria  Parocchi,  Vicc-Chan- 

cellor  and  sub-dean  of  the  Sacred 

College 
Antonio  Agliardi 
Camillo  Mazzella 
Serafino  Vannutelli 
Mario  Mocenni 


1S73 


1877 
1896 
1886 
1887 
1893 


*  Joined  to  Velletri  in  11 50. 

t  This  office  has  been  joined  to  the  see  of  Ostia  and  Velletri 
since  the  xv.  century.  Before  that  time  there  was  no  mention  of 
the  title.    The  oldest  cardinal  bishop  was  called  Prior  P>piscoporum. 

J  Cardinal  Howard  was  bishop  of  this  see  until  his  death. 


452      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 

Titular  Churches.  Cardinal  Priests.  Date  of  Creation. 

S.  Agnese  Fuori  Georg  Kopp,  Bishop  of  Breslau  1893 

S.  Agostino  Antonio  Maria  Cascajares  y  Azara, 

Archbishop  of  ValladoHd  1895 

S.  Anastasia  Andrea  Ferrari,  Archbishop  of  Milan       1894 

SS.  Andrea  e  Grego-     Herbert    Vaughan,    Archbishop    of 

rio  Westminster  1893 

SS.  XII.  Apostoli  Joseph  Sebastian  Netto,  O.  M.,  Pa- 

triarch of  Lisbon  1884 

S.  Balbina 

S.     BartoJomeo     all'     Johann  Haller,  Archbishop  of  Salz- 

Isola  burg  1895 

S.Bernardo  Giuseppe  Sarto,  Patriarch  of  Venice        1893 

SS.  Bonifacio  ed  Al-     Angelo  di  Pietro,  Prefect  of  Council       1893 
essio 

S.  Calisto  Agostino  Ciasca.     Romite  1899 

S.  Cecilia  Mariano     Rampolla,    Secretary    of 

State  and  Archpriest  of  the  Vati- 
can Basilica  1887 

S.  Clemente  Genaro    Portanova,   Archbishop   of 

Reggio  1899 

S.  Crisogono  Francesco  Cassetta  1899 

S.  Croce  in  Gerusa-     Peter     Goossens,     Archbishop     of 

lemme  Mechlin  1889 

S.  Eusebio  Agostino   Richelmy,  Archbishop  of 

Turin  1899 

S.  Giovanni  a  Porta     Benoit    Langenieux,  Archbishop  of 

Latina  Rheims  1886 

SS.  Giovanni  e  Paolo     Giuseppe      Francica-Nava,      Arch- 
bishop of  Catania  1899 

S.     Girolamo      degli     Lorenz  Schlauch,  Bishop  of  Gros- 

Schiavoni,  Wardein,  Hungary  1893 

S.  Lorenzo  in  Damaso     [Lucido   Maria    Parocchi   as   Vice- 

Chancellor]  1877 

S.    Lorenzo    in  Pan-     Sebastiano  Galeati,   Archbishop    of 

isperna  Ravenna  1890 

S.  Lorenzo  in  Lucina     Miecislau    Ledochowski,  Prefect  of 

Propaganda  1875 

SS.  Marcellino  e  Pietro 

S.  Marcello  Luigi    di    Canossa,  Bishop   of  Ve- 

rona 1877 

S.  Marco  Pietro  Celesia,  O.  S.  B.,  Archbishop 

of  Palermo  1884 

S.  Maria  degli  Angeli     Anton  Gruscha,  Archbishop  of  Vi- 
enna 1891 

S.  Maria  della  Pace       Michael  Logue,  Archbishop  of  Ar- 
magh 1893 

S.Maria  della  Vittoria    Giov.  Batt.  Casali  del  Drago  1899 


CARDINALS 


453 


Titular  Churches. 
S.  Maria  del  Popolo 

S.  Maria  in  Aracceli 

S.  Maria  in  Traspon- 

tina 
S.   Maria   in  Traste- 

vere 
S.  Maria  in  Via 

S.  Maria  sopra  Min- 
erva 

S.  Maria  Xuova  e  S. 
Francesca  Nuova 

SS.  Nereo  e  Achilleo 

S.  Onofrio 

S.  Pancrazio 

S.  Pietro  in  Montorio 


S.  Pietro  in  Vincoli 

S.  Prassede 

S.  Prisca 

S.  Pudenziana 

SS.    Quattro    Incor- 

onati 
SS.  Quirico  e  Giulitta 

S.  Sabina 

SS.  Silvestro  e  Mar- 

tino  ai  Monti 
S.  Silvestro  in  Capita 

S.  Sisto 

S.  Stefano 
S.  Susanna 

S.  Tommaso  in  Parione 
SS.  Trinita  al  Monte 

Pincio 
SS.    Vitale    Gervasio 

e  Protasio 


Cardinal  Priests.  Date  of  Creation. 

Alfonso  Capecelatro,  Oratorian,  Arch- 
bishop of  Capua  and  Cardinal 
Librarian  1886 

Francesco  Satolli,  Archpriest  of  the 

Lateran  1895 

Martin  de  Herrera   y  de  la  Iglesia, 

Archbishop  of  Santiago  1897 

James  Gibbons,  Archbishop  of  Bal- 
timore 1886 

Francois    Richard,    Archbishop    of 

Paris  18S9 

Seratino  Cretoni  1896 

Joseph     Laboure,     Archbishop     of 

Rennes  1897 

Domenico  Svampa,  Archbishop  of 

Bologna  1894 

Achille  Manara,  Bishop  of  Ancona         1895 
"Alaria  Sancha  y  Hervas,  Archbishop 
of  Toledo    and   Patriarch  of  the 
West  Indies  1894 

Adolf  Perraud,  Bishop  of  Autun  1893 

Gaetano  Aloysi-Masella,  Pro  Datario       1887 
Domenico  Ferrata  1S96 

Victor    Lecot,  Archbishop    of  Bor- 
deaux 1893 
Pietro     Respighi,     Archbishop     of 

Ferrara  1899 

Salvatore  Cassaiias  y  Pages,  Bishop 

of  Urgel  1895 

Francois    Mathieu,   Archbishop    of 

Toulouse  1899 

Claud  Vaszary,  O.  S.  B.,  Archbishop 

of  Gran,  Hungary  1893 

Vincenzo  Vannutelli,  Archpriest  of 

S.  Maria  Maggiore  1884 

Giuseppe     Prisco,     Archbishop     of 

Naples  1896 

Jakob  Missia,  Bishop  of  Goritz  1899 

Patrick  Moran,  Archbishop  of  Syd- 
ney 1885 

Pierre  CouUie,  Archbishop  of  Lyons       1897 


454 


CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 


Titular  Churches. 
S.  Adriano 
S.  Agata 

S.  Angelo  in  Pescheria 
S.  Cesario  in  Palatio 
SS.  Cosma  e  Damiano 
S.  Eustachio 
S.  Giorgio  in  Velabro 
S.  Maria  ad  Martyres 
S.  Maria  in  Aquiro 
S.  Maria  della  Scala 

S.  Maria  in  Cosmedin 
S.  Maria  in  Uomnica 
S.  Maria  in  Portico 

S.  Maria  in  Via  Lata 
S.  Niccolo  in  Carcere 
S.  Vito 


Cardinal  Deacons  Date  of  Creation. 

Giuseppe  Vives  y  Tuto,  Capuchin  1899 

Andrew  Steinhiiber,  S.  J.,  Prefect  of 

tiie  Index  1893 


Raffaele  Pierotti,  O.  P. 


Girolamo  Gotti,  O.  disc.  Carmelites, 
Prefect  of  Cong,  of  Indulgences 


Francesco  Segna,  Prefect  of  the  Ar- 
chives 
Luigri  Macchi 


1896 
1899 


1895 


1894 
1896 


Theodo- 
sius. 


THE   SACRED    CONGREGATIONS. 

Immediately  on  their  creation,  new  Cardinals  are  ap- 
pointed by  the  Secretariat  of  State  to  one  or  more  of  the 
sacred  Congregations,  to  attend  to  the  business  of  which 
is  the  main  duty  of  the  cardinals  resident  in    Rome. 

Of  the  Congregations,  the  Inquisition,  Index,  Coun- 
cil, Bishops  and  Regulars,  were  extant  in  the  time  of 
Sixtus  V.  This  pope  added  eight  others,  of  which  the 
Congregation  of  Rites  and  the  Examination  of  Bishops 
were  the  only  ones  concerned  with  ecclesiastical  affairs. 

I.  INQUISITION.  The  word  and  the  thing  inquisition  is 
of  early  origin,  though  up  to  the  xiii.  century  the 
Christian  Church  contented  itself  with  employing  the 
secular  arm,  and  emperors  were  the  first  inquisitors.* 
By  the  Edicts  of  Theodosius,  heretics  were  exposed  to 
exile  and  confiscation  of  goods,  the  place  where  they 
met  was  forfeit  to  the  emperor,  they  were  branded  as 
infamous  in  the  civil  courts  and  thus  exposed  to    the 


*  Theodosius  is  the  first  to  make  use  of  the  term  inquisitor  of 
the  faith. 


CARDLYALS 


455 


fanaticism  of  an  ignorant  populace.  The  Eunomians 
were  declared  incapable  of  executing  or  receiving  benefit 
from  a  will;  the  Quartodecimans  and  Manichaeans  were 
to  suffer  death.  How  few  of  us  realise  that  the  first  here- 
tic to  pay  for  his  belief  with  his  life  was  tortured  and 
executed  in  the  iv.  century  of  our  era !  The  victim  was 
a  Spanish  bishop,  Priscillian  of  Avila.* 

In  the  XIII.  century  the  Church  met  the  changed  condi- 
tions of  the  times  by  framing  an  inquisitorial  machinery 
of  its  own.  The  popular  idea  is  that  Dominic  was  the 
first  to  propose  this  to  Innocent  III.  (1198),  and  that 
he  himself  was  succeeded  by  Fra  Moneta  as  second  In- 
quisitor.f  Mr.  H.  C.  Lea  denies  both  statements, 
expressing  the  opinion  that  Guala,  the  successor  of 
Moneta  and  Dominic  in  the  government  of  the  Domini- 
can Order,  was  "the  real  contriver  of  this  regime  of 
terror."  Guala  was  Prior  and  Bishop  of  Brescia,  the 
first  city  in  Italy  to  insert  among  its  statutes,  in  1230, 
the  law  made  by  Frederick  II.  (1224)  which  sent  here- 
tics to  the  stake.  But  in  the  same  year  Rome  had  a 
visitor  who  won  the  confidence  of  Gregory  IX.,  and  in 
5  short  years  "changed  the  face  of  the  Church."  Ray- 
mund  of  Pennafort,  a  Dominican,  a  Bolognese  jurist, 
and  confessor  to  the  then  King  of  Aragon,  had  been  sent 
to  confer  with  the  pope  about  the  heretics  discovered  in 
the  Spanish  Kingdom.  Very  soon  after  his  appearance 
the  stake  became  law  at  Rome,  and  the  inquisitorial 
tribunal  had  set  to  work  under  the  management  of  Do- 
minican Priors.  In  1231  the  first  burnings  took  place. 
"That  liberal  Roman  Church,"  as  Pater  calls  her,  now 
joined  hands  with  the  persecuting  spirit  which  has 
branded  every  step  in  the  course  of  Spanish  Christianity, 
with  the  one  exception  of  Teresa's  reform  of  the  Car- 

*  Two  presbyters  and  two  deacons  were  his  fellow  victims,  while 
a  noble  lady  of  Bordeaux  and  the  poet  Latronian  suffered  after  him. 
The  never  failing  charge  of  licentiousness  was  adduced,  but  the 
facts  point  to  a  directly  opposite  conclusion.  Ambrose  protested, 
and  so  did  Martin  of  Tours,  but  they  were  exceptions. 

t  Indeed  Sixtus  V.,  it  is  not  known  on  what  authority,  calls 
Dominic  "the  first  innuisitor." 


Innocent 
III.  and  y. 
Dominic. 


S.  Ray- 
mond of 
Penna- 
fort and 
Gregory 
IX. 


First  burn- 
ings in 
Rome. 


456      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 


Introduc- 
tion of  the 
Inquisi- 
tion into 
France, 
England, 
Germany, 
Spain. 


Revival  in 
Rome. 


Congrega- 
tion of  the 
Inquisi- 
tion, or 
Holy 
Office. 


melites.  Bishop  Creigh ton  says:  "  Fanaticism  had  no 
place  in  Rome,  nor  did  the  Papal  court  trouble  itself 
about  trifles":  "The  papacy  in  the  middle  ages  always 
showed  a  tolerant  spirit  in  matters  of  opinion":  "We 
cannot  think  that  Roman  inquisitors  were  likely  to  err 
on  the  side  of  severity. ' '  *  Alfonso  had  proscribed  here- 
tics in  Spain  before  the  first  persecuting  pope  was  elected 
in  Rome. 

The  Inquisition  first  came  to  France  through  the 
Council  of  Toulouse  in  1229.  It  would  appear  that 
Innocent  Ill's  'papal  inquisition'  was  never  commis- 
sioned under  that  name  in  England.  In  the  xiii.  cen- 
tury Conrad  of  Marburg,  the  brutal  confessor  of  S. 
Elizabeth  of  Hungary,  tried  to  establish  it  in  Germany, 
but  the  tribunal  never  made  any  way  there,  and  Conrad 
himself  was  assassinated.  The  Spanish  inquisition, 
already  in  existence,  was  granted  the  necessary  powers 
by  Sixtus  IV.  in  1480-1484,  and  Philip  the  Fair  (1504) 
converted  its  tribunals  into  State  courts.  In  1538  the 
Grand  Inquisitor  was  burnt  as  a  Calvinist,  and  soon 
after  the  powers  of  these  courts  were  transferred  to  the 
Spanish  parliaments,  and  in  1560  to  the  bishops.  The 
Inquisition  was  revived  in  Rome  by  Paul  III.  in  1549, 
with  a  Council  of  6  cardinals;  but  was  abolished  in  every 
country  of  Europe  in  the  xviii.  century,  and  in  Spain  at 
the  beginning  of  the  xix'!\  It  now  only  exists  in  Rome, 
and  in  the  modified  form  sanctioned  by  Pius  V.  and 
Sixtus  V,  under  the  name  of  Sacrum  Officitiin,  or  "Holy 
Office." 

This  is  directed  by  the  Congregation  of  "the  Holy 
Roman  and  universal  Inquisition,"  also  founded  by 
Paul  III.,  but  acting  under  the  conditions  prescribed  by 
Pius  and  Sixtus.  It  consists  of  the  Pope,  with  10  cardi- 
nals and  some  36  other  ecclesiastics  as  Consultors.  The 
Commissary  of  the  Holy  Office  being  always  a  Domini- 
can. The  offices  are  in  the  -Palace  of  the  Inquisition, 
Via  del   S.  Ufizio  5.      Its  principal   sittings  are  held 

*  Creighton,  A  History  of  the  Papacy  during  the  Period  of  the 
Reformation. 


CARDIXALS  457 

under  the  presidency  of  the  pope.  Its  business  is  the 
examination  of  heresies  and  doctrines,  and  it  enquires 
into  all  words,  writings  and  deeds  contrary  to  religion. 
The  exercise  of  its  powers  as  laid  down  in  canon  law 
iequires  a  state  of  things  which  exists  nowhere  at  the 
present  day.  It  is  assumed  that  the  State  assists  in 
punishing  heretics,  and  that  every  bishop  is  ex  officio  an 
inquisitor  and  will  aid  the  official  inquisitors. 

Some  of  the  last  persons  burnt  for  their  faith  were  two   Last  burn 
Arians  at  Smithfield  and  Litchfield  in  1612;  and  Quak-   £^ro"e 
ers  were  put  to  death  in  America  even  after  1658.     The 
falling  cause  of  the  Inquisition,  writes  Lord  Acton,  "was 
taken  up  by  the  Council  of  Constance,  the  university  of 
Paris,  the  States-General,  and  the  first  Reformers."* 

n.  THE  INDEX.  A  list  of  books  henceforth  known  as  the 
Index  of  Prohibited  Books  was  compiled  by  a  commis- 
sion appointed  by  the  Council  of  Trent  in  1563.  The 
question  of  the  censorship  of  books  was  eventually 
referred  by  the  Council  to  the  pope,  and  thereupon 
Pius  V.  erected  the  Sacred  Congregation  of  the  Index. 
This  Congregation  was  confirmed  and  its  powers  enlarged 
by  Sixtus  V.,  a  Dominican  Friar  being  its  first  Secretary. 
The  Dominican  Maestro  del  Sacro  Palazzo  is  always  a 
member  of  this  Congregation.  All  books  not  approved 
by  the  Church  are  'placed  on  the  Index,'  each  separate 
condemnation  including  an  anathema  on  all  who  there- 
inafter shall  presume  to  read  or  retain  the  book  in  ques- 
tion. Even  one  of  Dante's  works  finds  its  place  on  the 
Index,  and  the  poets  fare  as  badly  as  the  scientists.! 

*  The  latest  executions  perpetrated  by  the  Spanish  inquisition 
were  the  au^o  da  fe  of  171 7,  when  20  persons  died;  these  were  the 
last  jjersons  put  to  death  anywhere  merely  for  their  faith. 

t  In  1660  Alexander  VII.  placed  the  first  translation  of  the 
Missal  into  French  on  the  Index,  and  anathematised  all  who  should 
read  it.  The  pope  says  he  hears  that  "  certain  sons  of  perdition  " 
"  have  lately  come  to  such  madness  "  as  to  translate  the  liturg)'  of 
the  Church,  so  that  people  could  understand  it.  "  We  whose  charge 
it  is  to  prevent  the  Church  being  overgrown  with  such  thorns,"  he 
says,  "  as  we  abhor  and  detest  such  an  innovation  and  blemish  to 
the  Church's  glory,"  "  so  we  for  ever  condemn  the  aforesaid  Missal 


458      CHRISTIAN  AND   ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 


Precursors 
of  the 
Index. 


Imprima- 
tur. 


A  voluntary  destruction  of  magical  books  is  mentioned 
in  the  Acts  xix.  19.  Origen's  works  were  brought  to 
Pope  Pontian  to  be  destroyed;  and  Leo  the  Great  sup- 
pressed the  books  of  the  Priscillianists.  The  works  of 
Erigena  on  the  Eucharist  were  burnt  by  Leo  IX.  After 
the  invention  of  printing  new  measures  were  taken,  and 
the  first  censor  v^?i%  appointed  by  the  Archbishop  of  Metz 
in  i486.  Alexander  VL  followed  the  example  in  1501, 
and  the  first  edict  of  censure  referring  to  a  printed  book 
issued  on  June  10  of  that  year.*  A  curious  passage  of 
Savonarola's  relating  to  the  errors  in  the  circulated 
copies  of  his  letter  to  the  King  of  France  runs:  "lo 
prego  la  Signoria  del  Reverendo  Vicario  che  non  lasci 
mettere  in  stampa  queste  cose,  se  non  sono  prima  da 
lui  rivedute;  e  che  questi  stampatori  non  le  piglino 
senza  il  segno  del  Vicario  e  sua  licenza,"  a  passage, 
writes  Professor  Villari,  in  which  Savonarola  appears  as 
"il  precursore  della  Congregazione  dell'  Indice."t 

It  is  after  the  change  in  religion  that  it  was  no  longer 
deemed  sufficient  to  trust  to  the  Imprimatur  on  the  first 
page,  and  that  the  List  of  Prohibited  books  was  projected. 
The  Imprimatur  is  an  ecclesiastical  guarantee  of  a  book 
and  permission  for  it  to  issue.  In  Rome  it  is  signed  by 
the  Vicegerent  as  well  as  by  the  Maestro  delSacro  Palazzo, 
who  signs  with  the  Dominican  initials  O.  P.  followed 
by  ^.  P.  A.  Magister.  The  present  pope  desires  to 
revise  the  procedure  of  the  "Index,"  especially  as  at 
present  the  condemnation  of  a  book  is  followed  by  a 
large  increase  in  its  sale;  this  is  particularly  so  in  France 
where  its  being  "on  the  Index"  is  the  signal  for  its 
success.  I 


in  French  by  whomsoever  it  is  written,  or  hereafter  may  be  written; 
and  we  for  ever  prohibit  the  printing,  reading,  and  retaining  of 
it.  .  .  .  "  Those  who  do  so  are  "  bent  upon  innovation  for  the 
ruin  of  souls." — Btdlarium  Magnum,  i.  138. 

*  Pastor,  Geschic/iU  der  Paepste. 

t  Villari,  La  Storia  di  Girolamo  Savonarola. 

X  Since  the  above  was  written  Leo  XIII.  has  issued  a  decree 
concerning  the  Index. 


CARD/XALS  459 

ra.  COUNCIL.  This  Congregation  is  concerned  with  the 
exposition  and  enforcement  of  the  Decrees  of  the  Coun- 
cil of  Trent.  All  disciplinary  cases  involving  an  in- 
fringement of  one  or  more  of  the  Decrees  would  be 
submitted  to  this  Congregation,  provided  they  referred 
to  priests.  In  cases  where  a  bishop  or  a  member  of  a 
religious  Order  is  concerned,  the  case  would  go  to  the 
Congregation  of  Bishops  and  Regulars.  Disciplinary 
cases  referring  to  matters  of  faith,  on  the  other  hand, 
would  be  submitted  to  the  6".  Ufizio. 

This  Congregation  has  its  ofifice  in  the  Cancelleria 
Palace.  It  consists  of  29  cardinals  and  1 1  prelates, 
with  other  officials,  under  Cardinal  Angelo  di  Pietro, 
who  is  Prefect  of  the  Congregation. 

Attached  to  it,  is  a  commission  for  the  revision  of 
provincial  councils. 

17.  BISHOPS  AND  REOTTLABs.  Tliis  body  composcd  of  29 
cardinals,  18  prelates  and  ofificials  and  28  members  of 
the  various  religious  Orders  and  Congregations  deals 
with  all  matters  relating  to  bishops  and  members  of 
Regular  Orders.  It  considers  disciplinary  cases,  and 
appeals,  and  revises  the  rules  of  the  Regular  Orders. 

Cardinal  Serafino  Vannutelli  is  Prefect  of  the  Congre- 
gation; its  ofifice  is  in  the  Cancelleria. 

V.  coNsisTORiAL.  This  Congrcgatlon  is  under  the  Presi- 
dency of  the  Pope.  Its  work  is  to  consider  and  investi- 
gate all  matters  relating  to  the  nomination  of  Cardinals. 
It  is  composed  of  10  cardinals  and  5  officials.  Office, 
in  the  Cancelleria. 

VI.  APosTouc  VISITATIONS.  This  Congregation  for  visiting 
and  reporting  upon  the  churches  of  Rome,  is  also  under 
the  Pope  who  is  its  Prefect.  Four  cardinals,  and  8 
prelates  and  officials  form  this  Congregation  which  has 
its  office  in  the  Cancelleria. 

vn.  THE  RESIDENCE  OF  BISHOPS;  to  cousidcr  all  questions  re- 
lating to  the  residence  of  bishops  of  sees.  This  Con- 
gregation is  under  Cardinal  Parocchi.  Its  office  is  in 
the  Cancelleria. 

vm.  THE  STATE  OF  THE  REGiTLARs ;  for  enforcinsf  and  consider- 


46o      CHRISTIAN  AND   ECCIESIASTICAI   ROME 

ing  the  rules  of  the  Regular  Clergy.  The  Pope  is  pro- 
visionally Prefect  of  this  Congregation,  which  has  its 
office  in  the  Cancelleria. 

IX  ECCLESIASTICAL  IMMUNITY.  This  Congrcgation  for  the 
maintenance  of  exemptions  and  privileges  is  united  pro- 
visionally to  Council.  Cardinal  Angelo  di  Pietro  is  its 
Prefect. 

X.  PROPAGANDA  FIDE ;  for  thc  propagation  of  the  Faith,  and 
for  the  government  of  the  Church  in  foreign  countries. 
This  Congregation  under  its  Prefect,  Cardinal  Led6- 
chowski,  consists  of  27  cardinals  and  37  prelates  and 
referees  of  various  nationalities,  and  belonging  to  vari- 
ous Religious  Orders.  A  Branch  of  the  Congregation 
is  concerned  with  Oriental  Rites,  to  which  belong  13 
cardinals  and  27  prelates  belonging  to  different  Orders; 
with  officials  and  interpreters. 

Attached  to  Propaganda,  are  commissions  for  the 
affairs  of  Apostolic  vicariates;  for  the  examination  of 
the  constitution  of  new  religious  institutes  dependent 
upon  Propaganda;  and  for  the  revision  and  correction 
of  the  books  of  the  Oriental  Rites.  The  office  of  the 
Congregation  is  in  Palazzo  della  Propaganda,  Piazza  di 
Spagna. 

XI.  AZIENDA  GENERALE   DELLA   REV.   CAMERA   DEGLI    SPOGLI.         This 

Congregation  is  for  administering  the  affairs  and  recu- 
perating the  receipts  of  vacant  benefices.*  Cardinal 
Vincenzo  Vannutelli  is  its  Prefect;  its  office  is  in  the 
palace  of  Propaganda. 

XII.  SACRED  RITES.  This  Congregation  founded  by  Six- 
tus  V.  in  15S7  is  for  the  examination  and  preparation 
of  causes  for  beatification  and  canonisation.  It  consists 
of  31  cardinals  under  the  Prefect,  Cardinal  Mazzella,  and 

*  These  are  clue  to  the  Holy  See,  and  were  appropriated  for  the 
use  of  Propaganda  by  Pius  VII.  In  the  middle  ages,  it  was  the 
custom  for  the  people  to  sack  the  dwelling  and  seize  the  goods  of  a 
dead  cleric,  hence  the  name  spoglie.  This  custom  was  forbidden 
by  a  council  of  904.  At  first  the  right  to  the  goods  of  a  vacant 
benefice  was  claimed  by  bishops  and  abbats,  and  to  check  abuses, 
was  taken  up  by  the  Holy  See,  which  still  administers  the  affairs 
of  a  vacant  benefice. 


CARDINALS  461 

29  consulting  prelates  belonging  to  various  religious 
Orders.  The  Monsignori  of  Pontifical  Ceremonial  and 
certain  of  the  Prelates  of  the  Rota  belong  to  this  Congre- 
gation, while  all  the  officials  of  the  Rota  may  be  called 
upon  to  record  their  votes. 

Attached  to  the  Congregation,  is  a  commission  for 
liturgical  questions.     The  office  is  in  the  Cancelleria. 

xm.  CEREMONIAL.  This  Congregation  is  composed  of  15 
cardinals  under  Cardinal  Oreglia,  and  all  the  monsignori 
masters  of  ceremony  who  act  as  referees.  Its  work  is 
to  consider  all  questions  of  ceremony  and  precedence. 
Its  office  is  at  the  residence  of  its  secretary,  the  Pope's 
Director  of  Ceremonies,  Palace  of  S.  Maria  Maggiore. 

xrr.  REGULAR  DISCIPLINE.  The  Prefect  of  this  Congrega- 
tion is  Cardinal  Serafino  Vannutelli,  and  its  office  is  in 
the  Cancelleria.  It  consists  of  12  cardinals  and  officers, 
and  it  is  concerned  with  the  consideration  of  the  Rules 
of  religious  houses. 

XV.  iNDtTLGENCEs  AND  SACRED  RELICS.  All  questions  relating 
to  these  are  dealt  with  by  this  Congregation,  which  is 
composed  of  34  cardinals  and  19  referees.  Cardinal 
Gotti  is  Prefect.     The  office  is  in  the  Cancelleria. 

XVI.  EXAMINATION  OF  BISHOPS.  This  Cougregatiou  for  the 
examination  of  bishops  in  theology  and  canon  law  is  under 
the  direction  of  a  Cardinal  (post  now  vacant),  assisted 
by  the  Maestro  del  S.  Palazzo  and  the  Pope's  Auditor. 

XVII.  REVERENDA  FABBRICA  DI   S.    PIETRO.        Tllis    CoUgregatloU 

which  is  concerned  solely  with  the  maintenance,  order, 
and  repairs,  etc.,  of  S.  Peter's  consists  of  5  cardinals 
under  the  archpriest  of  the  Basilica,  Cardinal  Rampolla. 
The  various  sections  of  the  work,  administrative,  eccle- 
siastical, legal,  technical  and  architectural,  are  conducted 
by  competent  officials. 

xvni.  THE  STUDIO  OF  MOSAICS.  All  uiattcrs  referring  to  this 
subject  are  under  the  direction  of  Monsignor  de 
Nechere;  the  office  is  in  Via  Aracceli  i. 

XIX.  LAiTRETANA.  This  Cougregatlou  is  for  the  care  of 
the  sanctuary  at  Lourdes.  It  consists  of  13  cardinals 
under  the  Secretary  of  State.  Its  office  is  in  the 
Dataria  Palace. 


462      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 

XX.  AFFARI  ECCLESIASTICI  STRAORDINARI.        A    Congregatioil  foi 

ecclesiastical  affairs  extraordinary,  under  Cardinal 
Oreglia.  It  consists  of  15  cardinals  and  16  officials 
and  referees.     Its  office  is  in  the  Vatican. 

XXI.  STUDIES.  This  Congregation  for  directing  educa- 
tion in  the  papal  schools  and  colleges,  is  composed  of  31 
cardinals  and  20  prelates  referees  of  various  nationali- 
ties and  is  under  the  direction  of  Cardinal  Satolli.  Its 
office  is  in  the  Via  S.  ApoUinare  8. 

The  following  Commissions  have  been  lately  formed, 
(i)  For  the  Reunion  of  the  Churches,  under  the  Presi- 
dency of  the  Pope. 

(2)  For  the  Election  of  Italian  Bishops,  under  Cardi- 
nal Parocchi. 

(3)  For  Historical  Studies,  under  Cardinal  Parocchi. 


PATRIARCHATES. 

Hierarchy.        The  Hierarchy  consists  of  the  Pope,  College  of  Car- 
dinals, Patriarchs,  Archbishops  and  Bishops,  Apostolic 
Delegates,  Vicars  Apostolic,  Prefects  Apostolic,  Abbats 
with  episcopal  jurisdiction  (some  15),  and  certain  Pre- 
Patriar-        lates  (some  4  or  5).     It  numbers  some  1382  personages 
ciiates  of      (exclusive  of  Prefectures.     See  page  469).     It  was  held 
dom.  anciently  that  there  were  only  3  Rites  in  the  Christian 

The  3  Church,  corresponding  to  the  languages  of  the  title  on 

Rites.  the  cross,  namely,  Hebrew  (Syrian),  Greek,  and  Latin, 

and  Christendom  was  divided  into  3   great  territorial 
The  3  divisions,  over  each  of  which  one  of  these  rites  had 

great  Sees,    g^-^y-  Asia  (Antioch)  Africa  (Alexandria)  and  Europe 
(Rome). 

The  I.  Council  of  Constantinople,  a.d.  381,  adopted 
Divisions  the  5  imperial  divisions  as  the  diocesan  divisions  of  the 
of  the  East.  Eastern  Church,  {a)  The  "  Orient, "  with  the  See  of  Anti- 
och, {b)  Pontus,  with  the  See  of  Caesarea,  {c)  Asia,  with 
the  See  of  Ephesus,  {ji)  Thrace,  with  the  See  of  Con- 
stantinople, {e)  Egypt,  with  the  See  of  Alexandria.  The 
same  council  gave  the  precedence  over  the  whole  Epis- 


CARDINALS 


463 


Alexan- 
dria. 


copate  to  the  See  of  Constantinople*  after  that  of  the 
Bishop  of  Rome.  This  settlement  of  Sees  was  not  how- 
ever accepted  by  the  Patriarchate  of  the  West,  which 
upheld  the  primacy  of  Antioch  and  Alexandria. 

Since  the  time  of  Theodosius  Antioch  had  ceased  to  Antioch. 
be  the  capital  of  the  East:  the  last  blow  to  the  authority 
of  Alexandria  was  given  in  45 1  by  the  Council  of  Chal- 
cedon,t  and  from  this  date  the  Egyptians  fell  an  easy 
prey  to  Islam  —  non-Christian  Arabia  —  and  the  separa- 
tion with  the  rest  of  the  East  was  complete.  After  the 
Council  of  Chalcedon  the  other  two  Sees  of  Csesarea  and 
Ephesus  enjoyed  only  a  nominal  authority.  The  Patri- 
archate of  Constantinople  was  therefore  formed  by  a 
fusion  of  the  three  great  dioceses  of  Thrace,  Pontus,  and 
Asia  {i.e.  Constantinople,  Caesarea  in  Cappadocia,  and 
Ephesus),  a  fusion  operated  between  the  founding  by 
Constantine  in  312  of  "New  Rome,"  Constantinople, 
and  45 1  the  date  of  the  Council  of  Chalcedon,  which 
completed  it. 

From  the  v.  century  Cyprus  claimed   autonomy;  at  Cyprus, 
the  close  of  the  century  the  body  of  Barnabas,  its  apos- 
tle, was  discovered,  and  this  was  held  to  opportunely 
support  its  claims  to  independence,  which  it  has  pre- 
served ever  since. 

A  patriarchate  of  Jerusalem  was  first  projected  at  the  Jerusalem. 
Council  of  Ephesus  a.d.  431.  In  325  the  Council  of 
Nicaea  had  accorded  privileges  to  the  See  of  Jerusalem, 
but  the  See  remained  subject  to  Caesarea.  The  unscrupu- 
lous Juvenal  was  Bishop  during  the  Episcopate  in  Rome 
of  Leo  I.  and  the  sitting  of  the  Council  of  Ephesus,  and 
obtained  possession  of  the  three  Palestine  Sees  through 
an  unseemly  transaction  with  the  Patriarch  of  Antioch. 
The  action  of  the  Council  in  forming  a  new  Patriarchate 
so  composed,  was  neither  formally  rescinded  or  accepted 
by  Leo,  and  the  arrangement  has  continued  to  this  day. 

Thus  from  the  v.  century  the  Patriarchates  of  Con- 


*  Constantinople  had  liecome  the  "  new  Rome,' 
diocese  is  here  called  "  old  Rome." 
t  See  Copts. 


and  the  Pope's 


464      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 


National 
Churches. 


Persia. 


Armenia. 


Ethiopia. 


Coptic  or 
Egyptian. 


stantinople  and  Jerusalem,  with  an  independent  Cyprus, 
have  existed,  side  by  side  with  the  ancient  Eastern  Sees 
of  Antioch  and  Alexandria  shorn  of  all  real  authority. 

The  National  Church  of  Persia  was  founded  by  mis- 
sionaries from  Antioch;  Persia  and  Mesopotamia  were 
Christianised  in  this  way  in  the  11.  century;  the 
Church  of  Persia  suffered  great  persecution,  and  throve; 
but  in  the  v.  century  it  became  the  home  of  Nestorian- 
ism,  and  this  strengthened  its  position  in  the  country, 
churches  of  Nestorian  Christians  being  then  founded 
both  in  China  and  Malabar.* 

Christianity   was   introduced    into    Armenia    in   the 

IV.  century,  the  See  of  Csesarea  and  Gregory  the  Illu- 
minator being  its  founders.  Its  Catholicus,  or  universal 
bishop  used  to  receive  consecration  at  Csesarea  in  the 

V,  century. 

The  Church  of  Ethiopia  was  founded  in  the  time  of 
S.  Athanasius  by  the  See  of  Alexandria,  whose  Patri- 
arch consecrated  the  Ethiopian  Metropolitan.  It  is 
now  known  as  the  Abyssinian  Church. 

The  Coptic  or  Egyptian  Church  was  not  called  Coptic 
until  451.  It  adopted  the  heresy  of  Eutyches  which  was 
condemned  by  the  Council  of  Chalcedon  in  that  year, 
but  it  shared  in  none  of  the  changes  and  developments 
of  other  Churches,  retaining  the  customs,  practices  and 
traditions  of  the  v.  century.  The  tongue  of  this  people 
preserved  in  the  liturgy  which  is  to-day  recited  in  the 
churches  "  is  the  lineal  descendant  of  the  language  of 
the  hieroglyphics  and  of  the  Rosetta  stone."  t  This 
sacred  speech  is  still  partly  understood  by  the  priests 
who  use  an  Arabic  translation.  Nothing  can  be  more 
interesting  than  this  unique  people  "of  the  race  of  the 
Pharaohs,  speaking  the  very  words  of  Rameses,  writing 
them  in  the  letters  of  Cadmus,  and  embalming  in  the 


*  The  traces  of  which  still  remain  in  these  countries.  Some 
South  Indian  Christians,  the  descendants  of  Malayli  Hindus  who 
became  Catholics  in  the  xiv.  century,  inhabit  Malabar,  Cochin,  and 
Travancore.     They  are  called  Cochikars. 

t  Stanley  Lane-Poole,  "Cairoy 


CARDIXALS 


465 


sentences  thus  written,  a  creed  and  liturgy,  which  twelve 
centuries  of  persecution  have  not  been  able  to  wrest 
from  them  or  alter  a  jot."  * 

The  Goths  were  missionised  by  prisoners  transplanted 
to  the  frontier  of  the  Empire  on  the  borders  of  Thrace 
by  the  Danube,  from  Pontus  and  Cappadocia,  during 
the  invasion  of  Valerian  and  Gallienus.  The  Goths 
adopted  Arianism.  It  is  thus  that  Christian  barbarians 
besieged  Rome  under  Alaric  in  410,  and  on  so  many 
other  occasions. 

The  Nubian  Church  was  not  formed  till  the  reign  of 
Justinian,  and  was  a  suffragan  Church  to  Alexandria. 

The  Greek  rite  has  the  first  place  of  dignity  of  all  rites 
after  the  Latin.  A  very  large  number  of  Christians  em- 
ploy it :  to-day  it  is  used  by  about  100,000,000  Christians, 
about  5,000,000  of  whom  have  the  pure  Greek  Mass. 

The  Greek-Melkites  number  200,000,  two-thirds  of 
whom  are  in  the  Roman  obedience.  The  Melkites 
arose  in  684,  as  a  Greek  branch  of  the  Syrian  Arabs,  the 
Byzantine  Emperor  obliging  a  large  part  of  the  latter, 
against  whom  he  was  waging  war,  to  adopt  the  Rite  of 
the  imperial  city.  Those  who  did  so  were  called  Melkite 
from  the  word  Maiek,  a  king,  in  contradistinction  to 
those  who  continued  to  follow  the  national  Syrian  Rite.t 
Their  liturgy  is  according  to  the  Greek  Rite,  the  lan- 
guage being  partly  Syrian  and  partly  Greek.  In  the 
XVII.  century  a  number  of  the  Greek  Melkites  returned  to 
the  Roman  obedience.  They  occupy  Syria  and  the  holy 
land,  and  the  Catholic  Melkites  have  also  churches  here 
and  there  in  Europe.  Their  Patriarch's  official  resi- 
dence is  Damascus;  he  has,  since  the  pontificate  of 
Gregory  XVI.,  been  styled  Patriarch  of  Antioch,  Jerusa- 
lem, and  Alexandria. 

The  ancient  Patriarchate  of  Antioch  is  to-day  repre- 
sented by  this  Greco-Melkite  Patriarch,  and  the  Greek 
orthodox  Patriarch. 


Gothic 
Church. 


Nubia. 


Divisions 
of  the 
Greek  Rite. 


Greco- 
Melkite. 


Patriar- 
chate of 
Antioch. 


*  Ibid.     Cf.  with  the  Greco-Melkites  infra. 
t  The  present  Copts  represent  this  national  party. 
Gypt,  Egyptian. 


Copt  =  Gupt, 


466      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAI   HOME 


Greco- 
Ruthenian. 


Greco- 
Slav. 


Kingdom 
ut  Greece. 


Georgia. 


Syrian 
Rite. 


The  Greco-Ruthenian  Rite  is  followed  by  nearly 
3,000,000  Christians;  they  are  Catholic  Slavs  subject 
to  the  Austrian  government,  with  a  metropolitan  resi- 
dent at  Lemberg. 

The  Slavs  embraced  Christianity  in  the  ix,  century 
through  the  preaching  of  SS.  Cirillus  and  Methodius; 
they  followed  largely  the  religious  traditions  of  Constan- 
tinople. The  Slavs  of  the  Greek  Rite  are  divided  into 
{a)  the  Greco-Bulgarians,  numbering  6,000,000,  with 
two  bishoprics  of  the  Roman  Communion,  {l>)  the 
Greco-Russian,  numbering  80,000,000,  (c)  the  Greco- 
Ruthenian  (see  ante),  {d)  Greco-Servian,  numbering 
4,000,000,  of  whom  those  inhabiting  Croatia  and 
Slavonia  are  Catholics,  with  a  metropolitan  resident  at 
Czernovitz. 

The  kingdom  of  Greece  possesses  the  pure  Greek 
Rite,  numbering  some  5,000,000  persons. 

Of  the  divisions  above  enumerated  the  Russo-Greek 
Church  depends  from  the  Holy  Synod  of  Petersburg, 
and  is  autonomous.  The  kingdom  of  Greece  has  de- 
clared through  its  Synod,  the  Synod  of  Athens,  its 
complete  independence  and  autonomy.  The  Alexan- 
drian Patriarchate  is  therefore  now  nothing  but  a  name. 

Georgia,  the  ancient  Iberia,  at  the  foot  of  the  Cauca- 
sus, embraced  Christianity  in  the  111.  or  iv.  century,* 
and  was  taught  by  Armenian  missionaries.  The  Chris- 
tians there  are  of  the  Latin  and  Armenian  as  well  as  of 
the  Greek  Rite.  Their  Exarch  or  Catholicos  has  his 
official  residence  at  Tiflis,  the  capital.  (It  has  been  a 
Russian  province  since  1802.) 

After  the  definition  of  the  Council  of  Chalcedon,  the 
Syrian  Monophysites  formed  a  Church,  with  a  Patriarch 
of  Antioch  and  a  complete  hierarchy  of  their  own. 
These  are  the  Jacobite  Syrians,  so  called  from  their 
founder  Jacobus  Baradai.  In  the  xviii.  century  many 
of   the   Monophysite  Syrians  joined  the   Roman  com- 

*  Their  evangelist  was  a  woman,  S.  Nino,  who  came  into  their 
land  bearing  a  cross  made  of  the  vine  and  hound  witii  her  hair; 
which  is  still  their  great  relic. 


CARDTXALS 


467 


Syro- 
Maronite. 


munion;  and  at  the  present  day  the  Syrian  Jacobites 
and  Syrian  Catholics  exist  side  by  side,  and  have  each 
a  Patriarch. 

The  Maronites  are  so  called  from  John  Maronus,  Ab- 
bat  of  the  convent  on  Mount  Libanus  which  is  the  centre 
of  the  sect  founded  by  him.  They  were  AlonothcUtes, 
and  as  such  condemned  by  the  VI.  Council  of  Constan- 
tinople, 681.  They  were  governed  entirely  from  the 
monastery.  They  became  united  to  the  Catholic  Church 
A.D.  1 182,  although  this  union  was  interrupted  until  the 
XVI.  century,  when  it  became  permanent.  Their  bishop 
is  called  Patriarch  of  Antioch  of  the  Maronites.  This 
and  the  Jacobite  Patriarchate  have  been  retained  by 
Rome,  which  thought  well  to  respect  distinctions  created 
many  centuries  ago. 

The  Chaldaic  Church  originally  adhered  to  Nestorius;   Syro- 
it  is  under  the  "  Patriarch  of  Babylon."     The  members   Chaldaic. 
of  this  Church   inhabit  Kurdistan,   Mesopotamia,  and 
Armenia.     Their  Rite  is  the  Syriac;  and  the  Syro-Chal- 
daic  Church  is  a  subdivision.     The  liturgical  language 
is  Aramaic,  the  idiom  spoken  by  Christ. 

The  Catholic  Patriarchates  of  the  world,  exclusive  of  Rome,  are    Patriarchs. 
10,  the  Patriarchs  14. 

Constantinople;   the  patriarch  being  a  Latin  prelate  resident 

in  Rome. 
Alexandria;  (Coptic  Rite)  Titular  Bishop  of  Caesarea  Philippi.* 
(Latin  Rite)   held  by  a  Latin  prelate,  resident  in 
Italy. 
(^Oriental       Antioch;    (Melkite  Rite)  The  Bishop  of  Ptolemais. 

Kite.)  See  supra,  p.  465.  , 

4,        ,  /Antioch;  (Maronite  Rite)  The  Archbishop  of  Babbex. 

■  \  Antioch;     (Syriac    Rite)    The  Archbishop  of  Mosul. 
Antioch;    held  by  a  canon  of  S.  Peter's. 
Jerusalem;    (re-established  in  1847)  held  by  a  friar  Minor. 
Babylon  of  the  Chaldees. 
Armenian  Patriarch  (Cilicia)  (resident  in  Constantinople). 


*  The  Pope  recently  provided  (Dec.  1895)  for  the  re-establish- 
ment of  a  true  Catholic  Alexandrian  Patriarchate,  with  two  Suffra- 
gan Sees,  Minieh  and  Luksor.  Up  to  now  the  Catholic  Copts 
have  been  ruled  by  a  Vicar  Apostolic.  A  Coptic  patriarch  has 
been  duly  installed  this  year  (1899). 


468      CIIR/STIAAr  AXD  ECCI.ESfASTICAL   ROME 


Archiepis- 

copal 

Sees. 


Episcopal 
Sees. 


Titular 
Sees. 


"  In  parti- 
bus." 


Italian 
bishoprics. 


{^Latin 
Rite:)   ' 


Lisbon  (The  Archbishop  has  the  title  of  Patriarch). 
Venice  (The  Archbishop  has  the  title  of  Patriarch). 
West  Indies  (held  by  the  Cardinal  Archbishop  of  Toledo). 
East  Indies  (held  by  the  Archbishop  of  Goa),  erected  by 
the  present  pope  in  1886. 


19  1 


Sees  of  the  Latin  Rite  in  Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  Amer- 
ica, and  Oceania 

Immediately  subject  to  the  Holy  See 

^^'lth  Ecclesiastical  Provinces 
Sees  of  the  Oriental  Rite 

With  Ecclesiastical  Provinces 

Subject  to  the  Patriarchates 
Sees  of  the  Latin  Rite  in  all  parts  of  the  world 

Immediately  dependent  on  the  Holy  See 
Suffragan  Sees  in  Ecclesiastical  Provinces 
Sees  of  the  Oriental  Rite 

Directly  subject  to  the  Holy  See 

Suffragan,  in  Ecclesiastical  Provinces 

Subject  to  the  Patriarchates 


155 


15 
640 


Total  192 


-  Total  776 


I 

9 

43  J 


Of  the  total  number,  1051,  382  are  titular  Sees. 


Titular  Sees,  territorial  titles  which  carry  with  them 
neither  jurisdiction  in  that  territory  nor  the  temporalities, 
are  usually  bestowed  on  coadjutor  bishops;  but  the  pope 
also  creates  a  large  number  of  titular  bishops  who  have 
no  See  and  no  charge.  Bishops  in  partibits  infidelium, 
"in  infidel  regions,"  are  also  necessarily  titular,  though 
they  possess  both  a  charge  and  jurisdiction;  the  same 
title  designates  all  bishops  in  countries  which  do  not 
recognise  their  jurisdiction:  the  hierarchy  in  England, 
for  instance,  is  a  missionary  hierarchy,  and  its  bishops 
titular  bishops.  Titular  bishops,  taking  the  name  of  a 
diocese  of  which  they  are  not  bishops  dc facto,  and  which 
carries  no  cure  of  souls,  do  not  answer  to  the  early  idea 
of  the  pastor  of  a  flock,  but  they  recall  the  many  bishops 
of  early  days  in  Rome,  whose  jurisdiction  was  merely 
nominal.*  The  tendency  to  vest  jurisdiction  in  the 
pope  alone,  to  the  detriment  of  assisting  and  suburban 
bishops,  was  from  the  very  first  more  marked  in  Rome, 
and  more  persistent  than  elsewhere;  though  the  tendency 


*  See  ante.  Suburban  bishoprics,  p.  451. 


CARDIXALS 


469 


of  the  large  Sees  to  predominate  over  small  Sees  was 
very  early  operative  in  the  other  great  Patriarchates. 
The  immense  number  of  bishoprics  to  be  found  in  coun- 
tries which  received  Christianity  early*  is  represented 
to-day  in  Italy,  which  has  no  fewer  than  263  bishops, 
not  including  titulars.  An  amusing  story  is  told  of  the 
small  respect  shown  to  bishops  in  Rome :  one  of  the 
papal  guard  at  a  great  function  in  S.  Peter's  apologised 
to  a  cardinal  whose  entrance  he  had  unwittingly  barred, 
in  the  words  "Scusi,  Eminenza,  credevo  che  fosse  un 
vescovo "  "  Pardon,  Eminence,  I  thought  it  was  a 
bishop!  " 

The  Apostolic  Delegate,  Vicar,  t  or  Prefect,  are 
charges  existing  in  countries  and  districts  where  there 
is  no  established  hierarchy.  The  Delegations  are  held 
by  bishops,  so  are  most  of  the  Vicariates,  but  most  of 
the  Prefectures  are  held  by  a  priest.  There  are  some 
8  Delegations  depending  upon  Propaganda  Fide,  in 
Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa;  123  Vicariates  in  the  various 
quarters  of  the  world;  and  49  Prefectures:  all  dependent 
on  Propaganda. 

The  total  number  of  Patriarchs,  Archbishops,  Primates, 
and  Bishops,  including  the  cardinals  who  are  bishops, 
is  922;  including  titulars  1304.  J 


Apostolic 
Delega- 
tions, 
Vicariates, 
Prefect- 
ures. 


Number  of 
Bishops. 


BISHOPS. 


The  proper  insignia  of  the  Bishop  are :  The  staff  Bishop's 
('crozier '),  pectoral  cross,  ring,  buskins,  gloves,  and  [l^.^'^f"^^^ 
mitre. § 


*  Cf.  Chap,  v.,  p.  506. 

t  A  Vicar- General  however  is  the  bishop's  agent  in  the  dio- 
cese; and  is  an  officer  elected  by  bishops  to  rejiresent  them  in 
preference  to  the  more  ancient  rural  archdeacon,  who  is  also  the 
bishop's  deputy.     For  the   Vicario  of  a  Cardinal,  see  ]iage  446. 

X  The  bishops  present  during  the  Vatican  Council  (1869-1870) 
were  704.     Only  38  of  the  113  titulars  held  no  charge. 

§  For  the  bishop's  vesting  the  deacon's  dalmatic  and  the  sub- 
deacon's  tunic  when  solemnising  mass,  see  I'art  II.,  p.  108. 


470      CHRISTIAN  AXD  ECCIESIASTICAL   KOME 


Sacred 
insignia. 

Pastoral 
staff. 


Abbatial 
staff. 


Archiepis- 

copal 

Crozier. 


The  pastoral  staff  called  'crozier  '  is  not  a  cross  but 
the  bacillus  pastoralis  or  pedum  first  mentioned,  it  is 
said,  by  Isidore  of  Seville  (636).  Under  the  name  of 
Cambuta  it  was  used  in  the  early  Galilean  rite  of  the 
dedication  of  a  church.  It  is  used  by  all  bishops  in 
their  own  dioceses.  A  perfectly  plain  staff  is  represented 
in  the  efifigy  of  a  bishop  at  the  end  of  the  xi.  century,* 
plainly  bent  round  at  the  top  and  much  resembling  the 
crooked  staff  borne  by  the  Roman  Augurs  in  the  right 
hand,  which  according  to  some  was  its  origin.  A  much 
nearer  explanation  of  its  presence  would  be  found  in 
the  Shepherd's  staff  with  which  the  Pastor  Bonus  is 
represented  in  the  catacombs.  Yet  when  the  pastoral 
staff  became  a  general  usage  everywhere  else,  it  was  still 
unknown  at  Rome.  Anciently,  and  among  the  Moors, 
a  large  key  was  carried  on  the  shoulder  by  a  man  in 
authority.      Cf.  for  this  usage  Isaiah  xxii.  22,  ix.  6. 

Piers  Plowman  in  his  vision  calls  it  a  Bischopis  crois, 
and  thus  quaintly  describes  it : 

"  And  is  hokil  on  that  on  end 
To  halie  men  fro  helle, 
And  a  pike  is  on  the  poynt 
To  put  adon  the  wyked." 

Chaucer  in  the  xiv.  century  refers  to  the  pastoral 
crook  in  the  words : 

"  For  er  the  bischopp  caught  hem  in  his  hook." 

Consecrated  Abbats  and  Abbesses  also  use  a  pastoral 
staff  in  their  own  monasteries.  The  Armenian  Vartabed 
(abbat)  carries  a  staff  adorned  with  two  twining  serpents, 
the  Greco-Ruthenian  bishop's  pastoral  staff  is  exactly 
similar. 

An  archbishop  is  entitled  to  another  staff  to  which  the 
name  'crozier'  properly  applies.  It  is  a  cross  borne 
before  him  in  processions,  or  whenever  he  appears  in 

forma  piiblicd.     The  archiepiscopal  cross  has  2  bars'T" 

*  Cotton  MS.,  Nero,  C.  4. 


CARDINALS 


471 


representing  the  cross  with  Pilate's  title  over  it.  The 
upper  bar  is  the  shorter.    The  cross  usually  adopted  as 

the  "Patriarchal,"  has  3  bars  "^  ,  but  no  meaning  or 

authority  for  this  is  discoverable.  In  Rome  we  see  it 
on  sculptures,  etc.,  as  emblematic  of  the  popes  in  their 
Patriarchal  character.*  The  date  of  the  crozier  and  of 
its  assumption  as  an  archiepiscopal  emblem  is  not  very 
certain.  It  is  supposed  that  it  found  its  way  from  the 
East,  as  it  was  common  among  the  Greeks,  and  Anthony 
Beck  Bishop  of  Durham  may  have  introduced  it  into 
England,  where  it  was  much  in  favour  at  the  epoch  of 
the  Crusades,  Clement  V.  made  Beck  Fatria?rh  of 
Jerusalem  in  1305.  It  is  then  possible  that  as  an  archi- 
episcopal ensign  it  dates  from  Anthony  Beck. 

A  pectoral  cross  is  first  mentioned  as  the  ensign  of  a 
bishop  by  Innocent  III.  (1198-1216).  It  should  be  a 
plain  gold  cross,  and  it  contains  relics.  It  is  also  worn 
iDy  consecrated  abbats  and  abbesses. 

A  ring  for  the  bishop  is  first  mentioned  in  the  vi.  cen- 
tury, t  The  usage  began  in  Spain,  and  became  general 
by  the  xi.  century.  It  is  worn  by  bishops  on  the  right 
hand,  by  abbats,  abbesses,  and  by  nuns  on  their  final 
profession.  Indeed  it  is  as  an  adornment  of  consecrated 
virgins  that  we  first  hear  of  the  religious  use  of  the  ring. 
The  bishop's  ring  is  of  gold,  and  contains  a  large  pre- 
cious stone  ;  it  is  this  which  is  kissed  by  all  persons  salut- 
ing a  bishop.  The  pope  wears  the  famous  seal  ring  of 
"the  Fisherman"  (page  34 ij. 

By  the  vi.  century  shoes  called  campagi  were  already  a 
ceremonial  item  of  attire  for  the  pope  and  his  deacons. 
They  were  also  worn  by  the  Bishop  and  deacons  of 
Ravenna.  Later  on  a  Roman  Ordo  refers  to  them  as 
proper  to  Roman  presbyters  and  deacons.  This  cere- 
monial item  of  dress  is  therefore  peculiar  to  the  Roman 
cardinals  and  to  bishops,  with  certain  abbats,  and  is 
called  the  buskins  or  sandal  i.     When  about  to  celebrate 

*  Cf.  with  a  3-barred  cross  from  the  catacombs,  Part  I.,  p.  24. 
t  See  also  IV.  Council  of  Toledo,  held  in  633. 


Pectoral 
cross. 

For  abbats 
and  ab- 
besses. 

Ring. 


For  abbats 
and  ab- 
besses. 


Buskins. 


472      CHRISTIAN  AND   ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 

the  bishop  removes  his  shoes,  and  replaces  them  with 
these  sandals  of  cloth  of  silver. 
Gloves.  The  pope,  cardinals,  and  bishops  wear  gloves  at  those 

portions  of  the  Mass  when  they  are  seated  and  wearing 
the  mitre,  that  is  up  to  the  lavabo.  The  ring  is  worn 
outside  them.  Gloves  are  proper  only  to  great  func- 
tions, and  only  in  the  Liturgy,  and  are  therefore  never 
worn  with  the  cope.  They  are  not  stitched,  and  are 
really  a  remnant  of  the  introduction  of  the  glove,  when 
it  consisted  of  a  hand  covering  with  a  separate  place  for 
the  thumb  only.  The  princess-abbess  Etheldred  is 
represented  wearing  such  a  glove  at  the  close  of  the 
X.  century,  the  earliest  instance.*  As  late  as  1607  the 
Synod  of  Ravenna  forbid //vVj'/j'  and  clerics  to  wear  gloves 
in  church;  though  they  might  wear  modest  and  sober 
gloves  when  they  were  ill  or  on  a  journey.  The  colour 
of  the  gloves  is  white,  red,  green,  or  purple,  according  to 
the  ecclesiastical  season.  The  original  colour  was  ap- 
parently white,  the  purity  "of  the  new  Man  who  came 
upon  earth  "  being  recorded  in  the  prayer  which  a  bishop 
says  when  putting  them  on.  When  the  tomb  of  Boniface 
VIII.  (1303)  was  opened,  he  was  found  to  be  wearing 
white  silk  gloves,  adorned  with  pearls  and  stitched. 
The  pope  now  is  buried  in  red  silk  gloves,  patriarchs 
and  cardinals  in  violet. 

Though  a  fabulous  antiquity  has  been  claimed  for  the 
liturgical  use  of  gloves,  the  most  ancient  mention  is  in 
the  X.  century  when  the  response  of  a  bishop  on  taking 
the  gloves  at  his  consecration  is  given. f  In  1055  they 
are  mentioned  by  Victor  II.  for  bishops.  The  glove, 
chirotheca,  but  in  the  Roman  Ordo  mauica,  has  been 
confused  with  the  mappula  or  other  cloth  used  for  cov- 
ering the  hand.     The  Ordo  speaks  of  it  as  used  by  the 

*  Benedictional  of  ^thelwold,  in  the  possession  of  the  Duke 
of  Devonshire. 

t  It  is  to  this  effect :  May  they  keep  our  hands  worthily,  which 
seek  to  touch  the  memorials  of  our  vSalvation,  Christ. 

Gloves  did  not  apparently  form  part  of  the  dress  of  either  sex 
before  the  xi.  century. 


CARDIXALS 


473 


Episcopal 
Cope. 


pope,    archbishops,    bishops,    patriarchs,    and    mitred   For  abbots, 
abbats.     Abbats  have  worn  them  since  the  xi.  century. 

The  'bishop's  cope  '  is  not  a  distinct  garment  from  the 
cope  in  ordinary  use;  but  merely  means  the  cope  as 
worn  by  him  at  certain  episcopal  functions,  at  Chrism, 
the  consecration  of  a  church,  of  a  bell,  of  an  altar,  and 
at  all  other  episcopal  functions  named  in  the  Pontificale, 
which  do  not  include  the  Liturgy.  The  copes  at 
S.  Peter's  are  used  interchangeably  for  bishops  and 
other  clerics.* 

The  rochet  is  a  short  white  surplice  with  tight  sleeves  Rochet, 
adorned  with  lace,  and  is  the  proper  vestment  of  bishops, 
prelates,  and  canons.  It  is  imposed  by  the  pope  on  new 
cardinals,  patriarchs,  archbishops,  and  bishops  after  the 
Secret  Consistory.  It  is  not  a  sacred  vestment.  Car- 
dinals, bishops  and  other  prelates  wear  it  under  the 
7na7itetletta  or  under  the  cappa  magna.  A  curious  dis- 
tinction is  that  a  bishop  can  wear  the  stole  over  the 
rochet,  but  a  canon  must  first  put  on  a  surplice. t 

Archbishops,  bishops,  and  prelates  are  entitled  to  a 
prelatial hat ;  the  archbishop's  being  purple  with  4  rows 
of  tassels  ox  fiocchi,  10  on  each  side;  a  bishop's  green 
with  3  rows  (6) ;  a  prelate's  black  w^ith  the  same  number. 
The  4  prelates  named  on  page  476  have  as  many  rows  as 
an  archbishop. t 

For  PalUion  see  Chapter  I.  For  Mitie  see  Part  II., 
p.  no. 

Since  1867  bishops  have  worn  a  purple  berretta. 
Before  this  they  wore  a  black  berretta  lined  with  green 
silk.  But  in  this  year  Pius  IX.  going  down  one  day  to 
S.  Peter's  and  seeing  the  bishops  with  their  black  ber- 
rettas  thought  there  should  be  a  distinction,  and  ordered 
that  in  future  all  archbishops  and  bishops  should  wear  it 
in  purple. 


Prelatial 
hat. 


Bishop's 
berretta. 


*  See  Part  II..  p.  108. 

t  An  Eastern  priest  or  other  clerk  cannot  approach  the  altar 
without  the  alb,  nor  can  a  Western  priest  assist  at  the  altar  w  ithout 
a  surplice. 

+  See  Armorial  Ensigns  p.  549;  and  Cardinal's  hat  p.  449. 


474      CHRISTIAN  AXD  ECCLESIASTICAI  ROME 


Induction 
of  the 
Bishop, 
in  Italy, 


The 
Exequatur. 


The  Visit 
ad  Lim'uia. 


A  diocesan  bishop  is  appointed  by  papal  bull  from 
nominations  made  by  the  Cathedral  Chapter,  but  cannot 
take  possession  of  the  palace  and  temporalities  of  the 
diocese,  without  the  cxequatui-  of  the  King  of  Italy, 
which  is  a  permission  for  the  Bull  to  take  effect,  as  far 
as  the  temporalities  are  concerned.  The  exeqiiahir  is 
also  required  for  canonries,  and  parish  benefices,  except 
of  course  in  the  case  of  those  Roman  basilicas  which  are 
in  the  pope's  possession.  The  late  Cardinal  Vicar  of 
Rome  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Bologna,  but  not  being 
an  appointment  viewed  with  favour  by  the  government 
he  never  enjoyed  the  temporalities  and  was  eventually 
recalled.  The  same  relation  of  Church  and  State  natu- 
rally exists  wherever  there  is  a  State  Church. 

An  Edict  of  Pope  Zachary's  (743)  required  every 
bishop  immediately  subject  to  the  Holy  See  to  visit 
Rome  "about  the  ides  of  May"  in  each  year.  This 
edict  implies  a  previous  obligation  to  the  same  effect. 
In  795  Leo  III.  ordained  that  all  bishops  should  pay  a 
periodical  visit  to  the  Holy  See  called  the  visit  ad 
limina  ;*  but  no  time  was  specified.  The  rule  was  re- 
vived by  Sixtus  V.,t  who  ordained  that  bishops  living 
near  (Italian  primates,  bishops,  bishops  from  the  adja- 
cent islands,  and  from  Sicily)  should  come  every  3  years; 
others  (as  French,  Spanish,  Belgians,  Bohemians,  Hun- 
garians, English,  Irish,  Scotch,  Polish,  and  Germans) 
every  4  years;  while  those  at  a  distance  are  to  come  every 
5,  and  Asiatic  and  American  bishops  every  10  years. 
I'his  order  only  applies  to  titular  bishops  if  they  are 
coadjutors  of  dioceses.  The  Bull  was  confirmed  by 
Benedict  XIV.,  the  penalty  being  suspension.  It  binds 
each  bishop.  Vicar  apostolic,  and  abbat  with  episcopal 
jurisdiction  to  give  an  account  of  his  pastoral  ofiice,  his 
diocese,  the  discipline  of  his  clergy,  and  the  health  of 
the  souls  committed  to  his  care.  If  he  cannot  go  in 
person,  he  must  send  a  member  of  his  Chapter  or  other 

*  The  (Apostolic)  threshold,  or  abode. 

t  Bull  de  V'isitatione  Liminum,  20  December,  1585. 


and  Mon- 
signori. 


CARDIXAI.S  475 

priest  to  represent  him.  The  clause  in  the  bishop's 
oath  of  fidelity,  relating  to  this  visit,  is  as  follows: 
Apostolorum  Umina  \_si71gulis  annis\  aut  per  me  aut  per 
cerium  nuncium  visitaho.  The  bishop  at  each  visit  signs 
an  attestation  at  the  "  limina  apostolorum,"  that  is  at  the 
Vatican  and  Ostian  Basilicas. 

PRELATES    AND    MONSIGXORI. 

A  prelate  means  one  who  is  placed  over  others;  all   Prelates 
archbishops  and  bishops  are  prelates,  and  so  are  a  large 
number  of  other  ecclesiastics  who,   in  theory  at  least, 
have  prelacy  over  certain  other  persons. 

Monsigjiore  is  a  title  attached  to  certain  dignities 
bestowed  by  the  pope.  It  is  not  itself  an  office,  nor  is 
it  correct  to  speak  of  a  person  being  'made  a  monsig- 
nore.'  It  is  a  court  title,  not  a  religious  title.  It  is  the 
proper  style  of  archbishops  and  bishops,  and  of  all  other 
prelates,  except  cardinals;  and  also  of  the  papal  cham- 
berlains and  papal  chaplains. 

The  following  positions  carry  the  title  of  Monsignore   Monsig- 
with    them,    and    the   dignity   of    domestic    prelate :  *   "°"  ^' 
(i)  Protonotaries  Apostolic.     Their  duty  is  to  attest  all   %tta. 
great  papal  documents,  such  as  a  dogmatic  decree,  can- 
onisation,   the    opening   of    an    oecumenical    council. 
They  number  9  in  ordinary,  and  about  300  extraordinary. 

(2)  Auditors  of  the  Rota  are  canonists  from  all  nations,! 
with  residence  in  Rome.     They  number  some  8  or  9. 

(3)  Chierici  della  Reverenda  Camera,  "  Clerks  of  the 
Revererld  Chamber " :  the  Camera  Apostolica  is  the 
Treasury  and  used  to  be  the  financial  department  of  the 
Pope's  court.  These  monsignori  have  no  duties  now. 
Their  number  is  about  10.  (4)  Prelati  domestici  votanti  c 
Referendari  delta  Segnatura  papale  di  Giustizia :     The 

*  Domestic  prelates  are  prelates  forming  part  of  the  pope's 
household;  they  include  many  archbishops  and  bishops  who  are 
styled  "assistant  at  the  Pontifical  throne."     See  p.  351. 

t  Representing  France,  Spain,  etc. 


476      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 

Segnatura  was  a  papal  court  of  justice  and  these  'domes- 
tic prelates  '  acted  as  voters  and  referees.  They  number 
between  70  and  80.  (5)  Domestic  prelates  composing 
the  college  dcgli  Abbreviatori del parco  maggiore  ("  Abbre- 
viators  of  the  greater  part  ") :  these  functionaries  tran- 
scribed papal  bulls.  There  are  3  of  such  prelates  in 
ordinary,  and  20  or  30  extraordinary.  (6)  Domestic 
Prelates  "  not  belonging  to  any  of  the  aforesaid  Colleges." 
Of  these  there  are  about  400. 

All  the  preceding  are  "prelates  of  the  mafitellet/cr," 
prelati  di  mantelletta.  Four  of  these  personages  have 
precedence  over  bishops  (a)  the  Vice-Chamberlain  of 
the  Holy  Roman  Church,  {b~)  the  Auditor  {i/ditore)  of 
the  Reverend  Apostolic  Chamber  {i.e.  of  the  Treasury), 
{c)  the  Treasurer-General  of  the  Reverend  Chamber, 
{d)  the  pope's  majordomo.  These  four  are  called  //r- 
lati  di  fiocchetto,  and  have  four  rows  of  tassels  {fiocchetti) 
to  their  hats.  The  posts  are  posti  cardinalizii,  that  is 
those  who  have  held  them  are  always  made  cardinals. 
These  prelates  take  precedence  of  bishops  in  all  court 
processions,  except  in  S.  Peter's  where  they  rank  as 
Canons.* 
Monsig-  The  following  papal  Chamberlains  and  Chaplains  also 

''°'"'^',         enjoy  the  title  of  Monsignore;  and  are  therefore  known 
hne.  as  Monsignori  di  Mantellone   (see  infra),      (i)  Private 

Chamberlains  Supernumerary  {Segreti),  of  whom  there 
are  some  600. f  (2)  Honorary  Chamberlains  in  purple, 
400.  (3)  Honorarv  Chamberlains  extra  irrbem,  who 
number  over  200.  (4)  Private  Chaplains,  who  number 
about  6.  (5)  Honorary  Private  Chaplains,  numbering 
about  80.  (6)  Honorary  Private  Chaplains  extra  urbem, 
about  90.  (7)  Ordinary  Chaplains,  of  whom  there  are 
6  di  nuinero,  and  12  supernumerary.  I'he  duty  of  the 
chaplains  is  to  say  the  Thanksgiving  Mass,  which  the  pope 
hears  every  day  immediately  after  celebrating  his  own. 

*  They  have  the  title  of  Eccelenza  Reverendissitna. 

t  The  cainerieri  segreti  parlicipanti,  or  '  private  chamberlains 
participant,'  number  only  9  or  10  and  are  immediately  about  the 
pope  always. 


CARDIXALS  477 

Prelates,  officers  and  servants  called  Segreti  are  those   'Segreto.' 
employed  near  the  person  of  the  pope;  and  are  so  called 
in  contradistinction  to  communi.     All  the  offices  segreti, 
as  having  to  do  with  the  person  of  the  pope,  cease  at  his 
death. 

JMonsignori  del  buon  Gesii 
Morto  il  papa  non  ci  son  piu. 

All  prelates  —  cardinals,  bishops,  and  monsignori, — - 
have  four  costumes;  one  worn  always  in  church,  another 
at  the  cappella  papale,  a  third  in  society,  and  a  fourth  for 
the  street  and  everyday.  The  clerical  dress  for  society 
and  daily  wear  is  known  as  the  abito  piano,  and  is  worn 
by  every  one  except  the  pope.  It  consists  of  a  soutane 
and  sash  with  the  mantle  called  fenaiiiolone.  In  addi- 
tion to  this  cardinals,  bishops,  and  others  having  juris- 
diction over  souls,  wear  small  shoulder  capes  over  the 
soutane  and  under  \ki^  ferraiuolone* 

I.    A  bishop  t  wears 

(i)  In  society:  black  soutane  and  capes,  with  critnson 
sash,  pipings,  buttons  and  buttonholes,  and  the  ferrai no- 
Zone  violet.  He  wears  violet  stockings  and  violet  stock 
to  the  collar.  Although  he  may  wear  crimson,  many 
bishops  content  themselves  with  violet  sash  and  buttons. 

(2)  In  church:  violet  soutane  with  train,  rochet  and 
violet  mantelletia,  and  the  pectoral  cross. 

(3)  At  a  Cappella  papale  :  a  violet  cappa  magna  over  the 
rochet,  pectoral  cross,  violet  zucchetto  and  berretta. 

(4)  In  the  street :  black  soutane  and  capes,  with  crim- 
son buttons  and  buttonholes,  violet  stockings,  and  stock. 
In  winter  the  "  Greca  "  over  it.  % 

A  bishop  who  is  also  a  monk  or  friar  wears  the  same   Bishop- 
dress,   but   in   the    colours  of    his    Order.  §      Thus    a   monks  or 
Dominican  bishop  wears  the  soutane  white  and  mantel- 
letta  black.     A   Friar  Minor  wears  both,   however,    in 

*  See  priest's  dress,  p.  486. 

t  Or  Archbishop.     For  Cardinal's  abito  piano,  see  p.  447. 

X  For  the  Greca,  see  priests  dress,  p.  485. 

§  IV'f'  Lateran  Council. 


friars. 


478      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 

dark  gray,  and  a  Capuchin  in  brown.  A  Carmelite 
wears  a  brown  soutane  with  a  white  mantelletta.  In 
their  convents,  however,  they  usually  wear  the  simple 
Religious  habit  and  a  pectoral  cross.  A  mozzetta  is  also 
imposed  on  them  by  the  pope  in  place  of  the  rochet. 

II.  Alonsignori  di  Mantelletta  wear 

(i)  In  society:  black  soutane,  crimson  sash,  pipings, 
buttons  and  buttonholes,  and  violet ferraiuoloiie. 

(2)  In  church :  violet  soutane  with  train,  rochet  and 
the  short  violet  mantle  with  arm  slits  called  the  mantel- 
letta (hence  the  name  of  these  monsignori). 

(3)  At  a  Cappella  papale :  they  are  dressed  as  Canons 
of  S.  Peter's. 

(4)  In  the  street:  black  soutane,  crimson  pipings, 
buttons  and  buttonholes,  and  violet  stock.  In  winter 
the  Gj-eca  over  it. 

Thus  the  dress  (i)  (2)  (4)  is  exactly  similar  to  a 
bishop's,  except  for  the  absence  of  the  ring  and  violet 
stockings,  the  capes  in  (i)  (4)  and  the  pectoral  cross  in  (2). 

III.  Monsignori  di  Mantellone  wear 

(i)  In  society:  black  soutane  with  violet  sash,  pipings, 
buttons  and  buttonholes,  and  a  black  ferraiuolone. 

(2)  In  church:  violet  soutane  and  sash;  over  this  a 
cotta.  Or,  violet  soutane  and  sash,  and  a  long  violet 
stuff  coat  with  sleeves  —  hence  their  name,  Monsignori 
di  Mantellone. 

(3)  At  a  Cappella  papale :  violet  soutane,  over  which 
is  the  croccia,  one  of  the  oldest  forms  of  the  ecclesias- 
tical costume  :  it  is  a  long  scarlet  coat  with  wide  sleeves, 
cape  and  hood,  and  is  lined  with  silk.  In  winter  the 
cape  is  of  white  ermine. 

(4)  In  the  street:  Monsignori  di  Mantellone  have  no 
distinguishing  mark  in  everyday  dress  except  the  violet 
stock  at  the  throat. 

Hats:  —  The  clerical  hat*  is  worn  with  the  following 
differences :  A  bishop  wears  a  green  cord  or  ribbon  round 
his  hat,  with  the  tassels  {fiocchi)  gold. 

*  For  the  clerical  hat,  see  />rie's/'s  dress,  p.  485, 


CARDIXALS 


479 


Pro  to  notaries  wear  a  /y'// silk  cord  or  ribbon,  with  the 
tassels  red* 

Other  Monsignori  di  Alautelletta  wear  a  violet  ribbon. 

iMonsignori  di  Mantellone  wear  the  usual  black  clerical 
hat  with  its  black  cord. 


CANONS. 

Secular  canons  are  the  clergy  attached  to  a  cathedral 
or  other  collegiate  church,  and  forming  its  Chapter, 
Capititliim.  They  abandoned  the  Community  life  pre- 
scribed in  the  viii.  and  ix.  centuries  for  clergy  living 
"canonically,"  and  follow'ed  a  new  rule  given  them  in 
1059  by  Nicholas  II. f  It  is  a  fact,  however,  that  as 
diocesan  clergy,  with  a  residence  by  the  church  which 
they  serve,  and  receiving  a  fixed  allowance,  they  fulfil 
more  nearly  than  any  other  body  of  clergy  the  scheme 
of  the  early  Church.  Canons  are  bound  to  the  recita- 
tion of  the  Divine  Office,  daily  in  private  in  common 
with  all  priests,  but  also  publicly  in  the  choir  of  their 
church,  according  to  rotation.  A  canon ica  or  canons' 
house  is  attached  to  the  church,  but  the  canons  do  not 
necessarily  live  in  it. 

Although  the  Cathedral  Chapters  usually  consisted  of 
secular  canons,  some  were  filled  by  monks.  The  canons 
of  a  cathedral  church  elected  the  bishop  %  and  ruled  the 
diocese  during  a  vacancy.  Thus  they  were  substituted 
for  the  ancient  council  of  presbyters  and  laity,  just  as 
the  College  of  Cardinals  were  substituted  in  the  case  of 
the  pope. 

The  great  Roman  Basilicas,  S.  John  Lateran,  S.  Peter's, 
S.  jMaria  Maggiore,  S.  Paul's,  are  Capitular  churches; 
in  the  last  mentioned  the  monks  form  the  Chapter. 
And  there  are  14  other  Roman  Chapters,  or  "collegiate 
churches  " :  S.  Lorenzo  in  Damaso,  S.  Maria  in  Traste- 

*  See  Cardinals,  p.  447. 

t  According  to  Stubbs,  Secular  Chapters  were  in  existence  at  the 
beginning  of  the  IX.  century. 
X  See  Part  III.,  p.  205 


Secular 
Chapters. 


Divine 
Office. 

Canons' 
house 
(Canon- 
ica). 


4So      CHRISTIAX  AND   ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 


Ihe 

Latenin 

and 

Vatican 

Chapters. 


Mass,  and 
horns  of 
the  Divine 
Office. 


vere,  S.  M.  in  Cosmedin,  S.  Maria  Monte  Santo,  the 
Pantheon,  S.  Marco,  S.  Nicola  in  Carcere,  S.  M.  in 
Via  Lata,  S.  Eustachio,  S.  Angelo  in  Pescaria,  SS.  Celso 
e  Giuliano  (of  which  the  Pope  is  Protector),  S.  Anas- 
tasia,  S.  Girolamo  de'  Schiavoni,  S.  Giorgio  in  Velabro. 

The  Chapter  of  the  Lateran,  as  the  cathedral  church 
of  Rome,  takes  precedence  of  that  of  the  Vatican.  The 
canons  of  cathedral  churches  must  consist  of  the  3  orders, 
priests  deacons  and  subdeacons,  in  such  proportion 
that  the  deacons  and  subdeacons*  together  number  half 
the  total  of  priests,  f  The  canons  are  also  divided  into 
3  classes,  the  Chapter  consisting  of  (i)  canons  of  the 
presbyteral,  diaconal,  and  subdiaconal  orders,  (2)  Benefi- 
ciaries, or  minor  canons,  of  the  orders  of  priests,  dea- 
cons, subdeacons,  and  acolytes,  and  (3)  the  Clerks,  or 
Beneficed  clergy,  divided  into  the  same  4  orders,  with 
6  choir  chaplains.  At  their  head  is  an  Archpriest.  I'he 
canons  take  4  parts  of  the  endowment,  classes  (2)  (3) 
two  and  one  part  respectively;  the  archpriests  of  the  3 
great  basilicas  are  cardinals. 

At  the  Lateran  the  old  rule  is  followed  which  requires 
that  the  mass  of  great  feasts  should  be  sung  by  a  canon; 
the  mass  on  ordinary  days  by  the  beneficiaries,  while  the 
beneficed  clerks  perform  the  office  of  acolytes,  serving 
at  the  altar,  carrying  the  candles,  etc.  But  at  the  Vati- 
can the  distinction  beween  the  functions  of  Beneficiaries 
and  beneficed  clerks  is  not  retained.  The  hours  for  the 
Divine  Office  observed  at  S.  Peter's  will  serve  as  a  guide 
for  other  Chapters  also:  Matins  are  said  through  Janu- 
ary and  half  February  at  8. 15  A.AI. ;  to  the  end  of  Febru- 
ary and  through  March  at  ^  /<^  8  A.M.  Vespers Vixe  said 
on  ordinary  days  2  hours  before  the  Ave  Maria:  but  for 
Pontifical  Vespers,  on  days  when  Matins  and  Lauds  are 
anticipated,  or  when  cardinals  are  present  —  that  is  on 
every  great  festival  in  the  year  —  they  are  said  2\  hours 
before  Ave  Maria.  § 

*  See  Part  TIT.,  Chap.  IV.,  p.  204;   and  Cf.  infra,  p.  514. 

f  Council  of  Trent. 

§  Vespers  are  said  2\  hours  before  Ave  Maria  also  on  January  25 


CARDINALS 


481 


Differences 
in  dress  of 
Canons. 


In  society  and  in  the  street  canons  wear  no  distin-  Dress, 
guishing  dress.  Jn  church  they  wear  a  black  cloth  sou- 
tane, rochet,  and  cappa  magna,  the  cape  and  hood  of 
which  from  October  5  to  April  25  is  of  white  rabbit  skin. 
Monsigiwri,  however,  are  entitled  to  wear  a  violet  sou- 
tane, though  they  do  not  always  do  so. 

Minor  canons  (in  Rome  always  called  Beneficiati^ 
wear  a  black  soutane,  rochet,  and  cappa  magna,  the 
cape  of  which  is  of  gray  rabbit  skin  in  winter. 

This  dress  is  worn  only  in  the  choir  of  their  own 
churches  or  in  ceremonial  attendance  on  the  pope,  in- 
cluding a  cappeUa  papale.  Canons  who  are  also  bishops 
dress  as  described  on  page  477. 

The  dress  of  canons,  however,  differs,  and  is  deter- 
mined at  the  erection  of  each  canonical  Chapter.  The 
canons  of  S.  Peter's,  the  Lateran  and  S.  M.  Maggiore 
wear,  as  we  see,  a  cappa  magna;  but  they  may  only  wear 
it  twisted  up  into  a  coil  and  passed  through  a  loop  at  the 
side.  The  canons  of  the  other  Roman  Chapters  wear  a 
cappa  magna  also,  but  it  is  smaller;  and  some  have  the 
strip  of  ermine  called  an  amess  attached  to  the  arm. 
The  canons  of  Siena  have  the  privilege  of  the  linen 
mitre  when  celebrating  solemn  mass.  All  canons  must 
wear  the  coita  over  the  soutane  in  their  own  churches. 

The  ancient  canon's  dress  consisted  of  a  black  man- 
tle (the  cappa),  worn  over  a  short  surplice  or  rochet. 
This  was  the  dress  worn  by  S.  Dominic  at  Osma  in 
the  XIII.  century,  and  by  the  canon  in  Chaucer's 
"Tales"  in  the  xiv'?*.  (For  Caniail  and  amess  see 
Part  III.,  p.  213.) 

An  archpriest  was  appointed  to  preside  over  the  clergy  Archpriest 
of  a  parish  in  very  early  days,  and  in  France  appears  to 
have  been  a  leader  and  representative  of  the  parishioners. 
A  council  held  in  Paris  about  670  decrees  that  arch- 
priests  shall  not  be  laymen,  unless  this  be  necessary  for 
the  consolation  of  the  Church  or  the  defence  of  the  par- 


Ancient 

dress. 


when  the  Capitular  constitutions  are  read  in  choir,  and  on  Novem- 
ber I,  when  the  Matins  and  Lauds  of  the  Dead  are  added. 


CHRISTIAN  AND   ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 


Archpriests 
of  the  great 
basilicas. 


Office- of 
the  Dean. 


The 

Decanus. 


Decanal 
Crook. 


ishioners.*  In  the  middle  of  the  ix.  century  districts 
were  divided  into  archprcsbyterates,  headed  by  an  arch- 
priest,  and  arciprete  is  still  the  title  in  Italy  for  the  chief 
parish-priest  of  a  country  district. t  In  the  xii.  century 
in  Rome  archpriest  was  the  title  of  the  first  of  a  college 
of  priests  attached  to  a  church,  and  hence  of  the  head 
of  a  college  of  canons.  Cathedrals  had  both  an  arch- 
priest  and  an  archdeacon.  In  country  parishes  the 
second  of  these  officials  was  the  bishop's  deputy,  and 
took  precedence  of  the  archpriest. 

The  Cardinal  Archpriests  of  S.  Peter's,  the  Lateran, 
and  S.  M.  Maggiore  officiate  in  their  basilicas  at  all  the 
great  festivals  of  the  year,  on  Palm  Sunday,  in  Holy 
Week,  at  the  Easter  and  Christmas  Mass,  the  Purifica- 
tion, the  patronal  feasts  of  the  church.  The  archpriest 
of  S.  Peter's  was  always  the  pope's  assistant  at  solemn 
mass  in  the  basilica,  until  1870. 

Laymen  were  sometimes  ex  officio  canons;  the  Roman 
Emperor  was  a  canon  of  the  Lateran. | 

The  head  of  English  Chapters  used  to  be  an  archpriest. 
The  office  of  the  Dean  did  not  develop  in  England  until 
after  the  Reformation;  and  his  jurisdiction  is  said  to 
be  due  to  the  fact  that  he  is  ex  officio  archpriest.  A 
dean,  decanus,  was  a  monastic  official  existing  from 
the  earliest  times  in  Egypt  and  Asia;  he  superintended 
the  younger  brethren,  and  acted  as  a  kind  of  master 
of  novices:  each  dean  had  charge  of  some  10  monks, 
whom  he  also  superintended  in  the  dormitory.  §  Later 
Benedictine  laws  allotted  2  deans  to  every  10  monks, 
and  the  dean  was  to  be  continually  with  them.  He 
was  also  to  carry  a  crook.  This  monastic  dean  was  an 
officer  under  abbat  or  prior,  and  ranked  next  to  him. 
The  same  ofifice,  that  of  deca?ia,  existed  in  convents  of 
women,  and  amongst  the  English  Benedictines  in  the 


*  A.D.  650  the  Council  of  Chalons  requires  that  the  goods  of  a 
parish  and  parishes  themselves  shall  not  be  contided  to  laics, 
t  Equivalent  to  rural  deaneries. 
X  Cf.  Part  I.,  p.  75. 
§  Rule  of  S.  Isidore  vii.  century,  in  Spain. 


CARDINALS 


483 


VIII.  century.*  But  in  some  Benedictine  Orders,  for 
example  among  the  Cistercians,  tlie  dean  was  unknown. 
It  was  however  an  office  among  canons,  and  it  is  the 
development  of  this  office  after  the  Reformation  which 
created  the  modern  English  dean.  In  Rome  the  decaiius 
is  the  senior  member  of  the  College  of  Cardinals,  or 
among  the  Ambassadors,  and  the  title  is  employed  ex- 
actly in  the  same  sense  as  the  French  Doyen.-\ 


SECULAR    CANONESSES. 

It  is  a  curious  fact  that  Chapters  of  secular  canonesses  Secular 
are  nearly  all  Benedictine  in  origin.  As  many  monks,  Canon- 
at  the  close  of  the  viii.  century,  had  changed  their  Rule 
for  the  lighter  rule  of  canons,  so  many  Communities  of 
Benedictine  nuns  formed  themselves  into  Chapters  of 
noble  canonesses.  Some  of  these  remained  monastic, 
others  became  secular.  The  duties  of  these  latter  were 
the  same  as  those  of  secular  canons,  the  chanting  of  the 
Divine  Office  in  choir.  They  were  expected  to  employ 
their  spare  time  in  works  of  charity,  thus  assimilating 
them  to  the  earliest  'canonesses  '  of  the  primitive  Church, 
who  under  the  title  of  widow,  deaconess,  or  ostiaria, 
appeared  on  the  list  of  canonical  clergy.  Such  commu- 
nities existed  in  Alsace-Lorraine,  Belgium,  Germany, 
and  a  few  in  France.  Their  members  lived  sometimes 
in  Community,  governed  by  an  abbess,  sometimes  each 
canoness  had  a  house  of  her  own.  A  certain  number 
were  bound  to  be  always  in  residence.  They,  like  the 
canons,  wore  secular  dress,  except  in  choir,  when  they 
wore  a  mantle  or  cappa.  In  time  these  Stalls  were  so 
much  coveted,  and  admission  to  them  was  so  difficult, 
that  they  became  the  monopoly  of  the  greatest  ladies;  at 
Obermunster  the  prebends  were  confined  to  princesses, 
and  the  proof  of  seize  quartiers  exacted  had  to  be  certi- 

*  Provost  and  Dean  are  2  of  the  offices  enumerated  among  the 
n.'ns  at  Wimborne.  Provost  is  the  title  in  England  of  the  hrst 
Cai  on  in  a  Catholic  Chapter. 

t  For  secular  canons  refer  also  to  pp.  203-5-8  and  212  footnote. 


484      CHRISTIAN  AXD  ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 


fied  on  the  sworn  declaration  of  a  noble.  But  at 
Remiremont  in  Lorraine,  perhaps  the  most  famous  of 
these  Chapters,  64  quarters  were  required  and  the  abbess 
was  a  Princess  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire.  The  Lor- 
rainese  would  speak  of  the  ladies  of  Remiremont  as 
compared  with  the  chambermaids  of  Epinal  and  the 
washertvotneu  of  Poussay,  two  other  Chapters  in  Lor- 
raine whose  members  had  only  proved  seize  qiiartiers. 

The  ladies  of  all  these  three 
Chapters  were  Countesses  in 
right  of  their  prebends. 
Other  canonesses  were  ipso 
facto  Baronesses,  and  in 
one  Community  a  canoness 
received  the  accolade  of 
knighthood  at  the  hands  of  a 
Deputy  of  the  Duke  of  Bra- 
bant who  assisted  at  her 
mass  of  installation.  To 
perform  some  of  the  eccle- 
siastical functions,  these 
Chapters  in  some  cases  had 
subordinate  Chapters  of  can- 
ons, among  whom  bishops 
were  glad  to  enrol  them- 
selves. 
The  canonesses  took  no  vows,  and  were  free  to  leave 
and  to  marry.  In  France  tlie  Revolution  swept  away 
the  institution,  many  of  the  clianoinesses  suffering  death 
with  great  heroism.  In  Protestant  Germany  there  are 
still  some  Chapters  of  noble  canonesses,  who  have  to 
resign  their  stalls  if  they  desire  to  marry.  Other  Catho- 
lic Chapters  were  suppressed  by  Joseph  II.  of  Austria. 
The  last  canoness  of  Saint-Martin-des-Salles  died  in  the 
latter  half  of  the  present  century.*  If  the  Chapters  have 
disappeared,  many  of  the  empty  choirs  remain  to  inter- 
est the  tourist  in  Belgium,  Germany,  and  France. 


CHAPTER   OF  CANONS. 


*  Cf.  Part  III.,  p.  236. 


CARDINALS 


priests. 

Cassock 

and 

Mantle. 


Greca. 


The  device  of  Chapters  is  a  half-opened  umbrella,  Device  of 
and  maybe  seen  in  the  choir  of  collegiate  churches,  and  <^hapters. 
also  displayed  over  armorial  ensigns  (see  arms,  p.  548). 

_  A  priest's  dress  in  Rome,  whether  in  or  out  of  church,  Evendav 
is  a  black  cassock  or  soutane,  the  ancient  vestis  talaris  dress  of' 
or  garment  reaching  to  the  ankles,  and  buttoned  down 
the  front.  In  church  he  always  wears  a  cotia,  but  out 
of  church  the  proper  item  of  costume  is  the  ferraiuo- 
loue,  or  black  mantle  with  a  broad  stiff  collar,  worn  from 
the  shoulders.  This  is  the  Latin  clerical  dress.  In 
winter,  however,  priests  are  generally  to  be  seen  in  the 
long  overcoat  called  the  Greca,  because  it  closely  resem- 
bles the  Greek  ecclesiastic's  dress,  and  is  not  officially 
recognised  in  the  Latin  Church.*  Hence  the  clergy  or 
canons  of  a  church  may  not  wear  it  in  their  own 
churches,  but  must  change  to  the  ferraiuolone  before 
entering. 

A  priest  also  wears  the  Roman  collar,  a  piece  of  white   Roman 
linen  folded  over  a  stock  and  buckling  at  the  back.     The   ^■o"a'"- 
stock  for  an  ordinary  priest  is  black.     This  collar  was 
not  worn  before  the  xvi.  century,  wide  collars  or  frills 
being  m  use  up  till  then.f     A  priest  also  wears  stock- 
ings and  low  buckled  shoes. 

The  hat  is  a  wide-brimmed  black  beaver  in  use  in  the   The  cied 
XVI.  century,  though  in  its  present  form  it  replaces  the   cai  hat. 
cappello  a  t/r  pizzi,  triconio,  or  3-cornered  hat  of  the  xviii. 
century.     It  is  now  a  round  hat,  but  3  sets  of  cords  for 
drawing  up  the  brim  still  record  the  three  corners. 

In  Protestant  countries  priests  are  excused  from  wear- 
ing this  dress.  It  was  not  indeed  generally  assumed  till 
the  time  of  Pius  IX.,  who  required  all  priests  appearing 
at  the  Vatican  to  wear  the  cassock,  which  thus  became 
the  general  costume.     It  replaced  the  xviii.  century  lay 

*  The  Greca  is  worn  by  some  of  the  Religious  over  their  habits, 
but  not  often  in  Rome. 

m  t  Enactments   were  made  in   many  countries   forbidding   lace 
Cai"h  and  trimmmgs  to  the  collars  of  priests.     Cf.  Clipped  Chasu- 

T   art  II.,  p.  105..  '  •         "^ 


4S6      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCIESIASTICAI   HOME 

dress  which  priests  had  continued  to  wear  until  his  time 
—  breeches,  a  black  soutane,  stockings  and  pumps  with 
a  short  mantle  hanging  down  from  the  shoulders  behind 
as  far  as  the  knees.  Monsignori  (prelates)  wore  this  in 
purple,  and  other  ecclesiastics  in  black.  There  is  now 
only  one  priest  in  Rome  who  refuses  to  dress  in  the 
cassock ! 
Capes.  Priests  having  some  charge,  as  the  curato  of  a  parish, 

the  rector  of  a  college,  the  vicario  of  a  cardinal,  wear 
a  little  cape  over  the  cassock.  It  is  called  ihtpe/Iegrino, 
because  pilgrims  always  wore  such  a  cape;  doctors  of  the 
different  faculties  also  wore  a  cape  and  hood.  But  the 
capes  worn  by  priests  are  certainly  the  sign  of  jurisdic- 
tion, and  are  in  origin  neither  a  pilgrim's  nor  a  Doctor's 
cape,  but  a  mozzetta.  Hence  we  find  that  some  abbats 
wear  a  mozzetta,  and  that  a  bishop  may  not  wear  his  out 
of  his  own  diocese,  but  replaces  it  in  this  case  by  the 
mantelletta.  Cardinals  in  Rome  wear  the  rochet  and 
mozzetta  only  when  in  their  titular  churches,  as  a  sign 
of  jurisdiction;  whereas  at  the  Conclave  and  every- 
where during  Sede  vacante  the  mozzetta  is  worn  by  all 
cardinals.  In  E^ngland,  this  cape  is  part  of  the  dress  of 
canons. 


Origin  of 
a  distinc- 
tive dress 
for  ecclesi- 
astics. 

IV.  century. 


Tonsure. 

VI.  century. 

Not  to 
wear  silk 
or  purple. 


No  special  dress  was  worn  by  the  clergy  in  everyday 
life  for  many  hundred  years.  Certainly  in  the  time  of 
Damasus  (366-384)  the  town  clergy  were  only  conspicu- 
ous for  their  fashionable  clothes,  for  Jerome  in  his  letter 
to  Eustochium  tells  her  about  the  oiled  and  curled  arch- 
deacon of  Rome,  daintily  holding  \\\>  his  robe  as  he 
skipped  into  the  house  of  rich  matrons,  to  whom  he 
would  unblushingly  hold  out  his  hand  for  gifts  of 
money.  One  would  think  him,  says  Jerome,  "brother 
to  the  King  of  Thrace."  Later  the  only  distinguishing 
mark  was  the  tonsure.  In  589-590,  the  Council  of  Nar- 
bonne  declares  that  priests  are  not  to  wear  purple,  and 
at  the  same  time,  and  again  at  the  end  of  the  viii. 
century,  we  find  an  enactment  forbidding  them  to  wear 
"silk,"  "precious  stuffs,"  and  the  "tinctures  of  India." 


CAKDIXALS 


487 


There  were  indeed  many  injunctions  ordering  the  clergy 
to  dress  modestly,  but  a  distinguishing  dress  probably 
dates  from  Karloman's  Capitulary,  742,  where  they  are 
required  to  wear  the  casiila  (chasuble),  and  forbidden 
the  short  mantle  (sagum).  Two  years  later  Pepin's 
Capitulary  forbids  the  clergy  to  hunt  or  to  wear  "the 
habit  of  laymen."  In  813  the  Council  of  Mayence  says : 
"Let  priests  use  the  stole  without  intermission,  on 
account  of  the  difference  of  the  priestly  dignity."  The 
Council  of  Trent  prescribed  that  the  cassock-gown 
should  be  worn  by  all  clerics  in  sacred  orders. 

It  will  be  seen  therefore  that  clerical  dress  is,  like 
liturgical  dress,  the  survival  of  the  common  lay  dress  of 
the  IV.  and  v.  centuries,  after  the  immigration  of  the 
northern  barbarians  had  introduced  the  short  tunic  and 
hose.  "Cassocke  coates"  or  {-assaqi/cs  were  however 
fashionable  among  the  laity  in  the  time  of  Henry  VIII., 
and  were  buttoned  down  the  front  like  a  modern 
soutane. 

The  history  of  the  pallium,  a  cloak  which  left  one 
arm  and  shoulder  exposed,  as  an  item  of  Christian  cos- 
tume is  curious.  Justin  Martyr  preached  in  it  in  the 
II.  century  in  Rome;  Tertullian  in  the  in.  century  in 
Carthage.  A  few  years  later  Cyprian  deprecates  its  use, 
saying  that  Christian  teachers  being  philosophers  in 
deed,  do  not  need  outward  show.*  A  century  later 
(340)  a  council  condemned  those  who  asserted  that  the 
use  of  the  pallium  made  them  more  righteous  than 
those  whose  modesty  led  them  to  adopt  the  finer  dress 
of  their  neighbours:  by  this  time,  therefore,  it  had 
become  a  puritanic  garb  for  Christians,  and  as  we  have 
seen  (Part  III.,  p.  31-2)  was  adopted  by  the  early  ascetics. 
About  the  same  time  Damasus  expressed  his  dislike  of 
the  pallium,  because  it  was  the  usual  dress  of  the  gods. 
However  by  the  v.  century  it  had  become  a  sacred  vest- 
ment in  France.! 

*  And  Minucius  Felix :  "  We  manifest  our  wisdom  not  in  the 
outward  dress,  but  in  the  mind." 

t  Letter  of  Pope  Celestine,  428.      Cf.  Part  IT.,  p.  106. 


viii.  cent- 
ury. 

Not  to 
wear  short 
clothes. 


IX.  century. 

To  wear 
the  stole. 

XVI. 

century. 

Council 
of  Trent. 


The  phi- 
losopher's 
pallium. 

II.  to  v. 
century. 


CHRISTIAX  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 


In  early 
art. 


Hair  and 
Tonsure. 


Form  of 
tonsure. 


Roman 
tonsure. 


In  a  catacomb  fresco,  we  find  a  man  standing  by  the 
mystical  tripod,  draped  in  the  pallium.  Representations 
of  both  men  and  women,  and  of  the  apostles  Peter  and 
Paul,  show  their  hands  wound  in  the  pallium.  This  may 
be  either  a  mark  of  reverence,  as  of  one  who  touches 
sacred  things,  or  may  well  refer  to  the  Roman  view  that 
the  hands  so  covered  denoted  a  calm  and  grave  bearing: 
"  manum  intra  pallium  continere  "  meant  to  speak  in  a 
calm  and  collected  way,  or  without  immoderation  or 
excitement.  After  the  iii.  century  the  pallium  is  repre- 
sented worn  over  a  tunic,  and  not  exposing  the  arm  and 
shoulder. 

Tonsure,*  the  cutting  of  a  bald  place  on  the  top  of 
the  head,  is  a  custom  which  grew  out  of  the  very  early 
rules  respecting  the  wearing  of  hair  in  general.  S.  Paul 
refers  to  the  wearing  of  the  hair,  and  Clement  of  Alex- 
andria laid  down  certain  regulations  for  both  sexes. 
The  legislation  on  this  subject  gradually  applied  only 
to  clerics.  The  Liber  Pontificalis  represents  Anicetus 
requiring  that  clerics  should  not  let  their  hair  grow. 
Jerome  mentions  the  prohibition; f  and  the  Statuta 
ecclesiae  antiquae  rehearses  the  rule  that  "a  cleric  shall 
not  allow  either  hair  or  beard  to  grow."  But  in  Ter- 
tuUian's  eyes  to  shave  the  beard  is  to  lie  against  our 
faces,  and  attempt  an  improvement  of  the  works  of  the 
Creator,  t 

In  633  the  Council  of  Toledo  prescribed  the  coronal 
tonsure  for  all  clerics  as  well  as  for  levites  and  priests: 
the  hair  was  to  be  entirely  cut  from  the  top  of  the  head, 
leaving  a  circle  about  the  ears.  It  signified  the  Crown 
of  Thorns.  Hence  tonsure  became  the  distinguishing 
mark  of  the  cleric. 

This  coronal  tonsure  is  the  Roman  tonsure ;  it  is  now 
confined  to  the  Religious  Orders,  priests  and  other 
clerics  having  a  small  circle  only  cut  at  the  back  of  the 


*  Tonsura,  a  shearing  or  clipping,  from  tondeo. 

t  In  Ezechialem  XLIP\,  20,  and  vide  Council  of  Agde,  511. 

X  De  Spectacidis,  23. 


CARDINALS 


489 


head.*  The  regulation  as  to  beards  differed  with  time  Beards 
and  place.  In  103 1  a  Council  of  Limoges  decided  that 
priests  could  shave  or  retain  the  beard  at  pleasure. 
Ancient  laws  made  it  customary  for  inferior  clerics  to 
be  clean  shaven,  while  the  higher  clergy  retained  Uieir 
beards.  In  Rome,  as  we  may  see  from  the  monuments 
in  S.  Peter's,  the  pope  wore  a  beard  till  quite  lately. 
But  to-day  the  rule  is  absolute  for  all  in  clerical  orders  to 
be  clean  shaven.  Capuchins,  hermit  Orders,  clergy  on 
Eastern  Missions,  and  Easterns  in  communion  with 
Rome,  being  the  only  exceptions. 

The  Pauline  tonsure  which  requires  that  the  head  be 
completely  shaved,  refers  to  S.  Paul's  vow  made  at 
Crete.  Bede  alludes  to  it  when  he  says  that  Archbishop 
Theodore  of  Canterbury  had  to  wait  in  Rome  for  his 
ordination  "until  his  hair  grew  so  that  it  was  possible  to 
cut  it  in  the  form  of  a  crown;  for  he  had,  according  to  the 
oriental  manner,  the  tonsure  of  the  holy  Apostle  Paul."  t 


Excep- 
tions. 


Pauline 
tonsure. 


Cardinals  are  addressed  as  Eminence,!  Eminenza,  and 
are  Most  Eminent  and  Most  Reverend  Lord  Cardinals, 
Eminentissimo  Reverendissimo. 

Archbishops  ^.nd  bishops,  whether  diocesan  or  titular, 
are  addressed  in  Italy  as  Monsignore,  and  are  Eccelenza 
Reverendissima,  in  English  Right  Reverend. §  At  first 
Bishop  was  the  name  of  an  office,  and  not,  as  now,  a 
personal  title.  In  the  superscription  of  a  letter  of  Igna- 
tius, it  is  so  employed  for  the  first  time:  "To  Polycarp, 
Bishop  of  the  Church  of  Smyrna."  Hegesippus  in  the 
n.  century  does  not  give  any  title  to  the  heads  of  the 
Roman  Church;  and  epitaphs  of  Roman  bishops  even 
in  the  early  111.  century  do  not  bear  the  title  Episcopus. 
The  same  change  is  observable  with  the  dignity  of  car- 
dinal ;  it  was  long  before  the  title  Cardinal  attached  to 

*  This  often  gets  overgrown.  In  the  x.  century  priests  tried  to 
hide  it  by  letting  the  hair  grow  so  as  to  fall  over  the  bald  spot. 

t  Bede,  Hist.  EccL,  IV.,  (i).  The  priests  of  Isis  were  shaved 
in  this  manner. 

X  A  title  given  them  by  Urban  VIII.  in  1623. 

§  In  Ireland  Most  A'ez'erend. 


Style  and 
titles  of 
Ecclesias- 
tics. 

Cardinals. 

Arch- 
bishops 
and 
Bishops. 


490       CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 


Domestic 

prelates. 


Other 

Monsig- 

nori. 

Canons. 


Simple 
priests. 


Don. 


the  name,  in  place  of  being  used  adjectively,  diaconus 
cardinalis,  or  descriptively,  in  cafdine  constitutus.  Savon- 
arola writes  of  the  cardinals  by  the  name  of  their  tittili, 
as  '''' San  Piero  in  Vinci/hz,^^  meaning  Cardinal  della 
Rovere  afterwards  Julius  11. ;  or  he  calls  them  "the 
Cardinal  of  Lisbon,"  or  "of  Naples."  But  he  also 
writes  "Cardinal  de  Medici."* 

Domestic  prelates  are  Motisignore,  and  Illustrissimo 
Rcverendissitno  in  Italy,  in  England  "Right  Reverend." 
(See  also  page  ^id,  footnote.')  Papal  Chamberlains  and 
Chaplains  are  Monsignore,^  and  Reverendissimo,  in  Eng- 
land "Very  Reverend." 

Canons  have  usually  some  other  title,  but  Canons  of 
the  great  Roman  Chapters  are  ofificially  styled  '  Most 
Illustrious  and  Most  Reverend  Lord  J  Canons ' ;  the 
Minor  Canons  Reverend  Lords  \  Beneficiaries,  and  Rev- 
erend Lords  Beneficiary  Clerks.  The  usual  address 
of  Canons  is  Reverendissimo  (Very  Reverend).  Among 
simple  priests,  the  parish  priest,  curato,  paroeco,  is 
Reverendissimo,  a  priest  having  some  charge  Molto  Rev- 
erende,  a  simple  priest  and  all  persons  in  minor 
orders,  Reverendo. 

In  Rome  secular  priests  are  styled  Don,  which  is  the 
style  also  of  Italian  princes.  It  is  an  abbreviation  of 
domniis  like  dom,  and  in  England  in  the  middle  ages 
was  spelt  dan,  dann,  don,  and  dom,  and  was  the  style 
then  as  it  is  now  of  Benedictine  monks. §  Secular  priests 
in  -England  were  styled  'Sir  Hugh,'  '  Sir  Robert.'  Later 
it  was  customary  to  call  secular  priests  in  England 
J/f  until  Cardinal  Manning  insisted  on  their  being  called 
'Father,'  borrowing  the  favourite  Irish  style  for  a  priest. 


*  In  an  early  Xiv.  century  list  of  cardinals,  bishops  and  abhats 
are  called  after  their  dioceses  and  abbacies,  others  by  the  Christian 
or  Christian  and  surname,  others  by  the  place  of  their  birth. 

t  Before  the  surname  it  is  spelt  and  pronounced  without  the  e. 

%  Domini ;  see  Don,  etc.,  infra. 

§  See  Part  III.,  Chap.  I.,  p.  50.     Chaucer  writes: 

—  Dan  Pers 
Dan  Dominike,  Dan  Godfray,  or  Clement. 


CARDINALS 


491 


111  Rome  and  Italy  'Father  '  {Fadre)  is  the  title  only  of    Padre. 
Regular  priests,  Franciscans,  Dominicans,  Jesuits,  Bar- 
nabites,  etc. 

Abbe,  as  the  French  title  for  a  priest,  originated  in  Abbe, 
the  custom  of  conferring  abbacies  ///  comnieuthuii  on 
ecclesiastics,  not  necessarily  priests,  who  drew  the  rev- 
enues and  were  titular  or  lay-abbats  of  their  benefice. 
This  monstrous  abuse  ceased,  but  the  title  remained 
and  became  in  time,  as  it  is  now,  that  of  every  sec- 
ular priest,  the  parish  priest  excepted.  However  the 
Sulpicians  are  simply  called  'Monsieur.'  Pere  is  con- 
fined to  Regular  priests.  In  Italy  abbe  is  so  completely 
the  style  of  a  cleric,  as  distinguished  from  a  priest,  that 
a  young  man  in  minor  orders,  ?i  pretino  non  di  inessa,  is 
called  an  abate.  [For  monastic  titles,  see  Part  III., 
p.  49.] 

In  Rome  where  ecclesiastical  titles  make  more  differ- 
ence among  the  clergy  than  anywhere  else,  we  descend 
from  the  pope  to  the  wretched  priest  popularly  called 
a  scagfwzzo,  who  dirty  ignorant  and  hungry  makes  a 
precarious  livelihood  out  of  pittances  offered  him  for 
saying  mass.  Though  a  priest,  he  is  regarded  as  a  veri- 
table outcast  in  this  city  of  clergy,  and  there  are  still 
too  many  of  these  pariahs  in  the  streets  of  Rome. 


'  Scag- 
nozzi." 


SEMINARIES    AND    SEIMINARISIS. 


Colleges  for  the  education  of   young   men   for   the   Ecciesiasti- 


priesthood  exist  in  every  country,  but  nowhere  are  there 
so  many  as  in  Rome.  The  Council  of  Trent  requires 
that  every  cathedral  and  metropolitan  church  shall  edu- 
cate boys  for  the  ministry,  the  minimum  age  of  recep- 
tion being  12  years.*  S.  Charles  Borromeo  gave  effect 
to  this  in  his  own  diocese,  and  laid  down  rules  for  sem- 
inaries. But  the  special  education  of  young  men  for 
the  ministry  is  of  much  greater  antiquity,  the  Patri- 
archium  attached  to  the  Lateran  by  Gregory  the  Great 

*  They  are  to  be  taken  especially  from  the  sons  of  the  poor,  but 
neither  aie  the  rich  to  be  excluded.     Session  XXIII. 


cal  Semi- 
naries. 

Trent. 


Patriarch- 
ium. 


492       CIIRISTIAX  AXD   ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 


Augustine, 
the  episco- 
pia. 


Canon  law 
legislation. 


Clerical 
dress. 


Military 
service. 


was  nothing  less  than  a  school  for  young- clerics,  and  the 
still  earlier  houses  for  clergy,  the  episcopia  or  bishop's 
house,  founded  in  their  dioceses  by  both  Eusebius  of 
Vercelli  and  Augustine  of  Hippo,  must  be  regarded  as 
a  step  in  the  same  direction,  and  must  have  served  as 
schools  of  the  minor  orders.  The  canon  law  next 
decided  that  youths  should  be  dedicated  to  the  service 
of  the  Church;*  the  Council  of  Orleans  in  511  orders 
that  children  and  grandchildren  of  clerks  shall  be  under 
the  power  of  the  bishop  and  not  of  their  parents,  and  in 
531  the  II.  Council  of  Toledo  ordains  that  boys  destined 
for  the  priesthood  shall  be  trained  in  the  bishop's  house 
till  their  I8'^  year.  The  bishop's  house  thus  converted 
into  a  residence  for  the  presbyters  deacons  and  minor 
orders  was  the  parent  of  the  canonica  and  the  seminary. 
After  the  promulgation  of  the  Canon  law,  the  priesthood 
ceased  to  be  chosen  from  adult  members  of  the  Church, 
and  youths  were  "set  apart  and  protected  from  a  tender 
age.  As  the  episcopal  schools  of  the  middle  ages  existed 
side  by  side  with  the  monastic  schools  and  formed  the 
educational  system  of  that  time,  so  the  training  of  youths 
in  the  episcopia  for  the  priesthood  rivalled  the  Benedic- 
tine training  of  children  for  the  monastic  life. 

The  Council  of  Trent  decreed  that  seminarists  were 
to  be  tonsured  and  to  wear  clerical  dress.  The  tiny 
boys  arrayed  in  cassock  and  the  clerical  beaver  hat  to 
be  seen  in  Rome,  remind  one  of  Chaucer's  "litel  cler- 
geoun"  "that  seve  yer  was  of  age."  In  France  semi- 
narists have  to  perform  their  term  of  military  service, 
and  a  recent  law  has  been  passed  in  Italy  to  the  same 
effect.! 


Seminary 
of  the 
Diocese  of 
Rome. 


The  immediate  outcome  of  the  requirements  of  the 
Council  of  Trent  was  the  establishment  of  a  Seminary  for 
the  Diocese  of  Rome,  the  Seminario  Pontificio  Romano 

*  The  letter  of  pseudo-Clement  which  speaks  of  the  clergy  being 
domiciled  in  the  bishop's  house  is  cited. 

t  Of  course  these  boys  are  free  to  choose  another  career  any 
time  before  receiving  major  orders. 


CAJ^DLVALS 


493 


at  S.  Apollinare.  Here  young  men  are  trained  for 
the  Roman  diocese.  The  biblioteca  Pia  attached,  was 
founded  by  Pius  IX.,  and  Leo  XIII.  has  founded  a  Chair 
for  the  commentation  of  Dante.  The  students  of  this 
college  can  take  degrees  and  diplomas  in  the  subjects 
taught.     The  Cardinal  Vicar  is  President. 

The  Pio  Seminary  trains  priests  for  the  province  of 
Rome. 

The  Seminario  Vaticano,  by  the  Vatican,  is  the  semi- 
nary of  the  Vatican  Chapter,  and  its  students  assist  in 
all  the  great  functions  in  S.  Peter's.  Their  Prefect  is 
an  archbishop  and  Canon  of  the  Vatican,  and  the  Rector 
is  also  a  Canon. 

The  Collegio  Capranicense,  founded  in  1457  by  Car- 
dinal Capranica,  is  the  oldest  ecclesiastical  college  in 
existence;  it  is  called  the  almum  coUegiiiin.  Students 
are  not  received  under  16  years  old. 

The  College  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Faith  trains 
students  of  all  nations  for  the  priesthood,  on  condition 
that  they  return  as  missionaries  to  their  own  country. 
This  college  takes  precedence  of  all  others,  the  Cap- 
ranica ranking  next.  Its  residence  is  in  Piazza  di 
Spagna,  facing  the  column  of  the  Immaculate  Concep- 
tion,* and  was  erected  by  Urban  VIII.  from  the  designs 
of  Bernini.  The  college  was  founded  in  1622  by  Greg- 
ory XV.  and  numbers  some  100  students.  The  prefect 
is  always  a  resident  Cardinal.  The  Propaganda  print- 
ing press  issues  works  in  oriental  types  and  in  all  lan- 
guages. Its  ofifices,  where  its  publications  can  be 
bought,  is  now  moved  to  Piazza  INIignanelli  close  by. 

The  Museo  Borgia  bequeathed  to  the  College  by  its 
Prefect  Cardinal  Borgia  in  the  last  century,  contains  a 
fine  collection  of  oriental  MSS.,  and  curiosities  sent  by 
missionaries  in  distant  parts.  The  college  has  a  library 
of  over  30,000  volumes.     It  has  faculty  to  grant  degrees. 


Pio 
Seminario. 

Vatican 
Seminary. 


Collegio 
Capranica. 


Propa- 
ganda 
Fide. 


Tipografia 
poligloita. 

Museo 
Borgia. 


*  Erected  by  Pius  IX.  to  celebrate  the  definition  of  the  dogma 
1857.  The  column  is  of  Cippolino  marble,  and  is  ancient.  It  was 
found  behind  Monte  Citorio  in  177S,  and  is  apparently  unfinished. 
The  statue  of  the  Virgin,  in  bronze,  is  by  Obicci. 


494      CHRISTIAN  AXD   ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 

and  here,  besides   the   usual   studies,   Arabic,   Hebrew, 
Syriac,  Greek,  Armenian  and  Chinese  are  taught.     [See 
Part  II.,  page  214.] 
Germanic         The   Austro-Hungarian,    or   Germanic,    College   was 
College.        founded  by  S.   Ignatius,   and  is  under  Jesuit  manage- 
ment.    It  is  now  established  in  the  old  Hotel  Costanzi. 
The  chapel  of  the  college  faces  on  to  the  little  Vicolo 
del  Falcone,  and  is  open  to  visitors  for  mass  at  9.30 
and  vespers  3  hours  before  the  Ave  Maria,  on  Sunday. 
The  students  of  this  large  college  assist  at  the  Gesii. 
Greek  The  Greek  College  is  another  ancient  one,  founded 

College.        jj^  j^yy  i^y  Gregory  XIII.     Attached  to  it  is  the  Greek 
church,  and  the  students  assist  at  the  functions.     This 
college   has  been   recently   placed   in   the  care  of    the 
Benedictines,  with  excellent  results. 
English  The  Venerable  Urban  College  of  S.  Thomas  of  Canter- 

College.        \y\xx^-  was  founded  by  Urban  VIII.  on  the  site  of  a  much 
Saxon  more  ancient  institution.      An  English  hospice  in  Rome 

Hospice  or  ^y^g  founded,  according  to  Matthew  of  Westminster,  in 
729  by  Ina  King  of  Wessex.  Matthew  Paris  records 
that  Offa  King  of  Mercia  visited  the  English  hospice 
in  791;  and  Offa  perhaps  was  really  its  founder.  One 
of  the  entries  in  the  Saxon  chronicle  for  the  year  816 
is:  "This  year  the  English  school  {scho/a)  was  burnt 
down."  At  Alfred's  request.  Pope  Marinus  (882-884) 
freed  the  English  hospice  from  all  tribute.  The  church 
attached  was  dedicated  to  the  Holy  Trinity  by  Offa,  and 
it  is  said  Thomas  of  Canterbury  resided  at  the  hostel. 
In  1380  some  English  obtained  permission  to  build  a 
hospital  near  the  English  school,  and  here  during  the 
persecutions  under  Henry  VIII.  many  were  relieved. 
The  English  House  in  Rome  was  in  fact  re-established 
at  this  time  to  supply  the  spiritual  wants  of  Catholics; 
and  when  the  bishops  were  deprived  by  Elizabeth, 
Goldwell  of  S.  Asaph  retired  here.*     At  the  end  of  the 

*  See  Part  II.,  p.  140. 

In  1626  an  apostate  priest,  Lewis  Owen,  published  the  "  Run- 
ning Register"  concerning  the  English  seminaries  abroad,  which 
was  sold  at  the  door  of  S.  Paul's,  London.     He  there  says  that  on 


CARDIXALS 


495 


College. 


XVI.  century  Gregory  XIII.  determined  to  convert  the 
English  house  into  a  missionary  college  for  60  priests. 
The  Jesuits  had  charge  of  it  until  their  suppression  in 
1773.  In  1882  a  new  church  was  built,  opening  on  the 
Via  del  Monserrato,  dedicated  to  the  Holy  Trinity,  and 
S.  Thomas  a  Becket.  S.  Philip  Neri  lived  opposite 
this  interesting  site,  which  has  served  as  a  hostel  for 
English  visitors  to  Rome  for  over  800  years,  and  used  to 
salute  the  English  students  with  the  verse  from  an  old 
Epiphany  hymn :  Salvete  flores  mariyriim,  "Hail,  flower 
of  martyrs."  To  this  day  the  last  mass  said  by  the 
newly  ordained  seminarist  before  he  leaves  for  his  Eng- 
lish mission  is  said  at  the  altar  of  S.  Philip.* 

The  Scots'  College  was  founded  in  1600  and  rebuilt  Scots 
on  the  same  site  in  1869.      It  receives  about  21  stu- 
dents,    S.  Andrew  and  his  X-shaped  cross  appears  over 
the  door.     The  chapel  is  open  on  Sunday. 

The  only  other  ancient  college  is  the  Irish,  instituted  Irish 
by  Gregory  XIII.  (1572-85),  and  managed  by  the  Jesuits  College, 
until  1773.  It  is  attached  to  S.  Agatha  of  the  Goths, 
which  is  open  to  the  public  on  Sunday  and  feast  days. 
The  Irish  students  were  given  by  Gregory  XVI.  the 
privilege  of  carrying  the  staves  of  the  baldacchino  on 
Corpus  Christi  from  the  end  of  the  colonnade  of  S. 
Peter's  to  the  gate  of  the  Palazzo  Accoromboni.  The 
late  rector  of  the  college  was  Monsignor  Kirby  titular 
bishop  of  Lita  and  a  contemporary  student  with  Leo 
XIII.,  who  died  at  a  great  age  in  1894. 

All  the  other  seminaries  have  been  founded  in  the 
last  45  years.     There  was  no  French  College  in  Rome 


French 
Seminary. 


the  re-establishment  of  the  English  College  in  Rome,  English  stu- 
dents began  to  "  run  thither  thick  and  threefold  from  Oxenford  and 
Cambridge  and  all  parts  of  England  "  ;  and  that  the  students  were 
"  kept  and  penned  in  like  so  many  prisoners,  and  more  straiter  than 
those  of  S.  Omer." 

t  A  new  foundation  called  the  Collegio  Beda  (Bede's  College) 
has  just  been  endowed  by  the  Pope,  who  has  prescribed  its  consti- 
stutions.  It  is  attached  to  the  English  College,  and  is  for  convert 
clergymen. 


496      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 


Lombard 
College. 

Seminary 
of  SS.  Peter 
and  Paul 
de  (Jrbe  tor 
Foreign 
Missions. 


Belgian 
College. 


North 

American 

College. 


South 

American 

College. 

Maronite 
College. 


Bohemian 
College. 


Armenian 
College. 


until  1857  when  the  Missionaries  of  the  Saint-Esprit 
became  established  as  the  national  ecclesiastical  college, 
with  some  150  students.  Their  church,  that  of  S.  Chiara, 
entirely  rebuilt  b)'  them,  is  not  open  to  the  public. 

The  Seminary  of  SS.  Ambrose  and  Charles,  Lombard 
College,  trains  priests  for  the  North  Italian  diocese. 

The  Seminary  of  SS.  Apostles  Peter  and  Paul  is  a 
missionary  college  founded  by  Pius  IX.  in  1874,  for 
Indian  missions  especially.  It  is  like  the  preceding 
College  pontifical,  i.e.  depending  immediately  from  the 
Pope,  its  funds  are  derived  from  the  publication  of 
the  Acta  Sanctae  Sedis.  Young  men  (Italians)  who  have 
passed  at  least  the  5'!'  class  of  the  Ginnasio  are  trained 
for  the  missions.  On  their  ordination  they  are  sent 
at  once  to  China  or  Lower  California.  I'heir  Cardinal 
President  is  Ledochowski. 

The  Belgian  College  was  founded  in  1854.  The  little 
church  of  SS.  Anna  and  Joachim  next  to  S.  Carlino  is 
the  College  chapel.     It  may  sometimes  be  found  open. 

The  North  American  College  was  established  in  1858, 
Pius  IX.  having  presented  the  large  convent  in  the  Via 
deir  Umilta  for  its  use.  There  are  now  about  65  stu- 
dents. Their  chapel  is  open  for  mass  at  10  a.m.  on 
Sunday. 

The  South  American  College  was  founded  in  the  same 
year.  It  has  moved  into  large  new  buildings  in  the  Prati 
di  Castello.     Its  official  title  is  Pio  Latino  Americano. 

The  Maronite  College,  composed  of  about  23  students, 
is  known  as  the  Collegia  lUirico.  It  educates  Dalmatian 
students. 

The  Bohemian  College  is  now  in  the  Via  Sistina, 
where  it  has  adapted  the  little  church  of  S.  Francesca 
Romana  as  the  college  chapel,  dedicating  it  to  S.  John 
Nepomuck,  S.  Wenceslaus  and  S.  Francesca  Romana. 

The  Armenian  College  like  the  preceding  was  founded 
by  the  present  pope.  It  is  attached  to  the  church  of 
S.  Niccolo  da  Tolentino,  where  the  liturgy  is  now 
celebrated  in  the  Armenian  rite. 

The  Teutonic  College  of  S.  Boniface  is  the  only  one 


C,17^D/XALS 


497 


for  Scandinavian  students  in  Rome.  Swedes,  Danes 
and  Norwegians  are  trained  tliere.  They  inhabit  the 
old  palace  of  the  Cardinal  Archpriest  of  S.   Peter's. 

The  National  Seminary  of  the  Poles  is  now  in  the  Via 
dei  Maroniti,  which  takes  its  name  from  the  old  Mar- 
onite  College. 

The  Spanish  College  has  recently  been  placed  by  the 
Pope  in  Palazzo  Altemps,  with  the  church  of  S.  Anicetus 
attached. 

The  French  Canadians  have  built  a  fine  college  for 
Canadian  priests,   directed  by  the  Sulpicians. 

The  Ruthenian  College,  which  has  till  now  been 
joined  with  the  Greek,  was  separately  established  for 
Greco-Ruthenian  students  in  1898.  The  services  are 
in  the  Ruthenian  rite. 

The  college  of  youths  who  wear  evening  dress  ample 
cloaks  and  silk  hats  and  take  their  walks  accompanied 
by  a  priest,  belong  to  the  Pontifical  Academy  of  Noble 
Ecclesiastics,  instituted  in  1701  by  Clement  XL 

The  students  of  all  the  national  colleges  promise  to 
return  after  their  ordination  to  their  own  country,  to 
labour  in  the  ministry.  Each  college  is  ruled  by  a 
rector.  The  students  go  into  villegi^ia/ura  in  the  cam- 
pagna  from  June  to  October.  Nearly  all  the  colleges 
are  gratuitous.* 

Each  of  these  colleges  is  distinguished  by  a  special 
dress,  and  no  sight  is  more  familiar  to  the  Roman  visitor 
than  these  bands  of  young  men  in  the  streets  and  in  the 
churches.  The  original  collegiate  dress,  which  is  that 
worn  by  the  older  foundations,  consists  of  a  long  black 
or  coloured  cassock  and  belt,  with  the  soprana,  or  long 
sleeveless  coat,  which  has  two  long  strings  hanging  from 
the  armholes.  These  streamers  are  leading  strings,  sig- 
nifying the  state  of  tuition. f      Indoors,  the  Zimarni,  zl 


College  of 
S.Boniface. 


Polish 
College. 


Spanish 
College. 


Canadian 
College. 

Ruthenian 
College. 


Collegio 
dei  Nobili. 


*  The  payment  in  the  Vatican  and  Capranica  Colleges  is  60  and 
70  lire  a  month  respectively. 

t  It  has  always  been  thought  that  these  were  a  badge  of  depend- 
ence, and  a  confirmation  of  this  is  found  in  the  dress  of  the  Pope's 
camerieri  di  cappa  e  spada,  who  wear  them. 
2  K 


NARISTS. 


498      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAI   HOME 

cassock  and  shoulder  cape,  is  worn.     The  students  wear 
the  clerical  hat. 

DRESS  OF         Seminary  of  the  Diocese  of  Rome.     Piazza  S.  Apolli- 

THE   SEMI-     jj^j.g    ^gj_ 

Dress:  Purple  cassock  and  soprana  with  pendant 
strings  and  no  sash. 

Pontificio  Provinciale  Pio.  Piazza  S.  Apollinare  49. 
They  share  the  same  college  as  the  above. 

Dress:  Black  cassock,  a  violet  sash  and  a  full  cloak. 

Vatican  Seminary.      Piazza  S.  Marta  23. 

Dress :  Dark  purple  cassock  with  crimson  bindings  and 
buttons.  One  crimson  string  decorated  with  the  papal 
arms,  buckle  shoes. 

Capranica  College.      Piazza  Capranica  98. 

Dress:  Black  cassock,  a  black  soprana  of  shiny  cloth, 
strings,  no  sash,  and  shoes  with  silver  buckles. 

Propaganda  Fide.  Via  di  Propaganda  i,  and  Villa 
Rufinella,  Frascati. 

Dress:  Black  double-breasted  cassock,  red  pipings  and 
buttons,  scarlet  sash,  and  strings. 

Germanic  College.  Via  S.  Niccolo  da  Tolentino  8, 
and  Villa  Mondragone,  Frascati. 

Dress :  Scarlet  cassock  and  black  sash.  Out  of  doors, 
scarlet  soprana  with  pendant  strings. 

Greek  College.     Via  del  Rabuino  149. 

Dress:  Blue  cassock  with  red  sash  and  pipings,  blue 
soprana  with  strings.  Out  of  doors  a  black  soprana  with 
wide  sleeves. 

English  College.  Via  di  Monserrato  45 ;  and  Monte 
Porzio. 

Dress:  Black  cassock  and  soprana.  Black  strings  and 
no  sash. 

Scotch  College.  Via  delle  Quattro  Fontane  16 r,  and 
a  villa  at  Marino. 

Dress:  Purple  cassock  with  crimson  sash  buttons 
and  pipings.     Black  soprana  and  pendant  strings. 

Irish  College.     Via  Mazzarino  27;  and  Tivoli. 

Dress:  Black  cassock  with  red  pipings,  no  sash, 
black  soprana  and  strings. 


CARDINALS  499 

French  College.     Via  di  S.  Chiara  42. 

Dress :  The  French  College  was  the  first  to  dispense 
with  the  old  collegiate  dress,  and  to  wear  the  priest's 
cassock  and  no  soprana. 

Lombard  College.     Via  Gioacchino  Belli  31. 

Dress :  Black  cassock  with  a  violet  sash,  soprana  and 
pendant  strings. 

Seminary  of  SS.  Peter  and  Paul.     Via  Toscana  12. 

Dress:  Priest's  dress  with  a  black  sash. 

Belgian  College.     Via  del  Quirinale  26. 

Dress:  Priest's  dress  with  black  sash  edged  with  red. 

North  American  College.  Via  dell'  Umilta  30;  and 
Grotta  Ferrata. 

Dress:  Double-breasted  black  cassock,  blue  pipings 
and  buttons,  and  a  crimson  sash,  pendant  strings. 

South  American  College.     Via  (jioacchino  Belli  3. 

Dress:  Black  cassock  with  blue  edgings  and  a  blue 
sash;  black  soprana  and  pendant  strings. 

ISIaronite  College.     Via  di  Porta  Pinciana  32. 

Dress :  Black  cassock,  soprana  and  strings. 

Bohemian  College.     Via  Sistina  128. 

Dress:  Black  cassock  with  maroon  sash  edged  with 
yellow. 

Armenian  College.     Via  S.  Niccolo  da  Tolentino  31. 

Dress :  Black  cassock  with  red  pipings.  Out  of  doors 
a  black  coat  with  wide  sleeves. 

College  of  S.  Boniface.     Piazza  della  Sagristia  31. 

Dress:  Black  cassock  with  yellow  pipings;  black 
soprana  and  black  pendant  strings  lined  with  red, 

Polish  College.     Via  dei  Maroniti  22. 

Dress:  Black  cassock  and  soprana  with  green  sash. 

Spanish  College.     Palazzo  Altemps. 

Dress :  Black  cassock  with  blue  sash,  round  black  cape 
wnth  vertical  blue  pipings. 

Canadian  College.     Via  delle  Quattro  Fontane  117. 

Dress:  Priest's  dress  and  no  sash. 

Ruthenian  College.     Piazzo  S.  Maria  dei  Monti. 

Dress :  Blue  cassock,  soprana  with  strings,  orange  sash. 


CHAPTER  V. 

THE  ECCLESIASTICAL    ORDERS. 

The  seven  orders  of  the  hierarchy  —  origin  of  the  titles  episcopus, 
presbyter,  etc. ,  — propJiets  —  off.ce  of  the  Bishop  —  of  the  Pres- 
byter —  of  the  Deacon  —  of  the  Widow  and  Deaco7iess  —  of  the 
Stibdeacon  —  of  the  Lector — of  the  Acolyte — of  the  Exorcist  — 
of  the  Ostiariiis —  Chorepiscopi  —  celibacy  —  ecclesiastical  en- 
do7vments  and  immunities. 

A  CLEAR  distinction  is  made  by  Tertullian  between  ordi- 
7iem  and  plebem.  The  former  are  Church  ofificers,  the 
latter  the  simple  faithful.  Ordo,  order,  for  him,  in- 
cludes only  the  bishop,  the  deacon,  and  the  widow;  an 
enumeration  identical  with  i  Tim.  iii,  Episkopos,  dia- 
koiioi,  gunaikes.  It  is  not  till  the  second  quarter  of  the 
III.  century  that  any  office  but  the  presbyterate  and  dia- 
conate  ranks  as  ordo.*  Those  dignities  "set  in  the 
Church  "  by  God,  in  the  earlier  and  later  lists  given  by 
S.  Paul,  I  Cor.  xii.  28;  Eph,  iv.  11,  are  not  synony- 
mous with  the  "bishops  and  deacons"  who  are  saluted 
in  Phil.  i.  i. 

In  Rome,  bishops  presbyters  and  deacons  are  the 
only  ofifices  known  as  ordo  when  the  Philosophumena 
were  written,  about  the  year  234.  But  precisely  at  this 
period,  in  the  reigns  of  Alexander  Severus  and  Philip- 
pus,    lectors  were    attached    as   minor   officers   to    the 

• 

*  Ordo  signified  a  band  or  company,  and  also  a  row  or  bench. 
The  Romans  called  the  different  classes  of  the  people  ordo  sena- 
torius,  ordo  plebeius,  etc.  Cicero  uses  the  word  for  a  centurionship. 
The  term  clems,  clericus,  clergy,  derived  from  KKrjpos  a  lot,  and  is 
the  word  used  in  Acts  i.  26.  The  word  clerk  came  to  mean  a 
person  who  could  read  and  write,  because  in  the  middle  ages  this 
knowledge  was  chiefly  confined  to  the  clergy. 

500 


THE  ECCLESIASTICAL    ORDERS  501 

deacons,  both  at  Rome  and  Carthage;  and  the  Apos- 
tolical Constitutions,  "Source  A"  (iii.  century)  give: 
"Bishop,  presbyter,  reader,  deacons,  and  widows."  The 
subdeacon  makes  his  appearance  about  the  same  time 
as  the  lector.  After  the  middle  of  the  iii.  century  the 
subdeacon,  acolyte,  exorcist,  and  doorkeeper  always 
appear  in  the  list  of  clerics.  They  figure  in  the  cele- 
brated list  of  the  Roman  clergy  in  the  letter  of  Pope 
Cornelius  to  Fabius  of  Antioch  (251).  "All  develop- 
ments in  the  region  of  Church  government "  writes 
Professor  Harnack  "were  completed  most  speedily  in 
Rome." 

The  7  grades  leading  up  to  the  bishop,  established 
by  then,  and  existing  now  are:  ostiarii  (doorkeepers), 
lectors,  exorcists,  acolytes,  subdeacons,  deacons,  pres- 
byters. 

The  combined  Jewish  and  Greco-Roman   influences   The  titles 
at  work  in  the  early  Church  are  shown  in  the  titles  which   of  ^r^s- 
these  officers  received.     Presbyter,  Elder,  was  a  Jewish 
functionary,  a  member  of  the  Council  or  Sanhedrim.* 
The  general  tendency  was  to  adopt  as  titles  of  dignity 
those  which  denoted  age.      The  title   IVidotu  is  an  in- 
stance, and  hence  Tertullian's  complaint  at  there  being 
widows,  officers,  of  20  years  old.     Not  only  Hebrews  but 
the  Greeks  of  Asia  Minor  had  yepovmaL,  councils  of  old 
men.     Episkopos  is  a  title  early  employed  where  Gentile   bishop, 
influence  was  strongest.!     In  later  Greek  the  episkopoi, 
or  overseers,  were  officers  sent  by  the  Athenians  to  punish 
States;  the  word  denoted  an  officer  or  prefect.     Shep-   shepherd, 
herd,    TTOLixijv,    pastor,    is  a   title   adopted    early,    as    in 
Ephesians  iv.   11.     S.   Peter  couples  it  with  the  office 
or  work  of  a  bishop  twice  (i  Pet.  ii.  25;  v.  2,  3,  4,) 
and  S.  Paul  does  the  same  in  Acts  xx.  28.     It  was  an 
official  title  in  Greece,  and  signified  a  chief  or  prince 

*  Earlier  still,  Elders  were  appointed  for  each  city.  Cf.  Deut. 
xix.  12,  and  xxi.  4,  with  Titus  i.  5.  In  the  N.  T.  ■Kpta^\'nepo%  and 
irpeT^vTTis,  elder,  and  old,  are  used  interchangeably  both  fur  men 
and  women. 

t  Not  mentioned  in  the  X.  T.  till  the  Epistle  to  Philippians. 


502 


CHRISTIAN  AXD  ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 


and 
deacon. 


of  the  people.  The  prophets  employed  it  in  Judaea:  and 
it  is  an  instance  of  a  term  in  use  in  the  world  around 
them,  to  which  the  Christians  must  certainly  have  given 
a  special  significance  —  as  one  of  the  titles  most  fre- 
quently put  forward  by  Christ  Himself.  Hernias,  Ire- 
naeus,  and  Clement  of  Alexandria  all  use  it.*  Deacon, 
StoiKovos,  a  minister,  is  another  term  employed  by  Christ: 
"Where  I  am  there  shall  be  ]\Iy  minister,"  and  it  is  one 
often  in  the  mouths  of  the  Apostles.  It  is  also  the  sole 
title  of  Christian  origin.  Diakonia,  ministry,  is  one 
of  the  earliest  names  for  the  work  of  evangelisation.! 
Tertullian  employs  it  as  well  as  ordo.  Of  the  bishopric, 
irp(DT€M,  magisierium,  principalis  coficessio,  are  used  by 
Irenaeus;  TrpwroKaOtSpia  by  Hernias  and  Clement  of  Alex- 
andria; while  Tertullian  accords  to  Pope  Callistus  /ocus^ 
magisterii,  the  magistracy.  Presbyters  are  called  "those 
of  the  second  seat,"  a  title  which  can  be  easily  realised 
from  the  arrangement  of  a  basilica  apse  with  lis  pro io- 
caihcdra  or  bishop's  chair,  and  the  subscUium  or  pres- 
byters' seats  round  it.| 


Prophets.  The  ministry  of  apostles  who  were  not  of  the  twelve, 

and  of  prophets  is  made  known  to  us  in  the  New 
Testament  (Acts  xi.  27;  xiii.  i;  xv.  32,  33;  Kph.  ii. 
20;  iii.  5),  but  was  not  very  intelligible  until  the 
discovery  of  the  Didache,  where  it  appears  in  active 
course.  Here  the  "apostles"  are  missionaries  travel- 
ling from  Church  to  Church,  the  servants  of  all  the 
Churches,  forming  the  visible  bond  between  them,  the 
pledge  and  sign  of  unity.  They  never  spent  three  days 
in  one  place;  but  the  "prophets"  paid  longer  visits, 
teaching  and  edifying  the  Church  which  in  its  turn 
supported  them.  If  they  taught  what  they  failed  to 
practice,  or  asked  for  money,  they  were  pseudo-prophets. 


*  Hence  the  expression  pastoral  office  for  that  of  the  bishop. 
Cf.  Ecclesiastical  Canons  xxii. 

t  Cf.  I  Cor.  xvi.  15,  16. 

X  Cf.  the  Epistles,  proistavienol  and  prostates  ;  and  Hebrews  xiii. 
7,  17,  24,  hegoumenol,  rulers. 


THE  ECCLESIASTICAL    ORDERS  503 

and  are  to  be  dismissed.  The  evangelical  test  was  strictly 
applied  "By  their  fruits  you  shall  know  them."  In  the 
New  Testament,  Judas  and  Silas  are  prophets,  so  are 
Philip's  daughters;  so  was  Hermas  at  Rome,  and  the 
writer  of  the  Apocalypse  so  describes  himself.* 

These  apostles  and  prophets  of  the  primitive  Church 
taught  and  edified  it ;  the  bishopsand  deacons  represented 
it.  The  Church  appointed  the  c/eriis,  the  prophet  and 
teacher  were  appointed  by  heaven.  They  are  "those 
speaking  the  word  of  God  "  or  "  labouring  in  the  word  "  :  f 
and  hence  Christians  are  bidden  in  the  Didache  not  to 
despise  the  bishops  and  deacons,"  for  they  minister  to 
you  the  holy  service  of  the  prophets  and  teachers  "  {i.e. 
in  the  absence  of  these.)! 

It  is  generally  supposed  that  the  orders  below  that  of  The  Minor 
deacon  arose  out  of  the  diaconate,  and  sometime,  as  orders. 
we  have  seen,  at  the  end  of  the  in.  or  beginning  of  the 
IV.  century.  Thomas  Aquinas  was  the  first  to  assert  this, 
but  Cardinal  Bona  and  Morin  both  deny  it,  admitting  its 
truth  only  in  the  case  of  the  subdeacon.  Hase  says  that 
the  lesser  church  service  was  directed  by  the  laity,  and 
from  them  were  formed  the  4  grades  of  semi-clerks. 
Neither  of  these  opinions  appears  adequately  to  meet 
the  case. 

*  Among  classes  in  the  Church  Tertullian  enumerates  "  martyrs, 
confessors,  virgins  of  both  sexes,  doctors  {i.e.  teachers),  prophets 
and  prophetesses.  If  we  add  his  own  list  of  those  in  ordo,  bisfiops, 
deacons,  and  widows,  and  the  later  acolytes,  exorcists,  and  door- 
keepers, we  see  the  very  diverse  elements  and  epochs  represented  in 
the  present  office  for  Good  Friday  :  "  bishops,  priests,  deacons,  sub- 
deacons,  acolytes,  exorcists,  doctors,  doorkeepers,  confessors,  virgins, 
widows." 

t  In  Ephesians,  evangelists.  "  Prophets,  doctors,  evangelists, 
teachers,"  "  for  the  perfecting  of  the  saints  .  .  .  the  building  up 
of  the  body  of  Christ." 

\  So  the  prophets,  the  subject  of  a  spiritual  gift,  taught  and  com- 
forted the  Church  (Acts  xv.  32);  only  the  better  endowed  Church 
officers  did  so  (l  Tim.  v.  17). 


504      CHRISTIAN  AXD   ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 


OFFICE    OF    THE    BISHOP. 

The  bishop,  when  he  emerges  from  the  apostolate  or 
from  the  presbyterate,  *  appears  as  the  "  President  "  of 
the  Christian  assembly.  Very  soon  he  represents  and 
sums  in  his  own  person  not  only  the  presbyterate  but 
the  entire  ecclesia,  so  that  Cyprian  (,250)  can  declare 
that  "the  Church  is  in  the  episcopate"  {ecclesia  in 
episcopo  est)  and  Eusebius  that  its  representation  is 
vested  in  the  Bishop.  To  the  bishop,  and  to  him 
alone,  is  the  term  "Priest"  applied  for  the  first  600 
years.  As  representing  the  people  and  presiding  at  their 
Eucharist  he  is  the  "Sacerdos."  Tertullian  is  the  first 
to  call  him  so  —  the  bishop  at  Rome  is  summus  sacerdos 
(high  priest) ;  f  ^'^^  by  Ambrose  Siricius  is  called  the 
"priest  of  the  Roman  Church."  The  bishop  repre- 
sented the  unity  of  the  Church  —  the  common  life  which 
was  the  earliest  felt  of  all  needs,  second  only  to  that  of 
edification  and  before  that  for  doctrinal  definition;  \  and 
speedily  came  to  be  regarded  as  set  in  the  place  of  the 
absent  Lord  until  His  coming.  Then,  as  charismata% 
fail,  or  are  set  aside,  the  bishop  gradually  gathers  into 
himself  the  prophetic  characters  of  truth  and  teaching, 
which  are  thenceforward  felt  to  be  the  solid  and  per- 
petual marks  of  the  episcopate.  Irenaeus  is  struck  with 
its  imposing  development  in  Rome,  and  declares  that 
with  the  episcopal  succession  the  bishop  does  in  fact 
receive,  as  the  charisma,  the  gift,  special  to  him,  a 
guarantee  of  the  truth.  II  Doctrinal  anarchy  is  defied, 
and  the  Church  Catholic  emerges  from  the  multifarious 
'heresies,'  by  the  rallying  of  the  faithful  round  the 
bishop. 

*  See  p.  507  infra. 

t  The  term  used  in  Hebrews,  in  Chaps,  iii.-x. 

J  Thjs  peculiarity  it  is  which  has  created  the  essential  oneness 
of  Catholicism  under  the  changing  and  con^\c\.m^  face/ s  of  sentiment 
and  practice  imposed  by  the  genius  and  civilisation  of  each  age. 

§  I  Cor.  xii.  I,  4-1 1,  28-31. 

II  Episcopi  cunt  episcopaius  succcssiotie  cerium  veritatis  charisma 
acceperutit. 


THE  ECCLESIASTICAL    ORDERS  505 

Nor  was  the  close  attachment  of  the  people  to  him 
less  remarkable.  He  was  in  the  place  of  Christ,  while 
the  presbyters  represented  the  council  of  apostles;  or 
he  was  the  likeness  of  God  Himself.  Renan  alludes  to 
the  primitive  practice  of  kneeling  to  the  bishop:  the 
deference  paid  him  was  the  mark  of  the  Christian's 
union  through  him  with  Christ  the  Head.*  From  a.d. 
150  the  bishop's  liturgy,  the  bishop's  sermon,  the 
bishop's  rule  were  the  visible  sign  of  a  state  of  things 
in  which  his  authority  and  their  unity  were  but  two 
aspects  of  the  same  thing.  From  the  iii.  century  his 
predominant  importance  is  everywhere  affirmed. 

The  bishop  was  the  parish  priest,  the  ordinary  min- 
ister, of  every  soul  in  the  flock,  the  personal  referee  on 
all  matters.  He  received  personally  all  the  gifts  of  the 
people,  of  which  most  ancient  custom  there  are  still 
many  vestiges  —  at  the  ordination  of  priests,  the  conse- 
cration of  a  bishop,  or  of  a  virgin,  and  the  benediction 
of  abbats  and  abbesses,  lighted  tapers,  loaves,  wine, 
and  turtle  doves  are  still  offered,  and  in  Rome  a  wax 
candle  is  presented  to  the  bishop  at  confirmation.!  But 
especially  it  belonged  to  the  bishop  alone  to  confer  the 
character  he  himself  possessed.  Jerome  asks:  '"What 
can  the  bishop  do  that  the  presbyter  cannot  do,  except 
ordain?"  At  first,  however,  it  was  not  part  of  his  duty 
to  teach  or  preach.  Ambrose  in  the  iv.  century  lays 
down  the  principle  that  the  first  business  {munus)  of  the 
bishop  is  docere  popithim,  to  teach  the  people;  but  it 
is  clear  that  in  409-410  Synesius  still  xtg^x^'i  pray iv^:;  for 
the  people  as  his  principal  duty.  Chrysostom  declared 
that  the  bishop  who  had  not  the  faculty  for  instructing, 
should  be  deposed. 

One  of  the  perplexing  points  about  the  conception 
of  a  bishop's  office  is  that  a  man  could  apparently  be  a 
pastor  or  bishop  at  an  earlier  age  than  he  could  be  a 
presbyter,   and  that  the  one  class  was  not  necessarily 

*  Cf.  also  Part  II.,  p.  79. 

t  Mabillon  shows  these  offerings  continued  longer  in  the  West 
than  in  the  East.     Cf.  also  Part  II.,  p.  35. 


5o6      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 

chosen  from  the  other.  At  the  present  day,  also,  it  is 
an  open  question  whether  episcopal  consecration  in- 
cludes ordination  as  a  priest  or  no.  A  Council  in  779 
required  bishops  not  already  ordained  priests  to  be 
ordained  without  delay. 
Large  There  were,  at  first,  as  many  bishops,  or  "overseers," 

of'bishoDs  ^"^  there  were  later  "parishes"*  or  little  communities, 
in  early  At  the  Council  of  Ephesus,  32  of  the  42  little  towns  of 
times.  Proconsular  Asia,  the  size  of  which  did  not  exceed  that 

of  one  of  the  larger  English  counties,  were  represented 
by  as  many  bishops.  We  know  of  no  fewer  than  470 
episcopal  towns  in  North  Africa,  then  only  partly  Chris- 
tianised. The  entries  in  the  Liber  Pontificalis  show 
how  much  in  excess  of  other  clergy  was  the  number  of 
bishops.  Anencletus  is  said  to  have  made  5  presbyters, 
366.  3  deacons,  and  6  bishops.     Linus  15  bishops.     Damasus 

61  bishops  with  half  that  number  of  priests,  and  only  11 
468, 498.  deacons.  Simplicius  makes  82  bishops.  Symmachus 
535.  117,  with  98  priests,  and  only  16  deacons.     Agapitusf 

makes  1 1  bishops,  and  4  deacons  for  Rome.     In  844- 
847  Sergius  creates  23  bishops,  with  8  presbyters,  and  3 
deacons.     Paschal  IL  about  1099,  makes  100  bishops, 
50  presbyters,  30  deacons. | 
Duties  of  The  bishop  is  the  head  of  the  clergy  in  all  things,  and 

the  bishop  they  all  promise  obedience  to  him.  He  is  the  ordinary 
entcTay'^^^'  minister  of  confirmation,  and  he  alone  can  consecrate  a 
bishop,  a  virgin,  or  a  church,  or  ordain  priests,  deacons, 
and  subdeacons.  The  visitation  which  he  makes  of  all 
the  parishes  of  his  diocese  was  held  as  early  as  the  iv. 
century,  and  the  bishop  is  then  represented  receiving 
certain  dues,  seeing  that  the  clergy  conform  to  the  ec- 

*  Parishes;  ■napoiKia.  was  a  colony  of  sojourners  in  Septuagint 
language.  In  (".entile  places  it  was  the  name  for  the  Je\Aish  cum- 
nuuiity.  Then  it  l^ecame  the  name  for  the  Christian  Community, 
with  reference  to  the  non-Christian  Communities  round  it. 

t  From  this  time  the  entries  become  historical,  and  the  same  fact 
clearly  emerges. 

\  It  is  sometimes  affirmed  that  one  town  one  bishop  was  not  the 
strict  law  till  the  ill.  century.  In  650  the  Council  of  Chalons  says 
that  2  bishops  shall  not  be  consecrated  for  the  same  town. 


THE  ECCLESIASTICAL    ORDERS  507 

clesiastical  rules,  holding  courts  of  discipline,  and  con- 
ferring Chrism.* 

For  the  bishop's  everyday  dress,  see  page  477.  For 
his  liturgical  dress,  p.  469,  Part  II.,  p.  78.  For  the 
visit  ad limina.  Part  IV.,  p.  474;  and  for  the  ceremony 
of  his  consecration  Part  II.,  p.  178. 

OFFICE    OF    THE    PRESBYTER. 

It  is  usual  to  say  that  there  were  3  original  and 
apostolic  orders,  bishops,  priests,  and  deacons.  But 
bishops  and  presbyters  — ■  "  Overseers  "  and  "  Elders  "  — 
are  not  distinguished  in  the  Epistles.  Peter  and  John 
both  speak  of  themselves  as  Elders,  i.e.  presbyters; 
"Apostles  and  elders"  are  named  together  in  Acts  xv. 
2;  and  in  the  Epistle  to  Titus  (i.  5  and  7)  it  is  clear 
that  elder  and  bishop  are  synonymous.  The  Abbe 
Duchesne  concurs,  with  many  other  authorities,  in  as- 
serting that  there  is  no  scriptural  proof  of  their  separa- 
tion, f  S.  Jerome,  combating  the  power  of  the  deacons, 
goes  so  far  as  to  declare  that  the  Church  was  originally 
governed  by  a  plurality  of  presbyters;  one  of  whom  was 
in  course  of  time  elected  to  preside  over  the  rest  as 
a  remedy  against  division.  As  the  presbyters  know 
that  by  the  custom  of  the  Church  they  are  subject  to 
him  who  has  been  placed  over  them,  so  the  bishops 
know  that  they  are  superior  to  the  presbyters  rather  on 
account  of  a  customary  disposition  than  of  a  precept  of 

*  At  an  episcopal  visitation  now,  the  bishop  stays  with  the  parish 
priest  and  enquires  into  all  that  is  done;  he  also  performs  any  rite 
performable  only  by  a  bishop,  as  confirmation.  Further,  he  makes 
a  public  visitation  of  the  church  and  sacred  vessels,  having  first  per- 
formed the  absolution  of  the  dead  if  there  be  a  cemetery  attached 
to  the  church,  after  which  he  enters  and  explains  to  the  congrega- 
tion what  he  is  about  to  do.  The  visitation  consists  in  inspecting 
the  tabernacle,  ciboria,  and  other  sacred  vessels.  He  then  receives 
the  parishioners  in  the  sacristy. 

t  "  In  the  early  years  of  the  Apostolic  Church  the  office  after- 
wards called  episcopal  was  not  marked  off — the  episcopate  slept 
in  the  apostolate.  It  was  the  last  branch  to  grow  out  of  the  apos- 
tolic stem."  —  DoUinger. 


5o8      CHRISTIAN  AND   ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 

Christ's.*  However  this  may  be,  the  position  of  the 
presbyter  was  very  insignificant  until  smaller  or  out- 
lying parishes  were  formed  out  of  the  bishop's  com- 
munity, and  the  presbyter  was  sent  to  preside  over  them. 
Doubtless  the  Christian  Elders,  like  the  Jewish,  had 
from  the  first  presided  and  ruled,  and  formed  a  Church 
council  in  matters  of  controversy;  but  from  the  rise  of 
the  bishop's  power,  they  became  an  ornamental  council, 
or  bench  of  presidents.  Their  share  in  the  Liturgy  was 
confined  to  consenting  to  the  act,  standing  round  the 
apse  in  places  of  honour,  but  having  no  special  func- 
tions. In  Justin  Martyr's  account  of  the  mass  they  have 
no  place  at  all;  and  in  the  Apostolical  Constitutions  the 
place  assigned  them  is  insignificant.  The  earliest  ordos 
show  that  during  mass  they  never  approached  the  altar; 
the  bishop  celebrated,  and  the  deacons  assisted.  When 
first  allowed  to  exercise  the  sacerdoce  themselves,  their 
mass  differed  in  many  particulars  from  the  Bishop's  or 
President's  mass.f  It  was  not  till  the  xii.  century  that  a 
parochial  mass,  the  great  mass  of  the  day,  could  be  cele- 
brated by  one  priest  acting  alone.  When  the  presbyter 
was  first  sent  to  rule  a  parish  {ad  regendum  populiini), 
the  functions  he  might  undertake  were  rigidly  limited. 
Jerome  says  he  might  baptise  and  minister  the  Eucharist 
with  the  bishop's  permision;  Tertullian  says  the  same. 
In  Rome  he  was  not  allowed  to  preach,  nor  was  the 
penitential  discipline  of  the  Church  committed  to  him. 
He  did  not  teach :  \  Hippolytus,  writing  in  Rome,  dis- 

*  Siiiit  preshyteri  sciunt  se  ex  ecclesiae  cousiteiiidine  ei  qui  sihi 
piuvposiiiis  piierit  esse  subjedos  —  ita  episcopi  noverint  se  viagis 
coiisiu'/ncUne  qiiam  dispositonis  Dominiccc  veritate  presbyteris  esse 
majores.  The  question  of  the  lapsed  Christians  lielped  to  consoli- 
date the  Church's  government,  by  making  unity  of  discipline  of  the 
first  importance.  The  chief  priest,  the  "summus  sacerdos  "  became 
the  root  of  the  Church's  safety,  by  realising  this  unity.  That  other- 
wise the  schisms  would  be  as  many  as  the  presbyters  is  a  point  drawn 
out  by  Jerome  himself. 

t  Part  II.,  pp.  19,  77. 

+  Among  the  Jews  the  Rabbi  taught,  but  the  Elder  did  not  teach; 
the  Christian  Elder's  functions  were  similarly  restricted. 


THE   ECCLESIASTICAL    ORDERS  509 

tlnguishes  presbuteroi  and  didaskaloi,  presbyters  from 
teachers.  Eusebius  does  the  same.  In  the  Acts  of 
Perpetuaand  Felicitas,  and  in  Cyprian's  29*!'  Epistle,  we 
hear  of  priests-teachers,  presbyteri-doctores.  Still  later 
Chrysostom  says  that  in  his  time  the  less  intelligent 
presbyters  baptised,  and  the  wiser  taught.  Though  the 
ordinals  show  that  Church  government  was  the  leading 
idea  of  the  presbyter's  ofifice,  Polycarp's  enumeration 
of  their  duties  omits  both  teaching  and  ruling.  It  is 
in  the  middle  ages  that  they  first  received  the  sole 
charge  of  a  parish  or  'cure  of  souls,'  and  the  term 
"priest"  used  in  the  two  preceding  centuries  for  the 
presbyter  and  the  bishop  interchangeably,  was  commonly 
applied  in  the  ix'!'  to  all  parish-presbyters.* 

Nothing  indeed  is  more  remarkable  than  the  curious 
absence  of  function  in  the  early  Church  compared  with 
the  fulness  of  function  later  enjoyed  by  the  presbyter. 
A  priest  may  now  do  all  a  bishop  can  do  (provided  he 
have  the  necessary  faculties  and  jurisdiction)  except 
ordain  and  consecrate.  He  baptises,  absolves,  marries, 
administers  extreme  unction,  and  even,  on  occasion, 
confirms.  He  alone  can  touch  or  administer  the  sacred 
species;  he  alone  can  teach;  and  he  alone  can  bless 
persons  and  things.  There  are  no  effective  orders  in 
the  Church  to-day  but  the  episcopate  and  presbyterate; 
no  other  clerk  has  office  or  authority,  or  can  or  does 
in  fact  perform  any  sacred  action. f 

The  Catholic  doctrine  is  that  Jesus  Christ  instituted    institution 
the    priesthood    {sacerdoce),    and   that   this   priesthood   °*^''^.c.- 
resided  in  those  who  are  called  in  the  New  Testament   nHp"tho?.H 
presbyters,   or  Elders.      Moreover  that   this   priesthood 
is  something  distinct  from  the  commission  to  "Go  out 
and  teach  all  nations,"  and  was  conferred  by  Christ  at 
the  Last  Supper,  in  the  words  "Do  this,"  which  bestowed 
the  power  to  offer  sacrifice,  that  same  sacrifice  which 

*  Sacn-dos,  iepeijs.  The  word  priest  means  simply  elder,  from 
TT pea ^vT epos,  presbyter.  In  common  parlance  it  now  signifies  sacer- 
dos  or  sacrificing-priest. 

t  See  Deacons,  pp.  511,  514. 


priesthood. 


5IO      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 

He  was  about  to  consummate.  All  priests,  therefore, 
participate  in  the  priesthood  claimed  for  Christ  Him- 
self in  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews.  "Thou  art  a  priest 
forever  according  to  the  order  of  Melchisedech." 

For  the  form  of  ordination  of  priests,  see  Part  11. ,  p. 
287,  For  Celibacy,  see  infra,  p.  532.  For  endowments 
and  benefices,  see  p.  534.  For  the  liturgical  dress  see 
Part  n.,  p.  99.  For  the  everyday  dress  of  priests,  see 
p.  485. 


Diacon- 
ate. 


"The 
Seven." 


OFFICE    OF   THE    DEACON. 

Next  to  the  episcopate,  no  order  has  such  historical 
interest  as  the  diaconate.  The  principle  of  transmis- 
sion was  indeed  established  by  Peter,  when,  on  his  invi- 
tation, an  apostle  was  created;  but  the  first  order  of 
apostolic  origin  is  that  of  the  deacons,  as  described  in 
Acts  vi.  "Venerabile  e  stato  sino  dalla  nascente  chiesa 
il  nome  di  Diacono,  ordine  ecclesiastico,  che  principal- 
mente  significa  ministro,"  says  Moroni.*  The  apostles 
bid  the  brethren  choose  7  men  "  full  of  the  Holy  Spirit 
and  wisdom";  and  for  many  centuries  in  Rome  the 
number  of  deacons  did  not  exceed  seven,  although 
bishops  and  presbyters  were  multiplied.  Hebrew  vil- 
lage communities  were  ruled  by  seven  wise  men;  and 
the  title  "the  Seven "  was  a  well  known  one  in  Pales- 
tine. To  these  the  discipline  and  government  of  the 
community  belonged;  and  it  was  to  take  charge  of  the 
Christian  community,  and  minister  to  its  needs,  that 
Christian  deacons  were  appointed.  They  were  chosen 
to  the  chief  administrative  position,  and  this  they 
filled  throughout  the  early  history  of  Christianity. 
From  the  first,  also,  they  preached  and  evangelised 
(Acts  vi.  8,  10;  viii.  5,  6,  12,  26,  29,  36,  38;  xxi.  8), 
and  administered  public  baptism.  They  were  likened 
to  the  7  Great  Angels;  and  in  the  Apostolical  Constitu- 

*  AtciK-oi'os,  minister.  "The  greatest  among  you  shall  be  as  Jte 
that  ministers^  The  title  however  is  not  used  in  Acts  vi.  Cf.  also 
Smyrnaeans  iii.  H. 


THE  ECCLESIASTICAL    ORDERS 


511 


tions  they  are  compared  to  Christ,  as  presbyters  are  to 
the  apostles,  and  lectors  to  the  prophets.* 

Apparently  they  always  conducted  prayers  and  lita- 
nies,! and  suggested  the  prayers  of  the  President  in  the 
Liturgy. I  One  of  their  principal  functions  was  to  sum- 
mon the  faithful,  watch  over  the  assemblies,  and  make 
announcements.  The  deacons  also  proclaimed  the  vari- 
ous parts  of  the  service  by  a  loud  cry  from  the  tribunal, 
just  as  we  hear  to-day  when  the  'deacon  '  cries  ite  missa 
est  at  the  end  of  mass.§ 

It  would  appear  also  that  they  fulfilletl  from  the  first 
a  solemn  role  in  the  liturgical  assemblies.  In  East  and 
West  they  were,  with  the  bishop,  the  only  ministers  at 
the  altar.  It  is  they  who  prepared  the  offerings  and 
placed  them  on  the  altar,  and  prayed  there  for  the  whole 
people  of  God  before  the  bishop's  collect-prayer.  After 
the  kiss  of  peace  and  previous  to  the  Consecration 
occurred  the  great  diaconal  prayer  which  no  longer 
exists  in  the  Western  mass.||  It  seems  clear  that  the 
faithful  entrusted  to  them  the  ministration  of  the  Eu- 
charistic  mysteries  even  in  Apostolic  times;  so  that  it 
may  be  said  that  ministration  belonged  to  them,  con- 
secration to  the  bishop.  I'o  the  deacon  alone  the  Ele- 
ment of  wine  was  confided:  he  mixed  the  Cup,  held  it 
during  consecration,  elevated  it  at  the  ostension,  and 


Leaders  of 
services  of 
prayer. 


Place 
in  the 
Liturgy. 


*  Book  ii.  26.  The  above  considerations,  joined  to  the  reference 
to  deacons  in  I  Tim.  3;  Didache  xv;  Trallians  i.  7,  8;  To  Pulycarp 
ii.  12;  Smyrnaeans  iii.  i;  Philad.  i.  12;  ii.  12;  iii.  1-4;  and  Poly- 
carp  to  Philippians  ii.  10,  13;  are  sufficient  proof  that  they  were  at 
no  period  servants  of  the  churches,  devoted  to  its  menial  duties,  as 
some  modern  writers  have  asserted. 

t  Among  the  Jews  the  leader  of  the  Devotions  was  the  '  dele- 
gate of  the  congregation,'  and  like  the  preacher  did  not  require 
ordination. 

X  As  is  still  done  in  Eastern  rites  and  in  some  places  in  the  Latin 
mass.     Part  IL,  pp.  35,  43. 

§  Later,  in  Rome,  the  deacon  was  chosen  for  his  fine  voice,  and 
many  epitaphs  laud  the  singing  of  the  Roman  deacons.  Gregory 
blames  the  custom,  and  bids  the  deacon  spend  more  time  in  preach- 
ing and  alms-giving. 

II  Part  IL,  p.  45  and  pp.  85,  90. 


512      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 

administered  it  to  the  people,  the  presbyters,  the 
bishops,  and  the  pope,  as  late  as  the  ix.  century.*  In 
a  protest  against  the  degradation  of  the  diaconal 
office,  cited  by  Gratian,  the  writer  says:  "Without  the 
deacon  the  priest  has  only  the  name  but  not  the  execu- 
tion of  the  office  ...  it  is  not  lawful  for  priests  to  take 
the  cup  from  the  altar  unless  it  is  given  them  by  a  dea- 
con." The  very  words  introduced  into  our  consecration 
of  the  Cup,  and  placed  in  the  mouth  of  Christ,  "  For 
this  is  the  Chalice  of  My  blood,  of  the  new  and  eternal 
testament;  the  mystery  of  Faith,''''  are  a  record  of  the 
deacon's  ministry  of  the  Cup,  for  it  is  of  the  deacon 
that  S.  Paul  writes  "holding  the  mystery  of  faith  in  a 
pure  conscience."     (i  Tim.  iii.  g.)t 

But  though  they  performed  these  solemn  functions, 

it  was  not  till  the  time  of  Tertullian  that  the  deacons 

were  classed  as  a  second  priestly  grade;  by  the  middle 

of  the  III.  century  they  became  a  recognised  order  of 

sacrificial    ministers.!      Such   an    order    existed    both 

Levite.         among  Gentiles,  and  among  the  Jews  who  had  the  order 

of  Levites.     It  is  from  this  period  that  the  word  levite 

for  a  deacon  was  adopted.      Origen  speaks  of  "levites 

and  priests  "  ||   and  says  they  are  not  inaptly  so  called. 

In  a  metrical  inscription  in  S.  Paolo  Fuori  le  Mura  we 

have  the  words  Sedis  apostolicae  h^vites  (451-474);  and 

Gregory  the  Great  was  "one  of  the  7  levites"  of  Rome 

at  the  time  of  his  election  to  the  Pontificate. 

As  next  In  East  and  West  it  was  the  deacons  who  shared  with 

officer  to       thg  bishop  his  administrative  and   disciplinary    func- 

t  e    IS  op.   ^jQj^g^  without  the  special  delegation  necessary  in  the 


*  Ordos  of  the  vni.  and  ix.  centuries.  It  is  moreover  the  deacon 
and  not  the  presbyter  who  conducted  the  Fraction,  mixed  the  bowl 
for  communion,  elevated  and  administered  both  species,  and  took 
the  Host  afterwards  to  the  sick.     See  Part  II.,  pp.  41,  67,  81. 

t  Cf,  also  the  Ignatian  Epistle  to  the  Trallians,  i.  7,  where  dea- 
cons are  called  ministers  of  the  /jiVffT-ripia  (mysteries)  of  Jesus  Christ; 
and  Magnesians  ii.  5. 

X  This  happened  in  the  West  sooner  than  in  the  East. 

II  AeviTai  Kai  upeis. 


THE  ECCLESIASTICAL    ORDERS  513 

case  of  a  presbyter.  As  early  as  the  time  of  Cyprian 
(250)  they  effected  the  reconciliation  of  penitents. 
The  deacon  was  called  "the  eye  of  the  bishop,"  and 
in  the  East  his  syncellus  and  "witness,"  or  constant 
companion  and  siirveillant.  This  function  of  preserv- 
ing discipline  among  the  faithful  of  all  classes  appears 
to  have  always  attached  to  the  deacons;  it  is  they  who 
were  the  bishop's  mouthpiece,  executed  his  orders,  and 
enforced  the  penitential  sanctions,  reporting  about  the 
bodies  as  well  as  the  souls  of  the  brethren,*  and  exam- 
ining those  who  came  provided  with  a  letter  from 
another  Church. f  In  and  out  of  the  church  they  were 
the  leaders  of  the  brethren,  the  representatives  and 
administrators  of  both  people  and  bishop.  J  Nowhere  Arch- 
was  this  supreme  executive  better  seen  than  in  the  Arch-  d^?^o" 
deacon,  or  first  of  the  7  deacons,  of  Rome,  who  occu- 
pied the  greatest  public  position  next  to  the  pope, 
surpassing  that  of  any  bishop  or  presbyter.  In  papal 
mass  the  pope  kissed  the  archdeacon  only;  a  custom 
still  retained  in  pontifical  mass  when  the  bishop  kisses 
the  coped  'assistant  priest'  who  performs  the  arch- 
deacon's functions. §  Earlier  still  (ix.  century)  the 
pope  kissed  all  the  7  deacons  —  who  all  ministered  at 
the  altar  —  but  only  the  prior  of  the  assisting  bishops 
and  presbyters. 

These  important  ministerial  functions,  the  fact  that 
the  deacons  appeared  on  all  occasions  next  to  the 
bishop,  and  that  they  had  the  sole  administration  of  the 
goods  of  the  Church,  led,  in  398,  to  a  dissension  in 
Rome  between  deacons  and  priests  —  the  former  treat- 
ing the  latter  with  contempt. 

By  the  end  of  the  xii.  century  conciliar  decrees  had 

*  Pseudo-Clementines  (ni.  century). 

t  An  ancient  usage  still  observed  among  Presbyterians. 

X  The  Council  of  Elvira  speaks  of  "  a  deacon  ruling  the  people  " 
diaco7ius  regens  popidton.  In  some  places  they  must  have  cele- 
brated the  liturgy  in  the  iv.  century :  a  Council  of  Aries  at  this  time 
prohibits  it. 

§  Part  II.,  pp.  78,  82. 
2  L 


514      CIIRISTIAX  AXD   ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 


Powers  of 
the  deacon 
absorbed 
by  the 
priesthood. 


deprived  the  deacon  of  nearly  all  his  functions.  Even 
simple  baptism  was  not  to  be  performed  by  him,  save 
in  case  of  grave  necessity.  In  1195  the  Council  held 
at  York  declared  he  should  not  give  the  Body  of  the 
Lord,  or  impose  penance,  unless  in  extreme  cases. 
The  Council  of  London  in  1200  repeats  that  deacons 
shall  not  baptise  or  impose  penance  {i.e.  hear  confes- 
sions) unless  in  the  double  necessity  that  the  priest 
{sacerdos)  cannot,  is  absent,  or  stu/fe  no7i  vult,  and  that 
the  death  of  the  child  or  the  infirm  person  is  imminent. 
In  1240  the  Synod  of  Worcester,  followed  by  other 
Synods,  finally  deprived  deacons  of  all  right  whatever  to 
absolve.*  The  administrative  and  disciplinary  powers 
of  deacons  passed  absolutely  into  the  hands  of  priests. 

To-day  no  single  act  is  reserved  for  the  deacon  in  the 
Latin  Church  which  is  not  competent  to  a  presbyter. 
The  deacon's  acts  in  high  masses  are  fulfilled  by  priests 
called  "the  deacon"  and  "subdeacon"  ;  this  is  invari- 
ably the  case,  except  in  colleges  of  young  men  where 
there  are  persons  in  deacon's  orders.  His  ministry  of 
the  Cup,  as  the  essential  ministry  of  an  order,  is  com- 
pletely dispensed  with;  no  deacon  is  needed  for  this 
ministry  in  the  proper  sense  of  the  term  deacon.  The 
non-liturgic  powers  are  equally  non-existent,  and  the 
deacon  neither  performs  the  charitable  functions  allotted 
to  him  by  the  Apostles,  nor  assists  in  the  government  of 
the  Church,  t 

Originally,  the  diaconate  and  presbyterate  were  dis- 
tinct and  separate  orders,  each  complete  and  final  in 
itself;  though  the  pope  was  for  many  centuries  chosen 
from  among  the  deacons,  no  deacon  was  ordained  as  a 

*  The  Constitutioi-.5  of  Odo,  Bishop  of  Paris,  decreed  by  the 
56'!'  canon  that  deacons  may  never  hear  confessions  unless  arctis- 
sima  necessitate,  "  in  the  extreniest  necessity  " :  "  Clares  enim  non 
habent  nee  possu)it  absoivere  ;  "  for  they  have  not  the  keys,  nor  can 
they  absolve. 

t  In  1777  it  is  still  decreed  that  a  deacon  may  administer  the 
Eucharist,  and  also  the  Viaticum  in  the  al)sence  of  a  priest,  without 
any  permission  from  the  parish  priest  or  the  bishop.  (Sacred 
Congregation  of  Rites.) 


THE  ECCLESIASTICAL    ORDERS 


515 


Deacons' 

dress. 


priest.     At  the  present  day  all  is  changed;  and  the  dia- 
conate  is  the  last  stepping-stone  to  the  priesthood. 

The  proper  vestment  of  the  deacon  is  the  stole,  worn 
across  the  left  shoulder.  The  diaconal  dalmatic  is 
Western,  being  originally,  as  it  still  is,  a  garment 
proper  to  the  Pope  (and  bishops)  and  his  deacons. 
The  stole  is  worn  at  mass,  benediction,  and  on  any 
occasion  when  a  deacon  touches  vessels  containing  the 
Sacrament.  In  Advent  and  Lent  he  wears  the  stolone  or 
large  stole,  and  a  chasuble  in  place  of  the  dalmatic: 
this  latter  is  removed  at  the  Gospel  and  the  large  stole 
is  worn  over  the  alb  until  the  completion  of  the  com- 
munion.* At  other  seasons,  the  dalmatic  is  worn  at 
mass  and  processions.  The  maniple  is  always  vested  at 
mass.  The  Roman  deacons,  like  the  pope  and  the 
great  imperial  functionaries,  wore  the  cloth  of  silver 
shoes  called  campagi  or  buskins.  The  earliest  dress  of 
the  deacon  was,  however,  the  colobio  or  sleeveless  tunic 
{tonaca  mozza).  This,  in  the  East,  developed  into  the  Greek 
alb  {7>estis  talaris)  with  wide  sleeves,  still  worn  by  Orien-  deacons 
tals,  which  is  generally  coloured,  red  or  blue  or  yellow; 
the  stole  being  usually  pendant  from  the  left  shoulder. 

For  deacons,  see  also  page  364,  Election  of  the  Pope; 
and  Part  II.,  page  104,  Stole.  For  ordination  of  the 
deacon,  see  Part  II.,  page  286. 


Ancient 
dress. 


OFFICE    OF    A    DEACONESS. 

In  the  early  Church  there  was  a  recognised  order  of 
women  clergy,  ordained,  with  the  consent  of  the  people 
and  clergy,  by  the  bishop,  f  By  assisting  him  in  the 
government  of  the  infant  Church  and  by  their  sacred 
ministrations,  they  rendered  great  services  to  Christi- 
anity. "Certo  e  che  le  diaconesse  furono  di  gran  soc- 
corso  ai  vescovi  nel  governo  delle  chiese."|  Women 
clergy  appear  in  every  early  reference  to  ecclesiastical 


*  Part  II.,  p.  29.  t  Part  II.,  pp.  175,  286,  287. 

X  Cardinal  Moroni's  Dizionario  Ecclesiastico. 


5i6      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 


Characters 
of  the 
Viduate 
and  diac- 
onate. 


orders  {cf.  Tertullian,  anle  page  500).  Four  titles  are 
applied  to  them,  all  of  which  occur  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment: widow,  deaconess,  presbytera  or  presbytis,  and 
Virgin.*  The  two  former  are  Apostolic  orders.  Phoebe 
the  Deacon  of  the  Church  of  Cenchrse  is  mentioned  by 
S.  Paul  as  the  bearer  of  his  Letter  to  the  Romans;  and 
we  read  in  Acts  ix.  41  that  Peter  called  together  the 
saints  and  Widows  of  the  Church  at  Joppa.  The  quali- 
fications for  a  Widow  are  laid  down  in  i  Tim.  v.  9-1 1 ; 
Titus  ii.  3-4,  and  are  similar  to  those  required  for  the 
bishop  (i  Tim.  iii.  2-8;  Tit.  i.  6-9):  the  deacon  and 
deaconess  are  described  in  i  Tim.  iii.  8-13.  Such  a 
feature  of  the  early  constitution  of  the  Church  were 
these  women  clergy  that  the  first  Gentile  reference  to 
Christian  ministers  concerns  them  —  Pliny  the  Younger 
telling  the  Emperor  Trajan  that  he  has  put  two  viinistrae 
to  the  torture.  He  uses  the  word  ministra  as  the  Latin 
equivalent  of  deacon.  Perhaps  too  the  earliest  known 
inscription  which  mentions  a  member  of  the  clergy  is 
the  Roman  epitaph  of  the  Widow  Flavia  Areas,  placed 
by  her  daughter  Flavia  Theophila;t  while  the  most 
ancient  reference  to  a  bishop  of  Rome  couples  his 
name  with  that  of  a  woman-elder.  J  In  the  Apostolical 
Constitutions  the  Virgin  Widow  and  Presbytis  have 
places  of  honour  assigned  them  at  the  liturgical  assem- 
bly, and,  with  the  deaconess,  received  the  Communion 
before  the  laity. 

The  characters  proper  to  the  Viduate  differed  alto- 
gether from  those  attaching  to  the  diaconate.  To  the 
former  belonged  the  ideas  {a)  of  age  {I?)  of  the  mater- 
familias  (c)  of  presidency.      The  two  first  never  entered 


*  The  last  in  Acts  xxi.  9,  only.     Cf.  infra  p.  ifij  footnote. 

t  De  Rossi,  Bidletino,  1886,  p.  90.  Duchesne,  Ofigines  du 
Culle  CJu-'ctien  :  "  peut-etre  la  plus  ancienne  des  inscriptions  Chre- 
tiennes  qui  mentionne  un  membre  du  clerge." 

lVido%v  is  a  title  of  seniority  like  Elder.  The  term  is  unknown 
in  Roman  epigraphy  for  a  woman  who  has  lost  her  husband,  and 
therefore  x'hpo-  and  Vidua  always  signify  the  ecclesiastical  office. 

+  See  infra  p.  z^K),  footnote. 


THE  ECCLESIASTICAL    ORDERS  517 

with  any  persistency  into  the  conception  of  the  diacon- 
ate,  while  administration  of  the  discipline  and  charity 
of  the  Church  and  ministry  in  the  mysteries  took  the 
place  of  presidency. 

In  Rome,  as  we  shall  see,  it  was  the  eldership  rather  In  Rome, 
than  the  diaconate  which  was  shared  by  women.  The 
viduate  and  the  male  diaconate  appear  to  have  been. 
always  held  there  in  special  honour.  ( C/.  Acts  ix.  41, 
vi.  3.)  This  feature  of  the  ecclesiastical  organisation 
of  the  Petrine  city  is  remarkable  when  we  compare  those 
places  which  were  under  Pauline  or  Gentile  influence. 
The  Clementines  preser\-e  the  tradition  that  it  was  S. 
Peter  who  instituted  the  Viduate,  which  passed  from 
Jerusalem  to  Rome,  flourishing  not  only  there  but  in 
that  African  Church  which  was  so  closely  allied  to  it. 

The  want  of  precise  titles  for  the  various  classes  in  Confusion 
the  community  is  a  source  of  confusion  in  considering  of  titles, 
ancient  orders.  The  Widows  with  ecclesiastical  rank 
always  formed  a  small  class,  but  in  addition  to  the 
widows  and  orphans  inscribed  on  the  matriculce,  there 
was  a  very  large  class  of  widows  who  vowed  their 
chastity  —  a  class  arising  out  of  the  early  horror  of  sec- 
ond marriages,  and  merged  later  in  tfionasf/icv,  nuns. 
This  was  a  custom  belonging  rather  to  Judeo-Christian 
communities  where  that  honour  was  accorded  to  widow- 
hood which  in  Gentile  centres  was  reser\'ed  for  Virginity.* 

It  is  not  easy  to  determine  whether  all  representations  Catacomb 
of  women  clergy  in  the  catacombs  refer  to  the  Widow,  records. 
The  two  women  who  preside  at  the  allegorical  banquet 
in  the  catacomb  of  Peter  and  Marcellinus  (described  in 
Part  I.,  page  528)  may  be  Widows:  the  Virgin  whom 
pseudo-Athanasius  represents  as  presiding  at  the  Chris- 
tian Feast  very  possibly  functioned  as  a  Vidua,  for  the 
election  of  Virgins  to  the  viduate  is  attested  both  by 
Ignatius  and  Tertullian :  the  latter's  allusion  to  the  presi- 

*  That  the  Greek  deacon  Philip's  daughters  had  vowed  their 
virginity  shows  how  early  this  distinction  manifested  itself.  P'or 
the  absence  of  the  sentiment  among  the  Hebrew  people  cf.  Chap.  I. 
of  Part  III.,  p.  15. 


5i8      CHRISTIAX  A.VD  ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 


Grade  of 
the  Chair. 


Cathedra 
of  the 
widow. 


Seats  in 
the  presby- 
tery. 


dent  who  offered  the  oblation  "as  a  virgin,"*  makes  this 
supposition  the  more  probable.  Tertullian  describes 
the  viduate  as  the  grade  of  the  Chair,  Scdes,  and,  in 
accord  with  early  catacomb  inscriptions  —  which  are  an 
important  factor  in  our  knowledge  of  the  subject — 'he 
expresses  the  dignity  by  the  word  sedif,  "absoluement 
comme  pour  les  eveques  et  les  pretres,"  writes  Martigny. 
One  inscription  records  Rcgina,  IVidotv,  who  sat  a 
Widow  Go  years  (F/duce,  qiice  sedit  Vidua).  There  is 
no  instance  of  the  Chair  being  predicated  of  deacon  or 
deaconess,  or  indeed  of  any  grade  but  that  of  the  presid- 
ing bishop  and  the  Widow  :t  the  latter  in  the  earliest 
references  in  literature  and  in  the  catacombs,  are  uni- 
formly represented  as  seated  or  presiding;  their  caihedne 
in  catacomb  frescoes  being  precisely  similar  to  episcopal 
Chairs.  I  Conformably  with  this  we  find  women-elders 
called  F/rsidenks,  irpoKadrjixtvai,  and  their  office  proto- 
kathcdrian.  In  some  places  in  the  West  the  presiding 
Widow  was  called  cpiscopa. 

Their  seats  in  the  presbytery  show  us  that  the  Widows 
formed  a  bench  of  women-elders :  in  Tertullian's  account 
of  the  reconciliation  of  penitents  in  Rome  in  the  time 
of  Callistus,  the  penitent  having  come  into  the  assembly 
prostrates  in  the  centre  "before  the  Widows,  before  the 
\^x\tiiXs''  ^^ antevidiias,aii/e presh'tcros'' ;  and  in  another 
l)lace  he  asks  if  those  twice-married  are  to  be  recom- 
mended in  the  mass  by  one  "who  is  himself  the  husband 
of  one  wife,  or  even  a  virgin,  and  is  surrounded  by 
Widows  married  but  to  one  husband?"  A  record  of 
these  seats  in  the  presbytery  existed  in  Rome  until  the 
IX,  century.  Apparently  when  the  viduate  ceased  these 
places  of  honour  were  transferred  to  women  of  senatorial 
rank.§ 

Constantine  when  ordering   that  a  settled    payment 


*  E.xhortatio  ad  Castitateiii,  see  infra. 

t  Cf.  the  deutero-thronoi  and  stibselliwn  of  the  presl)yters,  p.  502. 
X  Cavedoni. 

§  See    Part  I.,  S.   M.  Maggiore,  pp.  134-5;    Part   TI.,  ordo  of 
S^  Amand,  p.  83. 


THE  ECCLESIASTICAL    ORDERS  519 

should  be  made  to  the  clergy  in  place  of  their  share  in 
the  oblations  to  the  altar,  ranks  the  Widow  among 
"those  who  have  been  consecrated  to  the  divine  min- 
istry." The  Widows  not  only  presided  but  taught:  the  Preaching 
prophet  Hermas  clearly  alludes  to  this  when  he  repre-  P""  ^^ach- 
sents  himself  as  taught  by  a  woman  seated  on  a  chair 
white  like  snow,*  on  which  she  "sat  down  alone," 
unfolding  the  book  in  her  hand,  and  bidding  him  give 
ear  to  the  glories  of  God.  When  she  had  finished  four 
young  men  bore  away  the  Chair:  "And  while  she  spoke 
to  me,  two  men  appeared  and  raised  her  on  their  shoul- 
ders, and  they  went  to  where  the  Chair  was  in  the  East." 
In  the  next  vision  an  ivory  seat  is  prepared  for  her.f 
The  'Shepherd  '  used  for  his  allegories  scenes  familiar  to 
him  and  his  readers,  as  the  allegories  of  the  Apocalypse 
make  use  of  the  temple  scenes  and  of  things  and  persons 
familiar  to  all. 

The  fact  indeed  that  women  taught  and  preached  is 
so  well  ascertained  that  many  writers  from  the  ix.  cen- 
tury downwards  have  explained  it  by  telling  us  that  at 
first  women  preached  to  and  converted  women,  as  men 
did  men.  In  Rome  Martina  preached  publicly  against 
the  idols :  Martina  cum  diaconissa  esscf,  tnultos  ab  idolis 
avocavit.  So  Priscilla  and  Aquila  taught  Apollos  (Acts 
xviii.  26);  so  Catherine  of  Alexandria  taught  the  faith, 
and  so  Marcella,  in  Jerome's  time,  taught  Christianity 
publicly  in  Rome.  One  hundred  and  fifty  years  earlier 
Tertullian  refers  to  the  doctrine  of  a  popular  preacher 

*  Athanasius  speaks  of  the  white  seats  of  the  bishops,  Apologia 
de  Fu^a,  17. 

t  The  "  Shepherd  "  of  Hermas  was  received  as  part  of  the  New 
Testament  Scriptures.     Zahn  places  it  as  early  as  a.d.  97. 

The  '  Shepherd '  is  therein  told  to  prepare  two  books  of  the 
Teacher's  words,  and  send  them  "  the  one  to  Clemens,  the  other  to 
Grapte."  Clemens  is  the  Roman  Clement,  Bishop  of  Rome.  The 
book  then  is  to  be  given  to  the  bishop  Clement  and  the  woman-elder 
Grapte.  If  the  New  Testament  reference  be  to  the  same  Clement, 
then  the  two  earliest  references  to  that  apostolic  worker  couple  his 
labours  with  those  of  women:  "Help  these  women,  for  they 
laboured  with  me  in  the  Gospel,  with  Clement  also,  and  the  rest 
of  my  fellow-workers,"  writes  St.  Taul. 


520      CHRISTIAN  AXD   ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 

in  the  words:  "Again  by  the  holy  prophetess  Prisca  the 
Gospel  is  thus  preached."  In  the  in.  the  iv.  and  the 
VI.  centuries  Origen,  Chrysostom,  and  Johannes  Dia- 
conus  all  bear  witness  to  this  ministry  of  women.*  The 
wonders  worked  by  the  holy  women  of  old,  the  races 
and  nations  converted  by  them,  were  once  the  theme  of 
the  peoples  of  Christendom.  In  this  way  there  grew 
up  the  legend  of  Mary  and  Martha's  conversion  of 
France,  the  country  indeed  of  the  deeds  of  great  women, 
and  in  this  sense  only  a  true  legend. 

Presbytera  The  most  important  mention  of  the  presbytera  occurs 
or  presby-  j,^  t^g  Apocryphal  Acts  of  Matthew  (ii.  century) :  the 
*'^"  Apostle  there  ordains  a  king's  wife  to  be  a  presbytera, 

and  his  daughter-in-law  to  be  a  deacon.  Pseudo-Athana- 
sius  refers  to  the  presbytera,  who  probably  fulfilled  those 
duties  of  a  presiding-elder  in  the  East  which  were  filled 
in  the  West  by  the  viduate.  A  x.  century  canonist  says 
that  she  had  the  power  of  exhorting  {prcEdicandi)  com- 
manding or  teaching;  perhaps  basing  himself  on  Titus 
ii.  3-4.  At  the  end  of  the  iv.  century  the  'Council 
of  Laodicea'  decrees  that  there  shall  no  longer  be 
a  proto-kaihedrian  among  women.  Widow-nuns  and 
widow-deacons  were  sometimes  placed  under  a  presbytis. 
Mabillon's  IX'^  ordo  provides  for  the  ordination  pres- 
byterissarum  et  diaconissaruvi.^ 

This  office  must  be  distinguished  from  the  class  of 
aged  poor  placed  on  the  matriculce  and  invited  to 
agapse. 

*  Diximiis  haheri  fccniinas  in  Ecdesia  Ministras  .  .  .  quae  per 
bonaofficia  ad  Apostolorum  laudem  rueruerunt pervenire.     Origen. 

Haec  Apostolorum  ct  evangelistariun  ctirsutn  stiscepit.  S.  John 
Chrysostom. 

Haec  laborabat,  officitim  predicalionis  fceminis  inipendens. 
Johannes  Diaconus. 

Martha  is  called  Episcopa  omnium  credentium  tunc  temporis, 
and  her  preaching  at  Avignon  is  spoken  of  in  an  ancient  French 
Breviary. 

t  By  the  Montanists,  women  had  been  ordained  not  only  as 
priests  but  as  bishops. 


THE  ECCLESfASTICAL    ORDERS  521 

The  Apostolic  rule  referred  to  infra,  page  533,  is  cited  Marriage, 
by  Tertullian  as  binding  on  the  bishop  and  the  Widow. 
At  least  as  early  as  the  11.  century,  however,  the  Widow 
was  not  only  chosen  from  among  the  Virgins,*  but  was 
elected  young  in  years.  Thus  the  viduate,  unlike  the 
presbyterate,  came  into  the  hands  of  the  younger  women; 
and  of  the  unmarried:  in  both  points  agreeing  with  an 
early  development  in  the  episcopate.!  Tertullian  disap- 
proved the  change:  the  age  of  his  presiding  Widow-Vir- 
gin is  the  probable  age  of  S.  Paul's  Timothy. 

According  to  a  tenacious  custom  the  wives  or  husbands 
of  those  in  orders  were  often  themselves  ordained. 
When  Gregory  of  Nyssa  was  made  a  bishop,  Theosobia 
his  wife  was  ordained  to  the  diaconate,  as  honore parevi, 
tnagnis  tnysteriis  dignmn.X  A  Frankish  Council  in  the 
VII.  century  decreed  that  the  ordination  of  men  made 
deacons  because  they  had  married  Widows  was  to  be 
considered  void.  In  Rome  in  the  time  of  S.  Gregory 
the  wife  of  a  presbyter  was  styled  presbytera,  but 
received  no  kind  of  ordination.  The  custom  was  con- 
fined to  the  West. 

We  have  no  record  of  the  early  ordination  of  Widows;  Ordina- 
the  earliest  ordinals  which  have  reached  us  are  of  the  "o"- 
vi.-vii.  centuries:  by  this  time  the  female  diaconate  had 
been  definitely  introduced  into  the  West,  and  after  its 
introduction  the  office  of  the  Widow  lost  its  identity. 
The  rite  used  was  thenceforth  a  compound  of  the  con- 
secration of  a  widow-nun  §  and  the  ordination  of  a  dea- 
coness. It  was  doubtless  with  such  a  mixed  rite  that 
Radegund  was  ordained  ;  ||   it  is  that  with  which  hence- 

*  Tgnafian  Ep.  to  the  Smyrntratis:  "I  salute  the  Virgins  who 
are  called  Widows;"  and  Tertullian,  De  Velandis  Virgimim. 

t  Supra,  Bishop,  p.  505. 

X  "His  equal  in  honour,  worthy  of  the  Great  Mysteries." 

§  The  rite  for  the  consecration  of  a  widow-nun  appears  with  that 
of  the  Virgin  in  the  Gregorian  Sacramentary :    Cf.  Part  III.,  p.  133. 

The  early  rite  for  ordaining  a  Widow  doubtless  followed  the 
common  primitive  type.     Part  II.,  pp.  1 72-173. 

II  Part  III.  p.  25. 


522      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 


The 
Deaconess. 


Duties  of 
the  dea- 
coness. 


forth  Frankish  and  Saxon  widow  or  nun  deaconesses 
were  consecrated.  This  explains  the  survival  described 
in  Part  III.,  page  io8;  and  the  fact  that  the  title  and 
office  of  a  deaconess  continued  in  Religious  houses  in 
Europe  after  the  ecclesiastical  office  had  ceased.  The 
rite  of  the  Benedictio  Vidue  (sic)  however  still  appears 
in  a  XII.  century  Ritual  now  in  the  Archives  of  the  Vati- 
can Chapter. 

In  the  East  it  is  always  the  deaconess  who  figures,  while 
there  is  hardly  a  reference  to  her  in  the  West  for  the 
first  400  years.  On  the  other  hand  her  ordination  is 
undoubtedly  provided  for  in  the  first  oecumenical  Coun- 
cil of  the  Church;  and  in  later  times  much  controversy 
was  caused  by  the  unmistakable  feminine  gender  in  its 
I9'^  canon.* 

The  sacred  duties  of  the  deaconess  were  very  impor- 
tant: she  administered  solemn  baptism;  indeed  it  has 
been  alleged  that  the  necessity  for  this  when  baptism 
was  by  immersion  was  the  reason  for  her  existence. 
She  administered  the  sacraments  to  the  confessors  in 
prison,  and  in  the  mass  communicated  the  women  with 


*  Council  of  Nicaea :  the  canon  requires  that  the  followers  of 
Paul  of  Samosata  who  had  not  been  canonically  ordained,  should 
be  regarded  as  lay  women,  and  should  be  re-ordained  deaconesses 
by  the  laying  on  of  hands. 

If  the  Epistle  to  Timothy  is  of  Roman  origin  it  is  interesting  as 
showing  the  coincidence  of  the  two  offices  of  Widow  and  Deaconess. 
Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Romans  {^loc.  cit.)  the  Daciana  inscription 
(p.  523)  and  the  'Acts  of  Martina'  and  perhaps  the  fresco  described 
in  Part  I.,  p.  487,  are  other  instances  of  a  l<nowledge  of  the  latter 
oftice  in  the  West. 

Wetzer  and  Welte  naturally  refer  the  passage  i  Tim.  iii.  11  to 
the  deaconess.  Not  so  all  writers;  Baronius  is  anxious  to  deny  it, 
and  says  that  S.  Augustine  denied  it;  as  does  Hilary  of  Rome.  The 
passage  is  a  parallel  one  to  the  "  Ecclesiastical  Canons"  xx.-xxii.; 
and  both  end  with  a  similiar  encomium  on  the  diaconate.  It  may 
be  remembered,  however,  that  both  the  African  and  Roman  Churches 
ordained  Widows  instead  of  deaconesses.  The  title  of  deacon  is  re- 
ferred to  3  times  in  the  N.  T.  (i)  (earliest)  Rom.  xvi.  I ;  (2)  Phil. 
i.  i;    (3)  I  Tim.  iii.  II.      Cf.?\%o  Eph.  vi.  21  (Col.  iv.  7.);    Col.  i.  7. 


THE  ECCLESIASTICAL    ORDERS  523 

the  Cup,  the  deacons  communicating  the  men.  She 
visited  the  sick,  distributed  the  alms  of  the  Church, 
carried  the  bishop's  orders,  and  enforced  discipline  — 
all  diaconal  functions.  In  some  places  she  read  the 
homily,  and  we  find  deaconesses  mentioned  in  several 
ancient  Lectionaries.*  Like  the  deacons,  deaconesses 
fulfilled  the  office  of  doorkeeper  {ostiarius)  and  are 
hence  saluted  in  a  Letter  of  pseudo-Ignatius :  "  I  salute 
the  deaconesses,  keepers  of  the  sacred  vestibules."  At 
one  time  no  woman  was  expected  to  hold  intercourse 
with  the  bishop  or  deacons,  except  through  the  dea- 
coness; hence  the  quaint  direction  in  the  Apostolical 
Constitutions,  Book  II. :  "As  we  cannot  believe  on  Christ 
without  the  teaching  of  the  Spirit,  so  let  not  any  woman 
address  herself  to  the  bishop  or  deacon  without  the 
deaconess."  I'he  same  book  requires  that  the  deaconess 
"be  honoured  by  you  in  the  place  of  the  Holy  Spirit." 
The  deacons  of  both  sexes  catechised;  and  the  seats  to 
be  found  in  the  crypts  of  catacombs  may  be  those  set 
for  the  men  and  women  deacons  at  classes  of  catechu- 
mens. The  deaconess  received,  with  the  other  clergy, 
her  allotted  share  of  the  eulogies,  or  remainder  of  the 
unconsecrated  oblations  after  the  Liturgy.  She  received 
the  elements  in  her  place  in  the  presbytery  with  the 
clergy,  as  described  by  Epiphanius. 

She  was  set  over  the  widows  who  had  vowed  their   Set  over 
chastity,    and    later   was    in  some   places  chosen  from   ihe  "idows 
among  them,  a  custom  which  became  prevalent  in  the   cieigy. 
West  also.j 

A  series  of  inscriptions  show  us  the  deaconesses  as   Diaconal 
titulars  of  their  churches:  thus  one  in  the  Museum  of   '"scnp- 
Verona  (edited  by  Maffei)  names  Daciana  who  had  a 
deaconess'   tituhis  and  who  was  a  prophet.     She  died 

*  A  Lectionary  which  mentions  S.  Martina  is  preserved  in  the 
Archives  of  the  Vatican  Basilica ;  while  another  Lectionary  mentions 
the  deaconess  S.  Regina. 

t  Epiphanius:  "The  deaconesses  are  called  widows,  but  the 
elder  among  them  presbutides."  Cf.  also  p.  521.  And  fur  \'irgin- 
deaconesses,  p.  526. 


524 


CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 


Arch- 
deaconess. 


Marriage 
and  age. 


aged  45.  Muratori  edits  an  epitaph  of  the  year  539: 
Hic  REQUiESCiT  B.  M.  THEODORA  DiACOMSSA.  She  died 
aged  48.  An  interesting  inscription  placed  by  a  brother 
and  sister  both  in  the  diaconate,  is  given  by  Fabretti; 
it  runs :  Dometius  diac  .  .   .  una  cum  Anna  diac.  eius 

GERMANA    HOC    VOTUM    BEATO   PAULO    OBTULERUNT.       There 

were  also  Archdeaconesses;  S.  Gregory  of  Nyssa  calls 
his  sister  Macrina  an  archdeaconess,  and  Romana,  who 
appears  in  the  story  of  Pelagia,  is  called  the  holy  Lady 
primate  of  the  deaconesses,  6".  Domina  prima  diaconis- 
s  a  ruin. 

The  Council  of  Trullo  calls  this  office  the  dignity  of 
a  deaconess,  and  in  the  vi.  century  she  herself  was 
addressed  as  "most  reverend  and  most  Venerable,"  a 
forerunner  of  the  style  of  an  English  archdeacon. 

With  the  one  exception  of  the  pastoral  epistle  to 
Timothy,  which  requires  deacons  to  be  married  and 
educators  of  children,  there  is  nothing  to  show  that  age 
was  one  qualification  for  the  diaconate;  and  the  type 
of  the  deacon  Stephen  probably  always  served  as  a 
model.  Two  Councils  excommunicate  the  deaconess 
who  marries  after 'her  ordination.  The  age  for  the 
deaconess  is  fixed  by  the  Council  of  Chalcedon  {451) 
at  40,  and  the  age  for  both  sexes  was  also  fixed  at  the 
Council  of  Trullo. 


Ordination 
of  the 
deaconess. 


The  terms  used  for  the  ordering  of  men  and  women 
clergy  were  always  identical;  both  were  ordained  by  the 
imposition  of  hands,*  and  after  the  Epistle  and  Gradual 
of  the  mass.  The  new  deaconess  then  sang  the  Gospel. 
The  bishop  placed  the  stole  on  her  neck  after  the  Con- 
secration, saying:  Stola  jucunditatis  indiiit  te  Dominus ; 
after  which  she  took  the  veil  or  pallium  from  the  altar 
and  clothed  herself  with  it.j  She  also  received  a  man- 
iple, ring,  and  crown.  At  the  Communion  she  commu- 
nicated herself  from  the  chalice,  which  was  placed  in 

*  Councils  of  Ephesus  and  Trullo. 
t  Cf.  Part.  I.,  p.  487. 


THE  ECCLESIASTICAL    ORDERS  525 

her  hands.     The  rite,  which  was  the  same  for  men  and 
women,  is  contained  in  the  Ordo  Romanus. 

Opinions  vary  greatly  as  to  the  date  when  the  diacon-  When  the 
ate  of  women  disappeared.  All  are  agreed  that  it  lin-  diaconate 
gered  longer  in  the  East  than  in  the  West.*  It  is  certain 
however  that  it  was  known  in  the  Roman  diocese  till 
the  XII.  century,  for  the  Privilegiian  of  John  XIX.,  sent 
on  December  31,  1127,  to  the  bishop  of  Selva  Candida 
for  himself  and  his  successors,  allows  them  to  conse- 
crate churches,  altars,  priests,  clerics,  deacons,  and  dea- 
conesses in  all  the  Citta  Leonina.  Leo  III.  on  his 
return  to  Rome  in  800  to  consecrate  Charlemagne,  was 
met  at  the  Ponte  Milvio  by  all  the  Roman  people,  "by 
the  nuns,  and  deaconesses,"  etc. 

From  the  iv.  century,  when  preshuferides  were  done 
away  with,  till  the  Council  of  Autun  in  670,  the  ousting 
of  the  deaconess  was  accomplished  by  the  acts  of  suc- 
cessive Councils.  Laws  were  enacted  that  it  is  ^not 
meet  for  women  to  go  up  to  the  altar  {ad  altare  ingredi 
non  oportet).  Two  Councils  in  the  v.  and  vi.  centuries  f 
prohibit  the  further  creation  of  deaconesses.  Similarly 
a  VI.  century  Synodal  canon  forbids  women  to  take  the 
Eucharist  in  their  hands.  Deacons  had  been  prohibited 
as  early  as  45  2  from  administering  the  Eucharist  in  both 
kinds  when  presbyters  were  present;  \  but  women  appar- 
ently continued  to  do  so  till  much  later,  for  in  824  the 
Council  of  Paris  laments  that  women  serve  at  the  altar, 
and  give  the  Lord's  Body  and  Blood  to  the  people.  The 
Synod  held  there  in  829  declares  'We  have  seen  with  our 
eyes  women  go  to  the  altar,  and  having  put  on  sacer- 
dotal vestments  give  the  Communion  to  the  people  in 

*  Martigny  says  it  died  out  in  most  Western  churches  in  the 
v.  century,  and  that  in  the  x'.*>  it  was  no  longer  known.  Thomassin 
assigns  the  X.  or  Xil.  as  the  date  of  its  cessation.  According  to 
Wetzcr  and  IVelte  it  ceased  in  the  West  after  the  viii.  century. 
According  to  Hefele  it  ceased  at  Constantinople  in  a.d.  1190. 

t  Orange  441.     Orleans  511. 

X  Council  of  Aries;    cf.  p.  z^x},,  footnote. 


526      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 

both  kinds.'  Even  from  the  earliest  days  well-defined 
motives  militated  against  the  ministry  of  women,  but 
their  banishment  synchronised  with  the  loss  of  learning 
and  of  letters,  and  with  the  fictitious  quasi-theological 
separation  of  that  sex  from  the  general  laws  and  inter- 
ests of  humanity,  as  marked,  at  least,  as  the  growing 
separation  of  the  priesthood  from  the  laity. 

The  Another  order  of  women  clergy  were  bound  to  a  life 

vfrg?nr^^  of  chastity,  and  consecrated  as  Virgins.  These  were  the 
ecclesiastical  Virgins  called  Partlienoi,  Vir^iues  Dei* 
Virgines  sacrce,  sacratce  Deo,  and  Aiicillc^  Dei.  Cyprian 
speaks  of  them  at  Carthage  in  the  iii.  century  as  "  the 
flower  of  the  ecclesiastical  tree,  the  more  illustrious 
portion  of  the  flock  of  Christ."  They  were  not  at  first 
received  to  the  Viduatits,  or  Eldership,  but  the  African 
Church  which  had  received  the  tradition  of  virginity  as 
well  as  the  Petrine  tradition  of  the  viduate,  selected 
Virgjns  for  the  latter  office.  In  some  parts  of  the  East 
the  diaconate  among  women  seems  to  have  been  exclu- 
sively recruited  from  the  Virgins  in  the  iv.  century.  At 
Constantinople  at  this  time  Lampadia  was  Prefect  of  the 
choir  Virgins  in  the  standing  of  the  diaconate  :t  the 
ecclesiastical  Virgin-deacons  must  therefore  have  de- 
lighted the  Church  of  Constantinople  by  fulfilling  the 
same  functions  in  the  iv.  century  for  which  the  Roman 
deacons  were  celebrated  in  the  v.  and  vi. 

For  early  traces  of  the  Virgo  Saera  in  Rome  see  Part 
III.,  page  29;  and  Part  I.,  page  147.  For  her  trans- 
formation later  into  the  ascetic  or  nun,  III.,  page  16. 
The  Virgin  was  not  ordained,  qua  Virgin,  but  was  con- 
secrated; for  the  rite,  see  III.,  page  129.  For  her  dress, 
III.,  page  34. 
Dress  of  A  special  dress  for  deaconesses,  who  have  "put  away 

the  dea-        \\\t\x  lay  garments"  is  mentioned  by  the  iv.  Council  of 

coness.  ^   °  ■' 

*  As  Widows  were  called   Vidua  Dei. 

t  Nicarete  refused  to  be  ordained  to  succeed  her.  At  the  same 
time  Archbishop  Nectarius  ordained  (exeipordv-qa-e)  Olympias,  the 
friend  and  assistant  of  S.  Chrysostom,  to  the  diaconate. 


TFIE  ECCLESIASTICAL    ORDERS  527 

Carthage.  A  fresco  from  the  catacomb  of  Hermetis  rep- 
resenting 2  Widows  or  deacons  at  the  bedside  of  a  sick 
person,  shows  them  in  an  ample  tunic  with  a  stiff  head- 
dress going  round  the  face.  The  deaconess'  liturgical 
dress  was  the  diaconal  alb,  maniple  and  stole.  The 
dalmatic,  it  will  be  remembered,  was  a  purely  Roman 
item  of  costume. 

The  subdeacon  whose  office  as  we  have  seen  dates  The  Sub- 
from  the  in.  century,  has  the  following  duties  to  perform  deacon, 
in  the  Western  Church.  He  prepares  the  bread  and  wine, 
and  sacred  vessels,  pours  the  water  into  the  chalice  at 
the  offertory,  and  sings  the  Epistle,  at  high  mass.  In 
Lent  and  Advent  he  brings  the  gifts  to  the  altar  at  the 
offertory,  veiled  with  the  humeral  veil.  He  may  touch 
the  sacred  vessels,  but  not  when  they  contain  the  Eu- 
charist. Subdeacons  were  very  soon  regarded  as  among 
the  principal  ser^-ants  of  the  Church  in  the  West,  but  in 
the  East  they  are  still  considered  as  simply  in  minor 
orders.  In  the  West,  after  about  a.d.  1200,  the  sub- 
(liaconate  is  reckoned  among  the  sacred  orders.*  Inno- 
cent III.  made  this  definitive  by  ruling  that  subdeacons, 
like  priests  and  deacons,   might  be  chosen  as  bishops. 

In  Rome  anciently  their  functions  were  highly  impor- 
tant. The  letters  of  Gregory  the  Great  show  that  in  the 
VI.  century  they  administered  the  affairs  and  goods  of 
the  Roman  Church,  reformed  abuses,  and  admonished  the 
country  bishops  with  the  pope's  commission.  From 
the  VI.  century  they  had  fully  absorbed  the  ofifice  of 
lector. 

The  subdeacon's  original  dress  is  the  tunic  (tonicella) ;   Dress, 
but  it  is  now  indistinguishable  from  the  dalmatic.     Greg- 
ory the  Great  asks :  "  How  is  it  that  at  this  day  the  sub- 
deacons appear  with  a  linen  tunic,  unless  they  received 

*  Council  of  Beneventum,  under  Urban  II.,  A.D.  logj.  "  We 
give  the  name  of  sacred  orders  to  the  presbyterate  and  diaconate." 
Hugh  of  S.  Victor  calls  it  a  minor  order  50  years  later.  Peter 
Cantor,  1197,  says:  "the  subdiaconate  has  been  recently  made  a 
sacred  order." 


528      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 


Sub- 
deaconess. 


it  from  their  mother,  the  Roman  Church?"  They  wore 
the  maniple  in  Rome,  and  the  chasuble,  as  did  other 
clerks.  The  subdeacon  at  pontifical  mass  still  wears  the 
maniple,  and  in  Lent  and  Advent  the  chasuble,  which 
he  removes  to  sing  the  Epistle  in  alb  and  girdle.  He 
has  no  stole.  Among  the  Greeks  he  had  no  proper 
habit,  and  did  not  serve  at  the  altar.* 

Those  in  subdeacon's  orders  are  bound,  like  the  priest 
and  deacon,  to  celibacy  and  to  the  daily  recitation  of 
the  divine  office. 

Subdeaconesses  are  mentioned  by  the  II.  Council  of 
Tours  and  the  Council  of  Auxerre,  with  deaconesses. 
They  were  not  ordained  by  imposition  of  hands,  and 
like  subdeacons  did  not  count  as  a  sacred  order,  but 
were  elected  with  the  consent  of  the  clergy  by  the 
bishops.  A  sepulchral  inscription  to  a  subdeaconess 
which  used  to  be  in  the  pavement  of  S.  Alessio  has  been 
removed. 


Lector.  The  lector's  is,  after  the  diaconate,  the  oldest  of  the 

ecclesiastical  orders,  though  to-day  the  acolyte  and 
exorcist  rank  before  him.  He  is  ordained  by  placing  a 
Lectionary  in  his  hands.  He  used  to  chant  the  Lessons, 
and  has  power  to  bless  bread  and  the  fruits  of  the  earth. 
This  order  is  practically  non-existent  in  the  West 
to-day. 

In  the  early  Church  the  lector  was  a  person  of  much 
importance.  Even  some  of  the  bishops  could  neither 
read  nor  write,  and  the  Lector  read  the  subject  which 
was  to  be  preached.  There  was  a  special  Lector  or 
Reader  in  Rome  as  early  as  the  ii.  century.  We  know 
that  in  early  times  reading  and  expounding  or  preaching 
—  reading  and  prophecy  —  were  closely  interwoven:  the 
prayer  for  the  imposition  of  hands  on  the  Lector,  in  the 
Apostolical  Constitutions,  expressly  asks  for  him  "Thy 
Holy  Spirit,  the  prophetic  Spirit";!  S'"^^  the   Readers 

*  Cf.  Apostolical  Constitutions,  VIII.  21.     Here  subdeacons  are 
appointed  "as  overseers  and  keepers  of  Thy  holy  vessels." 
t  Book  VIII.  23. 


THE  ECCLESIASTICAL    ORDERS  529 

were  compared  to  the  prophets.  Tertullian  writing  at 
Carthage  in  203  compares  the  deacon  with  the  lector 
and  the  presbyter  with  the  layman:  "To-day  he  is  a 
deacon  who  tomorrow  is  a  lector;  to-day  a  priest  who 
tomorrow  is  a  layman,"*  words  which  show  that  in  Car- 
thage as  in  Rome  the  lector  was  not  ordo  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  III.  century;  but  his  charisma  gave  him  the 
then  highly  important  office  of  edifying  the  congregation 
by  his  reading. 

In  the  catacomb  of  S.  Agnese,  De  Rossi  found  an 
inscription  to  one  Favor  Lector  of  anterior  date  to 
Tertullian's  mention  of  Lectors. f  By  the  iv.  century 
the  lectorship  had  become  "ordre  de  d^but  et  de 
probation, "J  and  hence  it  is  that  we  find  the  age  of 
Lectors  in  epitaphs  varying  from  13  to  48  years.  Several 
of  the  popes  began  as  lectors;  Damasus  had  been  one, 
and  Julian  the  Apostate  had  been  as  a  boy  lector  in  the 
church  of  Nicomedia.  A  catacomb  inscription  (iv. 
century)  has :  Severus  Lector  iunocens  qui  vixit  in  pace 
annis  tredece. 

The  special  business  of  the  acolyte  §  is  to  carry  lights;  Acolyte, 
this  is  expressed  in  his  ordination,  where  many  beautiful 
texts  relating  to  the  light  of  good  works  and  of  truth 
are  rehearsed  to  him.  He  is  the  assistant  of  the  deacon 
in  the  ministry  of  the  altar.  In  the  early  ages  of  the 
Church  it  was  by  the  hands  of  his  acolytes  that  Inno- 
cent I.  sent  the  Host  to  the  parish  priests  on  Sunday; 
and  in  the  ix.  century  the  acolytes  still  brought  the 
consecrated  bread  from  the  altar  to  the  bishops  and 
priests,   in   little  bags,   for  the  rite  of  the  Fraction.  || 

*  He  is  comparing  the  unstable  orders  of  heretics,  with  the  orders 
of  Catholics. 

t  Another  (now  at  Urbino)  of  the  same  approximate  date,  re- 
cords Claudius  Atticianiis  lector  et  Claudia  Felicissima  cojux. 

%  Duchesne,  Origines  du  Culte.  The  Council  of  Sardica,  349, 
requires  that  no  man  be  appointed  bishop  who  had  not  been  lector, 
deacon,  and  presbyter. 

§  ciK-dXov^os,  an  attendant  or  follower. 

II  Cf.  the  story  of  Tarsicius,  Part  I.,  p.  428. 
2  M 


S30      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 

The  saccus  or  linen  bag  was  the  special  ensign  of  the 
Roman  acolyte  at  this  date.  Johannes  Diaconus,  writ- 
ing at  the  time  of  Gregory  the  Great,  says  that  deacons, 
subdeacons  and  acolytes  were  the  only  ministers  at  the 
altar.  The  acolytes  were  attached  to  the  Regions  of 
the  city  in  the  viii.  and  ix.  centuries,  6  acolytes  and 
one  subdeacon  for  each  region;  the  subdeacon  being 
the  chief  acolyte.  It  is  indeed  more  than  probable  that 
these  2  ofifices  were  developed  out  of  the  diaconate. 
Acolytes,  not  deacons,  were  the  sole  assistants  of  the 
Roman  parish-presbyters  in  their  ///////.  The  duties 
of  an  acolyte  are  to  light  and  to  carry  the  lamps  of  the 
church,  and  minister  the  wine  and  water  in  the  liturgy. 
When  serving  at  mass  or  otherwise  ministering  in  the 
church,  he  wears  the  soutane  and  short  white  cotta.  But 
his  present  functions  can  be  discharged  by  any  layman. 
In  the  East  they  are  discharged  by  the  subdeacons. 

Exorcist.  The  exorcist  appears  in  Rome  as  ofdo  at  the  same 

time  as  the  acolyte.  But  there  can  be  no  doubt  that 
exorcism  was  originally  a  charisma.  "  In  my  name  he 
shall  cast  out  demons"  was  regarded  as  a  sign  following 
"those  that  believe,"  like  gifts  of  healing,  or  immunity 
from  perils.  We  see  both  currents  acting  in  the  VIII. 
Book  of  the  Apostolical  Constitutions:  "An  exorcist  is 
not  ordained.  For  it  is  a  trial  ...  of  the  Grace  of 
God  .  .  .  through  the  inspiration  of  the  Holy  Spirit. 
.  .  .  but  if  there  be  occasion  for  him,  /e/  him  be 
ordained,  a  bishop,  or  a  presbyter,  or  a  deacon."  But 
while  in  Rome  the  exorcist  became  ordo,  in  the  East 
the  ofifice  continued  to  be  a  miraculous  one.  To  the 
Roman  exorcist  were  given  numerous  functions  in  sol- 
emn baptism,  functions  which  the  Gregorian  Sacramen- 
tary,  as  well  as  the  ordos  of  the  viii.  and  ix.  centuries, 
show  us  were  then  performed  by  acolytes.  To-day 
priests  fill  the  ofifice  of  exorcist. 

Ostiarius.  The  lowest  grade  of  order  is  the  ostiarius  or  door- 

keeper,   first   mentioned    in    Rome    with   reference    to 


THE  ECCLESIASTICAL    ORDERS  531 

S.  Laurence's  martyr-companion  Romanus,*  This  func- 
tion was  anciently  performed  by  tlie  deacons  and  dea- 
conesses, and  does  not  appear  to  have  been  ever  accepted 
in  the  East  as  a  separate  order.  Even  in  Rome  the 
ostiarii  were  replaced  from  the  vi.  century  by  the  so- 
called  mansionarii,  lay  sacristans  or  vergers. f  The 
book  de  septem  gradibiis  eccksice  says  that  they  ought  not 
to  be  considered  laymen  since  they  receive  episcopal 
ordination.  \ 

By  the  vi.  century  the  acolyte  is  said  to  be  superior  to 
the  exorcist  because  he  carries  the  Sacrament  and  admin- 
isters it  to  presbyters,  wherefore  the  former  may  not 
descend  to  the  grade  of  the  latter. §  But  such  a  dis- 
tinction is  not  primitive  {cf.  acolyte  supra,  and  Part 
II.,  p.  81,  footnote),  though  the  power  to  touch  and 
carry  the  Eucharist  now  forms  the  great  distinction 
between  the  sacred  and  minor  orders. 

The  Council  of  Trent  in  its  XXIII.  Session  attempted 
to  restore  these  orders,  and  decreed  that  the  functions 
of  the  4  minor  grades  should  henceforth  only  be  exer- 
cised by  persons  ordained  to  them.  Should  there  be  no 
unmarried  clerks  at  hand,  they  shall  be  substituted  by 
married  clerks,  provided  only  that  they  have  been  once 
married,  and  that  they  wear  the  tonsure,  and  in  church 
the  clerical  soutane.  This  decree  has  had  no  effect. 
(For  ordination  of  the  minor  orders,  see  Part  II.,  pp. 
283-285.) 

A  great  deal  of  controversy  has  arisen  over  an  early  The  Chor- 
order   of    suburban   bishops,   called   chorepiscopi,||    or  episcopi. 
cTrttTKOTTos  Toiv  dypwv.     By  the  Council  of  Laodicea  no 
other  bishops  were  allowed  for  the  country  districts. 

*  Described  as  Romanus  ostiarius.  Duchesne,  Origincs  dii 
Culte. 

t  Ibid. 

X  The  names  Lector  and  ostiarius  are  of  course  not  Christian  or 
ecclesiastical  in  origin.  Both  are  named  in  inscriptions  to  Livia's 
freedmen  and  freedvvomen,  now  in  the  Capitol  Museum. 

§  Johannes  Diaconus. 


532      CHKISTIAX  AXD   ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 

The  Council  of  Riez  439  says  that  these  chorepiscopi 
bless,  consecrate  virgins,  confirm,  and  conduct  them- 
selves as  superior  to  presbyters  and  inferior  to  the 
bishop.  The  pseudo-decretals  have  some  supposed  de- 
crees of  Damasus  in  their  regard :  Decrcta  Damasi 
Papae  de  Chorepiscopis.  PseudoTsidore  speaks  of  the 
chorepiscopus  as  a  vain  superstition;  but  Rhabanus 
Maurus  a  contemporary  of  Alcuin  defends  their  epis- 
copal character.*  They  appear  to  have  been  presby- 
ters who  exercised  all  the  functions  of  bishops  in 
country  places,  except  ordination;  a  position  resem- 
bling that  of  apostolic  delegates  in  mission  stations  at 
the  present  day. 

Celibacy  of  A  law  for  the  celibacy  of  the  clergy  of  the  Christian 
hood"^^'"  Church  was  projected,  as  Sozomen,  Socrates,  and  Gela- 
sius  record,  by  the  Council  of  Nicaea,  325.  Twenty 
years  previously  the  Synod  of  Elvira  in  Spain  had  made 
such  a  law  by  its  33d  canon.  The  Novatians,  a.d.  352, 
held  that  priests  could  marry  exactly  like  others;  in  the 
same  century  the  Montanists  wished  to  invalidate  sac- 
raments performed  by  married  clergy. f  Several  West- 
ern Councils  subsequent  to  Nicsea  have  insisted  on 
the  celibacy  not  only  of  priests  but  of  the  minor 
orders. 

It  was  however  due  to  Hildebrand,  Gregory  VH., 
that  celibacy  became  the  uniform  and  universal  law  of 
the  Western  Church.  He  carried  out  his  views  with 
great  rigour,  and  made  the  people  the  executors  of  his 
will  in  this  matter.  If  priests  are  found  to  despise  his 
decree,  then  the  people  niillo  iiiodo  illonim  officia  recipi- 
ant,  are  by  no  means  to  accept  their  ministration;  so 
that  if  the  love  of  God  and  the  dignity  of  their  ofifice  do 
not  weigh  with  them,  by  worldly  shame  "and  the  ob- 

*  Council  of  Paris,  824,  likens  them  to  the  70,  and  regrets  that 
they  seek  to  perform  episcopal  functions. 

t  In  the  11.  century,  and  while  men  \\ere  under  the  influence  of 
Millennarian  Theology,  the  extravagant  Marcionites  refused  baptism 
to  any  married  person  who  would  not  consent  to  separate. 


THE  ECCLESIASTICAL    ORDERS  533 

jurgation  of  the  people  "  they  may  be  brought  to  listen.* 
The  law  projected  at  the  Council  ot  Nicsea  had  pro- 
posed that  bishops,  priests,  and  deacons,  and  Sozomen 
adds  subdeacons,  should  cease  to  live  with  their  wives 
after  ordination.  This  was  combated  by  the  bishop  of 
a  town  in  the  Thebaid,  Paphnutius,  in  a  speech  of  great 
energy  and  beauty.  No  law  therefore  was  passed;  and 
nowhere  in  the  Christian  Church  is  such  a  pen'ersion  of 
sentiment  taught  as  that  one  who  has  contracted  solemn 
obligations  with  another  —  a  contract  which  between 
Christians  is  also  a  Sacrament  —  is  a  fit  candidate  for 
another  sacrament  which  requires  their  abrogation.  The 
Sixth  Apostolic  Canon  had  to  provide  against  such  an 
abuse:  "No  bishop  or  priest  shall  leave  his  own  wife 
on  the  pretence  of  piety;  if  he  cast  her  off,  let  him  be 
excommunicated,  and  if  he  persevere,  let  him  be  cast 
out  (of  the  ministry)."! 

The  suggestion  made  by  Paphnutius  at  the  Council  of 
Nicsea  was  that  those  already  in  orders  should  be  re- 
quired not  to  marry,  as  the  primitive  church  had  required. 
The  earliest  opinion  of  the  Christian  Church  had  been 
in  favour  of  one  only  marriage;  see  the  law  for  the 
bishop  I  Tim.   iii.   2,  and   the  widotv   i   Tim.  v.   10. J 

*  Gregory  VII.  (1074)  meant  to  reform  the  Church,  and  leave  it 
less  worldly  and  more  pure.  He  lent  to  his  task  the  eloquence  of 
men  who  feel  and  believe  deeply.  "Those  among  whom  I  live,"  lie 
says,  "  Romans,  Lombards,  and  Normans  —  are,  as  I  have  often  told 
them,  worse  than  Jews  and  pagans."  Love  he  considered  to  be  the 
kernel  of  all  good  works:  "To  act  from  this  motive  is  in  my  judg- 
ment of  greater  merit  than  fasting,  watching,  and  other  good  works, 
however  numerous  they  may  be;"  and  he  jjegs  the  King  of  Denmark 
to  put  a  stop  to  the  persecution  of  innocent  women  as  witches. 

t  Episcopus  aiit  presbyter  uxorein  propria »i  suit  obtentii  religionis 
iieijuaqttam  ahjiciat ;  si  vero  ejecerit,  excoiiunuiiicetur  ;  et  si  perse- 
7<eraverit,  dcjiciaiur.  Some  like  to  consider  the  story  of  Paphnu- 
tius' interference  apt^ryphal :  for  example  Baronius. 

X  This  is  the  practice  of  the  Greek  Church,  dehnitively  settled  by 
the  Council  of  Trullo,  691-692.  A  man  who  has  been  the  husband 
of  one  wife  may  enter  the  priesthood;  liut  no  one  may  marry  after 
he  is  ordained.  The  East  has  even  allowed  a  deacon  to  marry  after 
his  ordination,  if  he  was  ordained  with  the  express  permission  of 


merits. 


534      CIIRISTIAX  AXD  ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 

The  Apostolic  Constitutions,  Book  VI.,  require  even 
ministers,  singers,  lectors,  and  ostiarii,  to  have  been 
only  once  married.  Celibacy  for  the  Christian 'minister' 
is  first  advocated  in  an  oracle  of  the  Montanist  prophetess 
Prisca  (150-160).*  The  two  most  ancient  customs  are 
that  those  already  in  sacred  orders  may  not  marry,  and 
that  bishops  should  be  celibates.  The  present  disci- 
pline of  the  Western  Church  is  that  no  married  person 
can  become  either  a  bishop,  priest,  deacon,  or  sub- 
deacon.     A  widower  is  free  to  be  ordained. 

Ecciesiasti-  At  first  the  bishop  was  not  permitted  to  mix  himself 
mL^r^°^^'  in  secular  affairs;  already  the  apostles  had  delivered  up 
this  charge  to  the  order  of  deacons.  S.  Basil  tells  us 
that  the  majority  of  his  clergy  worked  at  sedentary 
handicrafts,  and  Epiphanius  that  the  clergy  worked  at 
a  trade  to  earn  money  for  the  poor,  and  that  bishops, 
priests,  and  deacons  were  to  be  examples  to  all  men  as 
merchants  as  well  as  in  other  respects.  In  North  Africa 
the  dislike  to  the  union  of  secular  and  religious  cares  in 
the  case  of  the  clergy  first  makes  itself  manifest;  Cyprian 
says  "  the  ministers  of  the  Church  ought  to  serve  exclu- 
sively the  altar  and  sacrifices,  and  to  give  all  their  time 
to  supplications  and  prayers."  An  apostolic  canon  de- 
clares "a  bishop  priest  or  deacon  shall  not  assume  secu- 
lar cares,  otherwise  he  shall  be  deposed."  Hence  arose 
the  strict  prohibition  against  interfering  with  property 
or  wills.  Cyprian  does  not  permit  his  presbyters  to  be 
appointed  executors,  and  excludes  the  name  of  one  who 
had  so  offended  from  the  list  of  those  for  whom  the 


his  bishop  to  marry  afterwards.  If  the  wife  of  a  clerk  die,  therefore, 
he  cannot  marry  again.  The  laws  laid  down  by  the  ApostoHc  Con- 
stitutions, VI.  17,  agree  in  all  respects  with  this  practice.  Until  the 
Council  of  Trullo  no  universal  or  binding  law  required  the  strict 
celibacy  of  the  clergy.  In  the  v.  century  we  find  Synesius,  even  on 
accepting  a  bishopric,  absolutely  refusing  to  leave  his  wife.  In  the 
East,  the  bishops  are  chosen  from  the  monks.  For  the  question  of 
celibacy  see  Socrates  I.,  xi. 

*  Cited  by  Alzog,  Univtrsal  Church  History. 


THE  ECCLESIASTICAL    ORDERS  535 

Church  prays.  Two  hundred  years  later  the  Council 
of  Chalcedon  makes  it  an  ecclesiastical  offence  for 
clerics  to  hold  civil  office;  and  in  532  Justinian  de- 
creed it  an  offence  in  civil  law  also. 

As  we  know,  the  clergy  were  at  first  supported  entirely 
by  the  voluntary  gifts  of  the  people,  or  they  worked  at 
a  trade.  S.  Paul  mentions  both  customs.  The  Mon- 
tanists  were  the  first  to  propose  a  fixed  monthly  payment 
to  the  clergy;  and  this  was  opposed  as  contrary  to  Cath- 
olic practice.  Constantine  was  the  first  to  give  an  annual 
allowance  to  the  clergy,  to  widows,  and  to  orphans;* 
and  the  tenure  by  the  Church  of  bequeathed  property  as 
endowment,  is  permitted  for  the  first  time  by  the 
Theodosian  code. 

In  the  course  of  the  iv.  century  the  State  conceded  to   Ecciesiasti- 
the  clergy  some  of  the  immunities  always  enjoyed  by  the   cai  immu- 
Rhetoricians,  the  physicians,  and  the  priests.     In  376 
the  clergy  were  exempted  from  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
civil  courts.     In  412  the  Theodosian  code  declares  that 
"clerics  are  not  to  be  accused  unless  before  the  bishops." 
In  the  VI.   century  a  rule  was  made  against  seizing  a 
priest  or  deacon  and  arraigning  him  before  the  civil 
law.      About  the  same  time  one  of  the   indefatigable 
Frankish  councils  required  a  man  to  get  off  his  mule  to 
salute  a  priest.     By  canon  law  it  is  sacrilege  to  strike 
him.     "Benefit  of  clergy"  meant  their  exemption  from   "Benefit  of 
a  criminal  process  in  the  secular  courts.     Cf.  also  tonsure  Clergy." 
Part  II.,  p.  174;  Roman  parish  priests  Part  I.,  p.  160, 
footnote ;  exequatur,  Part  IV.,  p.  474. 

*  See  Matricularii,  Part  III.,  p.  203;  and  IV.,  p.  518. 


APPENDIX. 

List  of  the  popes  —  of  the  antipopes  —  Pope  Joan  —  Armorial  En- 
signs of  the  popes — List  of  the  Fathers  and  Doctors  of  the 
Church —  Councils  —  Pontifical  Academies  —  Roman  Books: 
Liber  Pontificalis,  Sacramentaries,  Ordo  Komaitus,  Pontificate. 

There  have  been  258  popes  up  to  and  including  tiie 
present  Pope  Leo  XIII.  All  the  popes  to  Felix  IV. 
(SS'.*"  pope)  with  the  exception  of  Liberius,  have  the 
prefix  Sai?it;  and  in  the  liturgical  books  of  to-day  the 
popes  anterior  to  Sylvester  I.  are  called  Martyr — Syl- 
vester being  the  first  pope  after  the  final  cessation  of  the 
persecutions.  Of  the  31  popes  who  precede  him,  it  is 
possible  that  half  suffered  martyrdom,  or  at  least  '  con- 
fessed the  faith '  in  other  ways. 


LIST   OF   THE    POPES. 


Peter 

Linus 

Anencletus 

Clement 

Evaristus 

Alexander 

Sixtus  I. 

Telcsphorus 

Hyginus 

Pius  I. 

Anicetus 

Soter 

Eleutherius 

Victor  I. 

Zephyrinus 

Callistus  I. 

Urban  I. 


A.D.  67 

79 

Greek 

91 

Roman 

106 

Greek 

108 

Roman 

Year  of  accession 

121  or  109 

Roman 

132  or  119 

Greek 

129?  M  138 

Greek 

154  or  139 

of  Aquileja 

158  or  143 

Syrian 

167  or  157 

of  Fondi  ^ 

175  or  168 

Greek 

182  or  177 

African 

193 

Roman 

203  or  202 

Roman 

221  or  219 

Roman 

227  or  223 

536 


APPENDIX 


537 


Pontianus 

Roman 

233  or  230 

{ob.  in  exiie  : 

235) 

Aiitheros 

Greek 

238  or  235 

Fabianus 

Roman 

240  or  236 

(.1/.  Decian  ] 

persecution  250) 

Cornelius 

Roman 

254  or  251 

Lucius  I. 

Lucchese 

252  or  255 

Stephen  I. 

Roman 

253 

Sixtus  II. 

Greek 

257 

(i1/.  Va'eriar 

I  persecution  258) 

Dionysius 

Unknown 

261  or  259 

Felix  I. 

Roman 

272  or  269 

Eutychianus 

Tuscan,  Etruria 

275 

Caius 

Dalmatian 

283 

Marcellinus 

Roman 

296 

Marcellus  I. 

Roman 

304  or  308 

Eusebius 

Greek 

309  or  310 

Melchiades  or 

Miltiades 

African 

3" 

Sylvester  I. 

Roman 

314 

ISIarcus  I. 

Roman 

337  or  11^ 

Julius  I. 

Roman 

341  or  337 

Liberius 

Roman 

352 

Felix  11.  antipope  during  the  lit 

etinie  of  Liberius, 

'^'}  355.  356 

called  '  pop 

e  during  the  exih 

i  of  Liberius ' 

Damasus  I. 

Spanish 

366 

Siricius 

Roman 

3S4 

Anastasius  I. 

Roman 

399,  398 

Innocent  I. 

of  Albano 

402 

Zosimus 

Greek 

417 

Boniface  I. 

Roman 

41  s 

Celestine  I. 

Roman 

423 

Sixtus  111. 

Roman 

432 

Leo  1.  (the  G 

reat) 

Tuscan 

440 

Hilary 

Sarde 

461 

Simplicius 

of  Tivoli 

468 

Felix  III. 

Roman 

483 

Gelasius  I. 

African 

492 

Anastasius  11. 

Roman 

496 

Symmachus 

Sarde 

498 

Hormisdas 

of  Frosinone 

5H 

John  1. 

Tuscan 

523 

Felix  IV. 

of  Beneventum 

526 

Boniface  11. 

Roman 

530 

John  II. 

Roman 

532 

S.  Agapitus 

Roman 

535 

S.  Silverius 

of  Frosinone 

536 

Vigilius 

Roman 

538 

Pelagius  1. 

Roman 

555 

John  111. 

Roman 

560 

538      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 


Benedict  I. 

Roman 

Pelagius  II. 

Roman 

S.  Gregory  I.  (the  Great) 

Roman 

Sabinianus 

of  Volterra 

Boniface  III. 

Roman 

S.  Bun i face  IV. 

Abruzzese 

S.  Deusdedit  I, 

Roman 

Boniface  V. 

of  Naples 

Honorius  I. 

of  Frosinone 

Severinus 

Roman 

John  IV. 

Dalmatian 

Theodorus  I. 

of  Jerusalem 

S.  Martin  I. 

Umbrian 

S.  Eugenius  I. 

Roman 

S.  Vitalianus 

of  Segni 

Deusdedit  II.  (Adeodatus) 

Roman 

Donus  I. 

Roman 

S.  Agatho 

Sicilian 

S.  Leo  II. 

Sicilian 

S.  Benedict  II. 

Roman 

John  V. 

of  Antioch 

Conon 

of  Thrace 

S.  Sergius  I. 

of  Antioch 

John  VI. 

Greek 

John  VII. 

Greek 

Sisinnius 

Syrian 

Constantine 

Syrian 

8.  Gregory  II. 

Roman 

S.  Gregory  III. 

Syrian 

S.  Zacharias 

of  Sanseverir 

S.  Stephen  II. 

Roman 

(died  before  consecration) 

Stephen  III. 

Roman 

S.  Paul  I. 

Roman 

Stephen  IV. 

of  Reggio 

Hadrian  or  Adrian 

Roman 

S.  Leo  III. 

Roman 

S.  Stephen  V. 

Roman 

S.  Paschal  I. 

Roman 

Eugenius  II. 

Roman 

Valentinus 

Roman 

Gregory  IV. 

Roman 

Sergius  II. 

Roman 

S.  Leo  IV. 

Roman 

Benedict  III. 

Roman 

S.  Nicholas  I.  (the  Great) 

Roman 

Hadrian  II. 

Roman 

John  VIII. 

Roman 

576 

578 

590 

604 

607 
608,  607 

615 

619,  618 

625 

640,  638 
640 
642 

649 

655 

657 

672 

676 

678 

682 

684,  683 
685 

687,  686,  685 

687 

701 

705 
708 
708 
715 
731 
741 
752 

752 

756,  757 
768 

771. 
795 
816 
817 
824 
827 
827 
844 
847 

858 
867 
872 


772 


APPEXDIX 

539 

Marinus  I.  or  Martinus  II. 

of  Gallese 

882 

S.  Hadrian  III. 

Roman 

884 

Stephen  VI. 

Roman 

885 

Fonnosus 

Corsican 

891 

Boniface  VI. 

Tuscan 

896 

Stephen  VII. 

Roman 

896 

Romanus 

of  Gallese 

897 

Theodorus  II. 

Roman 

897 

John  IX. 

of  Tivoli 

898 

Benedict  IV. 

Roman 

900 

Leo  V. 

of  Ardea 

903 

Christopher 

Roman 

903 

Sergius  III. 

Roman 

904 

Anastasius  III. 

Roman 

911 

Landus,  Landovicus 

of  Sabina 

913 

John  X. 

of  Ravenna 

915,914 

Leo  VI. 

Roman 

928 

Stephen  VIII. 

Roman 

929 

John  XI. 

Roman 

931 

Leo  VII. 

of  Tusculum 

936 

Stephen  IX. 

German 

936 

Marinus  II.  Martinus  III. 

Roman 

943.  941 

Agapitus  II. 

Roman 

946 

John  XII. 

of  Tusculum 

956,  955 

Benedict  V. 

Roman 

964 

John  XIII. 

of  Narni 

965 

Benedict  VI. 

Roman 

972 

Donus  II. 

Roman 

973.  974 

Benedict  VII. 

Roman 

975.  974 

John  XIV. 

of  Pavia 

984.  9S3 

John  XV. 

Roman 

985 

Gregory  V. 

of  Saxony 

996 

Sylvester  II. 

of  Auvergne,  France  999 

John  XVII.  (Sico) 

Roman 

1003 

John  XVIII.  (Fasanus) 

Roman 

1003 

Sergius  IV.  (Buccaporca) 

Roman 

1009 

Benedict  VIII.  (Theophvlact, 

count  of  Tusculum) 

1012 

John  XIX. 

of  Tusculum 

1024 

Benedict  IX.  (Tf^^ophylact) 
(i2  yrs.  old) 

-;  of  Tusculum  J- 

1033 

Gregory  VI. 

Roman 

1044  or  1045 

Clement  II. 

of  Bamberg,  Saxony 

'  1046 

Daniasus  II. 

Bavarian 

1048 

S.  Leo  IX. 

Alsatian 

1049,  1048 

Victor  II. 

Bavarian  (Tyrol) 

1055,  1054 

Stephen  X. 

Lorrainese 

1057 

Nicholas  II. 

Burgundian 

1059 

.'Mexander  II. 

Milanese 

I061 

540      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 


S.  Gregory  VII.  (Hildebrand) 

B.  Victor  III. 

B.  Urban  II. 

Paschal  II. 

Gelasius  II. 

Calixtus  II. 

Honorius  II. 

Innocent  II. 

Celestine  II. 

Lucius  II. 

B.  Eugenius  III. 

Anastasius  IV. 

Hadrian  IV. 

Alexander  III. 

Lucius  III. 

Urban  III. 

Gregory  VIII. 

Clement  III. 

Celestine  III. 

Innocent  III.  (Lottario  del  Conti) 

Honorius  III.  (Savelli) 

Gregory  IX. 

Celestine  IV. 

Innocent  IV. 

Alexander  IV. 

Urban  IV. 

Clement  IV. 

B.  Gregory  X. 

B.  Innocent  V. 

Hadrian  V. 

John  XX.  or  John  XXI. 

Nicholas  III. 

Martinus  IV. 

Honorius  IV. 

Nicholas  IV. 

S.  Celestine  V.  (abdicated) 

Boniface  VIII. 

B.  Benedict  XI. 

Clement  V. 

John  XXII. 

Benedict  XII. 

Clement  VI. 

Innocent  VI. 

B.  Urban  V. 

Gregory  XI. 

Urban  VI. 

Boniface  IX. 

Innocent  VII. 


Tuscan 

of  Beneventum 

of  Rheims,  France 

of  Bieda 

of  Gaeta 

Burgundian 

Bolognese 

Roman 

of  Citt^  di  Castello 

Bolognese 

Pisan 

Roman 

English 

Sienese 

Lucchese 

Milanese 

of  Beneventum 

Roman 

Roman 

of  Anagni 

Roman 

of  Anagni 

Milanese 

Genoese 

of  Anagni 

of  Troyes,  France 

of  Narbonne,  France 

of  Piacenza 

Savoyard 

Genoese 

of  Lisbon 

Roman 

of  Champagne 

Roman 

of  Ascoli 

of  Naples 

of  Anagni 

of  Treviso 

of  Bordeaux,  France 

of  Cahors,  France 

of  Foix,  France 

of  Limoges 

of  Limoges 

of  Mende 

of  Limoges 

of  Naples 

of  Naples 

of  Salmona 


1073 

1087,  1086 
108S,  1087 
1099 
1118 
1119 
1 1 24 
1 130 

"43 
1 144 

1145 

"53 

"54 

"59 

1181 

"85 

1187 

1187 

1191 

1 198 

1216 

1227 

1241 

1243 

1254 

1261 

1265 

1271 

1276 

1276 

1276  or  1277 

1277 

12S1 

1285 

1288,  1289 

1294 

1294 

1303 

1305 

1316 

1334 
1342 
1352 
1362 

1370 
1378 
1389 

1404 


APPENDIX 

5 

Gregory  XII.  (abdicated  1415)     Venetian 

1406 

Alexander  V.  (Philargi)                   of  Candia 

1409 

John  XXIII.  (Cossa)  (deposed  /of Naples} 

1410 

Martin  V.  (Colonna)                        Roman 

1417 

Eugenius  IV.  (Condolmieri) 

1431 

Nicholas  V.  (Tomaso  di  Sarzana) 

1447 

Calixtus  III.  (Borgia) 

•455 

Pius  II.  (Piccolomini) 

1458 

Paul  II.  (Barbo) 

1464 

Sixtus  IV.  (della  Rovere) 

147 1 

Innocent  VIII.  (Cibo) 

1484 

Alexander  VI.  (Borgia) 

1492,  1493 

Pius  III.  (Piccolomini) 

1503 

Julius  II.  (della  Rovere) 

1503 

Leo  X.  (de'  Medici) 

1513 

Hadrian  VI.  (Florent) 

1522 

Clement  VII.  (de'  Medici) 

»S23 

Paul  III.  (Farnese) 

1534 

Julius  ill.  (del  Monte) 

1550 

Marcellus  11.  (Cervini) 

1555 

Paul  IV.  (Caraft'a) 

1555 

Pius  IV.  (de'  Medici) 

1559 

S.  Pius  V.  (Ghislieri) 

1566 

Gregory  XIII.  (Boncompagni) 

1572 

Sixtus  V.  (Peretti) 

1585 

Urban  VII.  (Castagno) 

1590 

Gregory  XIV.  (Sfrondati) 

1590 

Innocent  IX.  (Facchinetti) 

1 591 

Clement  VIII.  (Aldobrandini) 

1592 

Leo  XI.  (de'  Medici) 

1605,  1604 

Paul  V.  (Borghese) 

1605,  1604 

Gregory  XV.  (Ludovisi) 

1621 

Urban  VlII.  (Barberini) 

1623 

Innocent  X.  (Pamfili) 

1644 

Alexander  VII.  (Chigi) 

1655 

Clement  IX.  (Rospigliosi) 

1667 

Clement  X.  (Altieri) 

1670 

Innocent  XI.  (Odescalchi) 

1676 

Alexander  VIII.  (Ottoboni) 

1689 

Innocent  XII.  (Pignatelli) 

1691 

Clement  XI.  (Albani) 

1700 

Innocent  XIII.  (Conti) 

1721,  1720 

Benedict  XIII.  (Orsini) 

1724 

Clement  XII.  (Corsini) 

1730 

Benedict  XIV.  ( Lambertini) 

1740 

Clement  XIII.  (Rezzonico) 

»758 

Clement  XIV.  (Ganganelli) 

1769 

541 


542      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 

Pius  VI.  (Braschi)  1775 

Pius  VII.  (Chiaramonti)  1800 

Leo  XII.  (della  Genga)  1823 

Pius  VIII.  (Castiglioni)  1829 

Gregory  XVI.  (Cappelari)  1831 

Pius  IX.  (Mastai  Ferretti)  1846 

Leo  XIII.  (Pecci)  1878 

The  early  The  Ordinary  list  of  the  Popes  gives  the  series  thus: 
series  of  Peter,  Linus,  Cletus,  Clement,  Anacletus,  Evaristus, 
opes,  ^igj^j^nder,  etc.  Another  list  (according  to  Irenseus, 
Eusebius,  and  Rufinus)  is:  Peter,  Linus;  then,  accord- 
ing to  TertuUian  and  Rufinus:  Clement,  Anacletus? 
Evaristus?  Alexander?  A  third  runs:  Peter,  Linus, 
Anacletus,  Clement  (according  to  later  writers) ;  then 
Evaristus,  Alexander,  etc. 

The  two  questions  discussed  have  been  (a)  the  identity 
of  Cletus  with  Anencletiis,  (/>)  the  position  in  the  list  of 
C/e/ne/iL 

(a)  The  distinction  between  Cletus  and  Anencletus  is 
found  in  only  5  catalogues,  of  the  iv.-v.  centuries,  and 
is  entirely  wanting  in  any  earlier  list.  It  was  probably 
a  critical  conjecture  of  a  iv.  century  writer  to  explain 
the  two  names  Cletus  and  Anencletus  with  which  this 
Pope  appears  in  the  earliest  lists.  The  real  name  is 
A?iencletus,  not  Anacletus,  which,  as  equivalent  to  rur- 
sum  electus,  led  various  writers  to  conjecture  a  Cletus 
followed  by  an  Anacletus.  {b)  As  to  the  place  of 
Clemens  in  the  list,  two  traditions  existed  in  the  iv. 
century.  The  more  ancient  and  diffused  of  these,, 
which  is  also  the  more  usually  received  to-day,  makes 
Clement  the  third  bishop  after  Peter:  Linus,  Anen- 
cletus, Clement*  The  other  arose  among  the  Syrian 
Ebionites  in  the  11.  century,  and  passed  thence  to  the 
West,     According  to  this  tradition  Clement  was  the  im- 

*  The  authorities  are  Ireriicus,  Eusebius,  Epiphanius;  and  Jerome 
follows  them.  The  oliject  of  Irenrcus  was  "  rendre  sensible  la  con- 
tinuite  de  I'enseignement  ecclesiastique  et  de  la  succession  tradition- 
nelle";  and  in  his  work  on  the  Heresies  written  in  the  first  years, 
of  the  reign  of  Commodus,  he  gives  the  Papal  series,  ending  with 
Eleutherius.     (Lib.  Pont.  Duchesne  ed.) 


APPENDIX 


543 


mediate  successor  of  Peter.  The  series :  Peter,  Linus, 
Anencletus,  Clement,  Evaristus,  Alexander,  is  that 
adopted  by  P.  de  Smedt,  and  the  Abbe  Duchesne.  The 
latter  however  abstains  from  dating  these  pontificates.* 

The  popes  on  their  accession  always  assume  another   Assump- 
name.     It  is  a  curious  coincidence  that  S.   Peter  was  Ue^y°ame 
also  not  known  among  the  apostles  by  his  own  name, 
Simon. 

It  is  a  popular  tradition  that  no  pope  could  see  "the   "The 
years  of  Peter,"  that  is,  no  pope  would  sit  for  25  years,    ^g^g^.?^ 
the  supposed  duration  of  Peter's  Episcopate  in  Rome.  '  . 

*  In  the  Roman  Breviary,  both  'Cletus'  and  'Anacletus'  have 
feast  days  assigned  to  them  —  April  26  and  July  13;  and  the 
duration  of  their  episcopates  is  stated  to  be  12  and  9  years  respec- 
tively.    Anacletus  is  also  said  to  succeed  Clement. 

List  given  by  Augustine  and  by  Optatus 
of  the  succession  of  the  Roman  bishops, 
in  the  controversy  with  the  Donatists: 

Petrus 
Linus 
Clemens 
Anencletus 
Evaristus 
Sixtus 

Telesphorus 
Iginus 
Anicetus  ^ 
Pius 
Soter 
Alexander 
Victor 
Zephyrinus 
Callixtus 
Urban us 
Pontianus 
Antherus 
(to  Anastasius  a.d.  399) 

1  In  the  time  of  Anicetus,  Hegesippus  came  to  Rome  with  the 
same  intent  as  Irenteus.  He  had  travelled  from  Church  to  Church 
and  was  so  pleased  with  what  he  found  in  Rome,  that  he  stayed 
there  20  years.  'Apx'^'*^'  "^^  dvrip  Kai  dTroaroXtKds,  they  called  him. 
He  was  a  Jewish  convert.  His  list  ends  with  Anicetus.  See  also 
"  Liber  Pontiticalis." 


List  given  in  the  Chronicle,  and 
in  the  Ecclesiastical  History 
by  Eusebius: 

Petrus 

Linus 

Anencletus 

Clemens 

Everestus 

Alexander 

Xystus 

Telesphorus 

Hyginus 

Pius 

Anicetus 

Soter 

Eleutherus 

Victor 

Zephyrinus 


544      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 

No  one  in  fact  ever  sat  for  25  years  until  the  late  pope 
Pius  IX,  who  reigned  31  years. 

LIST   OF  THE   ANTIPOPES. 


A.D. 

A.D. 

(Hippolytus.) 

974- 

Boniface   VII.,    "  Frati- 

252. 

Novatian,    antipope 
Cornelius. 

to 

coneP     (He  had  Ben- 
edict VI.  strangled.) 

355- 

Felix    II.     (counted 

as 

997- 

John  XVI. 

'  pope  during  the  e> 

ale 

1044. 

Sylvester  III. 

of  Pope  Liberius'). 

1058. 

Benedict  X. 

418  circa.     Eulalius. 

1061. 

Honorius. 

498  circa.     Laurentius. 

1080. 

Clement  II. 

530. 

Dioscorus. 

1 102. 

Albert. 

686. 

Peter. 

Theodoric. 

687. 

Paschal. 

1 105. 

Sylvester  III 

687. 

Theodorus. 

1 1 18. 

Gregory  VIII. 

767. 

Constantine. 

1121. 

Celestine. 

768. 

Theophilactus. 

1 1 24. 

Theobald     ("  Bocca    di 

769. 

Philip. 

Pecore  "). 

826. 

Sinsinnius. 

1 130. 

Anacletus  II, 

856. 

Anastasius. 

1 1 38. 

Victor  IV. 

Sergius  III. 

"59- 

Victor  IV. 

963- 

Leo  VIII. 

1 164. 

Paschal. 

(964. 

Benedict  V.)  * 

1 1 68. 
1 1 78. 
1334- 

Callistus. 
Innocent  III. 
Nicholas  V. 

ANTIPOPES   OF   THE   GREAT   SCHISM. 

1378.     Clement  VII.  (Robert  of  Geneva;,  elected  1378,  aged  36; 

antipope  to  Urban  VI. 
1394.     Benedict  XIII.  (of  Aragon),  elected  1394  at  Avignon. 
1424.     Clement  VIII.  (of  Spain),  elected  at  Avignon. 
1439.     Felix    v.,    the    last    antipope    (Amadeus    VIII.    of    Savoy, 

elected  by   Council  of  Basle,  abdicated  1449) ;   and  end 

of  the  Schism. 

TRUE   POPES   DURING  THE   GREAT   SCHISM. 

Urban  VI.,  the  first  pope  after  the  return  from  Avignon;  ob. 

1389. 
Boniface  IX.  (Piero  Tomacelli),  elected  1389;  ob.  1404. 
Innocent  VII.,  1404;  ob.  November,  1406. 


*  Benedict  V.,  964,  is  sometimes  counted  as  an  antipope. 


APPENDIX  545 

The  following  were  deposed  or  abdicated  : 

All  3  con-  (  Gregory  XII.  1406;   deposed  June  5,  1409;   abdicated 
tempora-    I       1415- 

neously      1  Alexander  V.,  elected  June,  1409;  ob.  May,  1410.* 
pope.  I  John  XXIII. ,  elected  1410.     Deposed  May,  1415. 

One  of  the  pontiffs  in  the  viii.  or  ix.  century  is  said  Pope  Joan, 
to  have  been  a  woman,  and  as  such  her  bust  appeared 
in  the  series  of  reliefs  of  the  Popes  in  the  Cathedral  of 
Siena.  It  was  inscribed :  Johannes  VIII.  feinina  de 
anglia:  John  the  VIII.  an  English  woman.  In  1600 
this  bust  was  altered  into  that  of  Pope  Zacharias,  at  the 
suggestion,  it  is  said,  of  Clement  VIII. 

She  is  variously  said  to  appear  in  the  following  places 
in  the  series: 

A.D. 

685.        John  V.     1      Between    John    V.    (ob.    686)    and    Conon 
Joan  \  (elected  687)   there  were  3  antipopes,   Peter, 

701.        John  VI.    j  Paschal,  and  Theodorus. 
705.        John  VII.  (i). 

741.        Zacharias  (whose  bust  was  substituted  at  Siena  for  that  of 

Joan) . 
S.  Leo  IV.  847  to  July  855.  ^       It  is  said  that  Benedict  III.  was  con- 
Joan  854,  855.  I  secrated  on   Sept.   i,  855,  and  died  in 

I  the  beginning  of  858,  when   X^icholas    (2). 

Benedict  III.  855  or  857.   J  succeeded  him.     But  there  was  an  anti- 
Nicholas  the  Great  858.  pope  Anastasius,  in  the  months  before 
Benedict's  election,  and  some  writers  do 
not  place  Benedict  till  857. 
872.     John  VIII.,t  said  to  1       Joan  is  said  to  have  consecrated  King 
he.  Joan.      (On  the  au-  j  Alfred.      Ethelwolf   had    sent    his    son 
thority   of   the    Angus-   |  Alfred  to  Rome  for  consecration  in  853,     (3). 
tinian  Annals,  1135.)+       in   the   time  of  Leo  IV.,  and  visited 
Rome  himself  in  875.     John  VIII.  con- 
secrated Charles  the  Bald. 

*  Vide  Councils  p.  558. 

t  A  great  deal  is  known  of  this  pope,  who  lived  till  8S0,  and  is 
called  the  son  of  Gundus,  a  Roman.  He  had  been  an  archdeacon 
of  Rome  before  his  election;  and  325  of  his  letters  to  the  princes 
and  prelates  of  his  day  are  extant. 

\  Etienne  de  Bourbon  de  Belleville,  one  of  the  companions  of 
S.  Dominic,  quotes  "  The  Chrunicles,"  but  gives  Joan's  date  as 
A.D.  1 100. 


546      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 


Her  Story. 
Told  by 
Martinus 
Polonus. 


Another 
Version. 


Sources  of 
the  Story. 

886. 


1086. 


The  story  given  by  Martin  Polonus,  archbishop  of 
Cosenza,  Penitentiary  under  Innocent  IV.,  and  Confessor 
to  B.  Gregory  X.,  who  died  a.d.  1279,  is  as  follows: 
"After  Leo  IV,,  John  Anglus,  a  native  of  Metz,  reigned 
2  years,  5  months,  and  4  days  ...  It  is  recounted 
that  he  was  a  female,  and  that  when  a  girl  she  accom- 
panied her  fianc6  in  male  attire  to  Athens.  There  she 
advanced  in  diverse  sciences,  and  none  could  be  found 
to  equal  her.  So  that  after  having  studied  for  3  years 
in  Rome,  she  had  great  masters  for  her  pupils  and 
hearers.  And  when  there  arose  a  high  opinion  in  the 
city  of  her  virtue  and  knowledge,  she  was  unanimously 
elected  Pope."  According  to  some  of  the  chroniclers, 
after  she  became  pope  her  virtue  did  not  continue  to 
equal  her  knowledge:  "An  angel  appeared  and  offered 
Joan  either  to  have  her  child  in  public,  or  burn  eternally 
in  hell,"  and  she  chose  the  former.* 

The  first  mention  of  Joan  is  in  the  Vitse  Pontificum 
of  Anastasius  Bibliothecarius,  who  died  in  886,  and 
would  therefore  have  been  a  contemporary.  The  entry 
is  in  another  hand,  and  is  said  to  be  an  obvious  forgery. 
Marian  Scotus,  monk  of  S.  Martin  Koln,  then  of  Fulda, 
and  then  of  S.  Alban's  Metz,  who  died  1086,  next 
inserts  in  his  chronicle:  a.d.  854,  Lotharii  14,  Joanna, 
a  woman,  succeeded  Leo,  and  reigned  2  years,  5  months, 
and  4  days.  In  the  chronicle  of  Siegebert  de  Gemblours, 
who  died  11 12,  we  read:  "It  is  reported  that  John  was 
a  female  and  .  .  .  becoming  pregnant,  gave  birth  to  a 
child,  wherefore  some  do  not  number  her  among  the 
pontiffs."  Other  chroniclers  call  the  same  pope  a 
woman.  William  Occam  alludes  to  the  story;  and 
Guglielmus  Jacobus,  in  his  rythmical  Life  of  the  Pon- 
tiffs, tells  the  whole  history  as  given  by  Martin  Polonus: 
while  Spanheimf  says  he  found  it  in  over  500  manu- 
scripts. By  1422,  Thomas  de  Elmham  thus  inserts  it: 
A.D.  855,  Joannes.     Iste  non  computatus;  Femina  fuit. 


*  MiraHlia  Urhis  Roiiur. 

t  Spanheim :   Exercitatio  de  Papa  Feniiiia. 


APPENDIX  S47 

Platina*  says  he  relates  the  story  "Lest  I  should  appear 
to  omit  obstinately  and  pertinaciously  what  is  asserted 
by  most  people."  Panvinius,  the  continuator  of  Pla- 
tina, says  the  story  is  an  interpolation. 

The  house  in  which  Joan  is  said  to  have  lived,  and  Joan's 
Xhe.-  sacel/uni  where  she  was  buried,  were  situated  in  the  House. 
road  leading  from  the  Colosseum  to  the  Lateran,  the  Via 
di  S.  Giovanni  in  Laterano.  In  the  xii.  century  a 
house  did  in  fact  exist  there,  called  domiis  Johannis 
papcv  and  in  the  Mirabilia  the  "  image  which  is  called 
the  Woman  Pope  "  is  pointed  out  on  this  road  as  one  of 
the  sights.  This  image  was  thrown  into  the  Tiber  by 
Sixtus  V.  (1585),  and  the  house  was,  absurdly  enough, 
pulled  down.  The  story  of  the  woman  pope  John  was 
universally  believed  up  to  the  end  of  the  xvi.  century; 
a  fact  at  least  as  remarkable  as  would  be  the  truth  of  the 
stroy  itself. 

The  origin  of  the  story  does  not  appear  to  be  a  con- 
fusion with  some  of  the  many  vii.  or  ix.  century  anti- 
popes  :   Dollinger  says  it  is  due  to  the  Dominicans  and 
Minorites;  while  Baroniussays  it  refers  to  the  accession 
of  a  woman  as  Patriarch  of  Constantinople.     It  is  per- 
haps more  likely  that  the  story  originated  not  in  one 
woman  pope,  but  in  the  succession  of  popes  who  were 
the  paramours  and  creatures  of  Theodora  and  her  daugh- 
ter Marozia.     John  IX.,  the  son  of  Marozia,  was  placed   a.d.  89! 
by  these  pope-makers  in  the  pontifical  chair  at  the  ripe 
age  of  18.     John  X.,  Theodora's  lover,t  was  hanged  by   915- 
her   daughter's    direction.      John    XL    was   INIarozia's  931- 
child,!  and  John  XII.,  her  grandson,  was  Pope  at  17   956. 
years  old.      Baronius  will  have   none  of  these  popes, 
whom  he  calls  "false  pontiffs  "  only  placed  in  the  list 
for  the  sake  of  marking  the  times  {ad  consignanda  tem- 
pora) :  a  conclusion  more  consolatory  to  morals  than 

*  rV/it"  Romanoruin  Poiitifirmn. 

t  Placed  by  her  on  the  papal  throne.  (Gregorovius,  and 
Duchesne  Lib.  Pont.) 

J  Ex  PapcE  Sergio,  says  the  Liber  Ponlificalis.  In  all  8  popes 
were  their  creatures. 


548      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 

satisfactory  to  orthodoxy.  It  would  seem  more  than 
probable  that  the  story  of  the  pope-makers  was  per- 
sonified in  Pope  Joan,  who  represented  all  these  hate- 
ful Johns.  A  monster  wicked  pontiff  in  female  form 
was  a  scapegoat  quite  in  accordance  with  the  pre- 
judices of  monastic  chroniclers. 

ARMS  OF  THE   POPES. 

Arms  were  not  used  in  Europe  until  the  middle  of  the 
XII.  century.     A  century  later  they  became  hereditary. 

The  arms  of  the  popes  are  much  en  evidence  in  Rome, 
as  it  is  the  pontiffs'  custom  to  place  their  family  shield 
on  buildings  and  similar  works  undertaken  by  them.* 
The  proper  papal  badge  is  the  crossed  keys,  the  keys 
given  by  Christ  to  Peter,  signifying  power  to  open  and 
shut  the  gates  of  heaven.  These  are  surmounted  by 
the  tiara;  and  sometimes  draped  with  a  pallium. 

In  Rome  and  Italy  a  bishop's  or  archbishop's  arms 
appear  on  his  cathedral  church  with  the  arms  of  the 
town  and  those  of  the  pope :  an  Italian  bishop  does  not 
'impale'  the  arms  of  the  See  with  his  own.  The  pre- 
latial  hatf  surmounts  the  shield  in  place  of  helmet  and 
crest,  the  bishop's  mitre  is  not  used  for  this  purpose. 

A  cardinal's  arms  are  surmounted  by  a  cardinal's 
hat,  no  distinction  being  made  between  the  3  grades. 

A  pope,  cardinal,  or  other  prelate,  who  is  also  mem- 
ber of  a  monastic  Order,  should  bear  the  arms  of  this 
Order  in  chief ;  but  they  sometimes  appear 
in  the  dexter  half  like  the  arms  of  a  See. 
The  same  applies  to  membership  of  a 
knightly  Order  (except  in  the  case  of  the 
])ope).  The  shield  is  often  placed  on 
the  cross  of  such  Order,  and  when  this  is 
an  eight-pointed  white  cross,  it  is  that 
of    the    Order   of    S.    John  of   Jerusalem 


Monastic 


Personal 


(Order  of  Malta). 


*  See  pp.  325  and  447. 
t  '6e.11  prelatial  Iiat,  p.  473. 


Innocent  III. 


Conti.     Segni. 

1198-1210. 

Bur.  ist  in  Perugia, 

then  moved  to  Lateran 

by  Leo  XIII. 


HONORIUS   III. 


Savelli.     Rome. 

1216-1227, 

Bur.  S.  Maria 

Maggiore. 


Gregokv  IX. 

Conti.     Anagni. 

I 2 27-1 241. 
Bur.  S.  Peter's 


CELESTINE   IV. 

Castiglione.     Milan. 

1241-1243. 


Innocent  IV. 

Fieschi.     Genoa. 

I243-I254- 
Bur.  Cathedral  at 

Naples. 


Alexander  IV. 

Conti.     Anagni. 

1254-1261. 

Bur.  Duomo  at 

Viterbo. 


URB.\N   IV. 

Langiois.     Troyes. 

1261-1265. 

Bur.  Duomo, 

Perugia. 


Clement  IV. 

Gros.     Narbonne 

1265-1269. 

Bur.  Viterbo. 


Gregory  X. 

Visconti.     Piacenza. 

1271-1276. 
Bur.  Puomo.  Arez7n 


Innocent  V.  Adrian  V.  John  XXI. 

Peter  of  Tarantaise.  Fieschi.     Genoa.  Peter  Hispanus. 

Savoy.     1276-1276.  1276-1277.  Lisbon.     1277-1277. 

P)\ir.  Lateran.  Bur.  Puomo,  Viterbo.  Bur.  Duomo,  Viterbo. 


Nicholas  III.  Martin  IV.  Honorics  IV. 

Orsini.     Rome.         Monipiti.     Champagne.        Savelli.     Rome. 
1277-T281.  1281-1285.  1285 -1287. 

Bur.  .S.  Peter's  (crypt).     Bur.  Duomo,  Perugia.         Bur.  Ara  Coeli. 

549 


Nicholas  IV. 

Jerome  d'Ascoli. 

1289-1292. 

Bur.  S.  M.  RIaggiore. 


Celestine  v.        Boniface  VIII.  Benedict  XI. 

Morrone.     Naples.          Gaetani.     Aiiagni.  Boccasini.     Treviso. 

1294-1295,                         1295-1303.  1303-1305. 

Bur.  at  Aquila.             Bur.  Old  S.  Peter's  Bur.  Duomo,  Perugia. 

(rrypx^. 


Clement  V. 

De  Got.     Bordeaux. 

1305-1314- 
Bur.  S.  M.  d'Uzes, 

Narbonne. 


JOHN  XXII.  Benedict  XII.         Clement  \I.  Innocent  VI. 

Cuese.     Cahors.  C).  S.  B.  Cist  O.  S.  B.     Pierre  D'Albert.    Limoges. 

1316-1334.  Fournier.     Languedoc.      Roger.     Limoges.  1352-1362. 

Bur.  Duomo,  Avignon.  1334-1342.  1342-1352.  Bur.  Chartreuse  of 

Bur.  Duomo,  Avignon.   Bur.  Chaise  Liieu,  Avignon.    Villeneuve. 


Urban  V.             Gregory  XI.  Urban  VI. 

Grimoard.     Grisac.  Pierre  Roger.    Limoges.  Prignano.    Naples 

1362-1370.                          1370-1378.  1378-1389. 

Bur.  S.  Victoire,              Bur.  S.  Francesca  Bur.  Old  S.  Peter's 
I\t.-irseilles.                             Romana. 


Innocent  VII. 

Migliorati.     Naples 

1404-1406. 
Bur.  Old  S.  Peter's. 


Gregory  XII. 

Correr.     Venice. 

1406-1409. 
Bur.  Cathedral  of 

Recanati. 


Alexander  V. 

O.  M.  Philar.t;o.  Candia. 

1409-1410 
Bur.  Franciscan  Church, 


Bologna. 


JOHN   XXIII. 

Cossa.     Naples. 

1410-1417. 
Bur    Baptistery, 

Florence. 


550 


Martin  \'.  Ecgemu-s  IV.  Xichulas  V.  Calixtus  III. 

Colonna.     Rome.        Condolmieri.     Venice.    Parentucelli.    Sarzana.  Alfonso  Borgia 

1417-1431.-                         1431-1447.                        1447-1455.  Valencia.    1455-1458 

Bur.  Lateran.          Bur.  .S.  Peter'.s.     Monu-       Bur.  S.  Peter's  Bur.  S.  Maria  in 

raent  in  S.  Salvatore  in  Lauro.        (crjpt;.  Monserrato. 


8 
8 

y 

P 

Pius  II. 

Piccolomini.     Pienza. 

1458-1464. 

Bur   S.  Andrea 

della  Valle. 


Paul  II. 

Barbo.     Venice. 

1464-1471. 

Bur.  S.  Peter's 

(crypt). 


SixTU-s  IV.  Innocent  VIII. 

Delia  Rovere.     Savona.  Cibo      Genoa. 

1471-1484.  1484-1492. 

Bur.  S.  Peter's.  Bur.  S.  Peter's. 


e 

9 

0 

Alexander  VI. 

Pius  III. 

JULIUS   II. 

Leo  X. 

Borgia.     Spain. 

Piccolomini.     Siena. 

Della  Rovere.    Savona. 

Medici.     Florence. 

1492-1503. 
Bur.  S.  Maria  in 

I 503-1 503. 
Bur.  S.  Andrea 

1503-1513- 
Bur.  S.  Peter's. 

1513-1522. 
Bur.  S.  Maria  sopra 

Monserrato. 

della  Valle. 

Minerva. 

Adri.\n  VI. 

Florent.     Utrecht. 

1522-1523. 

Bur.  S.  Maria  dell' 

Anima. 


Clement  VII. 

Medici.     Florence. 

1523-15.34- 

Bur.  S.  Maria  sopra 

Minerva. 


Paul  III. 

Fnrne.';e.     Rome. 

1534-1550- 
Bur.  S.  Peter's. 


Julius  III. 

Del  Monte.     Monte 
San  Sovino.     Tuscany. 

1550-1555- 
Bur.  S.  Peter's  (crypt). 


551 


Marcellus  II.            Pall  IV.  Pius  IV.                    Pius  Y. 

Cervini.    Montepulciano.    CaralTa.    Naples.  Medici.     Milan.  Ghislieri.     Alexandria 

■555-I555-                          1555-1559  1559-1566.                           1566-1572. 

Bur.  S.  Peter's  (crypt)         Bur.  S.  Maria  Bur.  S.  Maria  degli             Bur.  S.  Maria 

sopra  Minerva.  Angeli.                            Maggiore. 


Gregory  XIII. 


Buonconipagni. 
Bologna. 


SiXTL'S   V. 
Peretti.     Ancona. 

1585-1590- . 

Bur.  S.  Maria 

Maggiore. 


Urban  VII. 

Castagno.     Rome. 

1590-1590. 

Bur.  S.  Maria  sopra 

Minerva. 


Gregory  XIV. 

Sfrondati.     Cremona. 

1590-1591-, 
Bur.  S.  Peter's. 


Innocent  IX. 


Facchinetti.    Bologna. 

1591-1592- 

Bur.  S.  Peter's 

(crypt). 


Clement  VIII. 


Aldobrandini. 

i592-i6o5._ 
Bur.  S.  Maria 

Maggiore. 


Leo  XI. 

Medici.     Florence. 

1605-1605. 

Bur.  S.  Peter's. 


Pai-l  V. 

Borghese.     Rome. 

1605-162 1. 

Bur.  S.  Maria 

Maggiore. 


Gregory  XV. 

Ludovisi.     Bologna. 

1621-1623. 

Bur.  S.  Ignazio. 


Urean  VIII. 
Barberini.     Florence. 

1623-1644. 
Bur.  S.  Peter's. 


Innocent  X. 

Pamfili.     Rome. 

1644-1655. 
Bur.  S.  .Agnese, 
Piazza  Navona. 


Alexander  VII. 

Chigi.     Siena. 

1655-1667. 
Bur.  S.  Peter's. 


552 


CLE^fF.^■T  IX.  Clement  X. 

Rospigliosi.     Pistoja.  Altieri.     Rome. 

1667-1670.  1670-1676. 

Bur.  S   Maria  Maggiore.  Bur.  S.  Peter's. 


Innocent  XI.      Alex.\nder  VIII. 

Odescalchi.     Como.      Ottobuoni.     Venice. 


1676-16 
3ur.  S.  Peter's. 


Bur.  S.  Peter's. 


Innocent  XII. 

Pignatelli.     Naples. 


Clement  XI. 

Albani.     Urbino. 

1700-1721. 

Bur.  S.  Peter's. 


Innocent  XIII.      Benedict  XIII. 


Conti.     Rome.  Orsini.     Rome. 

1721-1724.  1724-1730. 

Bur.  S.  Peter's  Bur.  S.  Maria 

(no  monumeut).  sopra  Minerva 

(the  arms  of  Benedictine 
order  in  chief,  of  which 
tliis  pope  was  a  member). 


Clement  XII. 

Corsini.     Florence. 

I730-I740- 

Bur.  Lateran. 


Benedict  XIV. 

Lambertini.     Bologna. 

1740-1758. 

Bur.  S.  Peter's. 


Clement  XIII. 

Rezzonico.     Venice. 

1758-1769. 

Bur.  S.  Peter's. 


Clement  XIV. 

Ganganelli.     Rimini. 

1769-1775.      _ 

Bur.  SS.  Apostoli 

(arms  of  Franciscan 

order  in  chief). 


Pius  VI. 

Braschi.     Cesena. 

1775-1800. 

Bur.  S.  Peter's 

(crypt). 


Pius  VII.  Leo  XII.  Pius  VIII. 

Chiaramonti.     Cesena.    Delia  Genga.    Spoieto.    Castiglioni.  Cingole. 
1800-1323.  1823-1829.  1829-1831. 

Bur.  S.  Peter's  Bur.  S.  Peter's.  Bur.  S.  Peter's. 

(arms  of  the  Benedictine 

Older  impaled). 

553 


554      CHRISTIAN  AND   ECCIESIASTICAL   ROME 


Gregory  X\'I. 

Cappelari.     Belluno. 


Pius  IX. 

Mastai-Ferretti. 


Leo  XIII. 

Giocchino  Pecci.    Carpineto. 


Bur.  S.  Peter's        Bur.  S.  Lorenzo  Fuori. 
(Arms  of  the  Camaldolese 
order  impaled) . 

Only  sixty-five  monuments  to  popes  are  now  extant 
in  Rome,  and  twenty  are  scattered  in  various  towns  of 
Italy  and  France,  while  between  260  and  270  popes 
have  occupied  the  see  of  Peter.  About  150  popes  must 
have  been  buried  in  the  atrium  and  within  the  old 
basilica  of  S.  Peter's,  but  their  monuments  were  all 
destroyed  with  the  older  building,  and  only  a  few  frag- 
ments remain,  preserved  in  the  crypt  of  S.  Peter's. 

Until  the  iii.  century,  the  bishops  of  Rome  were 
buried  "near  the  body  of  Peter"  in  the  Vatican  cata- 
comb. From  this  century  until  the  middle  of  the  v., 
during  the  ages  of  persecution,  the  popes  were  laid  in 
the  various  catacombs  without  the  city  walls,  after  which 
date  the  Vatican  was  again  adopted  as  the  papal  burial 
place.  During  the  following  centuries,  the  atrium  of 
old  S.  Peter's  was  crowded  with  monuments  to  con- 
suls, bishops,  popes  and  emperors,  the  last  emperor  to 
be  there  buried  being  Valentinian  III.  Leo  I.  was 
the  first  pope  to  be  buried  within  the  basilica  itself. 
During  the  xi.  and  xii.  centuries,  the  Vatican  being  in 
a  ruinous  condition,  the  popes  inhabited  the  Lateran 
palace,  and  were  buried  in  the  basilica  and  its  atrium. 
All  these  monuments  also  perished  in  the  two  fires  which 
almost  destroyed  the  Lateran,  and  in  later  restorations. 
During  the  Avignon  exile,  monuments  to  French  popes 
were  raised  in  Avignon  and  in  other  French  towns. 
Upon  the  return  of  the  papal  court  to  Rome,  once  again 


APPEXDIX 


555 


S.  Peter's  became  the  favourite  resting  place,  and  since 
this  date,  the  larger  number  of  popes  have  been  buried 
in  the  basilica  of  S.  Peter's. 


THE   FATHERS   OF  THE  CHURCH. 


(of  the  west.) 

DATE.  N.\.ME. 

A.D.  340-420      Jerome 

340-397  Ambrose,  Archbishop  of 
Milan 

354-430  Augustine,  Bishop  of 
Hippo,  Founder  of  the 
Canons  Regular 

540-604      Gregory,  Pope 

(of  the  east.) 


COINTRY.  FEAST  DAY. 

(Dalmatian)       Sept.  30 


(Roman) 


(African) 
(Roman) 


Dec.  7 


Aug.  -28 
March  12 


298-373      Athanasius,      Bishop 

Alexandria  May  2 

329-379      Basil,   Bishop  of  Cappa- 
docia,    Founder    of  the 

Basilians  June  14 

Gregory  Nazianzen,  Bishop    (Cappado- 

cian)  May  9 

344-407      John  Chrysostom,   Arch- 
bishop of  Constantinople     (Asia  Minor)    Jan.  27 


Eight 
Fathers 
of  the 
Church. 


The  Doctors  of  the  Church,  after  the  first  centuries.  Doctors 
have  been  regularly  declared  such  by  a  special  act  of  the  qj^^^j,]) 
Roman  See. 


COLNTRY. 


FEAST  DAY. 

AD.  315-386     Cyril,  Bishop  of  Jerusalem  March  19 

ob.  368     Hilary,  Bishop  of  Poitiers    (French)  January  14 
412-444     Cyril,  Bishop  of  Alexandria 

ob.  450     Peter  Chrysologus,  Bishop   (Italian)  December 4 

ob.  461     Leo  I.,  Pope  (Italian)  April  11 

ob.  636     Isidore,  Bishop  (Spanish)  April  4 

1033-1 109     Anselm,     Archbishop      of 

Canterbury  (Italian)  April  21 

ob.  1072     Peter     Damian,    Cardinal 

Bishop  of  Ostia  (Italian)*  February  23 


*  Declared  a  Doctor  by  Leo  XII.,  1823-1829. 


556      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 


FEAST  DAY. 


century. 


IV.  century. 

First  OEcu- 

menical 

Council. 


(French) 
(Italian) 


August  20 


July  14 


NAME. 

Bernard,  Reformer  of  the 
Cistercians 

Bonaventura,        Cardinal, 
Franciscan  Bishop 

Thomas  Aquinas,  Domini- 
can 

Francis  of  Sales,  Bishop 

Alphonsus  Maria  Liguori, 
Bishop.        Founder     of 
the  Redemptorists 
S.  Bede,  the  Venerable  (673-735)  has  just  been  declared  a  Doc- 
tor of  the  Church;   is  only  English  Doctor  (May  27). 


1091-1153 

1221-1271 

1227-1274 

1567-1622 
1697-17S7 


(Italian)* 

(French)  t  January  29 


(Italian)      August  2  J 


V.  century. 


All  the  "Fathers"  of  the  Church  are  counted  among 
its  Doctors. 

COUNCILS. 

The  earliest  Synods,  or  gatherings,  of  the  Church  were 
convened  to  ensure  uniformity  by  determining  the  date 
for  the  Easter  festival.  They  were  at  first  provincial 
meetings,  and  their  decisions,  though  often  communi- 
cated to  other  Churches,  were  not  binding  on  these. 
Constantine  was  the  first  to  convoke  an  GLciimenical, 
or  General,  Council  of  the  Christian  Church,  that  of 
Nicsea  in  325,  and  he  declared  that  its  decisions  were 
inerrable.  During  that  iv.  century  the  infallible  au- 
thority of  this  great  council  grew,  and  was  transferred  to 
future  councils.  This  infallibility  attaches  to  decisions 
/;/  rebus  fidei  et  moruni  'in  matters  of  faith  and  morals,' 
and  not  to  those  regarding  discipline  and  practice, 
which  formed  the  subject  matter  of  the  earliest  coun- 
cils. The  adoption  of  new  formulas,  indeed,  caused 
at  first  immense  difficulty;  for  it  was  the  preservation 
of  apostolic  tradition  which  had  legitimised  primitive 
decisions.  In  the  West,  Vincent  of  Lerins  recognised 
an  organic   progress  in  doctrine,  from  the  more  uncer- 


*  Declared  a  Doctor  by  Pius  V.,  A.D.  1567. 
t  Declared  a  Doctor  by  Pius  IX. 

+  The  Pope  takes  counsel  with  the  Sacred  Congregation  of  Rites 
before  declaring  anyone  to  have  been  Doctor  EcclesUt:. 


APPEXDIX 


557 


tain  to  the  more  certain,  "and  proclaimed  the  Councils 
as  the  agents  in  this  progress."* 

The  Council  of  Constance  recognised  heresy  schism 
or  scandal  (such  as  a  notable  change  in  ecclesiastical 
discipline  —  an  alteration  of  ritual  —  against  the  wish 
of  the  Community  of  the  faithful)  as  grounds  for  appeal 
from  the  offending  pope  to  a  General  Council.  Con- 
ciliar  decrees  have  declared  the  superiority  of  a  Council 
over  the  Pope,  but  later  decrees  have  established  that 
of  the  Pope  over  Councils. 

To-day  Bishops  only  are  cited  to  CEcumenical  Coun- 
cils; but  for  many  centuries,  beginning  with  Nicsea, 
Deacons  sat  at  them.  /Eneas  Sylvius  (afterwards  Pius 
11.)  has  preser%'ed  for  us  the  appeal  made  in  his  day  to 
the  universal  Church,  in  these  interesting  words:  "But 
they  appeal  to  the  universal  Church,  id  est,  the  congre- 
gation of  the  faithful,  high  and  low,  men  and  women, 
clergy  and  laity.  In  early  days,  when  the  believers 
were  few,  such  an  assembly  was  possible;  now  it  is 
impossible  that  it  should  come  together,  or  appoint  a 
judge  to  settle  any  cause." 

The  number  of  CEcumenical  Councils,  of  Councils, 
that  is,  whose  decisions  are  binding,  is  variously  stated  as 
from  1 6  to  20.  Cardinal  Bellarmine  reckons  18,  Hefele 
19.    Sixteen  only  are  universally  recognised.    These  are : 


XV. 

century. 
Relation 
of  the 
Pope  to 
the  Coiin- 


Who  sit  at 
Councils. 


List  of 
the  Q£cu- 
meiiical 
Councils. 


I. 

Nicaea,  a.d.  325. 

IX. 

I  Lateran,  11 23. 

II. 

I  of  Constantinople 

:,38l. 

X. 

II  Lateran,  1139. 

III. 

Ephesus,  431. 

XI. 

Ill  Lateran,  11 79. 

IV. 

Chalcedon,  451. 

XII. 

IV  Lateran,  1215. 

V. 

II  Constantinople, 

553- 

XIII. 

I  Lyons,  1245. 

vr. 

III  Constantinople 

,  680. 

XIV. 

II  Lyons,  1274 

VII. 

II  Nicrea,  787. 

XV. 

Florence,  1439.  t 

VIII. 

IV  Constantinople, 

869. 

XVI. 

Trent,  1545. 

*  The  criterion  of  a  true  tradition,  he  asserted,  is  that  which  is 
believed  "  everywhere,  always,  and  by  all,"  quod  semper,  quod 
ubique,  quod  ab  omnibus.  A  dictum  which  has  been  sometimes 
misapplied  as  a  test  of  the  validity  of  first  principles,  and  has  so 
made  havoc  of  logic  and  reason. 

t  A  short-lived  union  between  the  Eastern  and  Western  Churches 
was  made  by  this  Council,  held  under  Eugenius  I\'. 


558      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESTASTICAI   ROME 

Doubtful  The  doubtful  councils  are :  {a)  Sardica,  circa  343-344, 

Councils.  ij^-^  .pj.^jjQ  ^^2,  {c)  Vienne  131 1,  {d)  Pisa  1409,  {c)  Con- 
stance 1414-1418,  (/)  Basle  1431-1439,  {g)  V'.''  Lateran 
1512-1517. 

Of  these  {a)  declared  nothing  regarding  faith,  (/;)  is 
regarded  as  (Ecumenical  only  by  the  Greeks,  {c)  is  by 
many,  including  Bellarmiue,  reckoned  among  the  most 
famous,  {(i)  at  this  Council  Gregory  XII.  and  Benedict 
XIII.  were  deposed.  S.  Antonino  of  Florence  doubted 
its  genuineness.  Alexander  V.  died  affirming  his  belief 
in  it,  and  in  his  own  pontificate.  (<^)  like  {c)  has  been 
specially  upheld  by  the  French  Church.  Ihe  Council 
of  Pisa  {(i)  which  had  set  up  Alexander  V.,  dissolved  in 
August  1409,  and  that  of  Constance  {e)  was  proclaimed 
in  October  1413.  It  removed  to  Basle  (/)  in  1431, 
having  elected  Martin  V.  at  Constance.  Hefele  accepts 
the  Council  of  Constance-Basle  until  its  removal  to  the 
latter;  but  he  makes  choice  of  the  decrees  he  will  accept 
or  reject.  The  Councils  of  "Ferrara"  1438,  and  of 
"  Florence  "  1439,  are  merely  continuations  of  that  of 
Basle,  ig)  Its  cecumenicity  was  denied  by  the  French. 
Bellarmine  counts  it  among  his  18,  but  questions  its 
cecumenicity,  which,  he  says,  has  been  doubted,  even 
among  Catholics,  up  to  his  day. 

All  these  xv.  century  councils  were  convoked  to  put 
an  end  to  the  schism  of  the  West.  The  xvi.  century 
Council  of  Trent  met  on  December  13,  1545  (and  dis- 
solved in  1563)  to  provide  for  the  reformation  of  the 
clergy,  and  to  deal  with  the  doctrinal  matters  involved 
Vatican  in  the  tenets  of  Protestantism.  The  last  General  Coun- 
cil was  that  of  the  Vatican,  convoked  in  1869,  by  Pius 
IX.,  which  was  sitting  when  the  Italians  entered  Rome 
in  1870,  and  was  never  completed.  It  defined  that  the 
infallibility  of  the  Christian  Church  is  seated  in  the  Pope. 
The  Popes  early  claimed  the  exclusive  right  of  calling- 
Councils;  notably  Gregory  VII.  in  the  xi.  century. 
The  infallibility  of  (Ecumenical  councils  is  said  to  be 
ensured  by  the  approbation  of  the  pope,  who  must  ratify 
all  its  acts. 


Council. 


Appendix 


559 


PONTIFICAL   ACADEMIES. 

Accademia  Teologica.     Theological  Academy.  Apostolic 

Its  seat  is  at  the  Pontifical  Seminario  Romano.  Acade- 

PiaUnione  degli  Ecclesiastici  di  S.  Paolo  Apostolo.  Pious  Union  of   ™'es 


Ecclesiastics  of  S.  Paul. 
Seat  at  S.  M.  della  Pace. 
Accademia  Liturgica.     Liturgical  Academy. 

This  meets  in  the  Casa  della  Missione,  Montecitorio. 

Accademia  di  Religione  Cattolica.    Academy  of  theCatholic  Religion. 
It  holds  its  meetings  in  the  Cancelleria. 

Arcadia,    founded    in    1690    (by   Crescimbeni,   Canon   of   S.   M.  in 
Cosmedin). 

Which  has  numbered  among  its  members,  who  are  called  A  rcadi'ans, 
all  Italians  of  distinction  .and  many  foreigners  since  that  day,  among 
whom  was  Alfieri.  They  have  a  Bosco,  or  sylvan  residence,  called  il 
Bosco  Parrasio  on  the  Janiculum,  for  summer  meetings,  and  a  perma- 
nent seat  within  the  city  at  S.  Carlo  al  Corso,  where  they  continue  their 
well-known  work  of  public  conferences  on  matters  antiquarian  and 
literary.  Women  have  belonged  to  it  from  the  first,  and  the  history  of 
Arcadia  was  written  by  "  Gorilla  Olimpica"  in  1775. 

Insigne  Artistica  Congregazione  dei  Virtuosi  al  Pantheon.     'The 

Excellent    Artistic   Congregation  of   Virtuosi    at  the   Pantheon.' 

Through  the  door  on  the  left  as  you  enter  —  one  of  the  many  academies  of 

this  kind  which  used  to  exist  in  Rome,  such  as  the  Uiiiofisti,  the  Fun- 

tasiics,  and  the  existing  Arcadian  Shepherds,  interesting  themselves  in 

the  encouragment  of  literature  and  the  arts. 

Accademia  di  Archeologia.     Academy  of  Archeology. 
It  has  its  seat  at  the  Cancelleria. 

Accademia  dei  Nuovi  Lincei.     Academy  of  the  New  Schools. 

Meets  at  the  Cancelleria. 
Accademia  Tiberina. 

Meets  at  the  Cancelleria. 
Accademia  Romana  di  S.  Tommaso  d'Aquino. 

This  academy  which  has  its  seat  at  another  Pontifical  Academy,  that 
of  the  Nobili  Ecclesiastici*  in  Piazza  Minerva,  was  founded  by  the 
present  pope. 

Dell'  Immacolata  Concezione.     Of  the  Immaculate  Conception. 
Meets  at  the  SS.  Apostoli. 


Accademia 
Pontificie. 


ROMAN   BOOKS. 

LIBER  poNTiFicALis.  It  is  iiot  straiigc  to  find  in  Rome  a 
List  of  its  Bishops  compiled  in  the  11.  and  iii.  centuries. 
Rome  was  the  first  Cliurch  to  possess  such  a  record. 
Hegesippus  and  Iren?eus,  who  set  themselves  to  gather 
up  the  last  echoes  of  the  Apostolic  age,  both  directed 

*  See  page  497. 


56o      CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 

their  attention  to  the  episcopal  succession  in  Rome,  and 
Eusebius  had  continued  the  series. 

The  Liber  Pontificalis  was  originally  a  bare  record  of 
the  names  of  the  Roman  bishops  and  the  duration  of 
their  pontificates.  After  the  time  of  Pontian  the  dates 
were  retrospectively  filled  in  from  Peter  downwards  (a. d. 
67  to  235).  This  list  was  enlarged  in  the  vi.  century* 
into  biographical  notices,  which  were  continued  by 
anonymous  compilers.  The  book  was  one  of  the  3  or 
4  indispensable  volumes  in  every  monastic  library,  the 
treasure-house  of  information  about  the  Roman  Church 
in  the  first  9  centuries,  and  the  model  of  all  other 
Gesta  Episcoporiim  and  Abba  turn. 

It  was  also  a  store-house  of  anachronism  and  legend. 
A  collection  of  the  two  earliest  recensions  (530  and  687) 
was  therefore  made  by  the  master  hand  of  the  Abbe  L. 
Duchesne,  who  in  the  edition  of  the  Liber  Pontificalis 
published  in  Paris  in  1884  has  reconstructed  its  primitive 
form.f 

PAPAL  REGESTA.  With  Inuocent  IIL  (xm.  century)  begins 
a  fresh,  though  not  quite  continuous,  series  of  papal 
annals  drawn  from  the  official  Chancery.  From  1198, 
therefore,  to  our  own  times  this  Register  presents  an 
authentic  and  almost  intact  source  of  information  for 
the  historian;  only  a  small  part  of  which  has  as  yet 
been  explored.  In  the  xiv.  century  papal  biography 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Mendicant  Orders,  especially 
of  the  Dominicans. 

sACRAMENTARiEs.  Thc  fomiulcc  for  the  litany,  collect, 
and  eucharistic  prayer,  as  they  varied  for  the  different 
festivals,  were  inscribed   in  books  called  in  the  West 


*  The  "  anonymous  clerk  "  developed  the  biographies  of  all  the 
popes  from  Peter,  and  placed  the  work  under  the  name  and 
authority  of  Damasus.  It  hence  constitutes  one  of  the  many 
forgeries  accepted  in  the  Middle  Ages. 

t  It  will  be  understood  how  easily  short  notices  like  those  of  the 
L.  P.  could  ])e  altered  and  amended  to  suit  the  views  of  the  com- 
piler :  the  way  this  was  effected  is  very  ol)vious  in  the  notices  of 
Peter  anil  Linus,  which  differ  in  the  two  MSS. 


APPENDIX  561 

Sacramentaries,  in  the  East  Euchologues.  The  three 
Western  books  are  all  Roman  in  origin.  They  include 
the  prayers  for  ordaining  the  clergy,  and  consecrating 
Virgins,  and  a  note  of  every  feast  in  the  year.  They 
deal  solely  with  the  solemn  public  acts  of  the  Church; 
even  the  Sunday  is  excluded. 

The  Leonine  Sacramentary,  preserved  in  an  uncial 
MS.  of  the  vii.  century,  and  bearing  the  name  of  "  S.  Leo," 
was  first  published  in  1 735.  It  is  imperfect.  The  Abbe 
Duchesne  is  inclined  to  date  it  to  about  the  year  538, 
after  the  siege  of  Vitiges,  parts,  at  least,  of  the  book 
being  certainly  anterior  to  Gregory.  The  Prefaces  to 
the  mass  contain  allusions  to  the  rancour  felt  by  the 
Roman  clergy  against  the  ascetics  in  the  time  of  Jerome. 

The  Gehisian  Sacrainentary  is  a  work  of  the  vii.  cen- 
tury, of  unknown  authorship,  but  attributed  by  Alcuin 
to  Gelasius  (492-496)  because  it  is  recorded  of  that 
pope  in  the  Lib.  Pont,  that  he  wrote  Prefaces  and 
prayers  "  Sacramentorum."  It  consists  of  several  books, 
and  though  Roman  in  origin  has, been  rewritten  in 
France,  and  is  therefore  not  a  complete  guide  for 
Roman  usages. 

The  Liber  Sacramentorum,  or  Gregorian  Sacramen- 
tary,  bears  the  name  of  Gregory  the  Great,  and  contains 
much  which  was  in  use  in  his  time.  As  it  now  stands 
it  corresponds  to  the  arrangement  of  the  Roman  liturgy 
and  feasts  in  the  time  of  Hadrian ;  and  a  copy  was  sent 
by  that  pope  to  Charlemagne,  before  the  close  of  the 
VIII.  century.  The  many  local  additions  with  which  it 
is  supplemented  are  easily  distinguished. 

oRDo  R0MANU3.  When  S.icramentaries  were  accompanied 
by  indications  as  to  the  order  of  the  ceremonial,  they 
were  called  Ordos.  In  these  ceremonies  the  pope  is 
always  regarded  as  present,  and  the  route  and  rites  for 
the  great  Stational  procession*  are  specially  described. 
The  earliest  ordo  is  of  the  extreme  end  of  the  vii.  cen- 
tury;   its   later   portions   not   being   earlier   than    795. 

*  Part  II..  p.  200. 


552      CHRISTIAN  AND   ECCLESIASTICAL   ROME 

Besides  the  Stational  Mass  it  contains  the  order  of  bap- 
tism, ordination,  and  the  paschal  ceremonies.  From 
these  books  the  changes  in  papal  ritual  between  the  viii. 
and  XV.  centuries  can  be  observ-ed. 

poNTiFicALE.  The  Pontificalc  is  the  name  of  a  Ritual 
book  containing  all  the  rites  performable  by  a  bishop. 
There  are  no  Pontificales  before  the  xi.  or  xii.  century, 
one  of  the  earliest  being  an  English  one  now  in  the 
British  Museum  (Cottonian  MSS.  'Claudius  A.  III.'). 


INDEX. 

Numbers  in  black  type=priiiLipal  referer.ce. 


A. 
Abailard  25  ;;.,  87,  87  n. 
Abate  491. 
Abbas   or   Abbat  11,  44,  45,  54,   56, 

57,  57  n.,  72,  124,  126. 

,,       benediction.      See   Consecra- 
tion of. 
consecrated  58,  59. 
df  mitra  59,  126,  128. 
,,       dre~s  and  insiynia  59,  486. 
with  episcopal  jurisdiction  380. 
general  44.  56,  56  n.,  88,  106, 
108,  I  to,  116,  212. 
, ,       Primas  90. 
style  of  49. 
Abt  6  491. 
Abbess  31,  44,  45,  51,  53;/.,   54,  57, 

58,  124,  126. 

,,      benediction.      See   Consecia- 
tion  of. 

consecrated  58,  59. 

dress  and  insignid  58. 

Saxon  37,  58,  80,  81. 

style  of  49. 
Abbey  44,  56. 
Abito  piano  477. 
Academie?,  pontifical,  559. 
Acarie  Mnip.  190,  194. 
Acolyte  501.  529. 
Addolorate  196. 
Agnes  Abbess  26  ;/. ,  87. 
Agricole  suore  269. 
Aix  Chapter  of  205  209. 
Albans  St.  45,  91. 
Alberic  Abbat  96  n. ,  loi. 
Alcantarines  146,  155,  157,  158,  165. 
Alessandrina  Library  440. 


Alexandria,  schools  of,  4.  37. 
Alix  le  Clerc  Ven.  209 
Almoner  Pope's  350  362. 
.Amand  St.,  51  //.,  79,  91. 
Ambassadors  to  the  H.  See,  357. 
American  congregatioi  s  in  Rome  155, 

318,  329. 
-Amess  21;". 
Ammon  .Abbat  11. 
.Anagni  441  // 
.Anchorites  6,  7. 
-Andr^  S'.  Dames  de  276  ;?. 
.Angela  de  la  Concepcion  222. 
.Angelica  Library  440. 
.Angelique  .Arnaud  85. 
.Anna  Figlie  di  S.  270. 
.Anne  e  Provvidenza,  suore  di  .S.  274. 
.Anne   of  S.    Bartholomew    \'en.    Sy, 

186,  187  //. 
.Annonciades  Celestes  289. 
Annunziatelle  176. 
Antipopes  544. 
Antonians  67,  68. 
.Apostolic  Delegate  469,  532. 
, ,         prefectures  469. 
,,         Representatives  358. 
Apostolicce  sedis  gratia  335. 
.Archaeology,  c  inmission  of  362. 
.Arch  confraternity  325. 
.Archdeacon  133  n.,  482. 

of  Rome  364  7/.  ,445,  513. 
Archdeaconess  524. 
Archimandrite  65. 
Archivium  362,  425,  435. 
Archpriest  481. 

cardinal  482. 
Arians  15,  154,  465. 


CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 


Armenians  55,  65,  66,  67,  90,  92,  464. 

Arms  of  the  popes  54.8. 

Asceticism  I,  4,  5,  10,  15,  15  n.,  18. 

Ascetics  16,  37. 

Asketriai.  38. 

Assistant  priest  513. 

Assomption  dames  de  1'  292. 

peres  de  1'  248. 
Augiistinians  3),  44,  47  n.,   51,   102, 
116,    120,    214,    216, 

218,  246. 

,,  canons.       See    Canons 

Regular. 
,,  discalced  216. 

,,  habit  34,  215,  220. 

,,  hermiis  214. 

,,  nuns  44,  55,  216,  218, 

219,  220. 

,,  in  Rome  215,  218,  219. 

Austin  friars.     See  Augustinians. 
Auxiliatrices.     See  Soeurs   de   Mont- 
pellier. 

B. 

Bambia  Gesii  Oblatcs  of  247. 

Bandeau  34. 

Bangor  26. 

Barking  58,  87,  83,  91. 

B.irnabites  297. 

Barres  Les  192. 

Basilians,  33,  38,  64,  65.  66,  68. 

,,         in  Rome  29,  65,  68. 
Battistine  (Hermits)  245. 

,,         di  Gesii  Nazzareno  266. 
Beatification  382. 
"  Beato"  383. 
Beda  CoUegio  495  11. 
Bede  tht  Ven.   30,  54  ;/.,  79,   87,  88, 

124.  556. 
Beghini  191. 
B^uuines  156. 
Belgian  congregations  in   Rome  267, 

283,  284,  322. 
Benedi  nines  31,  68,  91,  492. 
badge  92,  137. 
,,  Blacl<  88,  90,92,  93,  109. 

,,  branches  of,   Table  94. 

,,  Cassinese  69,  88. 

,,  in  the  East  90. 

,j  extinct       congregations 

no. 
„  habit  32,   31,  37,  74,  92, 

112. 


Benedictine   houses   in    Rome  47  «.. 

91.  94- 
,,  nuns  44,  45,  79,  89,  92, 

123. 
saints  123. 
Beneficiaries  480,  481. 
Bernardines  loi. 
Bernardoni  123. 
Berno  Abbat  93. 
Berrettini.     See  Humiliati. 
Bishop  469,  489,  501,  502,   507.   50^, 

512.  534- 

,,       assistant   at    the    throne    351, 
475  n. 
cope  473. 

,,       dress  477. 

,,  ,,     liturgical  469,  472 

,,       oecumenical  334. 
office  of  504. 
preconisation  of  377. 
Black  friars  175. 
Bobbio  26,  428. 
Ballandists  304. 
Bon  Secours  garde  malades  262. 

,,  ,,        de  Paris  263  n. 

Bons  Enfants  College  des  253,  307. 
Bourbourg  86. 
Bridgettines  117. 
Brief  360. 

Brignoline.  See  daughters  of  Calvary. 
Buckfastleigh  ico. 
Buckland  100. 
Bufalini.       See    Missioners      of    the 

Precious  blood. 
Bufalo  Ven.  312. 
Ball  359. 

Bull  Periculoso  41. 

Buon  e  Perpetuo  Soccorso,  sisters  269. 
Bus  C(5sar  de  307. 
Buskins  13,  59,  471,  515. 
Bussolanti  352. 

C. 
Calasanziane  306. 
Calced  and  discalced  34. 
Calvary,    daughters   of  our    Lady   of 

Mount  263. 
Camail.     See  Canon's  cape. 
Camaldolese  33,  IOI-104,  109,  137. 
,,  of  monte  Corona  103. 

Camaldoli  47,  65,  102,  105. 
Camauro  213   335. 
Camellini  305. 


INDEX 


Camerieri  segreti  partecipanti  476  n. 
Camerlengo.     See  Chamberlain. 
Camillini  304. 
Cancelleria  358. 

,,  palace  441,  459. 

"Canon,"  "in  the  "  203. 
Canonesses  16,  31,  46,  206,  209,  227, 
236,  481. 
Benedictine  85. 
, ,  secular  203,  483. 

Canons  31,  34,  47  n.,  174,  203,  212. 
Regular  38,  44,  205. 
I,  >>        badge  139.  214. 

habit  34,  212. 
,,  ,,       in  Rome  212. 

,,       secular  203,  205,  479,  482. 
, ,        badge  484. 
dress  486. 
Canonica  204,  206,  479. 
Canonici  203,  2r4. 
Canonisation  382. 

miracles  for  385. 
, ,  ceremony  387. 

Canossiane  264. 
Capes  Canon's  213,  335  n. 

,,      piiest's  486. 
Capitanio  sister;  of  the  Van.  264. 
Capotari  353. 
Cappa34,  37,  175,  213. 
magna  448,  481. 
papal  337. 
Cappellani.     See  Chaplams. 
Cappella  Papale  198,  378,  380. 
Cappelle  cardinalizie  379. 
Capperuzzio  33. 
Cappuccini.     See  Capuchins. 
Cappuccioi  147,  159. 
Capuce  32    33,  121. 
Capuchins  51,  67,  147,   151,  157,  158, 
159.  165,  489. 
,,  nuns  147. 

Carabineers  papal  357,  393. 
Cardinal  bishops  451. 

Chamberlain.       See   Chaiu- 
berlain. 
„        deacons  445,  451. 

priests  445,  451. 
,,        vicar  362. 
Cardinals  367,  445,  489. 

,,  closing  the  mouths  of  378. 

,,  di  Curia  450. 

,,  dress  447. 

,,  election  of.    See  Consistory. 

„  hat  337,  448. 


Cardinals  list  of  451. 
,,  Palatine  349. 

/»  petto  376. 

titular  cimrch  of  446,  449. 
Carmel  182. 

Carmelites  33,  38,  41,  44.  47  «.,  51, 
61,  110,  182   219. 
badge  138,  195. 
habit  34,  192. 
nuns  118,  186. 
in  Rome  193. 
Carnival  388. 

Carthusians  33,  43,  46,  96,  105,  108. 
,,  badge  no,  137. 

cell  106. 
habit  109. 
nuns  108. 
Casa  Madre.     See  Motherhouse. 
Casanatense  Libra-y  440. 
Cassian  8,  12,  25,  25  n.,  31,  32,  39  «., 

52  ».,  55  n. ,  62,  65. 
Cassock  485,  487. 
Castel  S.  Angelo  391,  405,  428. 
Castel  Gandolfo  65,  441. 
Caterina  sorelle  dei  poveri  di  S.  265. 
Caterina  suore  di  S.  176,  177. 
Cathedra  333  n.,  502,  518. 
Catherine  de  la  Barre  89. 
"  Cause  "  383. 

Cavalcata  343.  344.  35°.  375- 
Cavallerizzo  351. 
Cecilia  Cesarini,  Sister  87,  173. 
Celestinians  122. 
Celibacy  521,  524,  532. 
Cellarer  28,  5^,  56.  59. 
Oils  52  «.,  53,  56  11.,  107,  189. 
Cenacle  Dames  du  285. 
Cenobitism  10,  37,  75. 
Certosa  46,  108. 
Chaldeans  67,  467. 

Chamberlain  of  the    Roman    Church 
369,  370,  372. 
Lay  350,  35 1,  387,497  «. 
, ,  papal  476. 

,,  vice  380,  476. 

,,  in  violet  habit  381. 

Chanoinesses.     See  CanoneSses. 
Chaplains  papal  381,  476. 
Cha|iter  collegiate  31,  82  ;/.,  85. 
„        of  faults  54. 
,,         House  53.  54,  135. 

general  45,  46,  58,  93,   loi, 
106,  no,  121. 
„        room  40. 


CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL  ROMp 


Chapters  in  Rome  205,  479. 
Charite  Filles  de  la  192,  250. 
Charity  Institute  of  314. 
Charity  sisters  of  47,  249. 

,,  ,,      in  Rom '  263-g. 

Charles  S.  de  Nancy  soeurs  de  271. 
Chartci  charifatis  93. 
Charterhouse  108,  115. 
Chartreuse  Uiandj  105  108. 
Chelles  30  «.,  81,  91. 
Choir  monks  37,  76,  76  n. 

,,      papal  381. 
Chorepiscopi  527,  53r. 
Christian   schools    Brothers    of.     See 

Freres  Chrt^tiens. 
Chrodegang  204. 
Churches  national  464. 
Circolo  San  Pietro  253 
Cistercians  33,   51,   53,  93,   100,   114, 
116,  117,  121,  126,  483. 
,,  b  idge  loi,  137. 

,,  habit  lor. 

,,  nuns  100. 

Citeaiix  76,  93,  96,  100,   105,   T14  «., 

116,  119,  169. 
Clairvaux  82,  97,  loi,  117. 
Clarissas  44,  51,   147,  14S,   151,   153, 

,  157.  158,  159- 
,,         Colettines  150,  159. 
Clemintina337. 
Clergy  or  cleric  500  n. ,  503. 
,,      benefit  of  335. 
,,      regular  11,  14,  39. 
Clerical  hat  485. 
Clerks  Minor 305. 

,,      Regular  294. 
Cloak  monk's  33. 
Cloister  53,  108. 
Clothing  of  monk  and  nun  135. 
Cluny  59,  76,  77,  87,  91,  93,  loi,  117, 

123. 
Coadjutor  106. 
Ccenobium  10,  29,  52  7t. ,  64. 
Colchester  91. 
Coldingham  91. 
Colettans  150. 
Colettines  150. 
CoUegio  Runnno  303,  438. 
Colobio  32,  515. 
Commendalore  di  S.  Spirito  207,  380 

387. 
Compassion  Dames  de  la  277. 
Concettini  323. 


Conclave  368. 

marshal  of  372. 
,,        rules  of  367. 
Conclavista  372. 
Confessor  37. 
Confraternities  325,  352. 

,,  dress  of  326,  328. 

Congregations  48,  48  «.,  49,  51,  216, 
218,  263,  280. 
,,  ecclesi  istical  306. 

,.  active,  dreis  of  293. 

,,  Religious  51. 

,,  Roman  450,  454. 

Congregation  of  Rites  383,  385,  460, 

556  «. 
Consecration  of  an  abbat  126. 
,,  ,,    an  abbess  128. 

,,  .,    abenedictine  nun  129, 

131-  . 

,,  ,,     Carthusian  nun  108. 

,,     a  virgin,  15,  29. 
Consistorial  advocates  377. 
Consistory  375,  395. 
Convent  52. 

Conventuals  146,  151,  158. 
Converses  freres  76,  189. 
,,         sceurs  76,  189 
Conversi  76. 
Conversion  12,  38. 
Convertite,  Augustinian  219. 
Copts  67,  464. 
Cordeliers  146. 
Corse  dei  barberi  388. 
Cotta2r3,  473,  485. 
Councils  of  tne  Church  556. 
List  of  557 
,,        ceciimenicd  232,  556. 
Coimcil  of  Aix  70. 

Aries  513  n  ,  525  ?/. 
,,         Aiitun  52;. 
,,  Auxerre  528. 

,,  Beneventiuu  527  «. 

Carthage  42,  129. 
,,         Chalcedon  40,  334  «.,  464, 
466.  524,  535. 
rhalons  482  //.,  506  n. 
,,  Constance  232. 

Constantinople  467. 
Elvira  532. 
,,  Ephesus  506,  524. 

,,  Gangres  3. 

,,  Laodicea  531. 

Lateral?  7,  i  ^5,  255. 


INDEX 


Council  of  Limoges  489. 
,,         London  514. 
Macon  339. 
,,  Mavt-nce  487. 

,,  Narbonne  486. 

,,         Xicasa  522,  532. 

Orange  525. 
,,  Orleans  492,  525. 

Paris  525.  532  >/. 
Ravenna  472. 
Riez  532. 

Sardica  529  «.,  558. 
Toledo  471  n.,  488,  492. 
Tours  528. 
,,  Trent  41,  42,  51,  57,  220, 

249,  255,  449  //.,  480  //., 
487,  491,  492.  531,  558. 
Treves  84. 
Trullo  524,  533  u. 
Worcester  514. 
York  514. 

\'aiican  232,  469  n.,  558. 
Cowl  32,  36,  66,  76,  88,  123. 
Croccia  478. 
Croce  Tedesca  sis'.ers  of.     See  Kreiiz- 

schwestern. 
Croisiers   crociferi.      See  Holy  Cross. 
Croix  Filles  de  la  275. 
Cross  Holy,  Canons  of  the  212. 
,,       Priests  of  the  317. 
Croyland  78. 

Crozier  59,  124,  129,  34I,  470. 
Crufched  friars.     See  Trinitarians. 
Cuculla  32,  109,  176. 
Curia  445. 
Cursori  papal  381. 

D. 
Dalm-itic  515. 
Dame  50. 
Diimes  Anglaises.     See    Institute:    of 

Mary. 
Diniiano,  S.  148,  157. 
Dataria  361,  441,  461. 
Datario  Pro  349. 
D.iy'r  An'oma';  55. 

Deacon  364.  364  /i..  365,  365  »..  502, 
510,  510  «.,  514,  523,  525, 

531.  557- 
,,        office  ot  510. 
,,        and  the  Cup  511,  512,  512  n. 
Deaconess  516,  519,  521,  526,  531. 
,,  office  of  515.  522. 


Dean  28,  6a.  482. 
Decanus.     See  Dean. 
Dt-finitor  5r,  147. 
iJeputato  eccle.'i-istico  50. 
Desert,  hermits  in  the  6,  7,  8. 
Diakonia  502. 
Discipline  62. 
Discreet  150. 

Divine  ofifice  in    monasteries   56,  60, 
71.  86. 
and  canons  479,  480. 
Divin'  Amore  sitters  of  292. 
Doctors  of  the  Church  555. 
Doctrinaires  307. 
Doctrine  cliretienne  Pere  de  la.     See 

Doctrinaires. 
Dom  50,  106. 
iJornini  canes  180. 

Dominicans  34,  38,  41,    44,    49,    51, 
56  «.,   no,  169,   171, 

455.  457- 
,,  badge  138.  180. 

habit  34,  175. 

mass  180. 

nuns  172. 

popes  180. 
Don  490. 
Donat  77. 
Dormitory  53,  54. 
Dorotee,  or  Dorothy  sisters  of  283. 
Dowry.     See  Nuns. 

E. 

Ecclesiastical  dress  origin  of  486. 
,,  endowments  534. 

immunities  535. 
Ecclesiastics  style  of  489. 
Egyptian  Church  46 ;. 

monasticism  5,   18,  27,  31, 

32.  35- 
E  chstadt  80  n. 
Eiders  501,  501  n.,  507,  508,   508  //., 

Si6».,  517,  518. 
Kiijah  Prophet  4,  182,  192,  I9J,  33C. 
Enclosure  40,  42. 

,,  episcopal  43. 

,,  among  men  43. 

papal  39,  41,  43. 
,,  semi  285,  293. 

Encyclical  360. 

English  congregations  in  Rome  177, 
2:;:;,  268. 


CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 


Episcopal  control  of  monks  12  «.,  28, 

4S,  106. 
Episcopia  204,  491. 
Eremo  65,  102. 
Escurial  54. 
Essenes  4. 
Etchmiidzin  55. 
Etliiopians  67,  464. 
Eudists  308. 
Eulogies  523 
Eusebius  ot  C?esarea  2,  63,  504,  509, 

542,  542  ;-/. ,  543  ?t. 
Eutychians  464. 
Exarch  65. 
Excommunication    monastic    57,    59, 

71- 

Exequatur  474. 
Exorcist  501,  630. 
Extern  Sisters  150. 

F. 
Fabbrica  di  S    Pietro  461. 
Falda  336,  387  ». 
Fanone  336,  369. 
Farfa  78,  78  n. 
Farmoutier  30  11. 
Farnesiane  151. 
Fate-beiie-fratelli  47,  200. 
Fathers  of  the  Church  555. 
Ferraiuolone  151,  477,  485. 
pestum  corona  340. 
Feuillants  122. 
Filippine.     See  Oblates. 
Filippini.     See  Oratorians. 
Fillet  34. 

Fiocchi  448,  473,  476. 
Fioretti  143. 

Firemen  papal  357,  393. 
Flabelli  342. 
Fleury  91. 
Flora  100,  \'2\ 
Fondo  per  il  Culto  46. 
Fontevrault  30,   78,   86,  91,  98,   119, 

120. 

Ford  100. 

Foresteria  50,  53,  55.  56. 
Fori  ere  351. 

Foundlmg  Hospital  253. 
Fountains  100. 
Fra,  frate  50,  140. 
Francesca  de  Romero  222. 
Franci<;cans  33,  38,  41,  44,  47  ;/. ,  140, 
151.  153- 


Franciscan  badge  138,  165. 

,,  branches,  Table  166. 

,,  divisions  146. 

habit  34.  158. 
,,  nuns.     See  Clarisses. 

,,  popes  165. 

,,  in  Rome  157. 

,,  de  terre  sainte  146. 

,,  third  order  113, 125,  152. 

Francis  de  Sales  of  Annecy,  congrega- 
tion 289. 
Fratelli  dclla  Penitenza  199. 
Frati  bigi  154. 
Fraticelli  141  71. 

French  congregations  in  Rome  154, 
155,  248,  250,  253,  254,  257,  25S, 
259,  262,  267,  271,  274  278,  281, 
282,  285,  287,    290,   292,   293,  307- 

s-^g.  3^3. 317-319. 321- 

Freres  Chretiens  321. 

Fiiaries  44. 

Friars  44,  45,  51,  140. 

hribit  of  33,  84,  168. 
Friars  Minor  140,  141,  143,  151. 
Friars  Preachers.     See  Dominicans. 
Fulda  45. 
Furness  100. 


Gabriel  St.  Freres  de  259. 

Gall  S.  14,  54,  116  n. 

Gandersheim  81,  82. 

Garde  Malades.     See  Bon  Secours. 

Gatekeeper  28,  56,  59,  60. 

Gemignano  S.  105. 

Generalate  44. 

Gentiluomo  of  a  cardinal  449. 

Georgians  66,  466. 

Germain  St.  des  Fr^s  89. 

German  congregations  in  Rome  268, 

270. 
Gesuati  155,  245  n. 
Gilbertines  50,  121,  213. 
Girdle  32,  34. 
Giuseppe  S.  Figlie  di  267. 
,,  Suore  di  278. 

Giuseppini.      See    Missioners    of   S. 

Joseph. 
Glastonbury  91. 

Good  Sliepherd  Sisters  of  the  290. 
Grand  Master  236.  244. 
Grandmontains  congregation  of  120. 
Grate.     See  Grille. 


INDEX 


Grauenschwestern  155. 
Gray  friars  154,  159. 

,,      sisters  155. 
Greca  168,  213,  214,  477,  485. 
Greco-Sicilian  monks  67,  68. 
Greek  Melkites  66.  68. 

monks  66,  68. 
Gregorian    University.     See  Collegio 

Romano. 
Grille  41,  48,  149,  151,  173,  189  ;/. 
Grises  sceurs  234,  257. 
Grotta  ferrata  68. 
Guest  house.     See  Foresieria. 
Guimpe  34,  66. 

H. 

Habit  monastic  28,  31,  36,  168. 
,,  ,,         eastern  64,  67. 

Habits  white,  Table  168. 
Hailes  100. 
Hair.     See  Tonsure. 
Hebdomadary  28,  56,  60. 
Hegesippus  489,  543  n. 
Hegumenos  65. 
Heidenheim  80  «. 
Heirorronachi  14. 
Helfta  85. 

Heloise  84,  87,  87  n. 
Hermits  16,  43,  47  n.,  67,   102,  202, 
215,  244. 

,,        of  S.  Ieroni3,  244. 

,,        of  S.  Paul  245. 

,,        women  218,  245. 
Hierarchy  462. 

Hildebrand  91,  334,  367,  532,  533  «. 
Hildegarde  81,  82,  84,  385. 
Hohenbourg  84. 
Holy    Family    sisters     of    the    314, 

314  "■ 
Holy  nffice  394,  456. 
,,         ,,      palace  of  the  441. 
,,     Roman  Empire  titles  345,  484. 
,,     Sepulchre     canonesses    of    the 

2-6. 
,,     Spirit  canons  of  the  207. 
,,         ,,      canonesses  207.  209. 
,,         ,,      and  Heart  of  Mary,  Mis- 
sioners  of  the  309,  496. 
,,         ,,      missionary  priests  of  the 
258. 
Hood  32,  33,  36. 
Hope  sisters  of  268  n. 


Hospitallers  28. 

,,  of  S.  John  of  God  2  c. 

,,  knights  227. 

,,  sisters  of  mercy  271. 

tertiaries  156  n. 
Hrotswitha  81,  82. 
Humiliati  92  n. ,  121, 

I. 

Ignorantelli  322. 
Immacolata  Figlie  dell'  266. 
Immaculate  conception,  sisters  of  the 
268  n. 
,,  ,,  Franciscans 

of  the  155. 
,,  ,,  Franciscan 

missioners 
of  the  318. 
,,  ,,  and   heart   of 

Mary,  mis- 
sioners    of 
318. 
,,  ,,  of      Lourdes, 

sisters      of 
the  293. 
Imprimatur  458. 
Inde.x  457. 
hifirviariav  60. 
///  partihus  infidelium  ^68. 
Inquisition  169.  454. 
lona  26. 

J. 
Jacobins  175. 
Jamet  Marie  259,  262. 
Jarrow  54. 

Jean  de  la  Barriere  Ven.  122. 
Jeanne  de  Lestonac  Ven.  282. 
,,      Baptiste  Solimani  Ven.  245. 
,,      Jugon  259,  261. 
Jesuitesses  256  n. 
Jesuits  158,  297. 
badge  139. 

Rule,   Religious  following  the 
280. 
Jesus-Marie   Soeurs  de  282. 
Joachim  of  Flora  100. 
Johann  Soreth  Ven.  183. 
lohn  of  Jerusalem  Knights  of  S.  206, 
227. 
>>  i>  in  England,  235, 

236,  239,  240, 

241.  143- 
„  ,,  insignia  238. 


CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 


John  de  la  Puebla  146. 
Joseph  S.  Soeurs  rie  278. 

,,         de  r Apparition,  Soeurs  279. 

,,         de  Ciuny,  Soe  irs  278. 

,,  Missioners  ol  318. 

Josephites  317,  318  n. 
Jouarre  30  n.,  79,  91. 

K. 
Keys  papal  548. 
Kildare  26,  91. 
Ki'cherian  Museum  439. 
Knighthood,  papal  orders  of  344. 
Kieuzschvvestern  270. 


Lacordaire  180,  184. 

Langue  236. 

Lateran  canons  and  canonesses  209. 

,,        Chapter  480. 

,,         Palacc:  391,  441. 
Lauras  7,  61,  105. 
Laus  perennis  80. 
La  Varna  157. 
Law  of  guarantees  347. 
Lay  brethren  34,  46,  76,  76  //.,  loi, 
106,  168. 
,,     sisters  46. 
Lazarists.    See  Fathers  of  the  Mission. 
Lazzciro  S. ,  Venice  90. 
Lectors  500,  501,  511,  527,  528,  529  n. , 

531  «• 
,,       in  the  monastery  53,  55   n., 

60. 
Legate  358. 
Legatus  a  latere  358. 
L^rins  53   91. 
Levite  512. 
Liber  Eliensis  89. 
Liber  pontijicalis  559. 
Libraries  monastic  53,  78. 

,,         Roman  439. 
Locutory4i,  54,  149 
Louise  de  Manllac  Ven.  250,  254. 
Luxeuil  26,  91. 

M. 
Macarius  10. 
Mace  bearers  papal  381. 
Madonna  of  Mt.  Carniel  195. 
Madre  di  Dio,  Clerks  of  the  306. 


Maestre  Pie  Filippini  272. 

,,  ,,    Venerini  273. 

Maeitro  di  Camera  350,  372,  394. 
,,         del  S.  O^pizio  350.  380. 
,,        del    S.     Palnzzo    Apostolico 
350,    380,    387,    394,   457 
458,  461. 
Maggiordomo  349,  350,  394,  476. 
Major  orders  527,  527  n. 
Malta.     See  Knights  of  S.  John. 
Mansionarii  531. 
Mantellate  177,  195,  197. 
Mantelletta  478,  486. 
Mantellone  478. 
Mamie.     See  Cloak. 
Marcelline  274. 
Marcionites  2,  532  ;/. 
Margheretine  155,  164. 
Maria  Ausiliatrice  figlie  di  289. 

,,       Lorenzi  Longa  Ven.  147. 

,,      S.  of  Lucca,  canons  of  2:)8. 

,,      deir  Orto,  figlie  di  S.  26). 
Mariane  Suore  274. 
Marianistes  de  la  Croix  317. 
Marianists  319. 
Marie  Auxiliatrice  Sosurs  de  289  71. 

,,      enfants  de  282. 

,,       Reparatrice  religieuses  de  283. 

,,       Rivier  Ven.  175  //. 

,,      Theresa  Mere  276. 
Marist  brothers  313. 
M.irists  313. 

Marmoutier  24  //.,  78,  91,  120. 
Maronites  67,  467. 
Marriage  of  clergy.     See  Celib.icy. 
Mary  Company  of  258. 

,,       Institute  of  255. 

Little  Company  of  271. 

,,      Missionaries   of    (Franciscans) 
158. 
Ward  42.  255. 
Mathurins.     See 'I  rinitaiians. 
.MatriculcE  203,  206,  517,  520.  535. 
Matricularii.     See  Matriculcp. 
Matteo  di  Basso  Ven.  147. 
Maur  S. ,  78,  89,  91,  120,  123,  124. 
Mayence  80  n. 
Mechitaristi  90,  92. 
Melk  89. 

Melkites  66,  68,  465. 
Melote  31,  32,  37. 
Melrose  100. 
Mendicants.     See  Orders. 


INDEX 


Mercedari  225,  226.  \ 

Mercy,  Sisters  of,  226  n.  I 

Our     Lady    of,    brothers    of 
322 
Minimites  198. 

,,  badge  139,  199. 

Ivlinistra  516. 
Minor  orders  503,  527. 
Minoresses  150. 
Minories  150. 
Minster  in  Thanet  80. 
Miraculous  medal  252. 
Missionaries  Algerian  317. 
Missionary  sisterhoods  in  Rome,  278. 
Missionary  work  323. 
Mission  Fathers  of  the  253. 
Missione,   Piccola  265. 
Missioners  Pious  Society  cf  315. 
Missions  Etrangeres  307. 
Mitella  or  mitra  34,  35  n.,  524. 
Monasteries  in  Rome  number  of  47. 
Monasteries  in  Rome  still  occupied  by 
Religious : 

S.  Adriatic  226. 

S.  Agnese  Fuori  29,  94,  211 

S.  Agostino  215. 

S.  Alessio  65,  94. 

S.  Ambrogio  de'  Maxima  92. 

S.  Andrea  dalle  Fratte  199. 

SS.  Annunziata  176. 

S.  Anselmo  90,  92. 

S.  Antonio,  Aventine  103. 

,,  via  Merulana  157. 

Piazza     S.     Pietro     in 
Vincoli  63. 

S.  ApoUinare  66. 

SS.  Apostoli  158. 

Aracceli  94 ,  1 57. 

Bambin  Gesii  247. 

S.  Bartolomeo  157,  201. 

S.  Basilio  68. 

S   Benedict's  92. 

S.  Bernardino  48,  158,  199,  219. 

S.  Bernardo  loi,  123. 

S.  Bonaventura  157. 

S.  Bridgida  118,  193. 

S.  Carlino  224. 

S.  Callisto  92,  158. 

S.    Caterina   de'    Funari    {Doinina 
Rosa)  219. 
a  Magnanapoli  176. 

S.  Cecilia  48,  92,  94,  122,  158. 

S.  Clemente  176. 


Monasteries  in  Rome  still  occupied  by 
Religious  [continued] . 
SS.  Cosma  e  Damiano  154,  194. 
S.  Cosimato  94,  158,  255. 
S.  Crisogono  94,  224. 
S.  Croce  94,  loi. 
S.  Dionisio  282. 
SS.  Domenico  e  Sisio  176. 
S.  Dorotea  158. 
S.  Egidio  193. 
S.  Filippo  Neri  247. 
S.  Francesca  Romana  112,  208. 
S.  Francesco  di  Paolo  199. 

,,  a  kipa  157. 

Gesii  e  Maria  216. 
S.  Giovanni  Calibita  2DI. 
SS.  Giovanni  e  Paolo  310. 
S.  Giovanni  a  Porta  Latina  94,  154. 
S.  Giuseppe  Capo  le  Case  193. 
S.  Gregorio  94,  103,  158. 
S.  Ildefonso  103  «.,  216. 
S.  Isidoro  157. 
S.  Lorenzo  Fuori  29,  158. 
S.  Lucia  in  Selci  219. 
Madonna  della  Scala  189.  193,  219. 
SS.  Marcellino  e  Pietro  68,  193. 
S.  Marcello  197. 
S.  .Maria  degli  Angeli  157,  199. 

in  Campo  Marzio  65,  92. 
in  Cappella  253. 
,,        in  Carinis  68. 

della  Concezione  158. 
in  Domnica  68. 
delle  Grazie  200. 
in    Julia    (S.     Anna    dei 
Falegnami)  89. 
,,        in  Macellum  200. 
del  Popolo  215. 
del  Priorato  65   243. 
,,        sopra    Minerva    94,    176, 
179. 
Traspontina  193. 
in  Via  197. 
della  Vittoria  193. 
S.  Mirtino  94,  158.  193. 
S.  Xorberto  211,  264. 
S.  Onofrio  244. 
S.  Paolo  Fuori  29,  65,  91. 
alia  Regola  154. 
S.  Pancrazio9i,  193 
■        S.  Pasquale  247. 
I        S.  Pietro  in  Montorio  157. 
.,        in  Vincoli  212. 


CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 


Monasteries  in  Rome  still  occupied  by 
Religious  [contiiineJ) : 
S.  Prassede  65,  105. 
S.  Prisca  65,  94,  157,  215. 
S.  Pudenziana  48,  123,  193,  212. 
SS.  Quaranta  157. 
SS.  Quattro  Incoronati  48,  103  ;/., 

193,  210. 
SS.  Quirico  e  Giulitta  176. 
S.  Sabina  172,  176. 
S.  Salvatore  in  corte  199. 
S.  Sebastian©  29,  157. 
Sette  Dolori  247. 
S.  Sisto  172,  176,  177. 
S.  Stefano  degli  Abi^sini  224. 
S.  Stefano  Rotondo  193. 
S.  Susanna  101. 
S.  Tomniaso  in  Formis  224. 
Tor  de'  Specchi  113. 
Tre  Fontane  117. 

SS.    Trinity,    via    Condotti    (now 
Spanish  Dominicans)  225. 
Monastery  24,  52. 

,,  church  of  the  52,  56,  56  n. 

,,  double 27,  29,  30,  119,  121. 

,,  government  of  44. 

,,  officers  28,  ■;i8. 

Monasticism  14,  17,  22,  29,  46. 

,,  in    East   and   West    18, 

24,  26/1.,  27,  31,  \s. 
,,  in  Germany  27,  80. 

,,  in    Spain   and   Portugal 

27. 
A/o»as/ria,'moniahs  38,  517. 
lUonasonies  37. 
Monks  37,  46,  57    52,  69. 

,,      dowry  and.  property  43,  60 
,,      Eastern  14,  134. 
,,      as  laymen  11,  73,  74  ;/. 
,,      pensions  46. 
Monophysites  466. 
Monothelites  651,  467. 
Monsignore  di  Mantelletta  351,  382, 

475- 
,,  ,,  dress     of 

478. 
Monsignore  di  Mantellone  352,   382. 
,,  ,,  dress     of 

478. 
,,  ,,  title       of 

47,S. 
490. 
Montanists  532,  534,  535. 


Monte  Cassino  37,  46  ;/.,  57,  69,  yy, 
78,  88,  91. 

Monte  Vergine,  order  of  120. 

Montmartre  79. 

Mont'  Oliveto  112,  113,  123. 

Montpellier  Sceurs  de  271. 

Mont  St.  Robert  82. 

Mother-General  44,  153. 
,,       House  69,  76. 

Mother     of     God     Incarnate     poor 
servants  of  the  268. 

Mozzetta  33.  335,  478,  486 

Museums,  Vatican  362. 

Mutter  Schmerzhalten,  sisters  of  the 
268. 

N. 

Nazareth  dames  de  276. 
,,        Institute  of  278. 
,,        little  sisters  of  277  n. 

Nazzareni  199. 

Nazzarettine.     See  Institute  of  Naza- 
reth. 

Neo-platonism.     See  Schools  of  Alex- 
andria. 

Nestorians  464,  467. 

Nivelle  86. 

Noble  guard  354,  393. 

Norbertines.   Sc^e  Premonstratensians. 

Norberttine.     See  Calvary  daughteis. 

Notre  Dame  canonesses  of  171,  209. 
,,  ,,      scaurs  de  382. 

Novatians  2,  532. 

Novice  56,  75,  136. 
,,  dress  of  37. 
,,      master  76,  106. 

Noviciate  75,  135,  146,  157. 

Nuncio  357. 

Nuns  38,  46   50. 

,,     Anglo-Sa.xon  30,  30  ;/.,  80,  81 
,,     crown  and  ring  34,  132. 
,,     dowry  43. 

Nursing  sisters  in  Rome  270. 

O. 

Obedience.     See  Vows. 
Oblates  44,  47//.,  48,77,  85,  222,  246, 
271,  273. 
,,        Filippine  247. 
,,        S.    Francesca  Romana   (Tor 
de'  Specchi)  113. 
Mary  Inmiaculate  313. 
,,        S.  Pasquale  247. 
,,        Sette  Dolori  246. 


INDEX 


Observants  146,  157,  159. 
Observatory  papal  363. 
Offerti.     See  Oblates. 
Olier  M.  307. 
Olivetans  no,  112,  138. 
0/>tts  Dei  33,  71. 
Oratorians  319. 
Oratory  French  321. 
Orders  active  47,  63. 

of  chivalry  225,  227. 
Ecclesiastical  500. 
,,  ,,  the     seven    501, 

531- 

,,      initials  of  49. 

,,  mendicant  34,  T02,  140,  174, 
183,  195,  198, 
201,  202,  216. 
221. 

,,  ,,  Table  of  167. 

,,      monastic  49. 

,,      and  papal  jurisdiction  44. 

,,      of  Penance.     See  Tertiaries. 

,,      religious  10,  47,  51. 

,,      sacred.     See  iSIajor  ordtrs. 
Ordinary  Ip6. 

Ordinatiorl  of  women  clergy  521,  524. 
Ordo  or  order  500,  514,  529,  530. 
Ordo  Romanus  561. 
Origen  19,  512,  520. 
Osma  Cathedral  169,  172,  175. 
Osservanti.     See  Observants. 
Ostiarii  501,  523,  530. 

,,      monastic.     See  Gate-keepers. 
Ostiarii  of  red  rod  381. 


Padre  50,  491. 
Pailleur,  Abbd  le  259. 
Palatine  guard  357. 
Palladius  11^22,  38  //. 
Pallium  or  mantle  31,  32,  35  «.,  136;/  , 
487. 

,,       archiepiscopal  337. 
Pallotti  Ven   Vincenzo  315,  316. 
Pallottine  316. 
Pallottini.       See    Pious    Society     of 

Missions. 
Paolotte  198. 
Papal  jurisdiction  44,  51. 

,,     offices  state  358. 

,,     officers  ancient  347. 
Paraclete  Monastery  84. 
Parco  maggiore  359,  380,  476. 


Pa'ish  506,  506  n. 

,,       presbyters  44s;,  486,  508,  509, 
530. 
Parloir  41,  293. 
Passion  ists  309. 
Pastoral  staff  470. 
Patriarchate  of  the  Pupe  333. 
Patriarchates  of  Christendom  462 

,,  List  of  467. 

Patriarchium  491. 
Patricius  366. 
Paul  IV.  Caraffa  295. 
Pauvres  Petites,  Soeurs  des  259. 
Pectoral  cross  471. 
Pedum  7-ecttim.     See  Crozier. 
Pellegrino  or  cape  486. 
Penance  order  of.     See  Tertiaries. 
Penitentiary  apostolic  361. 
,,  cardinal  370. 

Peres      Blancs.       See      Missionaries 

Algerian. 
Perpetual    adoration,    congregations 
with  293. 
,,  Religieuses  of 

the  284. 
Persian  monks  67. 
Peter's  pence  346. 

Peter  ot  Rheims,  S.  41,  86,  120,  209. 
Peter   the  Venerable    86,   87,   93,  98, 

109,  123. 
Peter  years  of  543. 
Pi!  Operai  308. 

Pius  IX.  requiem  for  379,  382. 
Ploermel  Brothers  of  325. 
Polish  congregations    in    Rome    15^, 

268,  314,  315. 
Pontifex  Maximus  334. 
Pontificale  562. 
Poor  Clares.     See  Clarisses. 
Pope  Joan  545. 
Pope  the  333. 

,,     coronation  375,  379  n. 

,,     dress  335. 

I.         ,1     liturgical  336. 

.,     election  of  364,  375. 

,,     fnmigliari  2,^2.. 

,,     funeral  of  369. 

,,     household  3.17,  349. 

,,     kissing  foot  of  341. 

,,     lying  in  state  370. 

,,     mule  of  343. 

,,     ordination  374. 

,,     See  of  333. 


12 


CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 


Pope,  st.ite  coach  of  344 
,,      titles  of  333-335. 
troops  352. 
Po[)e3  early,  list  of  542,  543  //. 
,,        list  of  536. 
,.        martyrs  536. 

monumenis  to  554. 
Piiiporati  378,  447. 
Ponaniina  343. 
Porziuncola  145. 
Postulant  51,  106,  136. 
Postulator  51. 
Pr^bayon  108. 

Precious  Hlood  Missioners  of  the  312. 
Prelates  475. 

,,        "assistant    at    the     throne" 

351.  380. 
,,        domestic  475  //.,  476. 
,,        palatine  349. 
Prelatial  hat  473. 
Prenionstratensians  210. 

,,  canonesNCS      121, 

171,  211. 
Prt^montr^  210. 
Presbyter  501,  501  n.,  502,  507,  50S, 

509. 513.  SU- 

Pre^bytera  or  presbytis   501  ;/.,   516, 

620^  525. 
Presentation  of  Mary  sisters  175  n. 

,,  of  the  Holy  Virgin  sisters 

175- 
President  504,  508,  516,  518,  521. 
Preziosissimo  sangue  suore  312. 
Prezioso  sangue  suore  312. 
Priest  office  of  507. 
Priests'  capes  486. 

,,      dress  485,  489. 
Princes  "assistant  at  the  throne "380. 
Prior  49,  53,  56,  59,  106. 
,,      claustral  59. 
,,      conventual  59   65. 
,,      general  44. 
„      sab  59. 
Prioress  44,  49,  53,  59. 

,,        claustral  59. 
Priories  44,  173. 
Procura  46,  51. 
Procurator  51,  106. 

,,  general  147. 

Profession  38,  76. 

,,  age  for  63. 

,,  ceremony  of  40. 

„  of  monk  134. 


Profession  of  nun  129,  130. 
Propaganda  Fide  460,  469. 
Prophets  502,  528. 
Protokathedria  502,  518,  520. 
Protonotaries  380,  387,  475. 
Prouille  171,  172. 
Providence  daughters  of  Divine  264. 

,,  sisters  of  267. 

,,         Soeursdela,  et  ITmmacult'e 
267. 
Provinces  monastic  44,  51.  154. 
Provincial  44,  51. 
Provost  59,  60  v.,  122,  483  //. 

Q. 
Quedlinburg  ^8,  82. 

R. 

Ranc^  Abb(5  de  Ven.  114. 

Ransom  Order  of.     .See  Mercedari. 

Reading  91. 

Recluses  102. 

Recollects  146,  154,  157. 

Redemptorists  311. 

Refectory  53,  107. 

Regesta  Papal  426,  436,  560. 

Regularis  coucordir  53,  89. 

Religious  12,  37,  51. 

,,         Institutes  321. 
Remiremont  86,  91,  209. 
Resurrectionists  314. 
Resurrectionist  sisters  315. 
Reverenda  Camera  341,  361,  380,  391. 

425,  478. 
Riformati  146,  154,  158. 
Ring,  abbats  and  abbesses  471. 

,,      of  the  bishop  471. 

,,      "  of  the  fisherman '' 341,  471. 

,,      called />6»«/?/fc<:z/tf  341. 
Ripon  91. 
Rivaulx  ICO. 

Rochet  86,  376,  473,  478.  4S1. 
Rocliettine.    See  Lateran  Canonesses. 
Roman  books  559. 
Romites  38. 

,,        Auguslinian  215,  218. 
badge  138. 
Ronceray  85. 
Rosary  34,  156  «.,  170. 
Rosminians.   See  Institute  of  Charity. 
Rota  361,  380,  387,  475. 
Rufinus  8,  11,  19,  22,  29,  61,  542. 


INDEX 


13 


Rule  of  Antony  67,  67  n. 

,,        Augusiine  121,  172,  217,  260, 

264,  280,  295. 
,,        B  isil  51,  64,  66,  70. 
,,        Benedict  26,   39.   40,  44,   51, 

61,  70,  78,  79,  83,  89,  102, 

no,  113,  117,  119,  120.  121, 

148. 
,,        Cassarius  25.  26,  27,  28,  108. 
,,        Carmelite  61,  183,  187. 
,,        Carthusian  106.  107. 
,,       S.  Clare  148,  150. 
,,       Colutnban  26,  28,  30  «.,  60, 

62. 
,,        Ferreolus  60,  62. 
,,        Franciscan  51,  67,  140,  145. 
,,        S.  Francis  de  Sales  287,  289, 

290. 
,,        Isidore  of  S-'ville  28,  34. 

Jesuit  280,  300. 
,,  Macarius  10  ?i. 
,,        Pachomiiis  61. 

Vvo  of  Chartres  20;. 


Sacei'dos  504,  508,  509  11. 
Sacra  Faniiglia  suore  della  269. 
Sacranientaries  560. 
Sacramentate  220. 

Sacrement,  Pretres  du  Tres-saint  317. 

,,  sceurs  ,,         ,,       274. 

Sacres  coeurs  d'Issoudun  missionersof 

318. 
Sacre-Coeurs  dames  du  280. 
Sacred  College.     See  Cardinals. 

Heart  of  Jesus,  priests  of  the 

319- 
,,        congregation  of  314. 
Sacristan  monastic  56,  60,  106. 

papal  136  n.,   215  «.,  381, 
396.  425- 
Sacro  cuore  Ancelle  del  284. 

,,         ,,      di  Gesii  .Ancelle  del  292. 
,.         ,.      Figlie  del  273. 
,,         ,,      di  Gcrii  Bettlemite  329. 
,,      di   Gesii   e    .Maria,  suore 
270. 
Sagesse  Filles  de  la  257. 
Sagro  ccnvento  157. 

,,      speco  69. 
Saint  .(Bthelwold  37,  53,  89. 

Agnes  of  Montepulciano  180. 
>,  ,,         Poitiers  26 «.,  87. 


Saint  Albert  Patriarch  182,  187,  104, 

Blessed  .-Meth  of  .Montharc  07 

S.  Alphonsus  Liguori  311. 

S.  Ambrose  ii,   14,   15,  36,  87,   129, 

504.  505- 
S.  Andrea  Corsini  194. 
S.  Angela  Merici  286. 
S.  Anne  of  Bohemi  1  164. 
S.  Anselm  124,  555. 
B.  Anthelm  108. 
S.  .Antonio  Zaccaria  297,  3^9. 
S.  Antony  6,  8,  11,  15.  17,  ^y,  102. 
S.  .Antony  of  Padua  160,  ifci  //. 
.S.  .Asella  20,  21. 
S.  .Athanasius  2,  2  «.,  17,  18,  3:;,  205, 

464,  519  Tl. 
S.  Augustine  11,  21  ;/.,  22,  56.  40,  S4, 
55  "■■  59  »■•  61,  2^.4, 
206,  214,  543,  n. 
.,  of    Canterbury    80,    90, 

103,  124. 
S.  -Aurelian  of  .Aries  26. 
S.  Basil  2,  7,  37,  40,  61,  63,  75,  20;, 

534- 
S.  Bega  87. 

S.  Benedict  8,  11,  12,   13,  26,  32,  39 
41.  S3.  57.  60,  68,  76. 
90,   112,  115,  123,  124, 
'  140. 

,,  of  Aniane  61,  88. 

Biscop  54,  91,  124. 
S.   Bernard  82,  84,  87,  97,   100,   nc, 
121,  123,  124,  125,  140. 
,.  of  Menthon  loi  n 

,,  Tolomei  112,  125. 

S.  Bernardino  of  Siena  146,  161. 
S.  Bertha  de'  Bardi  104. 
S.  Berihgytha  80,  124. 
B.  Berthoid  of  Calabria  182. 
S.  Blesilla  18,  20,  21. 
S.  Bonaveniura  t6i. 
S.  Boniface  45,  &o,  80  ».,  8r,  87,  12  . 

205,  334. 
S.  Bridget  of  Kildare  26. 

,,  of  Sweden  117,  125.  i64. 

S.  Bruno  105,  123,  125. 
S.  Csesaria  of  Aries  25.  79,  81. 
S.  Cassarius  of  Aries  25,  45  «  ,  54,  105, 

205. 
S.  Camillus  of  Leliis  304. 
S.  Catherine  62.  118,  171.  I77-179. 
,,  of  Bolos;na  163. 

,,  Ricci  180. 


l4 


CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 


s 

.  Catherine;  of  Sweden  ii8. 

S. 

s 

Celestine/fi:22. 

s 

Charles  Borromeo  122,  123,  272  «., 
491. 

s 

Chrysostom  ir,  13,  22,   25  '/.,  63. 
505,  509,  520,  526  n. 

s 
s 

Clare  148,  160. 

Clement  of  Alexandria  2,  14,  488. 

of    Rome     519     «.,    542, 

B. 

543  «• 

B. 

s. 

Colette  150,  163. 

S. 

s. 

Coliimba  26,  26  ,?. 

S. 

s. 

Columbin  26,  30,  30  «.,  62. 

S. 

s. 

Cyprian*  7.  205,  504,  509,  534. 

s. 

s. 

Cyril  of  Alexandria  13. 

s. 

of  Jerusalem  2. 

s. 

s. 

Diego  164. 

s. 

s. 

Denietrias  20,  21. 

s. 

Dominic  87,  169,  177,  394,  455. 

s. 

s. 

Donatus  of  Be:an9on  26. 

s. 

s. 

Dunstan  89  n. 

s. 

s. 

Ebba  91,  124. 

s. 

s. 

Editha  37,  124. 

s. 

Eleazar  and  Delphine  164. 

s. 

s. 

Elizabeth  of  Hungary  155,  162. 
,,           of  Portngal  164. 

s. 

s. 

Ephrem  67,  67  «. 

s. 

s. 

Epiphanius  2,  20,  40,  6r  «.,  523. 
534- 

s. 

Etheldrytha  37,  124,  472. 

s. 

s. 

EiisebiuSi.of  Strigonii  245. 

B. 

of^  Vercelli  204,  491. 

s. 

s. 

Eustochium  20,  21. 

s. 

Fabiola  20,  21. 

B. 

8. 

Felix  of  Cantalicio  164. 

de'  Valois  221,  223,  224. 

S. 

s. 

Ferreohis  of  Uzes  26. 

s. 

s. 

Fidelis  of  Sigmaringen  164. 

s. 

Fortunatus  Venantius  26,  87. 

s. 

Francesca  Roniana  118,  124. 

s. 

Francis   51,    141,    144,    152,    160, 
198,  385. 
Borgia  302. 
,,           Caracciolo  105. 

of  Paula  198,  199. 

B. 

,,           Regis  302. 

s. 

de  Sales  123,  287,  288. 

s. 

Xavier  302. 

s. 

s. 

Fructuosus  27,  30. 

s. 

s. 

(iaetano  Tiene  295. 

s. 

s. 

Galla  87. 

s. 

s. 

Gertrude  81,  85,  87,  123,  124. 

s. 

s. 

Gilbert  of  Sempringham  121. 

s. 

Gregory  the  Greit  12,  29.  38  n. 
40,  87.  123,  124,  333, 
334,  445 ''■I  491.  527- 

,,  the  Illunimator  55. 

,,  Nazianzen  63,  64. 

,  of  Nyssa  63,  521. 

,,  of  Tours  10. 

,,  VII.     See  Hildebrand. 

Grignon  de  Montfort  257,  309. 
Guy  of  Arezzo  104. 
Herman  Joseph  211. 
Hilarion  10,  11,  61  >i. 
Hild  or  Hilda  27,  3-',  80,  87,  88. 
Hormisdas  67,  67  //. 
Hyacinth  180. 
Ignatius  517. 
Ignatius  Loyola  218,  219,  273,  297, 

303.  494- 

Irenfeus  502,  504,  542,  542  f. 
Isabel  of  France  164. 
Isaiah  67. 

Isidore  of  Seville  27,  28,  34  338, 
364.  470. 

Ives  of  Brittany  164. 
Jeanne  Fran9oise  de  Cliantal  287. 
288. 

Jerome  2,  13.  i8,  ig,  20,  21,  22, 
29.  31.  32.  3'^.  61,  203,  488,  507, 
508. 

Jerome  ^^mili.nn  295. 
Joanna  d'  Aza  169.  180. 
John  Baptist  31,  69,  84,  224,  225, 
228. 

John  Baptist  of  the  Conception 
222. 

John  Baptist  La  Salle  321. 
John  of  Beverley  27. 
,,       Berchmarif.  302. 
,,       Capistran  i6^j. 

Colombino  245  ;/. 
,,       of  the  Cross  *i94. 
,,       Damascent '62. 
of  God  200,  2or. 
Gualbertus  104,  123,  125. 
John  Leonard!  306. 
John  de  Matha  221,  224,  225. 
Joseph  Calasanctius  305. 
Juliana  334. 

Juliana  F'alconieri  195,  197. 
Justin  Martyr  14,  487. 
Justina  126. 
Lre'a  20,  21. 
Lea  21. 


INDEX 


15 


S.  Lewis  Bertrand  180. 
S.  Lioba  80,  80  n.,  124. 
S.  Louis  of  France  162,  182. 

,,        Gonzriga  302. 

,,        of  Toulouse  162. 
S.  Macrina  Archdcacoiiess  63,  64,  524. 
S.  Maddalena  de'  P.izzi  194. 
S.  Marcella  17,  18,  20,  28,  29,  519. 
S.  Marcellina  15,  87,  274. 
S.  Margaret  of  Cortona  155,  164. 
B.  Maria  Fornari  280. 
S.  Martin  of  Tours  24,  24  »  ,  2;,  32. 
S.    Mdty   of    tlie    Incarnation        See 

Mme.  Acarie. 
S.  Maurus  jj. 

S.  Mechtilde  85,  87,  i2j,  124. 
S.  Melania  20,  22. 
S.  Methodius  i^- 
S.  Mildred  58  «.,  8d.  12  (. 
S.  Nicholas  of  Tblentino  215. 
S    Nilus  67,  67  fi. 
S.  Norbert  98,  209. 
S.  Pachomius  10,  11,  18,  32  «.,55  «., 

57.  61,  75- 
S.  Pammachius  29. 
.S.  Paphnutius  8,  533. 
S.  Pasqual  Babylon  164. 
S.  Patrick  26. 
S.  Paul  of  the  Cross  310. 
S.  Paul  th'fjist  Hermit  6. 
S.  Paul  the  Simple  8. 
S.  Paula  17',  21,  88. 
S.  Paulinus  of  Nola  22,  29,  30,  34,  54. 
S.  Pelagia  9. 
S.  Philip  Benizi  195,  197. 

,,         Neri  113,  319,  495. 
S.  Placid  77,  123,  124. 
S.  Peter  of  Alcantara  146.  163. 

,,       Claver  302. 

,,       Damian  62,  104. 

,,       Fourier  209. 
B.  Peter  Gambacorta  244,  245. 
S.  Peter  Martyr  179. 

,,       Nolasco  225.  216. 
Regalata  87,  164. 
S.  Principia  20.  29. 
S.  Priscilla  17. 
S.  Proba  17. 
S.  Radegund  25,  26  //.,  29,  6i,  81,  87, 

224. 
S.  Raymond  Nonnatus  226. 

of    Pennaforj    180,    384, 
455- 


S.  Relinde  84. 

S.  Robert  d'Arbrissel  119. 

,,         of  Molesme  93,  105,  123. 
S.  Roch  164. 

S.  Romana  Archdeaconess  524. 
S.  Romuald  loi,  102,  123,  125. 
S.  Rose  of  Lima  180. 

,,        of  Viterbo  164. 
S.  Scholastica  79,  123,  124. 
S.  Serapion  8. 
S.  Simeon  Stylites  10. 
S.  Simon  Stock  182,  191.  194. 
S.  Stanislaus  Kotska  302. 
S.  Stephen  Harding  96,  too,  loi,  123. 

of  Muret  120. 
B.  Henry  Suso  180. 
S.  Sylvester  Gozzolmi  116,  125 
S.  Syncletica  11,  32. 
S.  Terasia  30. 
S.  Thais  8 

S.  Theresa  61,  87,  146,  183,  194. 
S.  Thomas  Aquinas  179,  503. 
,,  of  Villanova  215. 

S.  Umilta  105,  124. 
S.  Vincent  Ferrer  179. 
,,  of  Lerins  556. 

,,  de  Paul  243. 

S.  Walburga  80,  80  «.,  124. 
S.  Wilfrid  of  York  27,  91,  124. 
S.  William  Abbat  120. 
S.  Willibald  8o«.,  124. 
S.  Yvo  of  Chartres  205. 
Sainte-Croix  25,  61. 
Saint-Seine  83  n. 
Sainte-Vanne  89. 
Salesiane.     See  Visita'ion. 
Salesians  of  Don  Bosco  289. 
Salesians  Missionary  285. 
Salpetriere  254. 
Salvatore  Divin,  suore  del  268 

S.  of  Bologna,  canons  209. 
Salvatoriaiis  68. 
Salvatnrists  317. 
Sanctimoiiialis  38,  133. 
Sanguintimi.       See    Priests     of     the 

Sacred  Heart. 
SantMCcia  Terrehotti  Yen.  89. 
Santuccie  89. 
Sapienza  The  439. 
Sapienza.     See  Sagesse. 
Sauveur  Notre  de  i.orrainc  canons  of 

210. 
Savigny  100  ti.,  \\\  n 


i6 


CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 


Saviour  Divine,  Society  of  the  268. 
,,       Most  Holy,  canons  of  208. 
Sbirri.     See  Capotari. 
Scagnozzo  491. 
Scalco  segreto  352. 
Scaizetti  199. 

Scapular  32,  34,  66,  92,  109,  191. 
,,         of  the  Passion  252. 
,,         wearing  of  the  191. 
School  monastic  55,  74,  Hs.  492. 
Scolopii  105. 
Scopatori  segreti  352. 
Scriptorium  53. 

Secretary  of  State  349,  359.  394. 
Sede  vacante  371,  480. 
Sedia  gestatoria  342,  351. 
Sees  Catholic,  number  of  468. 

,,     in  piirtibus  468. 

,,     titular  468. 
Segnatura  361,  380,  475. 
"  Segreto"  476. 
Semi-enclosed  congregations  280,  283, 

285,  286. 
Seminaries  national  491. 

,,  in  Rome  492  497. 

Seminarists  dress  of  497-499. 
Sepolte  vive  151,  158. 
Soprana  497. 

Sepulchre  Knights  of  the  206. 
Sepulchrines.     See  Canonesses  of  the 

Holy  Sepulchre. 
Servi  Sette  di  Maria  195.  197. 
Serving  brothers  234    235,  239. 
Servites  38,  51,  89,  192,  195. 
,,        badge  139,  198. 
hnbit  T97. 
nuns  196. 
in  Rome  197. 
Serviis  Servorum  Dei  334. 
Shaftesbury  58  //. 
Sherborne  96  n. 
'■  .Signori"  146. 
Sion  Dames  de  277. 
Solideo  336. 

Solitaries.     See  Anchorites. 
Somaschi  295. 
Sophia  S.  90. 
Spanish  congregations  in  Rome  216, 

224,  226,  292. 
Spirituales  141,  230  ;/. 
Stability.     See  Vows. 
Staff  abbatial  470. 

, ,     episcopal  470 


State  secretariats  349. 

Stigmata  51,  144,  179.  194,  359,  361. 

Stirnatini  321. 

Stole  487. 

,,      papal  336,  336  «. 
Stolone  515. 
Stylitai  10. 
Subdeacon  501  527. 
Subdeaconess  528. 
Subiaco  69,  78,  79,  88,  90,  91. 
Siihsellium  502,  518,  518  ?i. 
Sulpicians  307. 
Superior  36,  44,  119. 
,,        general  45. 
Suppression  of  monasteries  46. 
Swiss  guard  354,  393,  394. 

sisterhoods  in  Rome  270. 
.Sylvestrians  ito. 
Syncellus  513. 
Synod.     See  Councils. 
Syrian  monks  67,  68. 

T. 

Tabenna  11,  32. 

Teaching  sisterhoods  272,  280,  282-3, 

285-6,  292. 
Templars  227,  230,  230  n.,  344. 
Tertiaries    38,    44,    152,    153,   153   n. 
154.   173.   ^77.  190.  192, 
193- 
,.  Carmelite  190. 

Dominican  48,  174. 

Franciscan  48,  159. 

French  missionary  154. 

habit  of  159. 

regular  153. 

secular   153  n.,   174,    191. 

196. 
Servile  196. 
TertuUian  6,  i^,  35,  36  n.,  334,  33s, 
487,  488,  500,  501,  502.  503  n..  504, 
508,  517,  518,  519,  521. 
Teutonic  Order  227,  230. 
Theatines  147,  192.  295. 
Thebaid  7,  10,  11,  60. 
Theodosian  code  40,  63,  535. 
Therapeutce  4,  7,  11,  15  //.,  52  ?!.,  60, 

61. 
Thesaurins.     See  Chamberlain. 
Thomas  a  Kempis  212. 
Tiara  339. 
Tintern  100. 
Tommaso  di  Gesii  Ven.  216. 


INDEX 


17 


Tonaca  moisa  32. 

Tonsure  31.,  36,  36  «.,  64,   136,  486, 

488,  492,  S3I. 
Tourelle  48. 
Trappe  La  114.  1 17. 

,,  discipline  of  115. 

Trappists  43,  114.  n6,  117,  126. 
Treasurer  380,  476. 
Treasury.     Sje  Rev.  Camera. 
IVinitarians  3S,  51, 192,  22I-225. 
Trinite    congreg  uion    de    la    sainte 

223  ?i. 
Triregnum.     -See  Tiara. 
Truinpets  silver  3S2. 
Tunic  32,  33,  109,  and  see  Co'obio. 
Turchine.     See  Aniionciades. 

U. 
Uditore  350,  361,  380,  476. 
Urbanists  148. 
Ursulines  286. 

V. 
Vagabond  monks  29. 
Vallambrosans  76,  104,  no,  119. 

,,  badge  138. 

Vallicelliana  Library  440. 
Vatellottes  307. 
Vatican  Chapter  480. 
V.^TicAN  Palace  390,  441. 
Archives  of  the  Ch  ipter  436. 
Archivium  425,  435. 
Armoury  437. 

Aula  Major.     See  Sala  Regia. 
Aula  Minor.     See  S  ila  Duca'e. 
Belvedere  Villa  392,  419,  429. 
Borgia  Torre  391,  404,  405. 
Borgian    apartment    404,    419    n., 

429. 
Braccio  Nuovo  392^  422,  434. 
B  onze  gates  392,  393. 
Camera  Palazzo  della  391. 
Capella  Magna.     See  Sistina. 
Capella  Minor.     See  Paolina. 
Chiaramonti  museum  422. 
Cortile  of  the  Belvedere  392,  404. 
,,      of  Dam\so  392,  394,  429. 

of  the  Pappagallo  301,  404. 
,,       of  the  Pigna  392,  438. 
,,       of  the  Stamperia  434. 
Egyptiin  museums  419  n.,  420. 
Etruscin  museums  419  n.,  423. 
Galleriadegli  Arrazzi.  See  Raphael's 
tapestry. 


V.iticin  Chapter  [continued] : 

Galleria  dei  candelabri  419  «.,  423. 
Galleria  Lapidaria  394,  419  «.,  422. 
Girdeas  438. 

Innocenziano  Palazzo  391. 
•   Lf-oiiina.     See   Library   of    printed 
books. 
Library  394,  404,  425. 

Alexandria  in        collection 

428,  432. 

Capponi      collection     42S, 

432- 
catalogues  425,  426,  427. 
g  tileries  of  429,  431. 
Hall  of.     See  Sala  Sistina. 
Octobuoni    collection   428, 

432- 
Palatine  collection  432. 
,,         Sala  Sistina  392,  410,  428, 

429,  432,  438. 
,,        Urhino  428,  431. 

,,        of  printed  books  429,  434. 
Liggie  392,  405,  410  n.,  411. 

,,       Raphael  416. 
Lorenzo  Chapel  of  -S.  410  «.,  415. 
Mosaic  factory  394. 
Museo  Gregoriano.     See  Etruscan 
museum. 
,,         Profano  431. 
Museums  404  n.,  419. 

,,         Christian  433. 
Observatory  215,  363,  437. 
Paolina  chapel  396. 
Pinacoteca,  picture  gallery  410  n., 

418. 
Pio-Clementino  museum  419. 
Popes'  residence  392,  394. 
Raphael  Loggie.     See  Loggie. 

,,         Tapestries    397,     419    n., 

423- 
, ,         Stanze  404.  410. 
,,  ,,       o  Constantine  414. 

,,  ,,        of  Heliodorus  414. 

,,  ,,        of  Incendio  411. 

,,        of  Segnatura  412. 
Sala  Ducale  391,  395. 
,,     del  Pappagallo  396. 
, ,     dei  Paramenti  396. 
,,      Regia  391.  393,  395.  410. 
Sistine  chapel  391,  392,  395,  397. 
,,        ceiling  399. 

"  Last      Judgment" 
398. 


CHRISTIAN  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL  ROME 


Vatican  Chapter  [con/inueii] : 
'   Siitine  chapel,  Popes'  portraits  403. 
,,        Sybils  and   prophins 
401. 
Stables  437. 

Stamperia  or  printing  press  363,  437. 
Zecca  or  mint  437. 
Veil  the  35,  132,  136  n. 

,,     the  abbess'  128. 
\'eilette  34. 
Veiling  by  force  63 
"Venerable"  the  title  383. 
Venia  62. 

Vestiarium  53,  54,  55. 
Vicar  general  469  n. 

,,      monastic  106,  109  n.,  146. 
Vicaress  149. 
Vicariate  of  Rome  362. 
Vicariates  469. 

Vicario  of  a  Cardinal  446,  486. 
Victor  S.  25  «.,  91,  98. 
f '/V/i^^?,  Viduate.     See  Widow. 
Vincent    S.    de    Paul    Conferenza    di 

255  "■ 
,,         ,,         ,,  daughters     of. 

See  Filles  de 
la  Charitt^. 
,,         ,,         ,,  sisters  of  254. 

Vincentian  Brothers  255. 

,,  Fathers.      See  Fathtrs  of 

the  Mission. 
Virgin  ecclesiastical  14,  15,  16  34,  35, 
38,40,41,  42,   109,   132,   516,   521, 
526. 
Virginia  Tr^daniel  259. 
Virginity  2  n. ,  14,  40,  517,  517  «.,  526. 
Virgo  Sacra  29,  526. 
VHsit  ad  limina  45,  474. 

.,  ,,        abbatial  45,  126. 


Visitandines.     See  Visitation. 
Visitation  episcopal  45,  506,  507  n. 
Visitation  Order  of  the  257. 
Vittorio  Emanuele  Library  439. 
Vows  38,  64,  70,  75,  135. 
,,      varieties  Oi  39,  153. 
,,      how  taken  40. 

irrevocableness  of  39,  40. 

Benedictine  135. 

of  obedience  38,  39,  39  ;/.    73, 

135.  ^73- 
,,      of  stability  38,  70,  75,  135. 


\V. 
Waverley  100. 
Wearmouth  s\  "■ 
Westminster  79,  91. 
Whalley  100. 
Whimple  34,  92. 
Whitby  26,  91. 
Whitefriars  i68,  182  ;?.,  192. 
White  monks  100,  123. 
Whitland  100. 

Widow   500,    501,    516  ;/.,    517,   521, 
526. 
,,         office  of  a  515,  516. 
Widow-nun  133,  517,  521. 
Widows  and  orphans  in  e.irly  church. 

See  Matriculre. 
William  the  Pious  93. 
Wilton  58  >/. 
Wiinborne  80  ^/.,  91. 
Winchester  58  >/.,  91. 
Woburn  100. 


/. 


Zimarra  335,  427. 
Zoccolletle  252. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  TORONTO 
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