Full text of "Journal"
THE
V
u
JOURNAL
OF THE
MANCHESTER GEOGRAPHICAL
///
SOCIETY
VOL. XXIX.
®i
PUBLISHED FOR THE
MANCHESTER GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY
BY
SHERRATT & HUGHES
LONDON AND MANCHESTER
1913
7
VI ^
THE
COUNCIL AND OFFICERS
OF THE
MANCHESTER GEOGRAPHICAL
FOR 19 1 3.
Ipatron.
HIS MAJESTY THE KING.
Mb. harry NUTTALL, M.P., F.R.G.S.
IDlccspresiDents,
SOCIETY
the Earl of Derby,
Earl Egerton of
The Right Hon.
G.C.V.O.
The Right Hon.
Tatton.
The Right Hon. Lord Rotherham of
Broughtox.
The Right Rev. the Bishop of Salford.
The Right Rev. Bishop Welldon,
D.D., Dean of Manchester.
The Right Hon. the Lord Mayor of
Manchester.
His Worship the Mayor of Salford.
The Vice-Chancellor of Manchester
University.
The Right Hon. Sir William Mather.
The Rt. Hon. J. F. Cheetham.
Sir W. H. Houldsworth, Bart.
Sir C. W. Macara, Bart.
Sir Frank Forbes Adam, CLE.
Alderman Sir J, Duckworth, J. P.,
F.R.G.S.
Mr. Frederick Burton, J. P.
Colonel H. T. Crook, J. P., V.D.
Professor W. Boyd Dawkins, J. P.,
F.R.S.
Colonel E, W. Greg, J.P., C.C, F.R.G.S.
Mr. J. G. Groves, D.L., J.P.
Mr. J. S. Hicham, M.P.
Mr. John McFarlane, M.A., M.Com.,
F.R.G.S.
Mr. E. W. Mellor, J.P., F.R.G.S.,
Vice-Chairman of the Council.
Mr. J. Howard Reed, F.R.G.S.
Mr. C. P. Scott, J.P.
Mr. Hermann Woolley, F.R.G.S.
Mr. F. ZiMMERN, F.R.G.S., Chairman
of the Council.
Sir Humphrey F. de Trafford, Bart
trustees.
Mr. H. Nuttall, M.P., F.R.G.S. Mr. Sidney L. Keymer, F.R.G.S.
Mr. E. W. Mellor, J. P., F.R.G.S.
Ibonorar^ Q:rea6urer.
Mr. David A. Little.
Ibonorars Secretaries.
Mr. J. Howard Reed, F.R.G.S.
Mr. Egbert Steinthal.
Ibonorar^ Secretary (Dictorians).
Mr. C. A. Ciarke.
Mr.
Cou
W. S. AscoLi, F.R.G.S.
iictl.
Mr. T. C. Middleton, J.P.
Mr.
J. E. Balmer, F.R.G.S.
Mr. F. S. Oppenheim, M.A.
Miss S. A. Burstall, M.A.
Mr. T. W. F. Parkinson, M.Sc.
Mr.
C. A. Clarke.
F.G.S.
Mr.
C. Collmann.
Mr. Alfred Re'e, Ph.D.
Mr.
George Ginger.
Mr. Wm. Robinow.
Mr.
J. Howard Hall.
Mr. J. Walter Robson, J.P.
Mr.
Mr
Alderman T. Hassall, J.P.
Richard Kalisch, F.R.G.S.
Mr. J. Stephenson Reid.
Mr. T. W. Sowerbutts, F.S.A.A.
Mr.
Mr.
H. C. Martin, F.R.G.S.
L. Emerson Mather, F.R.G.S.
Mr. George Thomas, J.P.
Miss L. Edna Walter, B.Sc, H.M.I
tbonorarg BuMtor.
Mr. Theodore Gregory, J. P., F.C.A.
Sccrctari^.
Harry Sowerbutts, Assoc.R.C.Sc.
CONTENTS.
A
PAGE
Accounts for 1912 61
Additions to the Library 165
Administration of British East
Africa 17
Adriatic Coast, Journey down the 38
Advent Bay, Spitsbergen 119
Africa, British East 10
Africa, South, Dr. Livingstone's
Explorations 1
America, Colorado, Mesa Verde
National Park 94
Ainsworth, John, C.M.G. — British
East Africa 10
Anglo -E(jypf/ian Sudan : A Report
on the Band Settlement of the
Gezira 154
Annual Meeting, 1913 57
Antarctic Expedition, British 122
Antarctic Expedition, disaster 67
Arctic Regions, Lost in the 66
Atlases added to the Library 167
B
Bainbridge Oliver — Native Life
and Customs in Southern Seas 65
Balance Sheet, 1912 62
Balkans and Turkey 23
Balkans, Highways and Byways
in the 35,95
Banquet, Livingstone Centenary... 4
Belgrade 33, 111
Bellamy, C. H., F.R.G.S.— The
Balkans and Turkey 23, 69
Books added to the Library 168
Bosnia, Journey through 51
Bosnia, travelling in 95
Bosphorus, Sail down the 27
Bowers, Lieut., death of 139
British Antarctic Expedition,
1910-13 122, 160
British Corresponding Societies... 172
British East Africa Protectorate-
John Ainsworth, C.M.G 10
Broussa, The Green Mosque, &c.... 30
Brownell, Thos. W. — Visits to the
Holy Land and Northern
Egypt 67
Bruce, W. S., LL.D.— Spitsbergen 115
Bucharest, description of 27
Bulgaria and its History 24
C
PAGE
Carpathian Mountains 144
Carter, James A., B.A. — Glaciers... 163
Cause of Yorkshire Coast Erosion 76
Cliff Dwellings, Prehistoric 94
Coal in Spitsbergen 119
Coast, Yorkshire, lost towns 74
Colonial Corresponding Societies... 174
Colorado, Mesa Verde National
Park 94
Commerce and Education 6
Congress of Pedology, International 153
Constantinople 28
Constanza 27
Corresponding Societies 172
D
Danube, River, Course of 144
Death of Captain Gates 139
Death of Captain Scott 139
Death of Dr. Wilson 139
Death of Lieut, Bowers 139
Deaths of Members, 60, 65, 69, 156, 162
Death of Seaman Evans 138
Dixon, Prof. H. B., Ph.D.—
Climbing in the Canadian
Rockies 163
Dobrun 56
E
Easington 84
Education — Sir H. H. Johnston,
G.C.M.G., K.C.B., 4
Eller, Wm.— Lubeck 164
Erosion of Yorkshire Coast 76
Europe, England, East Yorkshire 73
Europe, Hungary, Geology of 143
Europe, the Balkans 35, 95
Europe, the Balkans and Turkey... 23
Evans, Commander E. R. G. R. —
British Antarctic Expedition...
122, 160
Evans, Seaman, Death of 138
Exchanges with other Societies... 172
Expedition, British Antarctic 122
Explorations of Dr. Livingstone... 1
F
Foreign Corresponding Societies... 175
Formation of the Soil of Hun-
gary— B. de Inkey 143
CONTENTS
a
PAGE
Gamble, Dr. M.— Life in San
Salvador do Congo 157
Geography, importance of, in edu-
cation 6
Geography of East Yorkshire— T.
Sheppard, F.G.S 73
Geology of Hungary 143
Gravosa 45
Greenland, Eastern, Lost in 66
Gregory, Theodore, J. P., F.C.A.,
long service of 64
H
Healey, Alderman Wm., death of 162
Hercegovina, Journey across 47
Highways and Byways in the Bal-
kans — Gilbert Waterhouse,
FiR.G.S 35, 95
Hilditch, J., M.R.A.S.— Japan... 162
History of British East Africa 10
History of East Yorkshire 73
Hornsea 88
Humber Estuary, Changes of
Shores of 79
Hungary, formation of the Soil... 143
Hunting in Spitsbergen 117
I
Inkey, B. de — Formation of the
Soil of Hungary 143
Irvine, James, F.R,G.S., at the
Livingstone Banquet 71
J
Johnston, Sir H. H., G.C.M.G.,
K.C.B. — Dr. Livingstone's Ex-
plorations 1
Johnston, Sir H. H., G.C.M.G.,
K.C.B.— Education 4
K
Kenya, Mount, discovery of 14
Kilindini, Port, British East Africa 22
Kilnsea 82
Kisumu, Victoria Nyanza 22
Kon j itza 51
Kremna, Servia 106
L
Langdon, E. H., B.A., at the
Livingstone Banquet 71
Lantern Slides added to the
Library..' 167
Larpent, G. de H,, B. A.— Rhodesia 68
Lees, Mrs. H. L., F.R.G.S.— A
Visit to New Zealand 157
Library Additions 165
List of Corresponding Societies... 172
List of Maps, Books, &c., added
to the Library 165
PAGE
List of Members of the Society... 181
Livingstone Centenary Banquet... 70
Livingstone Centenary Celebrationl, 70
Livingstone's Explorations 1
Loess of Hungary 148
Lord Mayor (Mr. S. W. Royse) at
Annual Meeting 63
Lost in the Polar Regions — Capt.
E. Mikkelsen 66
Lost Towns of the Yorkshire Coast 74
Lussinpiccolo 39
M
Manchester Geographical Society
and its Membership 6
Maps added to the Library 165
Maps, Early, of East Yorkshire... 77
Marriage Customs in East Africa 19
McMurdo Sound 123
Meeting, Annual 57
Meetings of the Society, see Pro-
ceedings.
Members, Deaths of, see Deaths
of Members.
Membership of the Society 6
Members, List of 181
Mesa Verde National Park 94
Mikkelsen, Captain E., F.R.G.S.—
Lost in the Polar Regions 66
Minerals in Spitsbergen 118
Missionary Societies 173
Mokra Gora, Servia 99
Mombasa and its History 11
Mostar 49
Muscovy Company in Spitsbergen 115
Museum, Additions to 167
N
Nairobi, Early History 16
National Park, Mesa Verde, Colo-
rado 94
Native Administration 18
Native Customs in East Africa... 19
New Members
65, 67, 68, 69, 156, 157, 159, 162,
163
New Zealand, A Visit to — Mrs.
H. L. Lees, F.R.G.S 157
Nicholas, Rev. T. F., M.A.— The
Gambia River and Protectorate 161
Nuttall, Harry, M.P., introduc-
tory remarks at Free Trade
Hall 159
Nyanza Province, Commissioner of 17
0
Gates, Captain, Death of 139
Oppenheim, F.S., M.A., at Annual
Meeting 63
Oppenheim, S., J. P., death of 156
Osborn, J. A.— The Rhine 163
Osborn, John A. — The Swiss Rhine 69
CONTENTS
vu
Pedology, International Congress of 153
Pedology of Hungary 152
Philippopolis 31
Photogra'pliic Supplement to Stan-
ford's Geological Atlas 154
Photographs added to the Library 167
Phythian, J. Ernest— Old Castles
of England and Wales 65
Pola 38
Polar Regions, Lost in the — Cap-
tain E. Mikkelsen 66
Population of British East Africa
Prehistoric Cliff Dwellings in the
Mesa Verde National Park... 94
Proceedings of the Society 65, 156
14
Ragusa
Ravenser
Report of the Council, 1912.
Reviews
Rules of the Society
S
Sara j e vo
Scutari, Asia Minor
Scott, C. H., J.P., death of
Scott, Captain R. F., Expedition of
Scott, Captain, death of 67,
Servia and its History
Servia, Travel in
Sheppard, T., E.G. S.— Geography
of East Yorkshire 68.
Shrubsole, W. H., E.G. S.— Among
the Carpathians
Shrubsole, W. H., E.G. S.— Buda-
pest and the Great Hungarian
Plain
Sinaia, Royal Residence, &c
Skipsea
Smeerenburg
Societies, Corresponding
Society, Meetings of, see Proceed-
ings.
Society, Members of the
Society, Rules of the
Sofia
Soil of Hungary, formation of
Southern Party, start of
South Pole attained by Capt. Scott
46
80
57
154
189
51
29
65
122
139
24
99
73
162
65
26
91
116
172
181
189
32
143
131
138
PAGE
Spalato 43
Spitsbergen : Past and Present —
W. S. Bruce, LL.D 115
Spurn Point, Changes of ." 79
Stair, Earl of, at the Livingstone
Banquet 71
T
The Balkans and Turkey— C. H.
Bellamy, F.R.G.S 23
The Change in the Climate and
its Cause 154
Towns, Lost, of Yorkshire Coast 74
Trade in East Africa 21
Turkey and the Balkans 23
U
Uganda Railway 16, 21
Ukambani, East Africa 15
Uzhitze, Servia 110
V
Vardishte, Bosnia 95
Vishegrad 55
Visit to New Zealand — Mrs. H.
L. Lees, F.R.G.S 157
W
Wainwright, Joel, J. P., at Annual
Meeting 64
Warren, G. H. — Romance of the
North- West Passage 164
Waterhouse, Gilbert, F.R.G.S.—
The Balkans 35, 69, 95
Whaling in Spitsbergen Seas 115
Wilmore, Dr. A., E.G. S.— Com-
mercial Geography of Lanca-
shire 68
Wilson, Dr., death of 139
Withernsea 86
Women, position of, in East Africa 19
Y
Yorkshire, East, Geography of 73
Z
Zanzibar 13
Zara, Dalmatia 40
Zimmern, F., F.R.G.S., re death
of Captain Scott 67
MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
PAGE
Dr David Livingstone Frontispiece.
Sir Harry Johnston, G.C.M.G., K.C.B., F.R.G.S 4
AVTARCTICA —
Map of District round McMurdo Sound, showing Routes of Expe-
ditions J28
Map showing route of British Antarctic Expedition 124
Map showing route of Southern Party.... 134
Asia, Asia Minor—
Broussa, Entrance to Green Mosque 28
Broussa, Tower of the Citadel 26
Mudania, Water-seller on the Station 28
Europe —
Balkans, Sketch Map 36
Bulgaria, Sofia, Entrance to the Palace Grounds 32
Bulgaria, Sofia, Private Residences 30
Bulgaria, Sofia, Statae of Czar Liberator 30
Bulgaria, Sofia, The New Cathedral 32
Dalmatia, Spalato, Wall of Diocletian's Palace 42
Dalmatia, Zara, Market • 42
England, East Yorkshire, Bowen's Map, 1750 84
England, East Yorkshire, Leland's Map of the Humber District 76
England, East Yorkshire, Lord Burleigh's Chart (temp. Henry VIII) 78
England, East Yorkshire, Map by T. Sheppard, showing the Lost
Towns 89
England, East Yorkshire, Saxton's Map, 1577 80
England, East Yorkshire, Speed's Map, 1610 82
England, East Yorkshire, Tuke's Map, 1766 86
Hungary, Lowland Landscape 152
Hungary, Mount Szentgyorgy 150
Hungary, Orographical Map 143
Hungary, St. Anna's Lake 148
Hungary, The High Tatra 144
Hungary^ The Szulyo Valley 146
Rumania, Constanza, Statue of Ovid 26
Rumania, Sinaia, The Greek Church 24
Rumania, Sinaia, the King's Palace 24
Servia, Belgrade, National Mortgage Bank with Statue of Prince
Michael 106
Servia, Belgrade, Old Gateway in Fortress 110
Servia, Belgrade, Palinula Church, Old Cemetery 110
Servia, Belgrade, River Sdve from Fortress 102
Servia, Belgrade, Royal Palace 106
Servia, Belgrade, Statue of Prince Michel 34
Servia, Belgrade, The King's Palace 34
Servia, Belgrade, view from Fortress towards Semlin 102
Servia, Kavarna, near Bioska 98
Servia, Village, near Stapari 98
,•. THE WBITEBS OF PAPEBS ARE ALONE RESPONSIBLE FOR '^HEIR OPINIONS.
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
6'^^>^'
1813-1873
Cl)e Journal
OF THE
mancbester Geoarapblcal Societp*
^ ^ ^
DAYID LIVINGSTONE CENTENAEY CELEBRATION.
" Dr. Livingstone's Explorations and their Results."
By Sir Harry Johnston, G.C.M.G., K.C.B., F.R.G.S.
(Addressed to the Society at a Meeting held in the Albert Hall,
Manchester, on Friday, March 28th, 1913, to celebrate the
Centenary of the Birth of Dr. David Livingstone.)
The lecturer dealt on this occasion mainly with the aspect of
Livingstone as an African explorer, describing to the Society —
and illustrating his description copiously with lantern slides —
the problems of South African geography solved by Livingstone,
and others started by him which only received solution at a
relatively recent date; he also touched on the great advantages
which the British Empire derived from Livingstone's journeys;
on the gain they had been to the knowledge of the world in
general and to the cause of philanthropy. Livingstone, he
reminded his hearers, was before all things a practical man who
never gushed, and his policy of regeneration for the negro was
eminently sound.
Commencing with the arrival of Livingstone at Algoa Bay
in the early spring of 1841, he took his hearers step by step
along the route followed by the great traveller to Bechuanaland ;
showing us the style of Cape wagon in which Livingstone
travelled, with its long team of sturdy oxen. These oxen were
also illustrated by a slide which enabled us to realise their very
long horns, horns that were mostly set back in their angle with
the skull . The lecturer pointed out that the type of draught-ox
used in Livingstone's day was more or less of indigenous origin,
derived from the oxen of the Hottentot and even from those of
the Damara and Lake Ngami tribes; oxen descended lineally
from the first race domesticated by the ancient Egyptians — the
so-called Bos taurus aegyptiacuSy which attained such extrava-
gant dimensions in its size and wide-spreading horns in the
Vol. XXIX. Parts I. and II., 1913.
2 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
domestic races of Uganda and Lake Cbad. By means of tlie
lantern slides we were enabled to see the harsh, stony country
of the karoo and the rugged plateau-mountains of South Africa,
with their vegetation of mesembryanthema, aloes and euphor-
bias. We saw the Orange River at the ford where it was
crossed by Livingstone in his many journeys backwards and
forwards, and stretching away northwards the track over a
desolate stony country between ranges of sterile hills towards
Bechuanaland, a country peopled in Livingstone's earlier days
solely by bushmen and Korana Hottentots, with here and there
an adventurous Grikwa half-caste. All these types were well
illustrated by the lecturer's slides. We were enabled to realise
the three principal types of bushman still existing — that of
Cape Colony proper, with its relatively vertical facial angle
and round head ; that of the Kalahari Desert, often exceedingly
prognathous ; and the type of the taller bushmen of the northern
regions of German South-west Africa, with its projecting brow-
ridges and savage physiognomy. From Bechuanaland, with its
goat-keeping people, we passed across the north-east angle of the
Kalahari Desert; we saw the type of water-hole at which
travellers would pause to obtain refreshment for themselves and
their teams of oxen, and of the women — drudges whose business
of life it was in those days to suck up the water from the wet
sand or mud and pass it into ostrich shells. Then, having in
imagination followed Livingstone and Oswell in their toilsome
route over this hot desert of sand and stones, we reached with
them the reedy shores of the Botletle River and noted the
contrast in the scenery. Down the Botletle we floated in canoes
or pursued an imaginary wagon route beset with many game
pitfalls, till we reached the swamps and open water of Lake
Ngami, with its natives in their fishing canoes and its herds
of big game, mostly water-frequenting antelopes. From Ngami
we passed over a flat region of water-courses and reed-beds till
we reached the broad Chobe River at Linyanti. From here the
survey of Livingstone's adventures passed on to the main Zambezi
at Sesheke. We were shown the typical papyrus swamps, where
this great rush grows to heights of nearly twenty feet, and the
equally extravagant development of Phragmites reeds, with
their pampas-like plumes of creamy-white. Up the Zambezi
we travelled in imagination till we reached the rich forest
country on the flanks of the mountains which give rise to the
southern affluents of the Congo. We passed with Livingstone
David Livingstone Centenary Celebration 3
througli the soutliern limits of tlie empire of Mwata Yanvo,
crossed the Kwango River, where it flows through dense, sombre
forests, since the scene of much wrong-doing and turbulence in
rubber collecting; then we journeyed over the beautiful hill
scenery of Central Angola until we reached with Livingstone
the shores of the Atlantic at the city of Sao Paulo de Loanda.
Once more gaining the Upper Zambezi, we were shown the
splendid scenery of the Victoria Falls, the " rain forest " and
the tree on which Livingstone carved his initials. Types of the
natives of this region were also exhibited, and in the company
of Livingstone the lecturer's listeners were taken down the
Zambezi to Tete and to Quilimane.
Resuming the story of Livingstone in the next phase, we
passed in review his six years of martyrdom when he and his
companions — Sir John Kirk and others — were attempting in the
face of tremendous obstacles to survey the Zambezi and all its
principal tributaries, and to find practical ways of reaching
the waters of Lake Nyasa on the one hand, and the smooth
navigable reaches of the Upper Zambezi on the other. The
scenery of Nyasa, the Shire Highlands and the beautiful Shire
Eiver was well illustrated by slides; so also were the lofty
Livingstone Mountains at the north end of Nyasa ; together with
the impassable Quebra Bago rapids of the central Zambezi.
Photographs actually taken by Livingstone and Kirk were
thrown on the screen, and we saw the Lady Nyasa in course of
construction, the unsuitable Ma-Robert steamer with which
Livingstone commenced his exploratory work in 1859, and the
better constructed Pioneer,
The last seven years of Livingstone's life as an explorer were
dealt with in detail. The lecturer described Zanzibar as it was
in 1866, and the scenery along the upper reaches of the Ruvuma
River, as well as in Yaoland, south-east of Lake Nyasa. Reach-
ing the south-west coast of that lake with Livingstone, we saw
the superb groves of Raphia palms, which he so much admired.
We crossed with him in spirit the Luangwa River, seeing the
actual track over which he must have passed as it wound
through a scrubby forest of hyphaene palms and gum-trees. We
scrambled up the rugged slopes of the Muchinga Mountains,
crossed the swampy Chambezi more or less where it was first
discovered by Livingstone, and were shown the beautiful rock,
mountain and forest scenery round the south end of Lake
Tanganyika as described by the great traveller and as illus-
4 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
trated by modern pliotograplis. The lecturer exhibited draw-
ings of his own showing the approaches to the towns of great
chiefs in former days through ghastly avenues of skulls,
skeletons, and half-decayed corpses, erected on trees and stumps
to testify to the greatness of the chief dwelling within the
neighbouring enclosure. It was scenes like these that were
vividly described by Livingstone in his Journals of 1867-68.
We followed his course as he discovered first the south end of
Tanganyika, next the north end of Lake Mweru and the great
Biver Luapula (the Upper Congo), then we passed southwards
to Lake Bangweolo, and again north to Tanganyika, and across
Tanganyika to Ujiji, and once more westwards till we had
reached the Lualaba-Congo at Nyangwe. Then we were shown
the mighty forests of Manyuema, with their giant chimpanzis
and pygmy elephants ; the villages of the inhabitants, their fine
physical type, and many other things seen and recorded by
Livingstone. A photograph was shown of the tree, still
existing, under which Livingstone and Stanley met at Ujiji.
Then followed the last scenes and landscapes of Livingstone's
exertions, together with the people whom he must have
encountered on the way — the handsome Batusi, the ruffianly
Ruga-ruga; the mountains he had to traverse, and, above all,
the rivers and swamps he had to wade through or be carried
over before he reached the village of Chitambo near the south
end of Bangweulu, where he finally laid down his life on
May 1st, 1873.
The lecturer was careful, with many slides, to show us all
the principal tribes of African natives with whom Livingstone
came into contact ; and he spoke warmly of the remembrance of
Livingstone which still lingers in the minds of the oldest Arabs
and negroes who dealt with him on his last journeys.
" Education."
By Sir Harry H. Johnston, G.C.M.G., K.C.B., F.E.G.S.
(Addressed to the Society on Saturday, March 29th, 1913, in
the Midland Hotel at a Banquet held to complete the
Celebration of the Livingstone Centenary.)*
You have entertained me here to-night with direct reference
to the celebration of the hundredth year since the birth of
David Livingstone, and in a very kind acknowledgment of my
• See also page 70.
SIR HARRY H. JOHNvSTON,
G.C.M.G., K.C.B., F.R.G.S.
David Livingstone Centenary Celebration 5
attempts yesterday evening to illustrate tlie exploring work of
David Livingstone in South and Central Africa. In a sense,
therefore, it may have been expected from some of you that
in returning thanks for your reception of me I should once more
speak on the subject of Livingstone. But I feel that though
the subject of Livingstone is far from exhaustible in one
address, I have said enough about him for the present, at any
rate, to a Manchester audience, which is pretty well conversant
with the main facts of Livingstone's life. I prefer, therefore,
to take up your time rather by pointing the moral of Living-
stone's work, in the direction of the importance of educating
the young of all classes of our community so that they may
be able to make the utmost use of the opportunities offered to
the members of a roving race outside the limits of the United
Kingdom. What was it that made Livingstone's journeys of
such exceptional interest and far-reaching importance, even to
those who study them at the present day, when he has been in
his grave in Westminster Abbey for nearly forty years? The
fact that Livingstone took full advantage of his educational
opportunities, which, it must be admitted, were of a very excep-
tional nature for the period in which his youth was spent. It
required the exceptional greed for knowledge which a Scot
possesses and the exceptional importance attached in Scotland
a hundred years ago to the value of education, for Livingstone —
a poor factory boy and factory operative in later years — to pick
up such wonderful and such varied learning in Blantyre and in
Glasgow in the 'twenties and 'thirties of the last century. But
just as James Bruce and Mungo Park made their journeys in
North-east Africa and in Nigeria so profoundly interesting
because they started on them equipped with a sound Scottish
education, so Livingstone's work would not have attained the
permanent value it possesses if he had not before he entered
Africa at the age of twenty-seven years, acquired some know-
ledge of Egyptology, botany, geology, zoology, philology,
history, and even ethnology — for we may class as a department
of the Science of Man, the astrology and ancient magic which
in a half-forbidden way he endeavoured to study whilst still
working at the loom. His researches in this direction at once
interested him in the imperfect religions, fables, and empiric
practices of the Africans, and created for him soon after he
settled in South-central Africa a means of unlocking the native
mind.
6 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
Education is tlie most crying of all needs for the people of
the British Islands at the present day. It is one of those
directions in which we cannot afford to sit down contented
and to say that we have enough. Competition in education is
akin to competition in physical fitness and in perfection of
warlike armaments. Unless we are mentally and physically
equal to the best, and superior to the mass of the world's
population, we shall lose the foremost place amongst the
civilised peoples of the world.
Manchester of all cities next to London, should feel this,
for increase of education means increase of knowledge, and that
tends to increase the commercial activity of Great Britain.
Manchester exists for little else than commerce. Though a
healthy city, and though its climate and that of Lancashire
generally is exceptionally suited to the promotion of certain
manufactures, it would never be able to offer the attractions
of a health resort or a playground, though it might become a
great educational centre.
Since, therefore, Commerce is the raison d'etre of Man-
chester and commerce depends so exceptionally on geographical
knowledge, I am amazed at learning on this visit to Manchester,
after something like ten years, that the Manchester Geographical
Society has only a fellowship of about TOO, instead of numbering
amongst its members every adult man and woman of Man-
chester and its suburbs with incomes of £150 a year and
upwards. We have most of us been startled to learn from his
own lips that the present Chairman of the Manchester Chamber
of Commerce has hitherto remained outside the Manchester
Geographical Society; and although he makes full amends
to-night by securing his election, it is an important indication
how much Manchester wants waking up, how little she appre-
ciates the value of the right kind of education and the excep-
tional importance of geography in local education.
At the present time several political pontiffs have come
northwards into the busy parts of industrial England to orate on
the subject of education. But you will observe that all their
arguments and all the long and acrimonious disputes that have
gone on in the Press during the last ten years, or in Parliament,
are solely directed to the question of who is to educate our
youth and how and where the education is to be carried out.
Nothing has been said by anyone, at any rate of any political
prominence, as to what the education is to be, what the infants,
David Livingstone Centenary Celebration 7
the children, the youths and the young men and women are to
be taught. Consequently, those who frame the curricula of our
State schools, our public schools, and our universities, are still
allowed to continue their worship of ancient fetishes and to
waste the time and the eyesight of our young people in teaching
them things which are either best reserved for specialists or
which, even, have grown absolutely useless to the present
generation. Take, for example, the time-wasting nonsense
known as Logic with a capital L. This is mainly based on the
tedious catch-phrases, puzzle-pages and vaticinations which
have come down to us from Aristotle and his predecessors —
Greeks of acute minds but with the limitations of their age —
people who had a great deal of time to spare, who were little
concerned about what they ate and drank and wore, owing to
the delightful climate in which they lived and the rude plenty
with which they were surrounded, and who delighted to spend
their time in the porch, the temple, or the shady orange grove,
in cross talk and back chat. To all sane people of the present
day it must surely seem that Logic as a solemn subject of study
is sheer waste of time. The best logic is the accomplished fact,
the fist, the dollar, the sovereign, the kiss, or the policeman.
Yet we find in the examination papers set for entry into one of
our great Government Departments two years ago, a high ratio
of marks given for logic of the Aristotelean brand and such
questions as these solemnly propounded : —
''What has been the relation of intuitionism to utilitarianism
in British Moral theory before Mill ?" ; and " What reasons
have we to believe that other persons exist ?" ; " All idealism
must be a subjective idealism. Criticise this." " Can the
claim that the Dictum de omni et de nullo is the fundamental
number of syllogistic inference, be sustained?"
Can one conceive that a future consul or a diplomatist who
has wasted time over this nonsenical word-spinning is any the
better fitted for pushing — as he ought to do — the sale of
Manchester goods in China? Or for securing better terms
for British commerce in any new commercial treaty with
France, Germany or Russia? Do you suppose that those
remarkable men who command the great liners of our never-
sufficiently-honoured-or-appreciated mercantile marine, equip
themselves with the study of Logic, or learn to make Latin
verses, or to waste their time in other educational futilities,
before embarking on a career which is one of the most heroic
8 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
we know of, and one in which mental balance, acuteness of
judgment, and moral stamina are required to a high degree?
Have any of the great manufacturers of Lancashire scored
high marks in Logic? Are there even, I would venture to ask,
many that have retained any particular knowledge of Euclid, or
that have shone in the making of Latin verses, or in " moral and
metaphysical philosophy " ? The farce of the whole thing is
that from the type that is educated at Eton and the older
universities we derive most of our modern statesmen, and we
may have a Chancellor of the Exchequer like the late Lord
Randolph Churchill, who arrives to take charge of the national
finance, and yet has not even mastered the principle of decimal
arithmetic, and who asks his private secretary, when he is
glancing at statistics, the meaning v.f those " damned dots."
Until recently a great proportion ot the time of the youth
of this country was practically wasted on the uncritical study of
what was called Scriptural history, that is to say, the history in
ancient times of the countries of the ISTear East. This is a
subject of profound interest to the specialist, but may well be
reserved for those who are going to specialise in Oriental history.
As regards the mass of the people in these Islands, all that they
need to know of history — and tbey need to know a great deal —
is Tnodern history, dating back, it may be, no farther than the
beginning of the sixteenth century. All that goes before can
be taught them pleasantly and easily in a few chapters, as it
were. If they desire as students of mankind to take up ancient,
classical, or mediaeval history as a special subject they can
pursue this, that, and the other ramification ; but merely to be
practical citizens of Great Britain and of the world they
require chiefly to know the history of the nineteenth century
and the early twentieth, and something of what occurred in the
eighteenth, seventeenth, and sixteenth, and led up to the great
nations of to-day and set going the rivalries and ambitions with
which we now have to contend. As a matter of fact, much of
the geography and history which is taught in our elementary
State schools, and even in our great public schools, is very
faulty, ancient, prejudiced, and not sufficiently brought up to
date.
This last is more especially the feature of our teaching of
Geography. The average clerk in a Manchester house of
business ought to know all the geography of South and Central
America (for example). It is little use to him to be instructed
David Livingstone Centenary Celebration 9
in the condition of Guatemala as it was thirteen or twenty years
ago, or Haiti in the 'seventies of the last century, or Siam as
described by pioneers of exploration twenty-five years ago.
Though our universities have no reason to blush for the admir-
able works on geography, ancient and modern, which they issue
from their presses, the manuals which are in use in the
elementary, and even the public schools, are often sadly lacking
in recent and accurate information. But as there are other
speakers to come after me, I do not wish to waste your time,
and I want to come to the point and make a full, concrete
suggestion in regard to the kind of education that Manchester
should promote. I do not mean for specialists, for Egypt-
ologists, for students of the balance of power in the Mediter-
ranean basin 3,000 and 2,000 years ago, but for young men
and young women who have to earn their living and who have
to unite in continuing to maintain us as the greatest trading
nation on the surface of the globe. The following, therefore,
in my opinion, are all subjects of elementary importance,
though not all of them need be dealt with in great detail : —
(1) A knowledge of the English language and its derivation.
This can include just that slight amount of Latin and Greek
that all educated people require to know in order to be able to
appreciate the meaning and pronunciation of many British
words. (2) French. (3) German. (4) Just sufficient mathe-
matics— that is to say, arithmetic and book-keeping, but no
Euclid or Algebra — to enable people to keep accurate accounts
and to do business. Higher mathematics need only to be taken
up specially by those who are going to become engineers,
astronomers or statisticians. (5) History^ mainly modern,
especially the English history for the last 150 years. (6)
Natural science — principally an elementary knowledge of
botany (so that people may appreciate the value and the beauty
of plants and trees), zoology (including a glimpse into the
nefarious work of insects and the origin of germ-diseases),
geology (so that they may realise something of the past history
of the earth), chemistry, and geography. Geography , indeed,
might be regarded as the mother of natural science teaching.
The earth should be treated as a newer and vaster Bible in
which the purpose of God may be spelt out for our education
and enlightenment as it is written in rock and gas, in crystal
and basalt, in fossil and in flint implement, in the carving
of the Alps and the history of the nations.
lo Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
BRITISH EAST AFRICA PROTECTORATE.
Early History, Development. The Native Tribes and
THEIR Progress.
By John AiNSwoRTH, C.M.G., F.R.G.S.
(Addressed to the Society in the Geographical Hall, on
Thursday, October 2nd, 1913.)
I WOULD preface my remarks by an allusion to the early history
of what is now known as British East Africa.
The coast of East Africa has a very ancient history, dating
back to the days of the Phoenicians, some 600 years b.c. A
detailed account of the coast, however, was not attempted until
about 150 A.D., when Ptolemy's writings were produced. Subse-
quently an Egyptian wrote " A Pilot's Guide to the Indian
Ocean " (date unknown) wherein reference is made to certain
points on the East African Coast. There is considerable
evidence of ancient forms of civilization at various points on
the coast to-day, notably on the islands forming the Lamu
archipelago, where there are to-day the remains of ancient towns
or cities which in several instances bear signs of interference
and alteration by people subsequent to the date of the original
buildings; also at Mambrui, Malindi, Mombasa and Wasin,
all of which are places on the coast. Many of these buildings
are probably due to the migration of Himyarites, who came
from Southern Arabia; of these movements, however, there is
no accurate history, and even tradition is somewhat vague on
the point.
It is believed, from the evidence of coins dating between
712 A.D. and 116-3 a.d., found at Makadishu in Italian East
Africa and at Kilwa in German East Africa, that the Chinese
visited East Africa at varying intervals. There exist also
slight traces of Egyptian influences at Malindi.
Up to about the tenth century tradition is, as I have said,
very vague as to any migratory movements affecting East
Africa, but from the tenth century the information obtainable
is more accurate as regards the colonisation of the coast. Some
time before the year 1000 Arab chronicles ascribe the foundation
of the town of Mombasa, or Mvita, to the Arabs, and at a
somewhat later period the foundation of Malindi, Kilifi and the
British East Africa Protectorate ii
towns in the Lamu archipelago to Arabs and Persians. These
towns apparently reached a considerable degree of prosperity
and civilization, for somewhere about the year 1328 the Arab
geographer Ibn Batuta, who at that time visited the coast,
described them in that sense.
The authentic history of the coast commenced from the
7th April, 1498, when the first Portuguese expedition, under
the command of Vasco da Gama, anchored off Mombasa; he,
however, failed to enter the harbour owing to difficulties of
navigation, and consequently sailed for Malindi (about 65 miles
further north), where he was well received. From this time
commenced the Portuguese conquest of the East Coast. They
carried on various wars, but remained in possession until 1585,
when a Turkish Corsair named Ali Bey visited the coast and
claimed the sovereignty for his Sultan. He was well received
by the people of Lamu, Faza and Mombasa, and with their help
he succeeded in driving the Portuguese from most of their
settlements ; the next year, however, he left the country with a
large amount of plunder estimated at about £600,000. The
Portuguese immediately sent an expedition from Goa in India
and severely punished the people who had aided the Turks.
Between 1586 and 1589 a warlike tribe called the Zimbas,
hailing from somewhere south of the Zambezi, .over-ran East
Africa, and even laid siege to Mombasa.
The Turks again invaded the coast in 1588 and took Mombasa
in that year, but were finally repulsed by{ the Portuguese in
1589, when the Turkish Leader Ali Bey was captured. In the
same year the Portuguese finally defeated the Zimbas.
In 1592 the Portuguese made Mombasa the capital of their
East Africa possessions. The present fort of Mombasa, com-
menced in 1593, was partially completed in 1595. The Portu-
guese occupation of the coast continued through many happen-
ixkgs up to 1698.
On March 15th, 1696, the Arabs laid siege to Mombasa.
This siege, which is known as the great siege, lasted for thirty-
three months, when the Portuguese garrison, reduced to eleven
men and two native women were put to the sword. This
occurred on December 12th, 1698. Subsequent expeditions were
organised by the Portuguese, and sent to reconquer the coast,
but met with no success. In 1727, however, owing to internal
troubles amongst the Arabs, one party sent a deputation to
Goa offering to place themselves under Portuguese protection.
12 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
In response a Portuguese fleet left Goa for East Africa, and as a
result of several operations Mombasa capitulated to the
Portuguese General on the 12th March, 1728. Within a few
weeks the whole coast was again under Portuguese rule, which,
however, was of short duration, for on the 29th November, 1729,
they were again driven from Mombasa and from East Africa.
This was the end of Portuguese authority in this part of the
world.
The Arabs thereafter retained their hold of East Africa.
In 1739 the Imam of Oman appointed a Governor (Wali) to
Mombasa. This oflS.cial, however, subsequently threw over his
allegiance and transformed himself into an independent chief.
His example was followed by the King of Pate (near Lamu).
For eighty years the families of these chiefs ruled their respec-
tive areas and were at constant war with one another.
In 1809 the Court of Muscat again commenced to be active
in East Africa affairs. The result of its activities was that
Mombasa itself was threatened and the Maztui chief, the
descendant of the transformed Governor of eighty years
previous, applied in 1823 to Capt. Yidal, of H.B.M.'s ship
" Barracouta,'' who was at that time cruising in East African
waters, for assistance, which was refused. Notwithstanding
this refusal, the Mazrui chief hoisted the British flag on his
own authority. This resulted in Capt. Owen, of H.B.M.'s ship
" Leven," in February 1824, establishing a provisional Protec-
torate subject to the approval of the British Government. The
British Government, however, repudiated the Protectorate,
which was withdrawn two years later.
The power of the Mazrui family was broken by Muscat in
1837. In 1832 Seyid Said transferred his capital from Muscat
to Zanzibar, where an oflB.cer appointed from Oman had
governed from 1784. Under Seyid Said's rule Mombasa, Lamu
and other East African ports developed in importance.
Seyid Said died at sea in 1856, when a dispute arose between
his two sons, which resulted in the total separation of Muscat
and Zanzibar. The Governor- General of India arbitrated in
the rival claims, and the result was that the East Africa
possessions became the property of Zanzibar.
In 1875 the Egyptians, in furtherance of their policy at that
that time of Imperial expansion made an attempt to occupy the
northern part of the coast and did occupy Kismayu for some
British East Africa Protectorate 13
months that year, but subsequently departed on representations
being made to the Khedive by the British Government.
Seyid Bargash succeeded to the throne of Zanzibar in 1870.
In 1877 Seyid Bargash offered to the late Sir William
Mackinnon (or to a company to be formed by him) a concession
under lease for seventy years of the customs and administration
of the dominions with certain reservations in respect of the
islands of Zanzibar and Pemba. The negotiations were, how-
ever, not proceeded with because the British Foreign Office
would not at the time support the matter. The 1886 the limits
of the dominions of the Sultan were settled by an international
convention.
In 1887 the Sultan granted a concession of his mainland
dominions lying between the Umba river and Kipini to the
British East Africa Association (this meant a strip ten miles
deep along the coast). Witu, on the mainland opposite Lamu,
was at this time deemed an independent Sultanate, while Lamu
remained Zanzibar territory. Germany, in 1885, declared a
Protectorate over Witu, and subsequently claimed Lamu.
After considerable negotiations and the definite cession of that
part of the Sultan of Zanzibar's mainland dominion situate
south of the Umba river, and which was already occupied by
Germany, and of the island of Heligoland in the North Sea, any
differences between Germany and ourselves were set right, and
Witu and other territory north of the Tana river came under the
company's rule. The British East Africa Association was re-
constructed as the Imperial British East Africa Company and
received a Royal Charter on September 3rd, 1888. The
Chartered Company commenced the administration of the
country early in 1889. No serious attempt, however, was made
to administer the interior until 1891. Up to that time our
efforts were directed to the occupation of the coast towns, to
exploring expeditions and to the acquisition of Uganda. A
route was opened from Mombasa to Uganda, and food depots
with officers in charge were established at intervals along the
route.
It must be understood that the authority of the Sultan of
Zanzibar did not extend into the interior beyond the ten mile
limit, and that the country outside the ten mile strip was at
the time of the advent of the company almost unknown. It
had been but seldom penetrated. In 1849 the late Doctor
Krapp explored part of the interior, and reported the existence
14 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
of Mount Kenya. In 1882 Doctor Fisclier, a German, made a
journey from Mount Kilima-Njaro to Lake Naivasha where lie
was prevented from proceeding any further, and was obliged
to return. The late Joseph Thomson succeeded, in 1883, in
journeying through Masai-land to the north-east corner of the
Victoria Nyanza. A Hungarian named Count Teleki accom-
panied by Lt. Yon Hohnel, explored the interior during 1887
and 1888. And then came the work of the officers of the
Imperial British East Africa Company. The company's
pioneer officers include the names of Sir F. Lugard, Sir F. J.
Jackson, the late Sir Francis de Winton, the late Sir George
Mackenzie, J. R. "VV. Piggott, the late Clifford Crawford,
E. J. L. Berkeley, C.B., C. W. Hobley, C.M.G., A. D.
Mackinnon, C.M.G., S. S. Bagge, C.M.G., Col. Eric Smith,
C.B., the late C. W. Jenner and my own.
The Chartered Company surrendered its charter on July 1,
1896, when the Imperial Government, through the medium of
the Foreign Office, took over charge of the country. More than
a year previously the Foreign Office had taken over Uganda. The
East Africa Protectorate therefore really dates from July 1st,
1895. At this time, however, its western boundary extended
only to the Great Hift and to the western confines of Kikuyu.
In 1902 the limits of the territory were extended to the Victoria
Nyanza and Mount Elgon. In 1905 the control of the Pro-
tectorate was transferred from the Foreign Office to the Colonial
Office.
The Protectorate, as now constituted, comprises about
180,000 square miles, and contains a population of approxi-
mately 3,000,000 blacks, about 18,000 Indians and some 3,500
whites, including traders, settlers, missionaries and officials.
The principal coast town is Mombasa, with a total population
of about 20,000. Mombasa was the capital of the Protectorate
until 1908 when the new town of Nairobi, 327 miles in the
interior, took its place.
VTith regard to the Indian population, it is as well to
remember that Indian traders came to the country about two
hundred years ago ; the descendants of these early pioneers had
amassed considerable interests on the coast long before we came
upon the scene. With the advent of the railway their trading
instincts forced them along with the construction, which in itself
was carried out by Indian coolie labour. These traders have
now spread out into the uttermost corners of the Protectorate ;
I
British East Africa Protectorate 15
they are also established in Uganda, along the higher waters of
the Nile, and also in German East Africa. Their interests are
therefore very extensive in East Africa to-day.
The Arabs, once the predominant factor on the coast, now
remain a more or less picturesque reminder of the past.
My first introduction to East Africa was in 1889, when I
proceeded there in the service of the late Imperial British East
Africa Company. I remained at Mombasa, with the exception
of an interval of three months, during which time I was in
India, until the end of January, 1892, when I proceeded into the
interior. From 1892 to July, 1895, I was in administrative
charge, under the Chartered Company, of the district of
Ukambani.
The company, after five years' control, during which time a
good deal of pioneer work was performed and a basis of adminis-
tration commenced amongst most of the tribes, handed over
their responsibilities to Her Majesty's Government. Nominally
the Chartered Company handed over on the 1st July, 1895;
actually, however, the transfer was effected in November of that
year.
In 1892 I commenced what eventually proved a satisfactory
connection with the important tribe of Wakamba and succeeded
in five years in bringing them under administrative control.
Towards the end of 1892 I got into touch with the warlike Masai,
resulting three years later in a most friendly understanding and
the voluntary submission of this tribe to our rule. During the
same period we succeeded in extending our administration over
the important Kikuyu tribe.
I do not wish it to be understood that these times were
entirely peaceful ones or free from anxiety; on the contrary,
from time to time it was necessary to undertake punitive
measures in different districts, but never against a whole tribe;
there were for some time factions among the more distant tribes-
men who delighted in continuing some of their old barbaric
customs in the way of murder and pillage, and who resented
interference in such amusements. With such people it was
necessary to deal. Patience, tact and perseverance, however,
added to the increasing conviction that the white regime had
come to stay and meant to keep the peace had its result, and
peace and order came to be more or less the normal state of
affairs.
The Imperial Government, through the medium of the
i6 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
Foreign OflS.ce, took over the active work of administratioii in
November, 1895, when I was appointed to the charge of the
interior territory of what then became the East Africa Protec-
torate which at that time extended from outside the ten mile
coast strip to the Great Rift Yalley (half-way to the Victoria
Nyanza). The area placed in my charge was termed the
Ukamba Province, and contained some 38,000 square miles of
territory with about one million native inhabitants. The head-
quarters were at a place called Machakos. Subsequently the
area was found too large for one Province, consequently it was
divided and an additional Province was formed.
The Government extended its administration beyond the
limits actually occupied by the Chartered Company, and so the
pioneer work continued. We were a handful of British officials
imbued with a definite determination to do our best for the
native tribes and the country. At times, what with climate, new
conditions, languages to master, native stupidity, conservatism
and superstition, the task seemed almost hopeless; it was,
however, apparently ordained that progress should be made,
and so we are succeeding. In the early days all the natives
viewed us with suspicion ; they would not help us in any way ;
very often they would not sell us food; in many and various
ways either passive or deliberate obstruction faced us. Our
supplies were carried on the heads of coast porters, and our
mails, which only reached us on the average once a month,
were brought up by the same means. Ultimately all this
changed and the natives became ready and willing helpers.
Our police, once recruited in Zanzibar and on the coast, were
gradually replaced by picked men from amongst the different
interior tribes.
At the end of 1895 the first rails of the Uganda Railway
were laid at Kilindini, on the island of Mombasa. The rails
reached what is now Nairobi (327 miles from Mombasa) in 1899.
In that year I moved from Machakos to Nairobi, which was then
a large extent of grass plain with low hills and forest on the
west and north. The laying out of a town was commenced in
1900. To-day the town of Nairobi contains some very fine
streets, some imposing buildings, it is lighted by electric light,
and has a most excellent water supply piped in from the hills.
It contains four churches, a masonic hall, several hotels, some
very fine shops, banks, a theatre, and has an up-to-date telephone
service. Some thousands of trees have been planted along the
British East Africa Protectorate 17
roads. There is a racecourse, where meetings are held under
the auspices of the East Africa Turf Club. Cricket, football,
tennis, golf and other sports are common at all centres in
the country. Some of the tribesmen have taken to football.
' I remained in charge of the Ukamba Province with Nairobi
as my headquarters until 1906.
In 1907 I was appointed to the Commissionership of the
Nyanza Province where I have since been.
The railway reached Kisumu at the head of the Kavirondo
Gulf on Yictoria Nyanza in 1901 and the first passenger train
from the coast arrived there in December of that year. Kisumu,
which is now a well-laid-out and thriving town, is the terminus
of the line.
The railway had occupied just six years in building ; it cost,
inclusive of steamers placed on the great lake, nearly six
millions sterling. Its completion meant a new era for East
Africa. Without the railway East Africa could never have
reached any degree of importance or prosperity, as there are no
navigable waterways leading into the real interior. With the
railway East Africa is undoubtedly prospering and will
ultimately become an important country.
I propose later on giving you a few figures to show you how
the undertaking has progressed commercially.
The Administration.
The Protectorate as a whole is administered by a Governor
with Executive and Legislative Councils. The whole area is
divided into seven provinces, each in charge of a Commissioner.
Each province is divided into a number of districts, each in
charge of a District Commissioner with Assistant District Com-
missioners.
The country originally consisted of a number of native
districts and of large areas of uninhabited lands. Of the latter
large tracts have been marked out for European settlement, and
have already to a considerable extent become occupied by
settlers. Forest reserve areas have been marked out, while we
have some extensive game reserves wherein the fauna peculiar
to the country is preserved. Small settlements of Indian
cultivators have also been established where suitable. The
boundaries of the native districts have been defined and all
native rights therein respected. Our policy in these districts
is to use the native authorities to rule their own people, but
l8 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
subject to our supervision. We consider that in these districts
their own laws, purified where necessary, are best suited to their
own requirements and are best calculated to make for peace,
order and contentment in the land. Outside the native districts
the ordinary law of the Protectorate applies.
Native Administration.
The native form of administration varies in different
districts; generally, however, it is worked under one of the
following two systems — (1) by the chief, with the assistance of a
council or councils of elders ; (2) by the elders themselves under
a patriarchal system. No native authority under (1) can
deal with anyone except members of their own tribe ; under (2)
with any but members of their village. Under (2) inter-village
matters are arranged by a joint meeting of elders.
In native locations persons who are not natives of the
particular tribe who may be accused of offences inside the tribal
limits must be tried by the Protectorate Courts.
Natives convicted by a native court can appeal to the District
Commissioner. The Provincial Commissioner can, when con-
sidered necessary or desirable, require any case to be re-heard
either before himself or before a District Commissioner, either
in the presence or otherwise, of the Council, and may reverse
or confirm the original judgment.
Tribes consist of clans; each clan has its own local council.
Inside the clan or tribe individuals are held responsible for acts
against a meriiber of the clan or tribe, but family of offender,
where the latter is unable to pay a fine, may be joined in
responsibility.
Offences by a member or members of one tribe against a
member or members of another tribe were deemed by native law
as tribal acts; in other words, an individual act was taken as
the act of the tribe, and any reprisal might be attempted against
the tribe as a whole. Now, however, inter-tribal offences are
dealt with by the administration.
Land,
Land within the tribal limits is the common property of the
tribe, and so long as any member of the tribe beneficially
occupies he maintains the right to occupation. No non-member
of the tribe can occupy land without the consent of the chief
and council. A non-native cannot acquire land in a native
British East Africa Protectorate 19
district except by consent of the Crown, which would not be
given if the application applied to native land.
It is highly probable that in the process of time, when the
native occupants realise the value of land from the producing
point of view, they will themselves move in the direction of
demanding a change in the communal system of tenure and will
wish to become individual holders or owners.
Police, etc.
In native locations the local councils and elders maintain
peace and order. They have a system of village police and
headmen. Protectorate police, i.e. the Government police, are,
under normal conditions, not employed in the native districts.
They may, however, in exceptional cases and under a magis-
trate's warrant, proceed into a native location or district.
Boads.
The Protectorate Government constructs main roads, both
inside and outside of native locations. Subsidiary roads and
tracks in the native areas are made and maintained by the local
councils.
WoTnen.
Amongst all the tribes woman occupies a subordinate position
to man. Her lot is, however, not a hard one. In particular
young marriageable girls have as a rule a fairly good time, and
amongst most tribes, a fair amount of liberty. As, however, a
prospective husband is required to pay a marriage price to the
father of the lady they are in fact a more or less valuable asset
to the family. A girl may choose her own husband, and so
long as he is not of her clan (marriage in the clan is usually
prohibited amongst many of the tribes), and, further, provided
that he is not an imbecile or a confirmed cripple (marriage of
imbeciles or cripples is practically forbidden), and he is able to
make the necessary payment there is no objection. The pre-
liminaries are then arranged, but in some of the districts it is
necessary, as a very important part of the ceremony for the
bridegroom to capture the bride, as she is not supposed to leave
her clan except by capture. The bridegroom collects some
friends and proceeds to the bride's village, where, on arrival,
he is opposed by the male relatives of the bride, the rival parties
indulging in, at times, a severe struggle with sticks. If the
bridegroom's party is defeated he must try again, and so on
20 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
up to three times. If he succeeds his party carries the bride
to the bridegroom's home where she settles down. If he fails
on the third attempt to capture the bride her parents arrange
to bring her over and are given presents by the bridegroom.
A woman cannot own property (tools for tillage, cooking
pots, clothes, personal ornaments and such like things are not
deemed to be property in this connection). She can, however,
hold property. With many tribes a married woman has certain
cattle handed to her on the birth of a male child ; any increase
from such stock remains with her. The male children, on
reaching maturity, have a claim on such cattle. Female
children belonging to the same mother share in the milk pro-
duced by such cattle or receive milk from other cattle belonging
to the father, but have no claim on any stock. Therefore a girl
on being married takes no property to her husband. A widow
goes to the eldest male survivor of her late husband, and any
children she may have become his children. (The idea under-
lying this custom would seem to be to prevent the poverty of
the widow and her children, particularly female children. The
male survivor is required to assume responsibilities of the late
husband; the successor would be the eldest son if of age.) A
widow can, with the consent of the eldest male relative, re-
marry, but must leave her children.
Women do most of the work in the fields, but are amongst
most tribes assisted by the men. She does all the cooking, the
cutting and carrying of firewood, the carrying of water, the
grinding of corn. Huts are usually built by the men.
Amongst all the tribes polygamy is practised, the number
of wives being limited by the man's wealth. Each wife has her
own hut.
Women have no direct voice in the affairs of native govern-
ment; they have, however, in some things considerable influence
with their husbands and sons. Most of them are very conserva-
tive and slow to advance with the times; there are, however,
not wanting present day signs to show that a change is coming.
Up to a year or two ago the women of Kavirondo were almost
universally naked, to-day large numbers of them have taken to
covering themselves.
Native Development.
I have already stated that we use the native authorities to
look after their own people. We are doing what is possible to
British East Africa Protectorate 21
educate the tribes to a system of developing their tribal lands
and producing economic produce for export. The basis of all
native development is industry. Industrious natives mean a
prosperous country and also mean increased trade in the way
of export of raw produce to Europe and the demand for manu-
factured articles in return. The following figures which deal
with the Nyanza Province will serve to show you how we are
progressing in this connection : —
1907, native raw produce exported, nil.
1912, „ ,, ,, over 17,000 tons.
During the same periods the revenue paid in by the natives of
the Nyanza Province in the form of direct taxation reads as
follows :
1907 £18,900
1912 72,100
I must allude to the good work being performed by many
of the mission societies in the country. I am glad to say that
between missionaries and ourselves there exists the most sym-
pathetic understanding on the subject of native development
and betterment.
Trade .
Trade in the country is growing yearly in importance. The
raw products exported from East Africa consist principally of
sesame, copra, ground nuts, various grains, hides, skins, cotton,
wild rubber, coffee and fibres. The total exports in 1912 were
valued at £333,000.
As regards the import trade, East Africa is, to a considerable
extent, a distributing centre for Uganda and parts of German
East Africa. The total imports are therefore not all consumed
in East Africa; how the proportions work out I cannot say.
The total imports during 1912 reached a value of £1,330,000,
including cotton goods valued at £394,000.
Up to a few years ago the whole of the trade with the natives
was conducted under a system of barter. To-day money in the
shape of rupees and cents has taken its place practically every-
where.
The Uganda Railway.
The line runs from Mombasa to Kisumu, its length is 583
miles; the time required for the journey is two days and two
nights. The line ascends from nearly sea level to an altitude of
22 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
8,320 feet, and then descends to just under 4,000 feet at Kisumu,
the terminus on Victoria Nyanza.
Kilindini, on the island of Mombasa, is the coast port, and
here we have railway piers and sidings, large storage and
custom's sheds, heavy cranes and very considerable bustle. We
are now proposing to build a deep water pier so that ocean
steamers can lie alongside the railway piers. At the terminus
we have extensive piers and warehouses . The trains run along-
side the steamers and passengers and luggage can be transferred
in a few minutes from the train to the steamer. There are at
present five fine steamers launched ; four of these are passenger
and cargo boats combined, each having superior accommodation,
twin screws, electric light and other up-to-date conveniences.
A few years ago native canoes provided the only means of
crossing the lake; then came a small steamer, the ''William
Mackinnon " ; then some sailing craft, and now these fine steam-
boats. There is also a well-equipped dockyard and a dry dock
at this point.
The railway, which was run at a loss of £60,000 in 1903-4,
realised a profit of £2,600 in 1904-5, and in 1911-12 a profit of
£131,000. A great deal of this success is due to the develop-
ment of Uganda, that part of German East Africa near the lake
and the Nyanza Province.
The gross railway earnings include the earnings of the lake
steamers. The total earnings of the railway and steamers in
1911-12 amounted to £360,000 and the expenditure to £229,000.
The tra£&c from the lake during the last year necessitated the
ordering from home of additional trucks and engines which are
being supplied as quickly as possible.
A branch line has been constructed by the Magadi Soda
Company from Magadi Junction (281 miles on the Uganda
Railway) to Soda Lake, nearly one hundred miles west of the
main line. Very shortly large quantities of soda will be
exported from East Africa. A branch line is also being pushed
out from Nairobi towards Kenya. Other branch lines are
contemplated .
There are signs of progress in most parts of the country.
With these remarks I bring this address to a close.
The Balkans and Turkey 23
THE BALKANS AND TURKEY.
By C. H. Bellamy, F.R.G.S.
(Addressed to tlie Society in the Geographical Hall on Tuesday,
March 11th, 1913.)
Amongst the many romantic pages of European history there
are certainly none more romantic nor more interesting than
those recording the histories of the Balkan States, either as
independent kingdoms and empires, or in subjugation to their
once all-potent lord, the Sultan of Turkey; or in their revolt
from his domination, and their gradual assumption of inde-
pendence, national wealth, and the advantages and blessings
of modern progress.
The pity of it all is that this advance in material prosperity
should have been checked by the terrible war which has been
raging for the last few months, and which, when I was in
these countries in July 1912, was threatened, but no one, so far
as I could gather, really expected would ever take place.
Fortunately for the Balkan States, their countries have not
been the theatre of the war, as they attacked the Turk in his
own country, but the immense amount of treasure expended,
the thousands of valuable lives lost, will no doubt check their
progress and cripple their resources for many years to come.
The Balkan Peninsula has been in modern times what the
Low Countries were in the Middle Ages — the cockpit of Europe.
It is there that the eternal Eastern question had its origin; it
is there, too, that the West and the East, the Cross and the
Crescent, meet. But to understand the great problems which
still await solution in South-eastern Europe, and are once more
pressing themselves upon the attention of all thoughtful men,
it is important to have some knowledge of Balkan history.
The mutual jealousies of Bulgaria and Servia, the struggle of
various races for supremacy in Macedonia, the alternate friend-
ship and enmity of the Eussian and the Turk, are all facts
which have their root deep down in the past annals of the
Balkan States. Few persons in Western Europe seem to
remember what has never been forgotten in the Peninsula, —
and this is forced upon you over and over again as you visit
their towns — ^that there was a time when the Servian and
Bulgarian Empires were great Powers, and their respective
24 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
rulers governed with the proud title of Czar a vast realm, which
is still the dream of ardent patriots. Bearing this in mind, we
shall the better understand many things we shall see.
The Bulgarian Empire of nine hundred and a thousand
years ago, under the Czars Simeon and Samuel, ran from
Mesembric, on the shore of the Black Sea, to Mount Rhodope,
and then right across the Peninsula from Mount Olympus to the
Albanian coast opposite Corfu. With the exception of a few
ports, all Albania was Bulgarian, as was also nearly the whole
of the present kingdom of Servia. Before the Magyar invasion,
Czar Simeon seems to have included part of Roumania in his
dominions, and it is possible that portions of Hungary and
Transylvania owned his sway. Bulgaria, under his auspices,
was — what she has never been again, but what she still aspires
to be — the dominant state of the Balkan Peninsula.
Then, like a page of romance, we learn how this mighty
empire crumbled away before the assaults of its enemies, and
came under the power of the Greek Emperors; and how, one
hundred and sixty-eight years later, Bulgaria was delivered by
John Asen, who founded and consolidated the second Bulgarian
Empire, of almost equal territorial importance to the first.
After the lapse of two centuries this empire fell, and the
nation came under the domination of the Turks for nearly five
hundred years. In the early part of the nineteenth century the
revival of the spirit of independence began. One result of the
Turco-Russian War was the constitution of the principality of
Bulgaria, and the autonomous province of Eastern Roumelia,
and the election by the National Assembly at Tirnova in 1879
of Prince Alexander of Battenberg as their first Prince.
Nor does the history of Servia lack its romance. Out of a
loose federation of chiefs the Servian monarchy was gradually
developed, its golden age beginning with the accession of
Stephen Dusan in 1336. Never has the power of Servia been
so great or the Servian dominions so vast as under the sway of
this mighty ruler, who raised his country to the rank of an
empire, equipped it with a complete code of laws, and made it
respected all over Eastern Europe. Under the weak rule of his
son his empire slowly melted away, and in the struggle with
the Turks the Servians were vanquished at the famous battle of
Kossovo, on June 15, 1389, a battle which for five centuries
decided the fate of the Balkan Peninsula.
In the first quarter of the last century Servia began to feel
%
Fig. I. Sinaia. The King's Palace.
C.H.B.
C.H.B.
Fig. 2. Sinaia. The Greek Church.
The Balkans and Turkey 25
after her lost independence, and in 1817 Milosh Obrenovic was
elected Prince of Servia, which dignity lasted in his family
until it was exchanged in 1882 for the title of King.
Nor are the histories of the other Balkan States wanting in
romance and interest. Eonmania, the name adopted at the
union of the two principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia, has
been subject to Hungary and Poland, to Austria and E-ussia, as
well as Turkey; and only emerged from the supremacy of this
latter Power in 1859, the coping-stone of Roumanian inde-
pendence being set by the proclamation, on March 26, 1881, of
Prince Charles as King of Roumania.
Montenegro was an independent State in the fourteenth
century, from which time to the nineteenth, its history has been
a record of battles and raids against its neighbours, and at a time
when the whole of south-eastern Europe, to the very gates of
Vienna was trembling before the Turks, the Montenegrins
managed to vindicate and maintain their independence. A
new era began with the reign of Peter II, from 1830-51, and
the present ruler, now a King, waged successful wars against
the Turks, and by the Treaty of Berlin in 1878, obtained full
recognition of his sovereignty.
Mediaeval and modem Greece affords the student of history
one of the most remarkable romances he can desire. The great
Byzantine Empire dwindled away, especially under the inrush
of the Ottomans, and in the later middle ages she became
subject to the Venetians and other foreign rulers, eventually
seeming to lose all national character and spirit under the
Turkish subjection. Byron's scathing lines fitly express this
condition : —
" 'Tis Greece, but living Greece no more !
So coldly sweet, so deadly fair.
We start, for soul is wanting there."
But her national soul woke in the War of Independence in
1821, and success followed the uprising. King Otho was elected
in 1832, and henceforth Greece has existed as a recognised
independent kingdom.
About the Turks I need not say much . When they came to
Europe they were a great people — a great military people. In
manners and customs they were probably not more cruel or
barbarous than the peoples they conquered; in the middle
ages everywhere folk were cruel beyond belief. In point of
26 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
power and organisation and military skill, however, they were
greatly superior, and they were led by Sultans who, in many
cases, had a genius for generalship. But beyond conquest they
had no ideas. They camped on vanquished territory, and
forced the people to feed them, and this policy they have
pursued right to our time.
I entered the Balkan Peninsula by way of Roumania,
coming from Budapest by the northern route via Arad and
Brasso, crossing the Eastern Carpathians by the Tomos Pass,
3,330 feet high. My first stop was at Sinaia, where is the
King's summer residence in the mountains. It is a little
paradise, and the Roumanian aristocracy fly here in the summer
to their charming villas in order to escape the heat of the
capital. The King's chateau, a building in a mixture of styles,
is on an eminence, a good height from the road, but not enclosed
by hedges, fences, or railings, so I wandered up the height right
to the doors, and all around the grounds, without the slightest
let or hindrance. King Charles is greatly honoured by his
subjects, and his popular consort " Carmen Sylva," is adored
by the people. In the town is the Greek Church and Monastery,
the service at the former, with its hidden choir and no instru-
mental music, giving me one of those thrills that I had
experienced at similar services of the Greek Church in Russia.
Peculiarities in costume were very noticeable. All the drivers
of carriages have a long robe of dark velvet, with a belt of a
bright colour, or some gorgeous and fearful thing of mystic
design. The workmen and peasants wear their shirts outside
their trousers, or perhaps it is a second shirt or smock, coming
down to the knees, and pleated.
The railway ride from Sinaia to Bucharest, the capital,
revealed some of the natural riches of the country. We passed
a number of extensive salt works and innumerable oil tank
waggons; even the locomotive of our train was driven by oil,
so we were quite prepared to find an important city, Bucharest
having over 300,000 inhabitants, with many fine public
buildings. It is one of the gayest capitals that I know, and
in proportion to its size rivals Vienna and Paris in animation,
for at midnight it is as lively and gay in the centre of the city
as at midday, and some of the cafes never close, day or night.
The city is divided into two unequal portions by the dirty
river Dimbovitza, which is crossed by fifteen bridges, one side
being the modern and the other the old town. In this latter are
C.H.B.
Fig. 3. Coiistaiiza. vStatiie of Ovid
C.H.B.
Fig. 5. BioUvSsa. The Tower of the Citadel.
The Balkans and Turkey 27
found the Arsenal, Barracks, Law Courts, the Parliament
House, and several interesting old churches, especially the
Metropolitan Church. It was built in 1656, and its interior is
adorned in the lavish manner peculiar to churches of the Greek
faith, the precious stones in the ikons being reputed to be worth
many thousands of pounds; but the city's finest church is the
Domnitza Balasha, in the new town, recently erected in the
true Byzantine style.
Bucharest claims that she has got the finest Post Office in
the world, and there is some foundation for her claim. Her
streets are being widened and embellished on every hand. The
railway system of the country is being reorganised, no expense
is being spared, the immense bridge over the Danube being a
remarkable engineering achievement. She is exploiting her
vast stores of natural oil, and if she has given concessions to
foreign companies, they are hedged round with restrictions for
the benefit of the country. But, as in many another new
country, corruption and bribery are rampant in official circles ;
the taxes are very onerous, and press heavily ujDon all classes.
However, under the enlightened sway of King Carol, Roumania
is working out her own redemption, and, with her immense
natural resources of oil and magnificent steppes for the cultiva-
tion of corn, maize, etc., will undoubtedly occupy a leading
place in the Balkan States.
As I travelled down to the coast I saw how well the fertile
country is cultivated, and at Constanza are the largest and most
substantial grain elevators I have ever seen — larger even than
the Canadian ones. Constanza, besides being a busy Black Sea
port, formerly known as Kustendje, is a pretty watering-place,
which, with its casino, revived memories of Ostend and Monte
Carlo. In the centre of the town is a bronze monument to Ovid,
as this is practically the site of the ancient Tomis, the place of
his banishment and death.
Here we embarked on a splendid Roumanian Government
mail steamer for Constantinople, leaving at nearly midnight.
Next morning, soon after breakfast, we had traversed the so-
called Black Sea, and were nearing the entrance to the
Bosphorus.
The sail down this narrow strait, dividing Europe from Asia,
is of enchanting interest, not only on account of the teeming
recollections of past events, which have helped to make the
world's history, some of them sometimes tinged with mytho-
28 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
logical and legendary garnishings, but also because of tbe
seductive beauty of the landscape. The sentinel lighthouses,
Anaduli and Rumili, guarding the entrance, with their
reminiscences of Jason and his Argonauts; the two Genoese
fortresses, with their moles, from which a chain was stretched
across the narrow strait in times of necessity; the famous Gulf
of Buyukdere; Therapia, the summer residences of the
Ambassadors; the Giant's Mountain; the Castles of Europe and
of Asia; the place where Darius crossed on a bridge of boats
with his army of 700,000 Persians; ''The Sweet Waters of
Asia," so well known to readers of Pierre Loti's charming
romance of " Desenchantees " ; the modern palaces of Charagan,
Yildiz Kiosk, Dolma Baghtcheh, and Beylerby, all these and
other intensely interesting sights, lead up to the point where
right ahead was Stamboul, with domes and minarets stand-
ing out against the sky, stretched on her broad hills, upon
each of which rises a gigantic mosque with leaden domes and
golden pinnacles, — Saint Sophia, white and rose-coloured;
Sultan Ahmed, flanked by six minarets; Suleiman the Great,
crowned with ten domes ; Sultana Yalide, mirrored in the waters
of the Golden Horn; the mosque of Mahomet the Conqueror;
and the conspicuous mosque of Selim; whilst houses and other
buildings reached down to the water's edge in what appeared
to be inextricable confusion, ending with Seraglio Point. On
the left is Scutari, extending her amphitheatre of hills, covered
with gardens and villas; and so the legendary fairy-like scene
gradually increases in splendour till we reach the crowning
apotheosis at the moment when the Sea of Marmora opens out
before us, and we see the tout ensemble of Constantinople.
Great and magnificent city, the dream of my boyhood, the
aspiration of my youth, indelible memory of my life !
Surely in no other way should the traveller approach this
classic site, even the approach by the Sea of Marmora is not so
interesting; but to enter the city by the railway, the greater
part of which is in a cutting, and then to detrain in a very
ordinary railway station, to emerge in an evil-smelling quarter,
is to lose all that is beautiful, and is enough to destroy all the
glamour of a visit.
Constantinople teems with curiosities, which are so well
known that I need only mention a few in passing. The Galata
Tower, which is in Galata, the business portion of the city, is
nearly six hundred years old, and is now used as a watch-tower
C.H.B.
Fig. 6. Broussa. Kntraiice to the Green Mosque.
The Balkans and Turkey 29
for the firemen. Galata Bridge, connecting with Stamboul on
the other side of the Golden Horn, the microcosm of the Orient.
The Hippodrome, which in the golden days of the great
Byzantine Empire was " the axis round which the Byzantine
world revolved." Here emperors were proclaimed, and
victorious generals celebrated their triumphs; here criminals
were executed and heretics burned; here wild animals were
exhibited and athletic sports held. The Egyptian obelisk came
from Heliopolis, and was placed here by Theodosius the Great ;
the Serpent Column brought by Constantine from Delphi, and
the obelisk of masonry of unknown constitution add to the
interest of this famous square. Then there is Stamboul, with
its wealth of mosques, and I can only speak of one — ^that of
St. Sophia, with an interior which has a stupefying effect on
the visitor as he enters, with its enormous vault, a bold
architecture of semi-domes, measureless pilasters, gigantic
arches, colossal columns, galleries, tribunes and porticoes, upon
all of which a flood of light descends from a thousand windows.
Knowing well all the great cathedrals of the world, I am bound
to place it first in respect to its majesty and stupendous effect.
One of the ceremonies to be seen in Constantinople is that
of the Sultan going to Selamlik, as his going publicly to pray
is called. This is every Friday at about noon, this being the
Moslem Sabbath. I was fortunately stationed so near to where
the carriage of His Majesty stopped, that I was able to take
snapshots 0+ him. The Dancing and Howling Dervishes must
be seen, as well as the Turkish Priests and Softas.
Pera is the modern or European quarter of the city, and a
complete contrast to Stamboul. It is a small edition of Paris,
full of shops and better-class residences. All the Embassies
are here.
Scutari is the fourth division of the city, and is on the
Asiatic shore. Being on the same continent as the holy cities
of Mecca and Medina, it is considered to be holy ground, and
so all pious Turks wish to be buried here if they can afford
the expense, the result being an immense cemetery, three miles
long. But to English people its chief interest is the English
Cemetery, where so many of the soldiers who died during the
Crimean war lie buried, and behind which is the hospital where
Florence Nightingale ministered.
Also on the Asiatic shore, I visited Mudania, a fairly
prosperous seaport, and took train for Broussa, the old capital of
30 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
the Ottoman Empire, at the foot of Mount Olympus, that giant
of the Bithynian Mountains. The town is one of the most
oriental that I have ever visited. Modernity has not yet
reached it ; this makes it one of the most interesting places in all
Turkey, and at the same time it is one of the most beautiful.
In the period of its wonderful prosperity and at the zenith of
its glory, it became the resort of the then world of literature,
art and fame. Soldiers of fortune, artists, poets, historians,
holy men, and dervishes thronged to it from Persia, Khorassan,
and the far-distant Bokhara ; mosques, colleges and other public
buildings arose, and a palace upon the size and grandeur of
which Osmanli historians love to dwell, was erected. Earth-
quakes, fires and wars have done much to destroy this glory,
but even to-day the number of mosques is so great that it is
playfully said that there is one for each day of the year, and
that the pious Moslem need never enter the same mosque twice
in the same year. Beside the mosques there are the tombs of
several Sultans, some of which are perhaps more remarkable
than the mosques. The Green Mosque alone is worth going a
pilgrimage to see, for it is one of the most perfect specimens of
Mussulman art, in which are seen the blending of the
Arabic and Persian styles. Its principal entrance reminded me
of the Moorish work at the Alhambra, in its marvellous hanging
honeycomb carved work and its arabesques. In the Great
Mosque, in the centre of the great dome is an opening, through
which rain and snow may enter, and below is a fountain or
tank, the latter having goldfish in it. I must not omit to
mention the Citadel, from the top of whose rocky escarpment
may be seen the whole of the city, a strange picture to Western
eyes, with its domes and minarets, the background being the
long range of mountains, with the giant peak of Olympus still
exposing patches of snow in July.
Leaving Constantinople by rail, we soon passed San Stefano,
where the Treaty was signed at the conclusion of the Russo-
Turkish War of 1878, then crossed the Lines of Tchatalja,
where so much fighting took place during the late war; then
passed Lule Burgas, where the Turks were so badly defeated,
and after a nine hours' journey arrived at Adrianople. The
railway station is at Karagatch, two miles away from the town,
on the way to which I crossed the Rivers Maritza and Tundja,
the former being a very important river in Turkey and
Roumelia. The town is very well protected by forts on the hills
^^
C.H.B
Fio-. 7. Sofia. Private Residences.
C.H.B.
Fig. 8. vSofia. Statue of Czar Liberator.
The Balkans and Turkey 31
all round, as becomes a city near the frontier of the country.
Amongst its numerous mosques that of Selim II is the most
noteworthy, the dome being one metre higher than that of
St, Sophia at Constantinople. The city takes its name from
the Emperor Adrian, who founded it a.d. 117 — 136.
At the next station of importance we quitted Turkish
territory, and entered Eastern Roumelia, making a stop at
Philippopolis, its capital, a town of about 45,000 inhabitants,
on the River Maritza. There are not many buildings of interest
beyond the old mosque, its churches and military club; but its
chief interest lies in the fact of its having been the scene of the
revolution which separated it and Bulgaria from Turkey in
1885.
Here we had one of those experiences that all travellers in
the heart of the Balkans must expect, unless they are polyglots.
It is said that there is only one hotel where a meal in the
European sense of the word can be obtained, and we set out to
find it. But from one end of the town to the otherwe absolutely
failed to find a single sign in Roman characters. So whilst
the name of the hotel was affixed to it, yeiy it was in those
barbaric characters that only an Oxford pundit — or his
equivalent — can read. Then we hit upon the happy idea of
showing the natives the name of the hotel in our guide book, but
if their characters were Greek to us, ours were also Greek to
them, and not even the intelligent policeman could read them.
Eventually we got there, and perhaps enjoyed our lunch all the
more for the hunt we had had after it.
The Bulgars are a fine race of men, especially the hearty
young countrymen in homespun garments and hide sandals, all
well clad ; clean-limbed, upstanding young fellows of eleven or
twelve stone, with healthy, smiling faces. The peasant people
own the land which they till so carefully. Even amongst the
poorest in the villages it is the exception to find a man who is
not a landowner,
Bv Igaria is one of the greatest rose gardens of the world.
Few parts of Europe have been so often laid waste ; in few has
the ground been so plentifully drenched with blood, century
after century. In none, perhaps, have so many different races
fought for the mastery. But when the warlike storm has spent
its force fresh roses spring up, filling the land with fragrance
and bringing a rich material reward to its children. Some of
32 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
these rose gardens are sixty miles long, and from them the
world gets its principal supply of attar of roses. We are told
that the damask roses, one hundred thousand of which give
only one ounce of attar, must be picked before the sun shines
on them else they withhold half their fragrance. A pound of
tie oil fetchevs from £15 to £18.
Sofia, the capital of Bulgaria, is one of the cleanest cities
in Europe. All the principal streets are paved with tiles, the
shape and size of a brick, and they appear to stand the traffic
admirably, and all of these streets have electrical trams running
through them. At the time of my visit there was quite a
mania for building and re-building, the climax being a
magnificent new cathedral, which, after six years' work, was
nearly completed. Sofia is the only town in the country of
over 50,000 inhabitants. In 1887 it was estimated to have a
population of about 20,000, whilst to-day (that is, before the
war) its inhabitants number about 100,000; and in these
twenty-five years it has been completely metamorphosed, the
same quarter of a century having entirely changed the country.
Then, there were no railways in Bulgaria proper — only some
two hundred miles of line, constructed under the auspices of
the Turkish Government, were open to traffic in Eastern
Roumelia — now, Bulgaria possesses some twelve hundred miles
of railways, besides nearly two hundred under construction.
I was fortunate in seeing the people dressed in holiday
attire, and was struck with the great diversity of costumes to be
seen. Here was a peasant in his skeep-skin coat, his baggy
trousers, and his gaiters of strips of cloth ; then comes a young
Sofian exquisite, who might have been imported direct from
Bond Street or Paris. During a service in the old cathedral I
saw the ladies in Parisian or Viennese costumes elbowed by
peasant women who had come in from the country all dressed in
their Sunday costumes — the yellow or white handkerchief on
the head, the short goat's hair coat, the white skirt, embroidered
with black, the heavy silver chains and clasps, the brilliantly-
coloured knitted stockings, showing some way above the ankle,
and then the pointed Balkan shoes, like a man's. Out of
curiosity I counted the plaits in which one girl's hair was
braided and hanging down her back, and found there were
twenty, and entwined into the plaits were a quantity of coins,
besides which she had a number of coins and medals stitched
r^ ^'' '-
Si i
1^^'
'^^H
-n^
C.H.B.
Fig. 9. Sofia. Entrance to the Palace Grounds.
c.n.Ji.
Fig. 10. Sofia. The New Cathedral.
The Balkans and Turkey 33
into the plastron on her breast. All were dark and swarthy,
and seemed to be exceedingly devout in the performance of
their religious duties, but I doubted whether any real religious
life penetrated below the surface.
Leaving Bulgaria and entering Servia, Nisch is the first
large town we stop at, — an important centre on the railway
system, as here is the junction for Uskub and Salonica, — and
once the capital of the country. It is defended by several forts
and a citadel, and is noted as having been the birthplace of
Constantine the Great.
Right across the country, a hundred and thirty miles away,
is Belgrade, the present capital, its Servian name signifying
" White Town." It is quite on the frontier line of the country,
being bounded by the Rivers Save and Danube, and, despite
the blue colour given to the Danube by a well-known song, I
found that here its waters are yellow, whilst those of the Save
are blue, and they flow along side by side for some distance
without mixing. The opposite shores of these rivers are
Hungarian. From the old Citadel, which is full of historical
associations, we had a splendid view of the city, and also the
confluence of the two rivers.
The city is being gradually transformed; it has some fine
streets of shops, a cathedral, a statue of Prince Michel — the
great emancipator of the Servian nation from the Turkish
domination, a rather mean Parliament House, called the
Skouptshina (a modern building being in course of erection), and
a royal Palace ; but the most interesting spot to me was the site
of the old Palace, where King Alexander and Queen Draga
were so barbarously butchered some half-dozen years ago, to
the eternal disgrace of the present King Peter and his party.
I made a pilgrimage to the spot where, a few hours after their
assassination, they were buried like dogs, and the only
memorial of them is a withered wreath, which I was told only
cost six francs when new ! Sic transit gloria mundi !
What the future may have in store for these valiant Balkan
States is difficult to predict, but certain it is that the tide has
turned, and they have now got the Turk under their heel.
Whether or not they are destined to be the means of driving
him out of Europe, they will now have the opportunity of
showing that they can govern the greater part of his territory
in Europe in a more righteous and humane manner than his.
34 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
That they will do so, my observations during my journey lead
me to believe is a certainty, although my reading of history
shows that neither side have been without faults in the past, and
even the present war, avowedly undertaken to uproot Turkish
oppression and misrule, has apparently degenerated into a war
of conquest.
The illustrations are from photographs talien hy the writer.
*# "m^^^^y%
/
11 ■
r. //. /;.
Fig. II. Belgrade. The King's Talace.
C.H.B.
Fig. 12. Belgrade. Statue of Prince Michel.
Highways and B3rways in the Balkans 35
HIGHWAYS AND BYWAYS IN THE BALKANS.
By Gilbert Waterhouse, F.E.G.S.,
English Lecturer in the University of Leipzig,
(Addressed to the Society in the Geographical Hall on
Tuesday, March 4th, 1913.)
I.
A JOURNEY to the Balkan States usually implies to the ordinary
traveller a monotonous ride in the Orient Express via Yienna
and Budapest to Belgrade and Sofia, with perhaps — if he be
more than usually enterprising — a return journey via Constantza
and Bucharest. This may be called entry in state by the front
door. The tourist who wishes to come into real contact with
the people — and, incidentally, obtain better value for his money
— will do well to try one of the numerous " backdoors " and
travel third class on the railway. This involves of course a
certain amount of discomfort, though much can be done with
an air-cushion and patience. Of course a knowledge of at least
two languages, German and Serbo-Croatian, is a sine qua non.
Servian and Croatian are two names for what is practically the
same thing, though the Servians, being members of the Greek
Orthodox Church, use the Cyrillic characters, whereas the
Croatians are Homan Catholics and use the ordinary Latin
type. German, or better Italian, will carry one right down
the Adriatic coast from Triest to Cattaro, the usual port of
entry for Montenegro and Albania. In Bosnia and Hercegovina
German is generally understood, except by the peasants, who
speak as a rule Croatian only. In Belgrade one can manage with
German and French, less easily with English. For the country
districts and provincial towns of Servia away from the main
line of railway a knowledge of the native tongue is indispens-
able. This is not a very terrible matter, as the present writer
learnt sufficient in two months, working two or three hours a
week, to carry him from Sarajevo to Belgrade.
I left Leipzig on July 31st, 1912, by the 1-20 a.m. in the
through carriage for Triest, and by seven had crossed the
Danube and was drinking a welcome cup of coffee in historic
Regensburg. At Landshut we left the Munich line, and the
country grew more and more interesting, until finally the
36 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
Highways and Byways in the Balkans 37
Tyrolese Alps came into view at Freilassing, whence a short
run took ns across the Austrian frontier to lovely Salzburg,
with its castled rock rising proudly from the plain and the
snow-clad peaks behind. Then the train entered the rugged
valley of the Bruck and climbed in painful spirals to Bad
Gastein. Higher still and higher we crawled, amidst scenery
of a grandeur that baffles description, until we reached the
summit of the Tauern. Then down we thundered along the
foaming Drave to Yillach. Beyond Yillach the line left
Carinthia and entered Carniola, passing through Yeldes, one of
the most romantic spots in Europe, but as yet quite unknown to
English tourists. The eye had just time to take in a lake, an
island in the lake, a chapel on the island, a castle, and the sun-
kissed Karawanken, before the train entered the side of the
mighty Triglav and left the scene behind. Up we crawled to
the Julian Alps, and down we flew into the vale of Isonzo.
Beyond the picturesque old town of Gorz, which stands on the
bluest of blue rivers, appeared the forbidding mass of the
Karst, a stony mountain range on which scarcely a blade of
grass will grow. For over an hour we pounded slowly uphill
through a land of stones and stunted bushes until we reached
Opchina, the last halt. From here there was a glorious view of
the Gulf of Triest, with the city lights twinkling brightly far
below.
Twenty minutes later I was picking my way along the dusty,
evil-smelling quay to the Piazza Grande. The Hotel Delorme,
where I had intended to spend the night, was deserted and
closed, so I installed myself at the Hotel Volpich close by.
Early next morning I boarded the Austrian Lloyd steamer
Baron Ganitsch at the Molo San Carlo. She is one of two large
turbine vessels that maintain the tri-weekly service between
Triest and Cattaro. They were both built in England. I
emphasize this fact because they were the only articles of
British manufacture that I did see throughout the whole of
my journey, with the single exception of the old suspension
bridge at Budapest. I am told that neither the Baron Gautsch
nor her sister ship, the Prinz Hohenlohe, gave complete satisfac-
tion to the Austrian Lloyd (presumably owing to faulty specifi-
cations), and both had to be partly rebuilt to adapt them to
the requirements of the service.
Apparently there was nothing wrong with the engines of the
Baron Gautsch, for we were soon moving at a good speed across
38 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
the Gulf of Triest and down the rocky coast of Istria. This
portion of the voyage is about the only place on the Austrian
side of the Adriatic where it can be really rough, for beyond
the island of Lussin the vessel enters the land-locked waters of
the Dalmatian Archipelago, which it never leaves, except for
an hour or so round the Punta Planka, until G!ravosa is
reached. The whole coast is barren, and, with a few intervals,
monotonous. It is said that in former days dense forests
extended right down to the sea, but the Venetians, who
established their rule from Triest to Montenegro, cut down all
the trees to build their houses and ships. Then the rain washed
the soil into the sea until only the bare rock was left and
nothing more could grow. In many places low stone walls have
been built across the hill-sides to hold back the soil and
attempts made to grow vines and olives. The phylloxera has
wrought havoc with the former, and I am told the imported
American vines do not thrive very well in the shallow soil. A
quantity of very tolerable red wine is produced, notwithstand-
ing.
Our first stop after leaving Triest, was Pola, th© first of the
wonderful natural harbours with which the Adriatic coast is so
richly endowed. The entrance is strongly fortified and the
inner harbour has two basins, one for commerce and the other
for warships. Across the entrance a stone mole, designed to
repel the attacks of submarines and about three-quarters of a
mile long, is in course of construction. There is a big naval
workshop, with an enormous cantilever crane, visible from the
sea, and three floating docks. Photography was out of the
question here. Indeed, I had been requested to leave my
camera in charge of the steward and was unable to make
use of it until I landed at Zara in the evening.
There was a large crowd on the quay to see us in, and
the arrival of our sister ship, the Hohenlohe, from the other
direction, added to the noise and bustle. The vivid colours
worn by the Italian women and a sprinkling of picturesque
Slavonic costumes made a pretty picture. The inhabitants of
the coast towns of Istria and Dalmatia, as far south as Zara
at least, are practically Italians, though their blood is probably
as mongrel as the dialect they speak. However, the near
future will see the substitution of Croatian for Italian as the
principal language of Dalmatia, owing to the encouragement of
the former and neglect of the latter language in the schools.
Highways and Byways in the Balkans 39
As the Baron Gautsch stopped for tliree-quarters of an hour
in Pola, I had time to go ashore for a meal, which I obtained in
a plain, barn-like restaurant about a hundred yards from the
quay. It was crude but satisfying, and cost less than a crown
and a half (1/3) including beer, about one-third the price of
the luncheon on board the steamer.
In addition to being the principal naval station of Austria-
Hungary, Pola has much to interest the antiquarian. It was
originally a Roman colony, founded a generation before our
era, and was honoured more than once with the residence of
different Roman emperors within its walls. The principal
remains are the great amphitheatre (198 — 211), the Temple
of Augustus (8a.d.), and the Triumphal Arch of the Sergii
(erected soon after the battle of Actium, 31 B.C.), all of which
are in an excellent state of preservation.
Leaving Pola we soon left the Cap Promontore, the most
southerly point of Istria, behind and entered the Quarnero, an
expanse of open sea which can become decidedly unpleasant
when the erratic Bora blows. Gradually the first islands came
into view, Unie, Cherso, and Lussin, and shortly after three
o'clock we were lying in the sheltered and commodious harbour
of Lussinpiccolo.
What surprised me in most of these harbours on the Adriatic
coast was the depth of water and the nearness of the landing-
stage to the centre of the town. Only in Spalato had I to walk
any distance to and from the steamer. Here in Lussinpiccolo
the Baron Gautsch lay moored on one side of the street, so that
from the deck I could see into the houses on the other side.
As in Pola, the arrival of the boat seemed to be the great event
of the day, and the town woke up from its afternoon nap to see
us in, and by the time we were berthed the quay was thronged
with elegant idlers, perspiring travellers, importunate hawkers,
and noisy luggage-porters.
Lussinpiccolo rises gently from the sea, and the slopes are
dotted with trim gardens of sub-tropical plants. I believe figs
and dates, agaves and eucalyptus, as well as oranges and lemons
flourish here, but had no time to go ashore and investigate. The
island is only about half a mile wide at this point, so the houses
on the crest of the hill have a sea-view on both sides. Thanks
to its sheltered situation and mild climate, Lussinpiccolo enjoys
great favour as a winter resort. Somewhat similar, but quieter,
is Lussingrande, about two miles away on the eastern side of
40 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
the island, which is ahout twenty miles long, but nowhere more
than three miles wide. The name Lussingrande is misleading,
as Lussinpiccolo is now four times as large.
Another run of about three hours between islands of no
particular importance, brought me to Zara, the capital of
Dalmatia. The only feature of interest in the landscape was
the Yelebit, a curious range of barren mountains on the
Croatian mainland. Running parallel with the coast for about
sixty miles it forms a spur of the Dinaric Alps and consists of a
series of rugged peaks, which resemble the teeth of a saw.
The average height is between ^ye and six thousand feet.
They become more distinct towards Zara, but beyond that point
recede again towards the Bosnian frontier.
Zara is picturesquely situated with the sea on three sides.
The Riva Nuova forms a pleasant promenade about half a mile
long, and has a stone pier for ships, most of which, however,
still seem to use the old harbour behind the town. As we
sailed up to the quay I noticed one of the hotels mentioned in
my guide-book, and determined to make my way to it. There
is really only one first-class hotel in Zara — the Bristol, on the
E-iva Nuova — but I had made up my mind to be economical
and *' rough it " if necessary, as by always putting up at the
best hotels one misses a good deal of the local colour. But I
had reckoned without the local odour. This is an offensive and
penetrating compound of hot air, kitchen smells, stale food,
putrefying street refuse and deplorable sanitation. I had met
it before in Prague, where a glass of water means cholera or
typhoid, and have since learned to regard it as peculiar to
Slavonic countries.
It took me some time to push my way through the crowd
of shrieking, gesticulating villains who wanted to relieve me of
my luggage. As I carried all my belongings on my shoulders
in two capacious rucksacks, I had no need to spend a penny on
luggage porters from start to finish of my two thousand mile
journey. Opposite the landing-stage is the Porta Marina, the
principal entrance to the city from this side. Thinking to take
a short cut I ascended some steps and found myself on the old
fortifications, now a pleasant promenade. After making a
considerable circuit I discovered the entrance to the Hotel de
Ville in a wretched alley dignified with the name of Via San
Demetrio. The proprietor and his satellites at once swooped
down on me and hustled me through the evil-smelling ground-
Highways and Byways in the Balkans 41
floor premises up a horribly dark and creaky staircase. How-
ever, I obtained a tolerably clean and bright room with a
pleasant outlook over the old harbour for 2K. 40, i.e. two
shillings.
The position of the peninsula of Zara with regard to the
mainland is precisely that of the right thumb with regard to
the rest of the hand. Between the thumb and forefinger lies
the old harbour, entered from the north, while the Riva Nuova
represents the nail-side of the thumb. The town was formerly
fortified, but the old wall has been entirely demolished along
the sea-front and turned into a promenade on the other three
sides. I found the walk round the north end very pleasant,
though short^ — in fact, one could walk right round the town in
about twenty minutes.
There are only three things to do in Zara. In the morning
it is interesting to visit the daily market held on the Piazza
deir Erbe, in the afternoon it pays to doze in the coolest possible
place, and in the evening everybody who is anybody strolls up
and down the Riva or sits at a dirty table in the only cafe and
watches the rest stroll up and down. While I was there an
orchestra of three performers was doing its worst.
The Riva Nuova is rather imposing, as it possesses the only
row of tolerably clean-looking buildings in the town. Behind
this screen is one of the most appalling collections of dark
entries and filthy hovels in Europe, though parts of Spalato run
it very close. Few of the streets are even four yards wide, the
majority, I should think, considerably less. I always had the
impression while in Zara that I had taken the wrong turning
and was somewhere on the back-premises, but should presently
reach the street. Many of the buildings are historically and
architecturally interesting. The old church of S. Donato
dates from the beginning of the ninth century, when Zara and
the adjacent country were under Byzantine rule. The founda-
tions are Roman, and likewise much of the material utilised in
the construction. Close by stands the Cathedral of S.
Anastasia, one of the most noteworthy ecclesiastical buildings of
Dalmatia. The campanile was coiapleted in 1893 from the
plans of Sir T. G. Jackson. Of the existing city gates the
finest is the Porta Terra Ferma on the land-side. It is the
work of Sanmichele, and the great lion of St. Mark over the
archway reminds us that Zara was once subject to Venice.
The language of the inhabitants is still Italian, and German
42 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
is not always understood. The country people speak Croatian.
It seems probable that Italian will eventually yield to tbe
combined attacks of German and Croatian and disappear from
the Dalmatian coast.
Zara being the capital, and therefore crammed with officers
and government clerks, aspires to be fashionable. I found it
intensely amusing to sit in the cafe on the Riva and watch
most elegantly apparelled ladies walk through the ruts and dust
of the quay with the utmost indifference. They seem to spend
most of the day somewhere indoors. I say somewhere, for the
houses that come up to a Western Eviropean standard of decency
would not total a score.
The principal attraction of Zara is decidedly the market,
held every morning on the Piazza delF Erbe. When I looked
out of my window about six a.m., I could see a stream of
peasants disembarking from the rude sailing vessels in which
they had come over from the neighbouring islands. A sleepy
gendarme examined their baskets and parcels before allowing
them to pass through the gate, so I presume a local duty is
levied on certain articles. The men wore as a rule handsome
waistcoats and curious little round, red caps, barely covering
the crown of the head. I never could understand why they
did not fall off at the slightest movement, unless the natural
grease of the hair kept them on. The accompanying photo-
graph gives a fairly good idea of the costumes worn by the
women, though the vivid colours must be left to the imagination
(see Fig. 1). Like the men they wear rough sheepskin sandals
and a kind of coarse woollen gaiter. The skirt is of dark
material, but a brightly coloured apron is often worn as well.
The bodice is usually a dazzling white with wide, embroidered
sleeves. The most beautiful part of the dress is the head-cloth
or scarf. These vary in quality, the better ones being richly
embroidered in colours. They are usually on sale in the
market or the adjoining streets, and the best can be had for
five or six crowns (4-5 shillings). Thinking I might do even
better further down the coast, I did not buy, and have regretted
it ever since. Two days later, in Spalato, I was asked thirty
crowns for a scarf which would have cost me five in the market
at Zara.
I left Zara about midday in the Danuhio, of the Consortium
Dalmatia line. She was neither so large nor so vspeedy as the
Baron Gautsch, but far more free and easy, the passengers
G.W.
Fig. 1. Market, Zara.
Q.W.
Fig. 2. Wall of Diocletian's Palace, Spalato.
Highways and Byways in the Balkans 43
numbering barely a score, and the absence of turbine-vibration
added greatly to the pleasure of the voyage. It was a lovely
day and the sea as calm as a pond. Indeed, it can scarcely be
anything else here owing to the innumerable islands which
protect the channel almost the whole way. The coast was
much the same as the part I have already described — barren
headlands, with here and there a few vines and olive-trees.
Further inland, I believe, the cherry is much cultivated for
the preparation of maraschino, also a kind of pyrethrum, the
blooms of which are employed in the manufacture of insect
powder.
About four o'clock I noticed a castle on a hill apparently
about a mile inland. I had no idea it was the port of Sebenico,
but presently a little gap in the coast-line appeared, the ship
turned almost at right-angles and entered the narrow but deep
channel which leads between strongly fortified cliffs into the
wonderful land-locked harbour. After Pola and Cattaro,
Sebenico is the most important naval station on this coast, so
the camera had to repose unused at the bottom of a rucksack
for a while. This was a pity, for there are few places so
picturesque in all Dalmatia. I went ashore for a few minutes
and visited the Cathedral, which was begun about the middle
of the fifteenth century and occupied nearly a hundred years
in construction.
As most of the officers and crew went ashore to stretch their
legs, the aborigines were able to wander on and off the ship as
they liked, and we were so pestered with the attentions of filthy
children whining for kreutzers that I was well pleased when we
again got under way. Shortly before nine in the evening the
lights of Spalato appeared, and within half an hour I had
established myself beneath the roof of the Hotel Troccoli.
Although Zara is the official capital of Dalmatia, Spalato is
the largest town, having a population of 31,000, of whom over
3,000 reside in the Stari Grad or Old Town. This portion of
the city is quite the most interesting feature of Dalmatia, for it
is contained within the four walls of the Emperor Diocletian's
palace, which was commenced about 290 and completed about
305 A.D. It presents indeed a vastly different appearance from
what it did in Roman days. The four outer walls, though still
preserved almost in their entirety, are disfigured by thousands
of windows, added by the inhabitants in the course of centuries
(see Fig. 2). Huts and hovels of all kinds have been built in
44 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
all situations, in front of the walls, outside them, and even on
the top. The interior is honeycombed with narrow alleys,
many of them barely five or six feet wide. Even the principal
square, the Piazza del Duomo, is only about twenty yards by
ten. This space is really the old peristyle of the palace, and
much of the original architecture is preserved. The Cathedral
of St. Doimo, dating from the fifteenth century, stands on the
site of the mausoleum of Diocletian, which is now preserved
in the local Archaeological Museum . Three of the four gates of
the palace. Porta Aurea, Porta Argentea, and Porta Ferrea,
still remain, although the original thresholds are several feet
below the present surface of the ground.
About four miles away to the north-east is the site of the
Roman colony of Salona. Tor many years it was one of the
most important ports on the Adriatic, but with the decline of
Roman power, it suffered repeatedly from the attacks of the
Goths and Huns, and was finally sacked and almost entirely
destroyed by the Avars in 639. The inhabitants fled to the
Dalmatian islands, but returned to the mainland to found a
new city within the walls of Diocletian's palace. The site of
Salona was not completely deserted until the twelfth century.
Excavations were systematically undertaken in 1818, and,
though the work is still in progress, practically the whole of
the city has been laid bare.
The new town of Spalato is clustered round the stari grad,
and, with the exception of a few quite modern buildings, the
general character and atmosphere are the same. The streets
are generally narrow and filthy, the houses low and evil-
smelling. The lowness of the buildings and the narrowness of
the streets are to a certain extent unavoidable owing to the
violence of the " bora," a peculiar land-wind to which the
whole Dalmatian coast is exposed. So furiously does it blow
at times that not only men and animals but also houses are
swept into the sea. In certain towns it is the custom to stretch
ropes across the streets, to which unfortunate wayfarers may
cling, and so avoid being swept off their feet.
The part of Spalato through which I passed on my way to
the summit of the Monte Mar j an was typical of Dalmatian
towns. It consisted of one steep narrow street, rising in broad,
shallow steps between two rows of low, whitewashed hovels,
from which the foulest odours emanated. The hard cobbles
were strewn with garbage, and whenever I put my foot down a
Highways and Byways in the Balkans 45
cloud of bloated flies rose noisily into tlie air. Hideous liags
and filthy children were squatting on the steps and in the door-
ways, and as evening fell a procession of men and pack-animals
returning from market filled the place with strident cries. I
noticed one tiny donkey heavily laden with two large packs
and carrying a man and boy as well.
The view from the summit of the Monte Mar j an amply
repaid me for the hot climb. The mountain takes the form of
a promontory almost entirely surrounded by water, the wide
bay of Spalato with its busy harbour lying to the south, and
the Salona inlet extending to the north-east. A brand-new
road has been cut to the summit through a growing forest of
young pines, so that within a very few years the Monte Mar j an
will provide the traveller with a pleasant retreat from the heat
and stench of the town.
As I had planned to leave Spalato by the Austrian Lloyd
midnight boat, in order to travel as far as Gravosa with an old
college friend who was taking his annual trip to Albania, I
spent the evening at a dirty cafe near the quay. It boasted an
orchestra of one player, his instrument being a harp, to the
accompaniment of which he sang a number of Italian ditties.
The audience consisted for the most part of dirty but not in-
appreciative Dalmatian labourers, and the general effect, with
the gentle ripple of the water close by and the city lights across
the bay, was not unpleasant.
Shortly before midnight the Prinz Hohenlohe came along-
side, and I was glad to see a familiar face again. We ignored
the conventions, spread our belongings over a quiet corner of the
deck, compared notes, and dozed as well as we could until some
cold water was swilled on to us in the early morning from the
deck above. During the night we had called at Lesina, and
about seven we made fast in the spacious harbour of Gravosa,
the starting-point of the railway to Hercegovina and Bosnia.
Here I disembarked, leaving my friend to continue his journey
to Cattaro, and found modest but decent quarters in the Hotel
Austria.
Gravosa itself is little more than a timber-yard, but it is the
port for Ragusa, which lies about a mile and a half away,
beyond the Lapad peninsula.
In former days Ragusa was a port of considerable note, but
nowadays cannot be approached by large vessels. A republic
was established here in 663 by Byzantine refugees from
46 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
Epidaurus, whicli had been destroyed by the Avars in 656.
It remained under Byzantine protection until 1204, and then
acknowledg-ed the sway of Yenice until 1356, and subsequently
of Hungary until 1453. Its golden age lay in the short period
from 1427 — 1437. In 1453 Ragusa was again threatened by
Yenice and sought the protection of the Osmanli Turks, paying
a tribute which rapidly rose from 1,500 to 12,500 ducats.
In 1684 the authority of Hungary was again asserted, and the
little republic remained under the protection of that kingdom
for over 100 years. In 1796 the French levied a tax of one
million lire and definitely occupied the place in 1806. Two
years later Ragusa ceased to be a free republic, and in 1809 was
incorporated with the kingdom of lUyria, all of which passed to
Austria in 1814.
At the present day Ragusa is a sleepy town of 14,000
inhabitants, mostly Slavonic, Italian being very little spoken.
Its Slavonic name is Dubrovnik. The climate is mild in winter
and the vegetation sub-tropical, agaves and cactus growing
luxuriantly in the open air.
During my stay the heat was so terrific that sight-seeing
offered no attraction. The inhabitants were huddled together
motionless wherever there was shade to be found. The sea was
as smooth as glass and the air so still that the flags on the city
walls hung without a quiver for half an hour at a stretch. As
night fell, however, it grew cooler, and I walked down the
Stradone, the finest street in Dalmatia, and through the Porta
Ploce, along the road which leads to Ragusa Yecchia and
Castelnuovo.
Facing the harbour of Ragusa lies the beautiful island
of Lacroma, on which King Richard Coeur-de-Lion is said to
have been wrecked when returning from Palestine. A storm
rising and the ship being in great danger, the king made a vow
to erect a church wherever he might safely land . The ship was
driven ashore on the island of Lacroma, and Richard would
have built a church on the spot had not the Raguseans
persuaded him to build them a cathedral instead. This he did,
but the building perished in the great earthquake of 1667,
which laid most of the town in ruins. This disaster also
accounts for the uniform architectural style of the Stradone,
all the houses — formerly the residences of the local nobility —
having been erected soon after.
It is a pleasant walk from Ragusa to Gravosa in the cool of
Highways and Byways in the Balkans 47
the evening. For some distance pleasant villas, with gardens
gay with all kinds of delicate plants and shrubs, line both sides
of the road; but from the top of the hill there is a fine, un-
obstructed view over the whole Adriatic. When I reached
Gravosa, it was quite dark, so after a good supper in the Petka
Restaurant, which must have improved out of all recognition
since Mr. de Windt described it, I returned to my own modest
inn, ready for a good night's rest. Early next morning I left
by train for Mostar.
The line from Gravosa into the interior proceeds first along
the picturesque valley of the Ombla, a curious river which
emerges as a broad stream from beneath a wall of rock, only
two or three miles from the coast. The train mounts slowly
but persistently, doubles on its own tracks and penetrates the
most mysterious tunnels, in which it performs queer evolutions,
often changing direction completely. Besides offering magnifi-
cent panoramic views of the Hercegovinian highlands and the
Adriatic, the line is interesting for technical reasons, for
in the space of a very few miles it climbs about 2,000 feet. At
last the gradient grows less severe, the train gathers speed, the
sea disappears from view, and nothing is to be seen except the
vstony tableland of Hercegovina extending on every side.
As far as the eye can see there is nothing but rocks and
stones, with dwarf trees struggling to obtain a scanty nourish-
ment in the crevices. Occasionally one sees in some hollow a
little pocket of soil, only a few square yards in area, but
carefully cultivated. And all day long the sun beats down, hot
and blinding, upon the white stones. Such is the general
aspect of southern Hercegovina.
Not that the country is entirely without fertile portions.
Beyond Hum the line enters the Pqpovopolje (Priest's field), a
truly wonderful valley, drained — and watered — by the curious
river Trebinjchitza, which rises nearTrebinje on the Montenegrin
frontier, fiows through the Popovopolje and disappears into the
earth near the village of Hutovo. Whether the waters pass by
some subterranean way to the swamps of Gabela or return to
form the mysterious Ombla is uncertain. The great feature of
the Popovopolje is the fact that in the winter it is a lake twenty
miles long, one-half to two miles wide, and 50 to 120 feet deep.
As spring advances the water subsides, disappearing into holes
called ponori, until only the river Trebinjchitza is left, and this
too disappears in the hot season. At the end of autumn the
48 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
water rises again, and the whole valley is submerged. After
each inundation the land is of course sufficiently enriched ; it
never requires manure. The climate is mild both in summer
and winter, and is favourable to the cultivation of vines, olives,
apples, plums, figs, cherries, quinces, tobacco, and various
kinds of grain, principally maize. The surrounding mountains
are bare and stony, with scarcely a trace of vegetation. On
their lower slopes, just above the winter level of the lake, are
scattered about twenty villages, with some 5,000 inhabitants in
all. The population is almost entirely Orthodox Christian and
has a reputation for skill in masonry.
Curiously enough, the lake, in spite of its periodical
disappearance, contains fish, though of one kind only, called
gaovice. They are about the size of an anchovy and are said
to have a good flavour. When the water subsides they dis-
appear into the 'ponori, or ground-holes, and remain there
during the summer.
ThePopovopolje is rich in antiquities of various kinds, graves
tumuli, castle ruins, etc. I heard also of a cave at Yjetrinitza,
which contains rock-carvings.
The valley ends at Hutovo, beyond which place the train
enters a bare mountain pass and descends rapidly to the valley
of the Narenta, which it crosses at Gabela, the junction for
the port of Metkovitj. From time immemorial the Narenta
estuary has afforded the easiest access from the coast to the
interior, and near Gabela can be seen the remains of the old
Venetian fortress which protected this trade route. The district
is low-lying and unhealthy. Rice is cultivated and malaria is
common.
Henceforward the scene became more lively. The natives
exhibited a greater variety of dress, owing to the presence of a
strong Mohammedan element. Fez and turban began to
mingle with the round, embroidered caps of the Orthodox
Christians. At each station appeared a Turk, selling water or
syrup, with his huge, fantastic pitcher and limited supply of
drinking-vessels. On such occasions Western European notions
of decency are apt to become irksome to the thirsty traveller.
It was between Gabela and Mostar that I first saw the
costume of the Hercegovinian Mohammedan women. It
resembles nothing so much as a military overcoat, with the
collar turned up and so adjusted that it covers the head and
projects forward horizontally over the face. The sleeves, not
Highways and Byways in the Balkans 49
being utilised, are stitched up and hang limply, the person of
the wearer being entirely concealed in the body of the coat.
Proceeding up stream from Gabela, the train passes an old
Roman camp, and then the picturesque town of Pochitelj,
formerly a nest of bandits. It is spread like an amphitheatre
over a steep hillside and is remarkable for its mosque and castle.
Mostar did not belie its reputation for being one of the
hottest places in Europe, for when I arrived about noon the
heat was terrific and I was glad to take refuge in the cool
chambers of the Hotel Narenta. Here all visitors to Mostar
must stay, or run the risk of being eaten up by papadaci and
kindred insects in the common hans. The place certainly
deserves the excellent reputation it enjoys. On one side flow
the clear, blue waters of the Narenta, on the other lies a shady,
well-kept garden.
The capital of Hercegovina is surrounded by bare and
rugged mountains, on whose lower slopes are a few
struggling vineyards, which produce a surprisingly good red
wine. The climate is tropical, 90° in the shade being an every-
day occurrence in the summer, so that walking about is a
torture. The nights too are hot, though often enlivened by
the attentions of papadaci, busy little creatures of the mosquito
type. Vegetation is scanty, except in the immediate neighbour-
hood of the river, where pomegranates, mulberries and figs
fiourish .
The population is largely Mohammedan, though the Greek
Orthodox and Eoman Catholic communities are considerable.
There are about thirty mosques, with graceful minarets, from
which at sunset the mujezins sonorously proclaim the aksham
or evening prayer.
The Greek orthodox Christians of Hercegovina make an
excellent impression, being generally tall, fine, independent
fellows. I am told they differ considerably in character from
the Bosniaks.
The Roman Catholic community in Mostar has had a
precarious existence. Until 1850 the Vicar of Hercegovina was
not allowed to walk the streets, except at night or in disguise,
and the local Turks opposed the erection of a church or
ecclesiastical building of any kind. In 1847 Raphael Barishitj,
being Vicar, obtained a jirman from the Sultan sanctioning the
erection of a bishop's house. The local Mohammedans would
have killed him in spite of this permission, had not the Vizier
50 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
All Pascha supported him. Even then the workmen had to
construct the house with weapons by their side. But these
exciting days have passed, and the Turks of Mostar have been
tamed.
Before the annexation by Austria of Bosnia and Herce-
govina, little hindrance was offered to the photographer in
Mostar, but since that date the regulations have been made
more stringent. Foreign visitors are no longer allowed to make
use of a camera at all without the express permission of the
Corps Commander. That would not be so bad perhaps, if he
were accessible, but I was politely informed that the gentleman
in question was stationed at Ragusa, the place I had left five
hours before. Those who wish to take photographs in Mostar
must therefore enter the country by way of Ragusa and inter-
view the Corps Commander there.
The chief feature of the town is the bridge, which some have
supposed gave it its name (7nost = hTid.ge; star = old), a con-
jecture not accepted by the best authorities. It was built in
1566, in the reign of Suleyman II, by a local architect, and
has a height of 95 feet and a width of 75 feet. At each end
stand guard-towers, which formerly served as powder-magazines
and prisons. With its construction the Orthodox Christians
connect a legend, according to which two young lovers were
walled up alive in the masonry to propitiate the vila, or river
fairy. On each side of the bridge extends the bazaar, which,
though inferior to that at Sarajevo, is not without interest.
The streets of Mostar are fairly clean, the hard stone with
which they are paved giving off little dust. In the mornings
they are thronged with caravans from the surrounding country,
led by dirty ugly women. Water is too precious to be used for
any purpose except drinking.
North of Mostar the valley of the river Narenta becomes
more fertile, especially round Tablanit^a. Cherries, plums,
chestnuts, walnuts, and wild pears grow in profusion, and fine
forests clothe the mountain sides. The Prenj range rises close
at hand, culminating in the Lupoglav, a distinctly striking
peak of about 6,500 feet.
The railway between Mostar and Sarajevo is again a fine
piece of engineering, one section of nine miles being worked,
owing to the steepness of the gradient, on the rack-system. At
Ivan, f3,000 feet above sea-level, it crosses the watershed
between the basins of the Adriatic and the Black Sea,
Highways and Byways in the Balkans 51
The most interesting spot between Mostar and Sarajevo is
the little Hercegovinian town of Konjitza, on the Narenta.
The river is crossed by a fine bridge, built by Yizier Achmed
Sokolovitj in 1715, though the local Christians wrongly ascribe
it to the Bosnian king Hvalimir, who lived at the end of the
seventh century.
Konjitza, now a quiet little town of about 2,000 inhabitants,
was formerly a centre of the most violent fanaticism. In the
Middle Ages it was an important frontier station between
Bosnia and Hercegovina, and became associated with the
curious sect of the Bogumils, who appeared in the twelfth
century as an heretical offshoot from the Greek Church. They
were probably of Bulgarian origin and the name is generally
taken to mean " God, have mercy." The principal feature of
their creed was the position they gave Satan, regarding him as
the first-born son of God, who rebelled and founded the race of
man. In 1446 they were persecuted by the Bosnian Diet and
allowed neither to build new churches nor to repair old ones.
Over forty thousand emigrated to the neighbouring Principality
of Hercegovina and many settled at Konjitza. But when the
Turks overran the country, Mohammedan fanaticism took the
place of Christian intolerance, and the Bogumils were driven
into hiding, emerging only to turn Mohammedan. A few
families kept their faith for centuries, and the last, the Helezh
family, is said to have done so almost until the Austrian occupa-
tion in 1878.
Beyond Konjitza the line leaves the Narenta and enters the
valley of the Treschinitza. Here the gradient is sometimes as
much as 1 in 2, and of course the rack-system has to be used.
Towards the summit at Ivan, where a German colony from
South Tyrol is settled, the air grows cooler, and emerging from
a long tunnel we find ourselves in the more temperate climate
of Bosnia. After a short run through fertile and well-watered
country the train enters Sarajevo, the capital.
It was quite dark when I arrived, and as the few inns near
the station were full to overflowing, I had to tramp to the town,
about a mile away, before I could find quarters. The next
morning, I was kindly received by our Consul, Mr. Freeman,
and Mrs. Freeman, and was able to inquire about the remoter
parts of Bosnia through which I proposed to pass. As the
Consular Secretary, Mr. MacFarran, was familiar with a
portion of my intended route, he was able to give met much
52 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
valuable information. The district beyond tbe Drina, in tbe
neighbourhood of Yishegrad, was apparently little visited, and
the Servian frontier village of Mokra Gora had acquired an
evil reputation — which, as far as my own journey was con-
cerned, I found to be quite undeserved. Mr. MacFarran
thought that only two English travellers had ever crossed the
Serbo-Bosnian frontier at this point before.
The population of Sarajevo is about 52,000, of whom almost
20,000 are Mohammedans. The Greek Orthodox Christians
form the next largest section of the community, then come the
Roman Catholics and the Jews, in about equal numbers. These
latter are of a peculiar race and are called Spanioles. They
were expelled from Spain in 1571, and settled by the Turks in
Bosnia, where they have prospered exceedingly. Their
language is a mongrel form of Spanish.
Sarajevo offers many interesting features of Oriental life.
On Easter Monday, for example, a marriage market is held in
the yard of the Greek Orthodox Church, and every Thursday
the dance of the Howling Dervishes may be witnessed at Sinan
Tekija. My time, unfortunately, was too short to allow me to
see this.
The centre of interest is the Charshija or Turkish Bazaar,
which consists of about sixty lanes of crazy shops, and presents
a fascinating picture with its variety of wares and costumes.
The merchants are nearly all Turks, the Spanioles having
removed to the more modern streets. Business is carried on,
with short intervals for prayer and ablution, from early morning
until sunset, when the mujezin proclaims the aksham or evening
prayer from the minaret. Then every good Mohammedan shuts
up his shop and goes home to his family in the suburbs. There
is no hurry here, but a good deal of noise on market-days when
the alleys are thronged with a picturesque crowd, and the
cobbles covered with mountains of melons, gherkins, paprika,
onions, and the like. On the butchers' stalls, strips of meat,
chiefly mutton, are exposed to the delicate attentions of swarms
of flies, and are examined, fingered, and rejected again and
again before the customer makes a purchase. Beggars sit
whining at every corner, but the pariah dogs that used to keep
them company have been exterminated.
The merchant sits cross-legged on a strip of carpet, and
philosophically drinks his thimbleful of coffee or rolls a
cigarette. In the winter he warms his hands at a little fire
Highways and Byways in the Balkans 53
burning in a metal brazier. There is no hurry and purchases
are never effected without a lengthy argument, which usually
ends in the vendor's receiving, without the slightest sign of
disappointment, two-thirds or one-half of the original price.
Cheap European goods are now sold in large quantities in
the bazaar, but genuine Oriental work is neither dear nor rare.
Beautiful embroidery, beaten copper, knives, swords and inlaid
work can be obtained on all sides. With reference to native
industries it must be mentioned that the Austrian Government
has done much for their encouragement. A Persian carpet-
designer, for example, was engaged to instruct native work-
people in the art of carpet-weaving.
In the Charshij a stands theBegovaDzhamija, a mosque famous
throughout Islam, built by Ghazi Husrev Beg, 1526-30. It is
the largest of vSarajevo's hundred mosques. In the court-yard
stands an ancient lime-tree, beneath which is the fountain
where the devotional ablutions are performed. Europeans are
allowed to enter the building, and I should have availed myself
of the privilege but for the presence of numerous filthy beggars,
in various stages of disease and affliction. To crown all a
corpse was stretched beneath the portico.
There are about fifty Turkish cemeteries in Sarajevo, but
as they are never attended to, their appearance, though
picturesque, is dilapidated. The headstones, which have
assumed almost every position except the perpendicular, vary
in form according to the rank of the deceased. A low turban
carved on the headstone denotes a merchant, a pointed one a
Dervish, an egg-shaped one a janissary. A sort of stone canopy
resting on columns is often erected over unusually important
people. The grave-stones of women are all alike, except that a
pointed one denotes a wife or mother.
As I again had difficulties with the military authorities
about photography, I stayed only two days in Sarajevo, leaving
at 8a.m. by the new Eastern Ilailway. The line encircles the
south-east of the town, near the cemetery of the Spanish Jews,
and passes through the suburb of Bistrik, whence a fine view of
the city is obtained. Then it enters a tunnel and emerges in
the land which the Bosniaks vaguely describe as " behind God's
back."
Like the main line from Gravosa, the Eastern Railway is a
splendid feat of engineering. Its object is, I believe, mainly
military, for it leads to Vardishte and Uvatz, two tiny stations
54 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
situated respectively on the fioutiers of Servia and the Sanjak
of Novibazar. The total length of the lino is about 105 miles, and
there are 99 tunnels which together have a length of 8 miles.
There are 30 long bridges and TOO smaller viaducts. During
construction over 2^ millions cubic yards of earth were removed
and 4J million cubic yards of rock, and IJ million cubic yards
of masonry were laid down.
The line crosses the Bosna-Drina watershed at Pale and
enters the vallew of the Pracha, following the old trade route to
the East. The little village of Pracha was formerly an important
settlement of Ragusean merchants. In the fourteenth century
it was the seat of a bishop and one of the principal markets of
Eastern Europe. The population at one time is said to have
been 60,000. It was a very busy place during the operation of
Napoleon's Berlin Decrees, because the fear of confiscation by
sea forced European merchants to import goods from Asia
overland, and the principal trade route from Saloniki passed
through Pracha . About one hundred years ago the plague swept
away the entire population with the exception of two, Fatma
Barushitjka, who lived to be over 100, and Mustafa Fazlitj, who
died at the age of 104. The latter remembered having seen
more than a hundred fine shops, where only a few miserable
daub and wattle huts now stand.
The railway certainly has opened up a new expanse of
splendid scenery in these valleys of eastern Bosnia. The forests
and ravines, through which the river Pracha has torn its way,
were formerly the haunt of Haiduks, and are still inhabited by
bears, especially in the neighbourhood of Megjegje, which name
means approximately "bears' ford."
This part of my journey was performed entirely in the
company of natives, and their costumes and manners afforded
me the liveliest entertainment. A little incident at a wayside
station brought me into contact with the Bosnian gypsies, who
number several thousand. They are not such great beggars as
in other European countries and enjoy, on the whole, a slightly
higher standing. They are counted as Mohammedans, but are
not allowed to enter the mosques. They live a nomadic life,
the men taking service as agricultural labourers or drivers
of horses, the women telling fortunes and selling medicinal
herbs.
The Pracha Hows into the Drina, which is the largest river in
Highways and Byways in the Balkans 55
Bosnia, aud for many miles forms the boundary between that
country and Servia. It rises about four hours south of Focha,
and flows for the most part through a narrow ravine, which can
only be crossed at a very few places. The lower reaches are
navigable for large vessels as far as Zvornik for most of the
year, but the upper waters are broken and available for rafts
only.
The only ford for many miles round is at Megjegje, where
the line divides, one branch proceeding via Yishegrad to
Yardishte, the other terminating at Uvatz on the frontier of
Novibazar. Megjegje is said to have a wonderful climate,
knowing neither wind nor snow nor prolonged dull weather.
The line to Uvatz follows the Lim Yalley and provides the
easiest route to Priboj, Priepolje, Plevlje, Sjenitza and Novi-
bazar, all in the Sanjak. Yishegrad, on the other branch, is
imposingly situated on the Drina. In early times it was merely
a ford, commanded by a citadel, but it grew rapidly in import-
ance under Turkish rule. The bridge was built in 1571 at the
command of Mehmed Pasha vSokolovitj, who afterwards became
Grand Yizier, by Macedonian masons from Kiiprili. It is
nearly 200 yards long and has 11 arches, and in the middle are
two long inscriptions in Turkish. Many legends are connected
with its construction. Bags of gold are said to have been
thrown into the Drina to propitiate the river fairy, and the
Orthodox Christians tell the usual story of the walling up of
two Christian girls as a sacrifice for the same purpose.
Yishegrad was the first important Mohammedan city on
Bosnian soil, and the strength of the bridge gave rise to the
proverb ostade kao cup^^ija 7ta Visegradu, (It stands like the
bridge at Yishegrad.) It is now a town of about 1,600 inhabi-
tants with a fair trade in cattle, plums, and slivovitz (plum
brandy) .
Beyond Yishegrad the line enters the valley of the Rzav,
which is romantic but sparsely populated. Except for an occa-
sional wayside han there are few houses to be seen. The only
village of importance is Dobrun, inhabited principally by
Orthodox Christians, though there are about 250 Mohammedans
in the neighbourhood. Everything looks dilapidated, though
most of the buildings have been erected since 1878, the whole
district having been laid waste during J;lie Servian insurrections
against Turkish rule. Its history scarcely goes back beyond
Karagjorgje, who fought with varying success against the Turks
56 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
about 1804 and became one of the national heroes of the
Servians and the founder of the reigning dynasty. Politically,
this region beyond the Drina belongs to Bosnia, but in sentiment
to Servia. The natives are called Osnostranci, i.e. "those
dwelling beyond (the Drina)," by the Bosniaks, with whom they
do not get on particularly well, being more akin to the Herce-
govinians and Servians . They look towards Uzhitze in Servia as
their capital, not towards Bosnia.
At Dobrun the curious custom of marriage by capture is
still extant. On August 15th the Zbor, or Assembly, is held
in the yard of the Orthodox Church amidst a scene of festivity
and merry-making. The girls appear in their best dresses, and
the young men ride up on horseback; each seizes the lady of
his choice and gallops away, pursued by her male relatives. It
often happens that the Bosniaks from across the river, who have
the finer horses, take the prettiest girls, a circumstance which
by no means improves their relations with the Osnostranci.
After a few days the husband compounds with the parents for
the lady by sending a couple of oxen.
I was not so fortunate as to witness this ceremony myself,
but I did fall in with a wedding party at Dobrun, who a:fforded
me considerable amusement. They travelled with me to
Vardishte, and the last I saw of them was when they left that
station. The bridegroom strutted along in front with the
bride's trousseau slung over his shoulder in a yellow handker-
chief tied to a stick. Then came the bride with an elderly
woman, both weeping, and finally a bodyguard of six of the
bridegroom's friends, presumably to prevent the bride from
running away. In these parts a wedding is the only gleam of
romance in a life of incessant toil.
[To be continued.)
Annual Meeting 57
TWENTY-EIGHTH ANNUAL MEETING OF THE
SOCIETY, 1913.
The 28th Annual Meeting of the Society was held, by kind
permission, in the Lord Mayor's Parlour, Town Hall, Man-
chester, on Tuesday, May 6th, 1913, at 3-30 p.m.
The Right Hon. the Lord Mayor (Mr. S. W. Royse) presided.
The following members and friends attended : — Miss
Qualtrough, Mrs. H. Sowerbutts and Mrs. Tatham, Messrs.
Balmforth, G. I. Blake, C. A. Clarke, J. W. Goodwin, J. W.
O'Leary, F. S. Oppenheim, M.A., J. A. Osborn, Alfred Ree,
Ph.D., J. Stephenson Reid, Harry Sowerbutts, A.R.C.Sc,
George Thomas, J. P., W. J. Tyne, Joel Wainwright, J. P.,
Thos. Wilcock, S. W. Williams, W. H. Zimmern and others.
Apologies were read from Messrs. Harry Nuttall, M.P.,
F.R.G.S., F. Zimmern, F.R.G.S., D. A. Little, and J. Howard
Reed, F.R.G.S., the Rt. Rev. Bishop Welldon, D.D., Professor
W. Boyd Hawkins, F.R.S., J.P., and Mr J. G. Groves, D.L.,
J.P.
The Lord Mayor read the letter which he had received from
the Chairman of the Council. Mr. Zimmern said — " that it had
been his privilege and pleasure to attend these meetings for
25 years and more. The welfare and useful influence of the
Society were a real concern to him, and he should be happy to
devote thereto such services as lay in his power."
The Minutes of the Twenty-seventh Annual Meeting, held
on May 9th, 1912, were taken as read, a full report appearing in
the Journal, Yol. XXYIII, page 37.
The following Annual Report and Balance Sheet were sub-
mitted by the Secretary, who made explanatory references to
the principal matters dealt with in the Report.
REPORT OF THE COUNCIL
For the Year ending December 31st, 1912.
The Council have the pleasure to report that the work of the
Society has been actively maintained during the year.
The weekly meetings held during the winter months have
58 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
been well attended, and tlie Council desire to express their
thanks to all those who have given valuable help.
The important and comprehensive character of the lectures
delivered will be seen from the following list : —
•* Portsmouth and the British Association." Mr. J. Howard
Reed, F.R.G.S.
*' From the Dogger to the Dowsing." Mr. E. Hare Wakefield.
" The Canyon of the Tarn." Mr. A. H. Garstang, F.R.S.L.
" Italy." Mr. M. Seifert.
" Some Thoughts upon Iceland." Rt. Rev. Bishop Welldon,
D.D.
" Persia." Mr. W. Leonard Flinn.
" China, Past and Present." Mr. R. Kalisch, F.R.G.S.
" The Tragedy of Philae." Mr. F. F. Ogilvie.
" Ancient Egypt." Mr. J. Stephenson Reid.
•* The White Nile." Mr. E. W. Mellor, J.P., F.R.G.S.
" On vSafari in East Africa." Mr. H. K. Eustace, F.R.G.S.
" East Africa." Mr. T. A. Edwards, F.R.G.S.
" South Africa revisited." Mr. T. A. Edwards, F.R.G.S.
" Life among the Hottentots and Bushmen." Rev. Austin S.
Rogers.
" Atlantic to Pacific, across the Canadian Rockies." Mr. C. H.
Bellamy, F.R.G.S.
" My Life among the Indians." Mr. W. McClintock, M.A.
" British Guiana." Rev. W. L. Broadbent.
" A Visit to the Highlands of Brazil." Mr. J. Cardwell Quinn.
" The Mafulu Mountain People of British New Guinea." Mr.
R. W. Williamson.
" Among the Pigmies in Dutch New Guinea." Dr. Eric Marshall.
" My Visit to New Zealand." Dr. Tempest Anderson, F.G.S.
** To the Tonga Islands in pursuit of a Shadow. Rev. A. L.
Cortie, S.J., F.R.A.S.
*' How we reached the South Pole." Capt. R. Amundsen,
F.R.G.S.
" Pathways of the Past." Miss Kate Qualtrough.
" Farthest West." Mrs. S. Simon.
" A Journey round the World." Mr. J. Stephenson Reid.
These addresses, with the exception of five, were delivered
in our own Hall; three being given in the Ilouldsworth Hall,
one in the Free Trade Hall, and the other at the University.
The lecture given in the Free Trade Hall on November 29th
by Captain Eoald Amundsen proved financially successful, and
the Council are pleased that this eminent explorer had such a
magnificent reception when he described his journey to the
South Pole.
Annual Meeting 59
The lectures by Mr. F. F. Ogilvie and Mr. E. W. Mellor,
J. P., F.R.G.S., in the Houldsworth Hall, were well attended and
the large audiences fully appreciated the able addresses delivered
and the fine lantern illustrations (including many photographs
in colour) and cinematograph views shown.
The Council thank the Yice-Chairman for the use of his
powerful electric lantern for the three lectures in the Houlds-
worth Hall, and for the Free Trade Hall Lecture, also for
engaging the Houldsworth Hall for the three lectures given
therein. His generosity and skill are highly appreciated.
The Society maintains its good relations with the Manchester
University, and the lecture by Mr. W. McClintock, M.A.,
proved a great success.
The Council desire to record the indebtedness which the
Society owed to the late Mr. N. Kolp, who for some years
defrayed the expense of the special prize awarded on the result
of the Examination in Geography at the Manchester University.
The Council thank the Rev. J. H. and Mrs. Harris for the
loan of about 500 photographs taken by them in West Central
Africa. These photographs were well displayed in the Society's
Hall, and the Exhibition, which was open for two days in
December, was well attended.
The Journal for the whole of 1911 has been issued during the
year.
Valuable additions to the Library and Map Collection have
been made during the year, full particulars of which will appear
in the Journal. The following presentations are worthy of
special mention, and the thanks of the Society are due
to Mr. W. Booth Leech for his collection of West African books
and a large number of lantern slides, to Mr. W. H. Ward for
his books on Arctic Exploration, to the Secretary of State for
India for the Gazetteers of the States, Districts, etc., of India
and Burma, and to the Director of Military Operations for
copies of the Maps issued by the War Office, all of which the
members are invited to examine and study.
The Council cordially acknowledge the gift from Messrs.
Lafayette, Ltd., of the large Portrait Group of the Members
prepared in celebration of the Twenty-first Anniversary.
The services so freely given by the Yictorians in lecturing,
and in acting as Stewards at the Free Trade Hall and other
meetings are highly appreciated.
6o Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
The Council deplore the exceptionally heavy loss by death
of members during the year, as follows : —
Mr. Kudolph Bornmiiller. ^
Mr. J. C. Blake, F.E.G.S.
Mr. John Cocks, J. P.
Mr. G. T. Cook.
Mr. George Galloway, J. P.
Mr. J. Hall, J.P.
Mr. N. Kolp.
Mr. Julius Kullmann.
Alderman Sir Bosdin T. Leech, J.P.
Mr. George Pearson.
Mr. Thomas Pearson.
Mr. R. Cobden Phillips.
Mr. H. Lloyd Price, F.S.A.A.
Mr. Daniel Shar rocks, J.P.
Mr. John E. Smith.
Mr. H. Stadelbauer.
Mr. S. T. Woodhouse.
Mr. x^oah Kolp, Alderman Sir Bosdin Leech, and Mr. R. C.
Phillips were members of the Council, and Messrs. J. C. Blake,
Geo. Galloway, N. Kolp, and J. Kullmann were original mem-
bers.
The Balance Sheet for the year with the Report of the
Honorary Auditor is appended.
It will be seen that there is a deficiency of £34 on the
Revenue Account for the year.
The number of members on December 31st, 1912, was 690,
the elections during the year having considerably outnumbered
the losses by death and resignation.
This large accession of new members will be a great help to
the Council for the immediate future, but further additions to
the membership are urgently needed to advance the work of the
Society, and especially to enable the library and map collection
to be improved. Donations for this object will be welcomed.
Annual Meeting
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Annual Meeting: 63
The Right Hon. the Lord Mayor, in moving the adoption
of the Report and Balance Sheet, said that the work of the
vSociety was very important to the people of the district. The
lectures were of great interest and also of educational value, and
enabled the members to form opinions about parts of the earth
which they were unable to visit. He had attended many of the
meetings, especially since he became Lord Mayor, and had
always found them both interesting and most profitable. The
Society deserved a larger measure of support than it now
received from the citizens of Manchester, and should not be
handicapped by a deficiency. For a very small subscription the
members had at their command a fund of useful knowledge, and
he hoped that all the members that were needed would be forth-
coming in the near future.
Mr. F. S. Oppenheim, M.A., in seconding the resolution,
which was carried unanimously, spoke of the valuable series of
weekly lectures given during the year, and of the special
meetings, when distinguished explorers, men of world-wide
reputation, such as Captain Amundsen, described their experi-
ences. In such a centre of industry and commerce, where raw
materials were obtained from and finished goods sent to practi-
cally every part of the world, civilised and uncivilised, it was an
extraordinary thing that only 690 ladies and gentlemen should
support the Geographical vSociety, and that, too, after it had
existed for 28 years . There could be only one reason for it — the
work of the Society was not sufiiciently known. Their members
could do much to remedy this, and the press might aid them by
adequate encouragement in its columns.
The Society had done much to advance the knowledge of
geography in various directions, particularly in regard to the
teaching of geography. The members of the Society had given
great assistance to the University in connection with the two
previous Lecturers in Geography, and the Council were at
present considering a proposed Scholarship or Fellowship in
Geography at the University.
In conclusion, he referred to the Journal of the Society,
which could be brought up to date and improved if the Society
was adequately supported.
The Secretary announced that the retiring officers and
Council, with the addition of Miss S. A. Burstall, M.A., Miss
L, Edna Walter, H.M.I., B.Sc, Messrs, L. Emerson Mather,
64 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
F.R.G.S., T. W. F. Parkinson, M.Sc, F.G.S., W. Eobinow,
J. Walter Robson, J.P., to the Council, had been nominated.
Mr. J. A. Osborn, in moving the Resolution: — "That the
ofl&cers and Council, as nominated, be elected," expressed, on
behalf of the members, thanks to the retiring officers and
Council for their services during the year. Mr. A. Balmforth
seconded the resolution, and it was passed unanimously.
(See list with title-page.)
Mr. C. A. Clarke referred in appreciative terms to the great
indebtedness of the Society to Mr. Gregory for his valuable
services to the Society as Hon. Auditor for the 28 years of its
existence, and moved the following resolution : — " That the best
thanks of the Society be given to Mr. Theodore Gregory, F.C. A.,
for his services as Hon. Auditor, and that he be re-elected."
Mr. J". W. O'Leary seconded the resolution, which was carried
unanimously.
Mr. Joel Wainwright, J. P., mentioned the great courtesy
and kindness with which the Lord Mayor met the heavy
demands upon his time by the various societies and public
institutions of Manchester, and, after expressing the Society's
appreciation of the interest which the Lord Mayor evinced in
its work, moved : — "That the best thanks of this meeting be
tendered to the Lord Mayor for the use of his Parlour, and
especially for his kindness in presiding over the meeting."
Mr. J. Stephenson Reid seconded the Resolution, which was
passed unanimously with applause, and suitably acknowledged
by the Lord Mayor.
Proceedings of the Society 65
IproceeMnga of tbe Societ?**
January ist to June 30th, 1913.
The 924th Meeting of the vSociety was held on Tuesday, January
7th, 1913, at 7-30 p.m.
In the Chair, Mr. David A. Little.
The Minutes of the Meeting held on December 20th, 191 2, were
taken as read.
The election of Mr. A. R. Whitfield as an Ordinary Member was
announced.
The Chairman referred to the death of Mr. C. H. Scott, J. P., who
had been a valued supporter of the Society for twenty years, and
moved that the sympathy of the members present be conveyed to his
relatives. The resolution was passed by the members rising in
silence.
Mr. J. Ernest Phythian gave a lecture on " The Old Castles of
England and Wales." The address was illustrated with lantern
slides, many prepared from photographs of celebrated paintings of
the castles.
On the motion of the Chairman, it was resolved that the sincere
thanks of those present be tendered £0 Mr. Phythian for his very
interesting and instructive address.
The 925th Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, January
14th, 1913, at 7-30 p.m.
In the Chair, Mr. J. Stephenson Reid.
The Minutes of the Meeting held on January 7th were taken as
read.
Mr. W. H. Shrubsole, F.G.S., gave a lecture on " Budapest and
the Great Hungarian Plain," illustrating his remarks with many fine
coloured and other vSlides.
On the motion of the Chairman it was unanimously resolved that
the best thanks of the meeting be given to Mr. Shrubsole for his
intensely interesting address so well illustrated.
The 926th Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, January
2ist, 1913, at 7-30 p.m.
In the Chair, Mr. F. Zimmern, F.R.G.S.
The Minutes of the Meeting held on January 14th were taken as
read.
The election of the following Members was announced : — Ordinary :
Messrs. Arthur Carr, John Hilditch, S. P. Leah, T. F. Wilkinson, and
Robert Young; Associate : Miss vS. Boyes and Mr. H. S. Beck.
Mr. Oliver Bainbridge gave a lecture on " Native Life and Customs
in Southern Seas." The address was illustrated with original
lantern views.
* The Meetings are held in the Geographical Hall, unless otherwise
stated.
66 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
On the motion of the Chairman, seconded by Thakur vShri
Jessrajsinghji vSeesodia, a hearty vote of thanks was passed to the
lecturer for his verj^ interesting and instructive lecture, so splendidly
illustrated.
The 927th Meeting of the Society was held in the Houldsworth
Hall, on Tuesday, January 28th, 1913, at 7-30 p.m.
In the Chair, Mr. F. Zimmern, F.R.O.S,, Chairman of the Council.
Captain Ejnar Mikkelsen, F.R.G.vS., gave a lecture entitled "Lost
in the Polar Regions."
A short report of the lecture is here given : —
** Captain Mikkelsen was the leader of the expedition which
set out from Copenhagen in June, 1909, to search for the bodies
of Erichsen and his companions and also for the records of their
disastrous expedition to the north-eastern portion of Greenland.
In April, 1910, Captain Mikkelsen and Engineer Iversen left the
rest of the party and set oft' northwards alone. They were
successful in finding Erichsen 's records, but on returning to the
place where they had left the ship found that she had been
sunk by the ice. For over two years they were lost, but
late in 191 2 they were found on Bass Rock Island, where they
had spent three winters, by a Norwegian fishing vessel and
were rescued. Lord Curzon, who presided at the lecture which
Captain Mikkelsen gave to the Royal Geographical Society, said
that the explorer had * endured privations such as had seldom
fallen to the lot of any living man.' Last night Captain Mikkelsen,
who was heard by a large audience, showed a great number of
views illustrating the course of his travels^first the Esquimaux,
who welcomed him to the East Coast of Greenland, the dogs of the
expedition, and a view of an Arctic hare watching the strangers
observantly and without nervousness. He gossiped pleasantly
about the habits of life on Polar expeditions. It appears that after
about ten days of the real hardship the habit of washing begins to
seem unnecessary and to be dropped, and Captain Mikkelsen
showed views of his party which fully bore out this statement.
There was an exciting bear-hunt in the recesses of a cavern. The
bear was very necessary for food, and had to be sought for in the
dark. The narrative reached the point at which Captain Mikkelsen
and Engineer Iversen set off northwards alone with provisions for
100 days and 15 dogs. The lecturer described the finding of a
kitchen of the Erichsen expedition, and the cairns containing the
results of the scientific work which that expedition had done.
After this the lecture was a description of the sufferings on the
unlucky return journey of the two men. Captain Mikkelsen 's own
illness, cured at last by a fortunate ' bag ' of seagulls, accounts
of daylight delirium, dreams of ' sandwiches,' and so on. When
the two men at last reached Shannon Island, in November, they
found that the ship had been destroyed and abandoned, and that
their companions had been taken home by a sealer. They remained
on Shannon Island till the following June. Many months were
Proceedings of the Society ffi
afterwards spent on Bass Rock — there was a third winter in the
course of which they smoked 5olb. of tea. * One night Iverson
heard someone speaking down on the beach. It was 28 months
since we had heard anyone speak but ourselves. Then we saw a
great big man who said " How do you do? " Behind that man
we seemed to see an army of men, though there were only eight.
In two days we had smoked all the tobacco they had on the ship ;
in four days we had eaten all their potatoes.' Captain Mikkelsen
had shown photographs of himself and his companion, almost
beyond the likeness of humanity from the sufferings they had under-
gone. These photographs were taken when twenty-two months
more had to be undergone. They were in astonishing contrast
with the splendidly set-up young man who was giving the lecture
and who was so warmly applauded at the end."
— Manchester Guardian.
The slides were well shown by the Vice-Chairman, Mr. E. W.
Mellor, J.P., F.R.G.vS., with his powerful electric lantern.
Mr. J. Howard Reed, F.R.G.S., moved, and the Chairman seconded
a resolution thanking the lecturer for the intensely interesting account
which he had given of his expedition. The resolution was carried
with acclamation.
The 928th Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, February
4th, 1913, at 7-30 p.m.
In the Chair, Mr. George Ginger.
The Minutes of the Meetings held on January 21st and 28th were
taken as read.
The election of the following Ordinary Members was announced :
Messrs. Leo. Crosland, C. J. Siijipson, Charles McDougall, and Robert
McDougall.
Mr. Thomas W. Brownell lectured on ' Some Impressions of
Visits to the Holy Land and Northern Egypt," and illustrated his
remarks with a large number of fine slides, mostly original.
The Chairman moved and it was unanimously resolved that the
thanks of those present be given to the lecturer for his very interesting
address.
The 929th Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, February
nth, 1913, at 7-30 p.m.
In the Chair, Mr. F. Zimmern, F.R.G.S., and later on, Mr. R.
Kalisch, F.R.G.S.
The Minutes of the Meeting held on February 4th were taken as
read.
The Chairman (Mr. Zimmern) referred to the death of Captain
Scott and his four companions in the following words : — " We meet
to-day in exceedingly sad circumstances. A great calamity has
befallen us, our vSociety, all geographical societies, and the world at
large by the death of a noble man and his noble companions. I feel,
as you will feel with me, that societies like ours must give expression
to their grief at such a calamity. Captain vScott was a friend of ours.
I may perhaps be allowed to tell you that he was an intimate personal
friend of mine— he and his wife and boy. If you also knew him, as
some of you no doubt did, you would know him for an extraordinary'
6S Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
man, a lovable man, a man of sterling qualities, courage, bravery,
intelligence — a leader of men. What lie has gone through ; how he
died ; what records he left you have seen in the newspapers. I need
not repeat it but his appeal to the public to look to those who were
dependent on him is a true sign of his splendid character. There he
lies, buried in those desolate regions at a time when we were thinking
of preparing a hearty welcome on his return, in order to assure him
of our admiration for his deeds. Unhappily that welcome cannot now
be given. He fell a victim to duty. His was real British valour —
the valour which has made this country great. He was a true
English sailor, intelligent, resourceful, full of scientific enthusiasm.
In memorj^ of our friend I ask you to rise from your places in silence."
The large audience then rose.
Mr. Albert Wilmore, D.Sc, F.G.S., addressed the members on
** Some Studies in the Commercial Geography of Lancashire," illus-
trating his remarks with diagrams prepared mainly from the
Commercial pages of the Manchester Gtiurdian.
Mr. Kalisch, on behalf of the Meeting, offered sincere thanks to
the lecturer for his very instructive address.
The 930th Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, February
i8tii, 1913, at 7-30 p.m.
In the Chair, Mr. T. W. Sowerbutts, F.S.A.A.
The Minutes of the Meeting held on February nth were taken as
read.
The Election of the following Members was announced : — Ordinary :
Messrs. W. H. Colt, Charles Garnett, and Walter Green ; Associates :
Mrs. Prescott, Miss Prescott, Miss Ruth Taylor, Miss Mary Taylor, and
Mr. C. H. Cox, B.Sc, L.C.P.
Mr. Thomas Sheppard, F.G.S., gave a lecture on " The Geography
of East Yorkshire, illustrated by Chart and Plan." The lecture, which
was illustrated with many lantern slides, dealt mainly with the
changes which had taken place at the mouth of the Humber.
The Chairman moved, and it was unanimously resolved, that the
thanks of the Meeting be given to Mr. Sheppard for his very interest-
ing lecture.
The 931st Meeting of the vSociety . vvas held on Tuesday, February
25th, 1913, at 7-30 p.m.
In the Chair, Mr. F. Zimmern, F.R.G.S.
The Minutes of the Meeting held on February i8th were taken as
read.
The Chairman mentioned that a Manchester Fund in memory of
Captain Scott and his Companions had been inaugurated, and made
an appeal for each Member to contribute to the Fund, to show his
sympathy with the relatives.
Mr. Gerrard de Hockspied Larpent, B.A., gave a leture on
*' Rhodesia." (See vol. xxviii, page 30.) The lecture was illustrated
with a large number of fine lantern views.
The Chairman, on behalf of the Meeting, thanked the lecturer for
his interesting address, so well illustrated.
Proceedings of the Society 69
The 932nd Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, March 4th,
1913, at 7-30 p.m.
In the Chair, Mr. F. Zimmern, F.R.G.S.
The Minutes of the Meeting held on February 25th were taken as
read.
The Election of Mr. E. Segalla as an Ordinary Member was
announced.
Mr. Gilbert Waterhouse, lecturer at Leipzig University, gave a
lecture on "Highways and Byways in Dalmatia, Hercegovina, Bosnia,
and Servia." (vSee page 35.) The lecture was illustrated with lantern
slides from photographs, mainly taken by the lecturer, supplemented
by photographs supplied by the Austrian Government of places
where permission to use the camera could not be obtained.
Mrs. H. ly. Lees, F.R.G.S., moved, and it was unanimously
resolved, that the appreciative thanks of the Meeting be given to
Mr. Waterhouse for the very interesting account which he had given
of his journey.
The 933rd Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, March nth,
1913, at 7-30 p.m.
In the Chair, Mr. J. vStephenson Reid.
The Minutes of the Meeting held on March 4th were taken as read.
Mr. C. H. Bellamy, F.R.G.S., of Tourcoing, gave a lecture on
"A Journey in the Balkans and Turkey." (See page 23.) The
lecture was illustrated with lantern views prepared from photographs
taken by the lecturer on the journey.
Mr. R. Kalisch, F.R.G.S., moved, Mr. W. T. Blease, who accom-
panied the lecturer on the journey, seconded, and it was unanimously
resolved that the hearty thanks of those present be given to Mr.
Bellamy for his very interesting account of the journey, and for the
lantern views shown.
The 934th Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, March i8th,
1913, at 7-30 p.m.
In the Chair, Mr. F. Zimmern, F.R.G.S.
The Minutes of the Meeting held on March nth were taken as read.
The Election of Messrs. Councillor C. E. B. Russell, M.A., Gilbert
Waterhouse, and A. Blass as Ordinary Members was announced..
The Chairman mentioned the loss by death of Mr. R. H. Watt,
a member for twenty-two years, and the members showed their
sympathy with Mrs. Watt by rising in silence.
Mr. John A. Osborn gave a lecture on " The Swiss Rhine : a
Scientific Study of Scenery." The lecture was illustrated with many
fine lantern views.
On the motion of the Chairman, it was unanimously resolved that
hearty thanks be given to Mr. Osborn for his very interesting and
instructive address, so well illustrated.
The 935th Meeting of the Society was held in the Albert Hall,
Peter vStreet, on Friday, March 28th, 1913, at 7-30 p.m., and was
arranged in celebration of the Centenary of the birth of Dr. David
Livingstone.
5^ Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
Mr. Harry Nuttall, M.P., F.R.G.S., presided.
Sir Harry Johnston, G.C.M.G., K.C.B., F.R.G.S., gave a lecture
on *' Dr. Livingstone's Explorations, and their Results," illustrated
with lantern views. (See page i.)
The Right Hon. the Lord Mayor moved, and the Right Rev. Bishop
Welldon seconded, a resolution thanking the lecturer for his interest-
ing address. The resolution was passed unanimously.
The 936th Meeeting of the Society took the form of a Banquet, in
celebration of the Livingstone Centenary and in honour of Sir Harry
Johnston, G.C.M.G., K.C.B., F.R.G.S., and was held at the Midland
Hotel, on Saturday, March 29th, 1913, at 7-0 p.m.
The President of the Society, Mr. Harry Nuttall, M.P., F.R.G.S.,
presided, and, in addition to the distinguished guest, there were
present among others : —
The Right Hon. the Lord Mayor (Mr. S. W. Royse) and Mrs.
Frazer; the Right Rev. Bishop Welldon, D.D., Dean of Manchester;
the Right Rev. the Dean of Christ Church; Mrs. Harry Nuttall;
the President of the Chamber of Commerce and Mrs. Langdon;
the Right Hon. the Barl of Stair, President of the Royal Scottish
Geographical Society; Mr. James Irvine, F.R.G.S., Vice-Chairman
of the Liverpool Geographical Society; Mr. B. R. Wethey, F.R.G.S.,
Vice-Chairman of the Leeds Geographical Society; Mr. W. S. Ascoli,
F.R.G.S. ; Mr. and Mrs. W. E. Ashworth ; Mr. J. E. Balmer, F.R.G.S. ;
Mr. E. Bermudez, Consul for Nicaragua, and Mrs. Bermudez; Rev.
CanonW. H. Binney, F.R.G.S. ; Mrs. A. de Bolivar ; Mr. E. J. Broadlield,
LL.D. ; Mr. Harry Cousins, A.M.I.C.E. ; Mr. C. Dreyfus, J.P., and
Mrs. Dreyius; Mr. T. A. Edwards, F.R.G.S., and Mrs. Edwards;
Mr. E. Roose Evans ; Mr. and Mrs. H. ForS3rth ; Mr. and Mrs. F. C.
Gibbons; Mr. George Ginger ; Mr. J.H. Greenhow Norwegian Consul,
and Mrs. Greenhow; Alderman J. Griffiths; Mr. and Mrs. W. Harper;
Mr. and Mrs. W. R. Hesketh; Mr. John Houghton; Mr. and Mrs.
E. Hoyle; Mr. and Mrs. Richard Jones; Mr. and Mrs. M. Kalisch ;
Mr. H. Kirkpatrick, J. P. ; Mr. A. Knudsen, Danish Consul, and Mrs.
Knudsen; Mr. H. G. Langley, Consul for Peru and Bolivia, and
Mrs. Langley ; Mrs. H. L. Lees, F.R.G.S. ; Mr. and Mrs. Walter Lees ;
Mr. D. A. Little; Mr. W. Macmillan; Mr. McPherson; Rev. J. Ross
Murray, M.A. ; Miss Neild ; Mr. and Mrs. Alfred Nicholson ; Mr.
Norbury Nuttall; Mr. Raymond Nuttall; Mr. F. S. Oppenheim, M.A. ;
Mr. S. Oppenheim, J. P., Consul for Austria-Hungary, and Mrs.
Oppenheim; Miss Qualtrough; Dr. and Mrs. A. Ree; Mr. J. Howard
Reed, F.R.G.S., and Mrs. Reed; Mr. and Mrs. W. M. Reekie;
Mr. and Mrs. J. S. Reid; Mrs. R. H. Reynolds; Mr. and Mrs. Thomas
Robinson ; Councillor and Mrs. C. E. B. Russell ; Captain T.
Schlagintweit, German Consul, and Miss vSchlagintweit ; Mr. Harry
Sowerbutts, A.R.C.vSc. ; Dr. and Mrs. W. J. Sprott; Mr. S. Sternberg;
Mr. Walter Taylor; Mr. Wm. Thomson, F.R.S.Ed. ; Mr. W. H. Ward;
Mr. Gilbert Waterhouse ; Mr. W. Welsh ; Mr. and Mrs. Vv . H. Whitby ;
Mr. and Mrs. S. W. Williams ; Mr. R. T. Williamson, M.D., F.R.G.S. ;
Mr. J.Woolfenden; Mr. Hermann Woolley, F.R.G.S. ; Mr. F. Zimmern,
F.R.G.S., and Mrs. Zimmern.
The loyal toasts were proposed from the Chair, and duly honoured.
Proceedings of the Society 71
The Chairman, in proposing the toast of Sir Harry H. Johnston, said
that in Sir Harry Johnston they had a worthy successor to Livingstone,
and one whose life had indeed been varied, and whose explorations
had been of a most important character. vSir Harry Johnston had
occupied a very prominent position in the Livingstone Centenary
Celebrations in different parts of the Kingdom, and had suggested a
definite and permanent shape to the ideas in regard to a Memorial.
vSir Harry H. Johnston, in responding to the toast, said : — (see
page 4.)
Mr. F. Zimmern, F.R.G.S., Chairman of the Council, in proposing
the toast of " The Lord Mayor and Corporation of the City of
Manchester," gave some personal reminiscences of his life in
Manchester, and contrasted the present conditions of the City with
its condition a generation ago.
The Right Hon. the Lord Mayor, in responding to the toast, gave
much information in proof of the importance of the work of the
Corporation, and in illustration of its extension during the period
referred to by the proposer of the toast.
Mr. E. H. Langdon, B.A., President of the Chamber of Commerce,
in proposing the toast of the vSociety, first referred to the remarks by
Sir Harry H. Johnston on Education. He claimed for Manchester
that it was doing all it could for the promotion of the useful education
of which vSir Harry Johnston had spoken. He pointed to the work
of the evening continuation schools and the general endeavour of the
municipality to further commercial education. Mr. Langdon also
called attention to the work of the Manchester University in the
Faculties of Commerce and Art for instruction in Geography and in
the subjects needed for traders. One complaint Mr. Langdon made
was that the consular service was so underpaid that it was difficult
to find able men to enter it. Mr. Langdon concluded b}- giving some
particulars of the history of the Society, and by commending the
useful work it was doing in spreading a knowledge of Geography.
Mr. J. Howard Reed, F.R.G.vS., Hon. Secretary, responded to the
toast, giving further details of the history of the Society, and hinting
at some of the work which could be done if the vSociety was adequately
supported,
Mr. F. S. Oppenheim, M.A., propOvSed the toast of " Kindred
vSocieties and Guests," and made special reference to the Royal
vScottish and Liverpool Geographical Societies.
The Right Hon .the Earl of vStair, President of the Royal Scottish
Geographical vSociety, in responding, said that in vScotland the
memory of Livingstone was held very dear. He was the pioneer of
civilisation in Central Africa, he put forth great efforts in the
suppression of the vSlave trade and he led an exemplary Christian life.
It was to the great city of Manchester, whose cotton trade was known
throughout the world, an interesting fact that David Livingstone
began life as a worker in a cotton factory. He then mentioned the
large gathering which vSir Harry Johnston had addressed in Scotland
in celebration of the Centenary of Dr. Livingstone's birth, and he
hoped that something in Education of a permanent nature might be
arranged as a result of these celebrations.
Mr. James Irvine, F.R.G.S., said : — I have the honour to represent
72 . Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
the Liverpool Geographical Society, and in supporting the Right
Hon. Earl of Stair in response to the toast of " Kindred Societies,"
I desire first to say for my Council that they have always received
the most hearty advice and cooperation, in connection with Geogra-
phical matters, from the Manchester Geographical Society, and I am
requested to take this public opportunity of conveying their thanks
to Mr. Harry Sowerbutts, the experienced and courteous Secretary
of the Society.
Ladies and Gentlemen, we are assembled here to-night in memory
of Livingstone, bom in very impoverished surroundings, buried at
the close of a magnificent life in Westminster Abbey, and leaving a
record behind him which for all time must continue an inspiration
not to Great Britain alone but to the world.
We are also assembled to do honour to one who caught up that
inspiration in his early manhood, and who has given the best years
of a strenuous life to carry on the great work begun by Livingstone.
The guest of the evening is also a great traveller, and still better,
a great worker in the cause of African civilisation and the general'
elevation of the countries which he has visited and more than one of
which he has so wisely and courageously governed.
It is now over thirty years since I first had the honour of knowing
Sir Harry Johnston personally, and during the generation which has
passed since then his name has been prominently before all who have
thought of Africa ; Geographically, Scientifically, or Philanthropically .
Geography owes much to the guest of the evening, as British East
Africa and Uganda are alike indebted to Sir Harry Johnston for
magnificent exploratory work when these countries were practically
unknown : Science owes much, for Has he not in all his books,
especially in those two great and beautiful volumes on Uganda, done
splendid service, including the discovery of the Okapi, and the same
recognition must be accorded to the two epoch-making volumes on
Liberia : then lastly, and I am inclined to appreciate most of all, that
Philanthropy, as touching Africa, owes much to Sir Harry Johnston.
There is evidence on every page which he has written that his
primary impulse was towards the natives, elevating them and obtain-
ing for them advantages which led to comfort and happiness hitherto
unknown — and in this direction I rejoice to recall that, from first to
last, he has on one public occasion after another, boldly asserted his
favourable experience of the work of Christian missions among the
heathen.
I close with two estimates of our guest, directly opposite of each
other. The first is contained in the preface to his volume on the
" Congo "; he vSays, " I have not ventured to make this work a
record of novel exploration, nor of scientific research, for I lack the
necessary ability." The other side of the picture is from an able
publication recently issued, and is brief, thus : — " Sir Harry H.
Johnston knows more about Africa than any other man living." We
honour vSir Harry for his modesty, but we all prefer to believe the
evidence of the last witness.
vSir Harry Johnston, in propOvSing the toast of " The Chairman,"
referred to various points which had been raised by the various
speakers.
\ ^
CDe 3ourtial
OF THE
mancDester 6eosrapl)ical Societp.
THE GEOGEAPHY OF EAST YOEKSHIEE,
ILLUSTEATED BY CHAET AND PLAN.
By T. Sheppard, F.G.S., E. S.A.Scot.
(Addressed to the Society in the Geographical Hall on
Tuesday, February ISth, 1913.)
Where life and beauty.
Dwelt long ago,
The oozy rushes
And seaweeds grow
And no one sees
And no one hears
And none remembers
The far off years.
It is the olden.
The sunken town
Which faintly murmurs
Far fathoms down
Like sea-winds breathing
It murmurs by.
And the sweet waters tremble.
And sink and die.
These beautiful lines, translated from the Danish, might have
been written in reference to some of our old Yorkshire coast
towns, though they really well describe a similar story in the
Baltic. And of our Danish ancestors in the Baltic, as of more
recent Danish ancestors on our own shores, as well as of tbe
places in which they dwelt, it can be said tbat " Nothing of them
that doth fade, but doth suffer a sea change, into something rich
and strange. Sea nymphs hourly ring their knell. Hark,
now I hear them, ding dong bell ! " These words, or some
much, like them, were written centuries ago, but the same
changes then recorded yet take place, and as one town vanishes
another appears. Like our own little lives, these places go and
Vol. XXIX. Parts III. and IV., 19 13.
A
74 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
leave not a wrack beliind. But the world still goes on, and the
alterations wrought are of little moment save to the antiquary
and historian.
Seas more late in form and date
Spredde owre the self-same strande ;
And many a chaunge most wylde and straunge
Reversedd the sea and lande.
Thus if wee Nature's workes exhume
Or owre past history raunge_,
We find both mann and Nature's doome
Is one perpetual chaunge.
Antiquaries revel in dipping into the past history of their
country, and when they have got as far back as they can they
leave the task to the geologists, who " rin up the hill and down
dale, knapping the chucky stanes to pieces wi hammers like sae
many road-makers run daft. They say 'tis to see how the warld
was made." At any rate, that is the opinion expressed in
" St. Eonan's Well."
When, therefore, it so happens that one has delved a little
in both geological and archaeological fields he is able to give a
less prejudiced narrative of the past history of a changing dis-
trict such as East Yorkshire, than one who views it through a
single set of spectacles.
Twenty-four years ago the late John Roberts Boyle wrote
his " Lost Towns of the Humber," in which he carefully sum-
marised the information bearing upon the area, contained in
such works as Thompson's ^' Ocellum Promontorium," Poulson's
" History of Holderness," '' The Meaux Chronicle," and papers
on early maps of Spurn, by Lewis L. Kropf, published in the
" Hull and East Riding Portfolio." He also quoted from
documents in the Public Record Office and elsewhere, and
brought the whole together in the learned style that was so
much his own.
As a frontispiece to the book was a map showing the positions
of the Lost Towns of the Humber, as he considered them to be,
of which, however, more will be said later.
The preface to that work contained the following sentence :
" I hope hereafter to supplement this book by a similar one on
' The Lost Towns and Churches of the Yorkshire Coast."
I understand that this hope was realised as far as the first
chapter was concerned, and that it was actually written, put
The Geography of East Yorkshire 75
into type, and a proof sent to the author. A copperplate of
Hornsea Church was also engraved. Biit that was all. The
copperplate was lost, though I have seen a print from it. The
proof was never returned to the printers, and, as so often
happens, the work was never completed.
Often I urged Mr. Boyle to do this work, and, as this cannot
now be, I have tried to do it myself . The work has given me
the advantage of finding out the various sources from which he
obtained information, and in addition I have secured many
interesting facts which were apparently unknown to him.
Furthermore, it has revealed a few ways in which " literary
men '' occasionally endeavour to bridge over the gaps in the
history of the places with which they are dealing.
First, with regard to the cause of our Lost Towns. In some
parts of the world, notably in Scandinavia and the Baltic, there
is an actual change taking place in the land levels. One part
of the coast is gradually rising above the waters ; another is as
surely sinking.
These changes are gradual, and in the mere lifetime of a
man may not seem of much moment ; but as centuries roll on the
changes are more pronounced; seaports become dry and away
from the shore, or inland towns and villages are gradually sub-
merged beneath the waves. In other parts of the world, as in
the Mediterranean, the West Indies, or the Far East, volcanoes
and earthquakes cause more sudden changes, and in a few
weeks, or even a few hours, towns are overwhelmed, are buried,
or sink beneath the sea, or, as quickly, new land is thrown up
and the waters recede. In other areas, as at the mouths of the
Mississippi and the Nile, the land grows seaward by the mere
accumulation of debris brought down from the higher ground,
such detritus being deposited as the rivers' waters reach the sea.
On these deltas the sea-coast villages of one race are the inland
homes of the next.
But none of these causes operated in Yorkshire. Volcanic
action, though not unknown, is here a thing of the geological
past. There has certainly been no upheaval nor depression
since the earliest appearance of man in the area. The Humber,
though a mighty estuary, is fed by a few comparatively small
streams, and even much of the sediment within its banks has
been brought from the Holderness coast outside. It is not
responsible for any seaward extension of the land, nor for very
much erosion within its area.
76 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
No, the coast changes in East Yorkshire are simply and
solely due to the ceaseless and merciless wearing away of our
shores by the frosts and rains and storms and currents and
tides, and by the accumulation of this eroded material at Spurn
and within the Humber.
Our soft glacial clays and gravels and sands, which form the
coast from Bridlington to Easington, are eroded at the rate of
Harncfey
Leland's Map of the Humber District
(Temp. Henry VIII.)
seven feet a year for the whole thirty-four miles . A moderate
calculation shows that nearly two million tons of material are
washed away yearly. This is equal to a loss of an acre or more
a mile each year. On the basis named, it means that a strip of
land about three and a half miles wide has disappeared since the
Roman invasion, representing 115 square miles of land, an area
equivalent to that upon which London is built.
The Geography of East Yorkshire 77
And these are not merely fancy figures. They aro based
upon reliable geological and antiquarian evidence, upon actual
measurements, upon fair calculations, upon the evidence of the
Domesday Book and other old documents, upon reports and
monographs and papers innumerable, and, perhaps more
important than all, the evidence afforded by maps.
I would like to emphasize the value and importance and
interest of the study of old maps. Among the many hobbies
that I have to keep me out of mischief is that of collecting old
maps and charts, and as these date back to the time of
Henry YIII. it will be readily understood that they contain
much information of value to our inquiry, especially as many
include representations of churches and houses and villages
which are remindful of the well-known inscriptions on the tomb-
stones of ancient mariners, viz., " The sea gat 'em." It is also
curious to observe, in the older days of publishing maps, how a
cartographer " revised and brought up to date " a map by
erasing the date from the plate, by altering the design of the
scroll, by inserting a ship in the sea, or by taking one out ; or
even by omitting the name of the " generous benefactor " by
whose financial assistance the plate was prepared in the first
instance, this particular change probably taking place after the
death of the person in question ! These methods of issuing
" revised editions " (not altogether unknown to-day) explain
how it is that a map bears the arms and initials of Queen Eliza-
beth, and is even dedicated to her Most Gracious Majesty,
though bearing a date well on in the reign of Charles II.
However, taking the reliable maps and charts, we can get a
remarkable record of our coast changes. Beginning with Lord
Burleigh's wonderful parchment of the time of Henry YIII.,
then examining Saxton's map of 1577 (the first engraved map
of Yorkshire), Speed's better-known map of 1610, the fine series
engraved by various Dutchmen in the seventeenth century,
Greenvile Collins' Chart of 1684, Warburton's map of 1720,
Moll's, Scott's, Jeffreys', Tuke's, Smeaton's, and other later
maps, down to our own time, we see how first one landmark goes,
one church, one village, followed by another and another as we
come to more recent times ; and on Tuke's map of 1786 we find
indications merely of " Hartburn washed away by the sea,"
" Hyde washed away b}^ the sea," " Site of the Town of Hornsea
Beck," " Site of Hornsea Burton," " Site of the ancient church
at Withernsea," and so on.
78 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
Of course, we have a Kilnsea, a Withernsea, and a Hornsea
with us to-day. But these are not the same places that are
shown on these earlier maps. As the sea has washed a house or
church or a stable away new buildings have taken their places,
and these have naturally been built further inland; thus
gradually the places have made a strategic movement to the
rear. We possess plans of Kilnsea, Owthorne, Withernsea,
etc., with their garths and fields and drains, even showing
churches, churchyards, and vicarages, tEe very sites of which
to-day, after a lapse of a single century, are out to sea.
We can see these changes ourselves. I do not confess to
being particularly patriarchal, but at many points along the
coast I can remember having seen houses, farm buildings, roads,
and fields which are now washed away. I even have photo-
graphs of places that have gone, and photography is a compara-
tively modern art.
T^Taturally, at times reports of land losses get exaggerated,
and writers are apparently tempted to let their imagination run
riot. But I think the following gem, quoted from one of the
weekly papers issued in 1906, is the most glaring instance of
journalist '^ enthusiasm " that I have ever read : —
" On the coast of Yorkshire there are two noses of hard rock
that the sea can eat but slowly [a poetic thought !] . They are
Flamborough Head and Spurn Point [I], and between them lie
33 miles of coast, which the North Sea is swallowing at the rate
of three yards in every twelve months. At Withernsea, just to
the north of Spurn Point, houses go over the cliff almost daily
[!]. Some little time ago there lived at Withernsea an old
fisherman who, despite the warnings of his friends, persisted in
declaring that the sea would never harm him or his. . . .
There were two houses between the old fellow's cottage and the
crumbling cliff edge. . . . One rough night, however, a
" biting nor-easter " hurled the " ramping breakers " against the
shore to such purpose that first one house went and then the
other. Then the wall of the old fisherman's cottage collapsed
because of the disturbance to the foundations, and he awoke in
the grey of the morning [so far he had slept!] to find himself
looking straight from his bed on to the green waters of the
North Sea."
'Tis perhaps some satisfaction to know that Ananias was a
journalist !
^' ^mm
I
Fig. 2. East Yorkshire. Lord Burleigh's Chart (temp. Henry VIII).
Upon which several lost towns are represented.
J
The Geog^raphy of East Yorkshire 79
It is this so-called '' nose of hard rock," Spurn Point, upon
which so very much depends when we come to consider changes
ill the area and the positions of the important lost towns of
South-east Yorkshire. It is made up entirely of fine sand and
gravel brought down the east coast by the tide. This material, on
reaching the w^aters of the Humber estuary, is precipitated, and
forms the growing tongue of land which slowly and irresistibly
is approaching the Lincolnshire shore. At present it is about
four miles long — the hardest four-mile walk I know ! — yet is so
narrow that at high tide a person can easily throw a stone
into the sea on one side, and another into the Humber on the
other, without moving his position. Its rate of growth can
fairly well be ascertained by the distances at which the light-
houses have been moved from time to time in order to keep near
the point. We have details of these from the time of Charles II,
who granted a patent to Justinian Angell (the only Yorkshire
male angel that I know of!) to continue, renew, and maintain
lights at Spurn, to the present time.
In the year 1428 Eichard Reedbarrow had a light at Spurn,
but its position is not known. A little time ago I was fortunate
enough to secure the original reports, sketches, maps, plans,
etc., prepared by Smeaton when he was asked to report upon
the changes at Spurn and make suggestions for its proper light-
ing. It has also been my good fortune to examine MSS. and
charts in the British Museum, dating as far back as the
sixteenth century, some of which have not been seen by previous
workers; as well as a remarkably fine sequence of maps and
navigators' charts, showing the various phases in the history
of this long, narrow sandbank.
It will be understood that as the Spurn grows and extends
there must come a time when the space between the Point and
the Lincolnshire shore is hardly sufficient for the tidal waters
of the estuary to pass in and out, and a break must occur in the
bank, thus forming an island. If we go back to geological
times it is possible that a number of such extensions, and a
number of such islands, have existed. Doubtless it was at some
such period in its history that an island was formed upon
which Ravenser and Ravenser Odd were built. Then, as the
sandbank gradually extended southwards, the waters rushing
in and out of the Humber would wash away the sand island,
and the town built upon it became *' entirely blotted out and
consumed." In quite recent times breaks have occurred,
8o Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
allowing water to pass through; but these have been repaired
by groynes or similar artificial structures.
I wish it to be clearly understood that Spurn Point the sand-
bank is distinctly an appendage to the south-east corner of our
Riding. It is fastened on, as it were, like a tail. And as the
coast-line has changed its position by denudation, so must the
position of the dependent sandbank have altered. If, there-
fore, in Roman times, the Holderness cliffs were two or three
miles to the east of their present position, it seems clear that
the Spurn must have been thus far out to sea. In this way it
becomes evident that when the Danes landed in the year 867
and planted their standard, the Raven, originating the town of
Ravenser; when Baliol with his army embarked there is 1332;
when Bolingbroke, afterwards Henry lY, landed there in 1399,
when Edward IV arrived there in 1471 ; when, in fact, this
important town, which sent two members to Parliament,
existed; it was much to the east of the present Spurn Point.
This fact seems to have been overlooked by Boyle ; hence the
great difference between the positions of Ravenser and Ravenser
Odd as represented on his map, and as shown on one I have
prepared. Boyle apparently assumed that the position of the
Spurn Point has been stationary, and he had not allowed for its
westerly trend as the cliffs were worn away.
This town of Ravenser, referred to in ancient Sagas, men-
tioned in Shakespeare (I still stick to Shakespeare in spite of
the cranks) which supplied Hull and Grimsby with merchants
when it fell, and earlier was far more than a rival to either, is
a fair example of the thorough way in which all trace of a place
may disappear. If it had been possible for a photographic
survey to have been taken — as is now being done with dis-
appearing Hull — what a valuable record we should possess !
There may possibly be a church bell or two in the East
Riding, removed from the church at Ravenser; it is just
possible that the cross now at Hedon, formerly at Burton
Constable, still earlier at Kilnsea, may have been at Ravenser,
though I can find no evidence ; but with these possible exceptions
we have nothing whatever belonging to the place.
Some time ago in reading an anonymous article on coast
erosion in one of of the popular monthly magazines, I saw a
small view of " Ravenser " said to have been copied from a
fifteenth century illuminated MS. Later the article was re-
printed almost entirely in a little book on Lost England, by
Fig. 3. East Yorkshire. Saxton's Map 1577, the earliest engraved Map
of the County.
The Geography of East Yorkshire 8i
a Mr. Beckles Willson, but the view did not again appear. It
seemed clear therefore either that the author of the book was
the author of the anonymous article, or he had " lifted " it,
without acknowledgment, into hi-s book. So I wrote him asking
the source of his drawing, but he had forgotten ! The pub-
lishers knew nothing of it. It was certainly not at the British
Museum, and the authorities there agreed with my view that
it was probably a forgery. The miniature showed a wide lane
leading to a church, partly hidden by a dark building : a row
of houses on each side, (but they were not, as we should have
expected, gable-end on with the street) ; trees behind the houses,
and with a nondescript churchyard cross to the right of the road.
The whole thing was a mystery.
However, quite recently, in examining Poulson's " Holder-
ness " (which Mr. Willson quoted) I came upon a practically
identical view; the church in the distance, hidden by a dark
building; the wide street, the houses on each side, and even the
windows and doors identical, and the trees all there ; but instead
of the cross was the initial letter I. But it was labelled Sutton,
and represents Sutton-in-Holderness as it is to-day ! Thus, by
a strange coincidence, the long-lost Ravenser — washed away
hundreds of years ago — was identical with our adjacent village
of Sutton-upon-Hull. Or is it possible that the author was
inspired by the view of Sutton in making an alleged view of
Eavenser, and forgot to say so?
The other lost Humber towns enumerated in Boyle's book
are ^' Tharlesthorpe, Frismersk, East Somerte, Orwithfleet,
Sunthorpe, Old Ravenser, and Eavenser Odd." It is quite
possible that, as he suggests, the sites of some may be covered
by the great growth of land now known as Sunk Island, though
an island no longer. This land, of course, was originally an
island, which was sunk at high water, but it gradually grew and
extended until it was eventually j oined to the mainland ; in the
same way as is Broomfleet Island near Brough. Read's Island,
still an island, is another great area of land reclaimed in recent
years, and doubtless owes its origin to the material brought
down from the denuded Holderness cliffs, aided by the detritus
carried down the Ouse, Trent, and Hull. Other places have
disappeared, including Burstall Priory, a view of which was
published by Buck early in the eighteenth century. The
buildings of this priory eventually provided the material for
protecting the Humber shore close by, just as Her Most
82 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
Gracious Majesty, Queen Elizabeth, generously gave permission
to the people of Bridlington to build piers from the stones of
Bridlington Priory, left by her father, Henry YIII, after he
had pillaged the place and even stripped the roof for its lead !
Whether the sites of the Humber's lost towns, as indicated
by Boyle, are correct, we may never know. With the exception
of Ravenser and Ravenser Odd, already referred to, it seems
likely that he has located their probable positions as definitely
as is possible with the meagre records available.
When we come to the lost towns of the coast, however, we
seem to be on firmer ground, so to speak; at any rate there
seems to be fairly substantial evidence of the positions of the
numerous places mentioned.
To a large extent this evidence occurs upon maps and charts,
which were prepared years ago, but in the cases where the places
have been washed away before the date of our earliest known
charts, the documentary evidence has been so complete that
there has been little difficulty in placing them.
To begin with, then, I have taken Ravenser or Ravenspurn,
and Ravenser Odd, away from the Humber, and placed them
outside the present Spurn, thus claiming the^n as lost towns of
the coast. Ravenser sent members to Parliament in 1305 ; two
years later it taxed its inhabitants in order to defend its walls.
In 1346 a ship was sent from Ravenser to the King's Navy;
nine years later bodies were washed from the town's graveyards,
and by 1361 the floods drove the merchants to Grimsby and
Dry pool, on the east of Kingston-upon-Hull. In 1390 all
trace of the town was lost.
Had Ravenspurn remained, with its wharves and quays and
warehouses, what insignificant places Hull and Grimsby might
have been to-day !
Kilnsea, the " Chilnesse " or '^ Cold 'Nose " of Domesday, is
the southernmost coast town that has gone. In Allen's " York-
shire " (1829) is a charming picture showing the ruined church
and tower on the edge of the cliff; and part of the building
on the beach. Seven years previously, in addition to the
church, there were thirty houses. On the ordnance map of
1852 there were still six or seven houses shown, and the founda-
tions of the church were at the then half tide-mark.
The " Blue-Bell " at Kilnsea (the Blue Bell is the name of
an inn !) was erected in 1847, and built into its walls is a
slab with the information that it was then 534 vards from the
Oh
be
The Geography of East Yorkshire 83
cliff. The last time I was there I stepped the distance out, as
carefully as the circumstances permitted, and estimated it to be
200 yards. In 1899, at an exceptionally low tide, a party of us
saw the few remains of old Kilnsea church, just as far out as it
was possible to go — about 250 yards from the cliff edge. That
was probably the last occasion upon which any trace of the
building Avas ever seen. Fortunately a map exists showing the
disposition of the church and churchyard, pond, street, etc.,
and we have some views of the church and cross. In the few
houses which to-day are flattered by the name of " village " are
numerous alleged relics from the old township, but I notice that
each time I go there seem to be more, and soon, doubtless, the
very beer and cheese will have been rescued from '' owd Kilnsa
choch."
In early times Kilnsea was of some importance, and even in
the middle of the sixteenth century we find Holinshed, in his
" list of ports and creeks as our seafaring men doe note for
their benefit upon the coasts of England " includes Kilnsea, or
as he called it Kelseie, as the place is still pronounced by
Holdernessians. In Lord Burleigh's chart, issued a little later,
there is a note opposite Kilnsea to the effect that " ships of good
Burden may ride and land here to no annoyaunce to the
countreye."
In 1837 a work was published by one " Geffrey de Sawtry,
Abbot," and was innocently entitled " The Churches of Holder-
ness." The book is exceedingly scarce, but I obtained the late
E. S. Wilson's copy. It is really a scurrilous record of the
immoral practices and robberies and neglects of apparently all
the various vicars of the churches of Holderness. Of Kilnsea
it states : " The church has long since been swept away ; and the
tower, which stood many years after, a valuable landmark for
seamen, fell with a tremendous crash, in the autumn of 1830.
This is therefore another churchless village; but having a
population of nearly 200, they have set apart a room for divine
service in which it is performed every third Sunday, weather
permitting ; otherwise, it is reported, the worthy pastor, feeling
for his flock, grants them an indulgence to remain indoors, and
takes the same himself." For many years, the bell, which was
dated 1700, was suspended over a beam in a stackyard, and was
" tolled " by throwing stones at it ! which seems to have been an
improvement on Hood's " And they told the Sexton and the
Sexton tolled the bell."
-84 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
In recent years the low cliffs of Kilnsea have heen washed
away, together with the artificial embankments which had been
erected ; and hundreds of acres have been covered by sea-water,
which wasted the crops, spoilt the wells, and ruined the district
generally.
To the east of Kilnsea there was once a place called
Sunthorpe. The village is referred to in the Meaux Chronicle.
To-day the " oldest inhabitant " knows not even its name.
Easington, which yet has a church, one or two public-houses,
a fine aisled tithe-barn, and a few shops, was a place of influence
in Domesday times. Drogo the brewer (there was beer in
Norman days) had 13 villanes, four borders and a plough there,
and Morcar had 15 carucates of land to be taxed, presumably on
'' Form 4 " or something of that sort. Chancellors of the
Exchequer existed in those good old days, but usually died
young! There were then 2,400 acres in Easington. In 1880
there were only 1,300 acres. There was a haven for ships at
Easington in the sixteenth century, judging from a passage in
the Meaux Chronicle, but this had apparently disappeared two
centuries later when Holinshed compiled his " List of Creeks."
The loss of land here is perhaps as great as anywhere on the
coast. In 1776 the church was 1,056 yards from the cliff edge;
in 1882 it was 850 yards only, a loss of two yards a year for over
a century. A practical example of the way land has here
depreciated by sea and flood occurred quite recently, when
Firthholme House Farm, with buildings and 130 acres of land,
was sold for £650, whereas the mortgagees had lent £4,000 on
it some years ago !
" Mount Pleasant Cottage," Easington, built in 1876, bears
a stone which records that it was then 616 yards away from the
sea. To-day it is about 460 yards away; a loss of over four
yards a year.
Other places near Easington, referred to in old documents,
but which are now no more, are Northorp, Hoton, and Turmarr.
The last place had disappeared as long ago as the fourteenth
century. Yet as a remarkable instance of the way in which
names cling to a district, a field north of Easington, where there
is a depression in the cliffs, is still known as Turmarr Bottoms,
though no one can tell us why.
The district round Easington was evidently of importance
in Roman times, and I have obtained some vases, coins, oyster
PQ rt
The Geography of East Yorkshire 85
shells, etc., from an old Roman refuse heap, and from the sites
of their dwellings there.
At Hollym, Withernsea, Aldbro', and other coast townships,
Roman remains are recorded; formerly much more frequently
than is the case nowadays. Inland in Holderness, except at
Swine, and Halsham, there are no such records. This seems to
point to the fact that in Roman times there was a road along the
cliffs, with a station at its southern extremity, guarding the
Humber. Yet this road has gone as completely as have the
Romans themselves. But the Goths and Yandals were the wind
and the waves !
In 1346 the Abbot of Meaux complained that his lands at
Dymelton (Dimlington) had been reduced considerably in value-
because of the waters of the sea. Were he living to-day he
would probably have joined a doctors' panel for a living ! Of
Dimlington nothing now remains. For twenty years I have
measured the distance between the beach and the ruins of the
old "■ chapel " near the cliff top. I have seen the distance get
less and less. When I measured it first it was nearly forty
yards away. The last time I measured it, it was ten yards,
distant. The tenant of the adjoining farm then pulled down
the last of this ruin, which had stood the storms of six or seven
centuries, and probably it now forms part of a pigsty e.
At Out Newton, close by, was once a village, with its church.
A list of the plate and vestments therein is given in "Inventories-
of Chirch Goods, York, East Riding," in 1552. In a Parlia-
mentary Survey of the East Riding in 1650, it is recorded that
" there is a chapel at Out Newton — and is much decayed ; the
hamlet being fit to be annexed to Holmpton parish, being not a
mile distant !" Those who know anything of the village of
Holmpton will understand what a low ebb Out Newton had
reached even at that early time.
In the reign of Henry III there was a " Lord of Out
Newton " — it mouths well, and I would suggest the name for
some of the un-numbered lords yet to be created.
The present Withernsea is all that is left of two former
important townships, Owthorne, or Sister Kirke, and Withern-
sea. Each had its church, the sites of which are now far out
to sea. The nearness of the two edifices gave rise to the legend
that they were built by two rival sisters. This not uncommon
theory is applied to many others, including the two churches at
86 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
Barton-on-Humber, althougli tlie difference in tiie dates of tliem
is several hundred j^ears.
Witherusea itself, sometimes described as Seathorne (though,
the Seathorne of Domesday was Owthorne), contained 800 acres
at the Inclosure in 1794. A century later there were 745 acres,
a loss of 55. To-day there are less.
The original Withernsea (Witforness) township and church
were much to the east of the present place, it being decided
to re-erect the church on Priest Hill, as long ago as 1444. In
1488 the new (present) church was consecrated, but in the time
of good King Hal it was described as " much decayed,*' and
remained in ruins — as shown by several photographs and
engravings^ — until about fifty years ago.
Owthorne, sometimes referred to in early times as Torne, has
shared a usual fate. According to Reid's " Geology of Holder-
ness,'' " Even since 1822, the date of the old Ordnance Survey,
the village of Owthorne, with a church and twelve houses,
has been entirely swept away, and Owthorne and Withernsea
Meres have both disappeared."
In Thompson's '^ Ocellum Promontorium " is a fine view of
Owthorne Church as it was in 1800; quite close to the cliff edge.
Poulson, in his " History of Holderness," gives a very similar
Tiew — the main difference in Poulson' s sketch being that a flag
is shown as flying on the tower ! Poulson also gives an excellent
side view, showing the church as it was in 1797, and this one
does not seem to have been pirated from any other source !
Poulson, although not usually poetical, gives the following
quaint account of Owthorne, under date 1841 : —
"A few years since, before the sea engulfed the last relict
[sic) of Owthorne Church, a more touching and interesting
spectacle could scarcely be witnessed by a reflecting mind than
these " Sister Churches." Owthorne Church, standing like a
solitary beacon on the verge of the cliff, perpetually undermined
by the billows of the ocean, and offering a powerless resistance
to their encroachments. The churchyard, and its slumbering
inmates, removed from time to time down the cliff by the force
of the tempest, whitened bones projecting from the cliff, and
gradually drawn away by the successful lashing of the waves ;
and after a fearful storm, old persons tottering on the verge
of life, have been slowly moving forth and recognising (!) on
the shore the remains of those whom in early life they had known
and revered. The old church still remained; but the wide
Fig. 6. East Yorkshire. Tuke's Map. 1766.
The Geography of East Yorkshire 87
fissures in the walls, and the shattered buttresses, plainly told
it must soon fall in the common wreck. In 1786 the sea began
to waste the foundation of the churchyard. In 1787 there were
two bells in the tower, and the third broken. In 1796 the
church was dismantled; and in 1816, after an awful storm of
unusual violence, the waves having undermined the foundations,
a large part of the eastern end of the church fell with an awful
crash, and was washed down the cliff into the sea ; many coffins
and bodies in various states of preservation were dislodged
from their gloomy repositories, and strewn upon the shore in
frightful disorder. These relics of departed greatness found a
new place of sepulture in Eimswell. In 1822 the chancel, nave
and part of the tower were gone. In 1838 there was scarcely a
remnant of the churchyard left."
The book on " The Churches of Holderness," to which refer-
ence has already been made, informs us that '" during the wash-
ing away of the chancel of the old church, the coffin of a former
rector was exposed, and the rector and clerk at that time fought
for the ownership of the lead coffin !" and *' a skull, which
projected from the cliff of Owthorne burial-ground was observed
to be occupied by a robin redbreast, where she, undisturbed,
built her nest and reared her brood."
In E/imswell Church there is a plan of Owthorne prepared
in connection with the Inclosure Act of 1806. Though of so
comparatively recent a date, it seems strange to see the positions
of the streets, fields, houses, public drains, church and vicarage,
the sites of all of which to-day are at dead low -water mark.
Newesham or Newsom, formerly within the parish of
Owthorne, has likewise disappeared, and little information in
reference to it seems available. Someday, possibly, some of our
" popular " writers may provide us with a sketch of its
main street, but at present I am not able to show one. The
place is referred to in a deed as late as 1662. In the times of
Domesday the scribe spelt the word as N I U F E H U S F M,
probably as near the phonetic as he was able. In the reign of
Richard II the chapel at Newsome was " conveyed " to Kirkstall.
Later, the sea conveyed it, whither?
Waxholme is another township of which but little remains.
In Speed's map (1610) a mere is shown at Waxholme, with a
stream which joined tho river Hull. Of the fourteenth, fifteenth
and sixteenth centuries are many documents in which are
88 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
references to Waxliolme. It once had a chapel, which was
given to Kirkstall by the Abbot of Albermarle in 1394.
Sand-le-Mere, or Sandlemarr, north of Withernsea, shared a
similar fate. What is left of the mere, now dry, remains so
by an artificial embankment which keeps out the sea. A
" preventive watch-house," which was built at Sand-le-Marr in
1800, was over 84 yards from the clifi: in 18313. To-day part of it
is in pieces, on the sands. Even so long ago as 1841 the
following by no means glowing account of the place was written
by the Holderness historian : —
" Sandley Marr is now the site of a poor cottage on the cliff,
on© mile from Tunstall, and is destitute of all attraction except
the green luxuriance of broad acres, and the wide and solitary
expanse of the German Ocean. The beach affords excellent
materials for the repair of the Holderness roads."
Monkwike (Domesday MONCUUIC) has gone. In the
reign of William the Norman there were in Monkwike "two
carucates of land to be taxed, land to two ploughs. Six villanes
have there three ploughs, and they pay ten shillings." Not a
bad record for those days.
At Hilston, too, there has been great waste. The church
contains remains from a much earlier building . There has been
also much loss at Grimston.
Monkwell, like Monkwike, is another lost township; it was
once near Ringborough .
The present Aldborough is much to the west of the original
village of that name, and even in the quaint present-day church
there are Saxon remains which were probably rescued from the
former building — now washed away. This will be understood
when it is borne in mind that actual measurements show that in
less than eighty years — a man's lifetime — there has been lost a
strip of land 370 feet in width, along the whole front of the
township.
At Golden Parva, or Little Golden, was once a chapel, which,
like so many in Holderness, was conveyed to Kirkstall in the
reign of Richard II. But the chapel, and the village, were
swept away about 1690, though Poulson records that " the living
exists though the chapel has been destroyed !"
At Hornsea, perhaps, have been some of the most remarkable
changes in our coast-line. Not only was there once an
important port there, with pier and landing-stages for ships, but
ihere were townships of a considerable size at Hornsea Burton
The Geography of East Yorkshire
89
rLA IBOROUCH < jL FLAMBOROUCH HEAD.
yF^ / MAP
.R.0L.NCTON^^ / SMOW.NO TME
V v/ R'*"""'"^ T. SHEPPARD. F.C.S.
^^\ H • h*<»tJbubm
-pS. / ,,«o„,. \^X^^r NORTH SEA.
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1 ( \-No;THO«Pt T
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< < A- \ \
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/ / ^M COLOCH PARVA
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J V / JK CARTON • ^
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ROMAN COAST-UNE. Kr ^ks Jfa* t
RAILWAYS ^%^^ ^ S;,. ^ anCCLLS L.C«T,,^5f "•««*""••
• PRtUMT TOWNS t VILLAGES. ^^i=J^ J^ • f
«« ARtA rLOOOtO IN I.O., ^^^^ SPORN HEAD '^^ •*»"«» 000
90 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
and Hornsea Beck. In addition were Northorp and Southorpe
— the north village and south village respectively; which have
likewise gone.
Lord Burleigh's chart shows a large creek at Hornsea. In
the reign of James I Hornsea pier was repaired at a cost of
£3,000, a very considerable sum in those days; and 2,500 trees
were used for the work.
Meaux Abbey held 26 acres of arable land in Hornsea
Burton in 1334. About sixty years later only one acre
remained !
In the reign of Charles II., when small copper currency was
so scarce that publicans and traders issued their own tokens for
purposes of exchange, there was one Benjamin Ehodes at
Hornsea, who in 1670 issued a halfpenny token; on the obverse
of which is a representation of a ship. This seems to be an
indication that shipping was of some moment at Hornsea, even
in those days.
In connection with Sornsea Church there is a tradition, often
quoted, that the following lines were formerly inscribed on the
steeple : —
Hornsea steeple, when I built thee
Thou was ten miles off Burlington
10 miles off Beverley, and 10 miles off sea
Hornsea Church has no steeple ; and certainly at no time since
the church was built was it anything like " ten miles off sea."
That coast erosion is occasionally an advantage is shown by
the fact that in 1770 the corpse of a murderer and smuggler
named Pennel (or Pannell) was bound round with iron hoops
and hung on a gibbet on the north cliff, until such time as the
" ornament" was washed away.
Hornsea Mere is the last of the Holderness Meres. There
were formerly very many, but all are either artificially drained
or" have been "tapped" by the sea. E-emains of a former
Hornsea Mere, to the east of the present one, were exposed in
the recent storms, and in the peat which once formed the margin
of that mere, I found bones of pike, shells of the swan mussel,
and remains of other animals ; and of plants, showing that this
second Hornsea Mere much resembled the present one.
The fishing in the mere has always been of some importance,
and it is interesting to find that so long ago as 1260 both the
Abbot of Meaux and the Abbot of St. Mary's, York, claimed
The Geography of East Yorkshire 91
tlie right of fishing there. They were evidently both sportsmen,
and decided to settle the dispute by combat. After a fight which
lasted all day, the Abbot of St. Mary's champion beat that of
the Abbot of Meaiix, and the Abbot of Meaux fished there no
more.
An interesting MS. plan, dated 1778, has recently come
into my possession. It shows a " fish-honse," and, what
apparently was previously unknown, a duck decoy. A '' spaw "
is also shown near the village. That was in the days when
" spaws " were favshionable, and we are informed that this
Hornsea spring had a " Yictriolic (sic) Quality nearly as strong
as Scarborough Spaw."
A little north of Hornsea is Atwick (Domesday, Attingwick,
the town of Attings) ; with its old-time market cross, which
has been an admirable base for measurements to the cliff edge.
During the past century the land has been washed away here
at the rate of six feet a year. This village, however, is still
intact. But to the north-eavst of it was Cleeton or Clayton,
{said to be the "clay town" from the nature of its subsoil),
every vestige of which has gone. In Skipsea to-day certain
fields are known as " Cleeton-lands," which name seems to be
about the only remaining record of this one-time township.
In Domesday times, however, Skipsea was apparently
included in Cleeton, the latter being by far the most important
place. In '' Cletune " Harold had 28 carucates of land, and as
many ploughs. " Drogo has there two ploughs and six villanes
with one plough, and one hundred acres of meadow."
Even Skipsea formerly had its mere, and I well remember
that one of my earliest geological excursions — a quarter of a
century ago — was to Skipsea, where I obtained the skull and
antlers of a red deer from the old mere bed, and was told by a
villager that they often dug up the bones of the animals which
had been drowned in the Flood. This Skipsea mere, like that at
Hornsea, was formerly famous for its fishing; and from an
Inquisition held at Waglien alx)ut 1288 it appears that Robert
de Chester then enjoyed the tithe of fish in Skipsea Marr, and
no doubt quite as large fish were caught, and quite as interest-
ing fish stories were told, in the thirteenth century as are to-day.
I examined Poulsen's " Holderness " to see what he had to
say about this section of the coast line ; but from the following
sentence which occurs there I can only conclude that the author
had been revelling :~' Mr. Pennant, the tourist, states that in
92 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
his time large masses of amber are found here upon this coast,
but it has disappeared about seven years ago,"
At Skipsea is an unusually fine British earthwork, and close
by the oldest lake-dwelling ever found in England, also of
British date, was discovered some years ago ; but " that is
another story."
Hyde or Hyth, " in Saxon a port or haven," is another lost
town respecting which we know little, except that its site is now
far out to sea. It is not specifically referred to in the Domesday
book, and was no doubt then included in the five and a half
miles of Cleeton. Hyth was referred to in the days of Edward II,
and even so early as the reign of Edward III the people of
Hyth had some twentieth century methods; inasmuch as they
petitioned for a reduction in the assessments, though in their
case the cause was the " devastations of the sea."
From an Inquisition held at Hedon in the year 1400, it
seems that the convent of Meaux had been receiving a total of
£46. 13s. 4d. from Ulram (Ulrome), Cleeton and Skipsea (the
last place including '' Yillam de Hythe "). And it is important
to notice that of this amount (a very large one for those days)
no less a sum than £30 was received from Hyth " chiefly on the
tythe of fish" which was reported to be "all destroyed."
This tithe therefore obviously referred to the fresh water fish,
which would disappear as the sea waters reached the lake. The
Chronicler of Meaux enables us to date the loss of Hythe, as he
distinctly records that it took place in 1396. This means that
the site of Hythe is further out to sea than any place of which
we have a record .
Withow, an adjoining village, was referred to in the
Waghen Inquisition of 1288. To-day, on the Skipsea cliffs, a
hollow, once the bed of a mere, is still referred to by the people
there as Withow Hole. They know not why; that part of
the cliff has always been called Withow Hole. They never
heard of a lost village of Withow, and in that name is still
preserved the last surviving relic of the long-lost village.
Hartburn or Hertburn, is another place with a similar story.
On Tuke's map of 1786 it is merely recorded as " washed away
by the sea," whereas Dade refers to it as " a little vill. or
tything, in conjunction with Winkton, depopulated and totally
extinguished."
Auburn. As one walks along the sands and sand-dunes
south of Bridlington to-day a convenient place for a refreshing
The Geography of East Yorkshire 93
cup of tea is Auburn House — or what is left of it. Perched at
the cliff edge is half a house, the sea has got the other. This
half is all that remains of the village of Auburn. For years
and years first one house and then another has gone. But,
oddly enough, when part of the last building had been taken
the sea ceased its work, and formed protecting sand-dunes
instead. These preserve for us the last of Auburn. This
change is no doubt due to the coast protective work in recent
years at Bridlington.
At Burton Agnes, when the wind is in a certain quarter, the
murmuring of the sea at Auburn can be heard. 'Tis said to be
a sign of rain. But the good people of Burton Agnes say they
hear "Auburn Dolls Sobbering " or "Auburn Dolls Soddering."
They can't tell you what it means, but that's what they have
"always said." It may possibly have some reference to the
sighing and sobbing of the people of Auburn as their homes
were washed away long, long ago.
Formerly the main highway from Hull to Bridlington was
along these cliffs, and the old stage coach owners, in their
printed bills, drew special attention to the glorious coast scenery
along the route. To-day the road has all gone until we reach
Bridlington, where what is left of a one-time important
thoroughfare leads to a golf course ! Eecently, while walking
along the sand-dunes near Auburn House, I found the old iron
milestone, which announced that to Bridlington was three miles,
and Beverley twenty, though the traveller would find it a long
twenty miles, that way, to-day. On the Cardigan Road at
Bridlington is a smaller milestone and a mounting block ; but if
the traveller were to follow its direction he would find himself
toppling over thirty feet of cliff*, " on the road to Beverley !"
Wilsthorpe, nearer Bridlington, has a similar history, or lack
of it. And even in Bridlington itself we have records of great
changes; though artificial sea-walls, groynes, and piers will
probably stay the sea for many years to come. But I must not
begin with records of the past at Bridlington ; the story, though
of great interest, is too long to commence here.
Such is the story of our lost towns. A story of great
changes ; a story of the manner in which one part of our country
has gone, and another has been formed. And thus :
The Earth hath gathered to her breast again
And yet again, the milHons that were born
Of her unnumbered, unremembered tribes.
94 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
But for all that it is pleasant to reflect, as we walk along our
ever varying coast-line that
*^ There is not lost
One of earth's charms ; upon her bosom yet.
After the flight of untold centuries.
The freshness of her far-beginning lies.
And yet shall live."
PEEHISTORIC CLIFF DWELLINGS IN THE MESA
YEEDE NATIONAL PARK.
A new wagon road to the prehistoric Cliff Dwellings in the
Mesa Yerde National Park, located in South-western Colorado,
twenty-five miles from the town of Mancos, on the Rio Grande
Southern Railroad, has just been completed by the United
States Interior Department. This road will also be available
for automobiles by June 1st if the Department consents to allow
motor-cars in the Park. Heretofore these picturesque and
mysterious ruins, which are said by archaeologists to be the
best-preserved of any in North America, have been all but
inaccessible by reason of the long horseback ride over a preci-
pitous mountain trail ; now, however, two seasons' work by the
Government has made the trip an easy and enjoyable one for
all classes of tourists. A new lodging camp, with excellent
accommodations, has been established at Spruce Tree House,
one of the principal ruins.
Dr. Joseph Kossuth Dixon, leader of the Rodman "Wana-
maker Expedition, who visited the ruins last fall, said : " If
the people of the United States and of foreign countries knew
about these wonderful Clift' Dwellings the Mesa Yerde National
Park would become the Mecca for sightseers."
Highways and Byways in the Balkans 95
HIGHWAYS AND BYWAYS IN THE BALKANS.
By Gilbert Waterhouse, F.R.G.S.,
English Lecturer in the University of Leiyzig,
II.*
The Austrian police-lieutenant at Yardishte strongly advised
me not to attempt to reach Novibazar under the prevailing
circumstances. The ordinary Turkish frontier guards would
probably have been replaced by Albanians, who might make it
very difficult for me to cross the frontier from Servia, and the
district generally was so disturbed that it would be wiser to
keep away from the Sanjak altogether. As it was, I was doing
a sufficiently risky thing in entering Servia from the west at all,
as the natives were exceedingly difficult to get on with, not to
say treacherous. His own countrymen never crossed the frontier,
as all German-speaking people were sure to meet with a hostile
reception, and lucky if they escaped without pecuniary loss or
physical injury. Perhaps, as I was English, I might be better
treated, but he could not say for certain. He remembered an
Englishman coming once before — a tall, muscular man, who
spoke broken German. He thought he was an engineer, but
could not learn exactly what sort of a time the Servians had
given him. Did I carry a revolver? Thus encouraged I
produced an automatic pistol, which he eyed approvingly. I
might have to use it, he said, but would do well to keep it out
of sight until needed. With this parting injunction ringing
in my ears I prepared to enter the land of the Serb for the first
time.
I had come that day by the Eastern railway from Sarajevo to
the frontier station of Yardishte. My companions in the third
class carriage had been principally picturesque Bosnian
peasants, with whom I maintained a stumbling conversation in
the Serbo-Croatian tongue, relieved occasionally by a chat
with the train-guards in German. At Yardishte my exit was
barred by a stalwart gendarme who demanded my papers. He
pretended to read my passport with great solemnity for several
* See page 36 for map in the first part of the Paper.
96 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
minutes and then returned it with the air of a man who had
done his duty. I was now free to leave the station, but as the
gendarme was the only civilised person in sight, with the
exception of the railway officials, I determined to get as much
out of him as I could. I was going across the frontier to
Servia, I said, and should be exceedingly obliged if he would
use his influence with the peasants to procure me a couple of
horses and a guide to take me to Uzhitze, the first important
Servian town. The English Consul in Sarajevo, I added, had
told me that the gendarmes as a rule were very fine fellows and
usually very willing to assist travellers. The authority he
could assume with the natives by virtue of his position would no
doubt induce them to meet my requirements, if he would kindly
exert his influence on my behalf. Thereupon he unbent a little
and said that if ordinary baggage-animals would do, he thought
he could arrange for a couple to be brought early next morning
to the station inn. I thanked him profusely, and, as it was now
nearly four o'clock, proceeded to look for lodgings.
They could not accommodate me at the inn, as it was full of
soldiers. In fact, the population of Vardishte consists mostly
of soldiers. However, I was directed to the Post Office, a long,
low building about a quarter of a mile up the hill, and told
they had a spare room there. The interior of the Post Office,
which was also the only grocery -shop in Vardishte and a tavern
as well, consisted of one long room with a portion curtained off.
The woman in charge spoke Croatian only, but as my study of
the language had been confined principally to the words and
phrases I was likely to use, I had no difficulty, here or subse-
quently, in obtaining what I required. She said I could have
a room for the night and indicated the space behind, or rather
beyond the curtain, for this article was more of an ornament
than a screen, two beds, a table, and most of the other furniture
being in full view of customers at the counter. As everything
seemed fairly clean, and I had set out on my journey prepared
for all kinds of discomfort, I did not much mind this lack of
privacy.
After enjoying a wash— by which I mean going outside with
about a gill of water in a glass decanter, pouring it over my
hands, and moistening my face with a damp handkerchief — I
set out to explore the neighbourhood, leaving my camera at the
bottom of my rucksack.
Vardishte is not much of a place, though important as being
Highways and Byways in the Balkans 97
the terminus of the Eastern railway, by which Austrian troops
can be rapidly concentrated on the Servian frontier. Another
branch, designed for a similar purpose, terminates at Uvatz,
opposite Priboj in the Sanjak of Novibazar. The Servian
frontier station of Mokra G-ora, less than two miles distant, is
hidden from Yardishte by a hill, on the top of which a Servian
custom-house is perched. Within a mile of the station there are
less than a score of wooden farm-houses, with perhaps eight or
nine larger and more solid buildings for the garrison. I
followed a road up a hill to the north-west until I obtained a
fairly extensive view and then sat down to enjoy the cool of the
evening.
On my return I met my friend the gendarme, who was
apparently coming off duty for the day. He stopped and
explained very sheepishly that I could not have the horses,
as he had just remembered that animals were not allowed to
cross from Bosnia to Servia, owing to the risk of spreading
disease. Would I come with him and see the lieutenant, who
might see some way out of the difficulty and would in any case
like to see me? I did so, and was very courteously received.
After again showing my papers and answering a few formal
questions I enjoyed a very pleasant chat, the substance of which
I have already set down. Before the evacuation of the Sanjak
by Austria, I was informed, travellers could come and go fairly
freely, but since then conditions had become much more un-
certain. I should certainly do well if I got through to Belgrade
without mishap. The lieutenant then pointed out the Servian
custom-house on the hill, and told me I must be quite sure
to go there immediately and have my luggage examined in
due form and then present myself again at the chief custom-
house in Mokra Gora. He was afraid it was quite impossible
to get horses in Vardishte to take me to Uzhitze and very unlikely
that I should get one at Mokra Gora either, as the Servians
regarded all strangers — all German-speaking strangers at least,
as possible spies, and would probably refuse to supply me
with a horse, even though there were one available in the
village. I should almost certainly have to walk the forty-eight
kilometres to Uzhitze. On arriving there I must not fail to call
on the naclielnik (burgomaster) at once to present my papers.
Above all I must be exceedingly careful how I used my camera,
unless I wished to be arrested on suspicion of being a spy. On
the whole, I had better not use it at all until I reached Belgrade.
98 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
I inquired if I might take a photo in Yardishte, but lie regretted
the responsibility was more than he cared to assume. There-
upon he again expressed the hope that I should receive better
treatment than Austro-Hungarians and Germans usually
received, wished me a safe arrival in Belgrade and left me to
my own devices.
I felt sure that these fears on my behalf were genuine
and not dictated by a desire to discourage Englishmen from
poking into these regions. Still, I had acquired sufficient
knowledge of the Servian character from other sources to feel
confident that the way the natives treated me would depend
entirely on the way in which I approached them. Nevertheless,
I had heard evil things of Mokra Gora in the English Consulate
at Sarajevo, and was fully prepared to walk to Uzhitze if
necessary. I felt no embarrassment on account of my luggage,
as it was compressed into two capacious rucksacks, weighing
together between thirty and forty pounds.
Eeturning to my quarters, I obtained some eggs, bread, and
milk, and boiled myself some soup over my portable spirit-
stove. Then the proprietor of the establishment, who, unlike
his wife, spoke a little German, informed me that I might find
the room rather noisy and could have another at the back of
the house if I preferred. It seemed fairly clean, so after a
perfunctory examination of the bed by the light of my electric
pocket-lamp, and a precautionary spraying of the bed-clothes, I
took off my putties and boots and enjoyed a good night's rest.
The removal of so much apparel was all the undressing I did
until I reached Belgrade. More than once I wished I had
kept my boots on .
The next morning I made an early start, and by half-past
five had reached the crest of the hill along which the frontier
runs. A little group of two or three figures perched on the
sky-line some distance away personified the suspicion with
which Servia regards her big neighbour. They were frontier
guards, ever on the alert for signs of military preparations in the
vale below. Before me rose the low, square, whitewashed
watch-house. Another figure in a neat grey uniform appeared,
eyed me with astonishment as I mounted the last rise, and
awaited my arrival with dignity. I wished him good-morning,
dropped my bags at his feet, and the dreaded ordeal began.
I soon made friends with the Customs officer on the hill. He
pretended to read my passport with the same solemnity as the
Fig. 3. Servia. Kavarna, or Inn, near Bioska.
Fig. 4. Servia. Village, near Stapari.
Highways and Byways in the Balkans 99
Austrian gendavTne, but waxed very sociable when I introduced
myself as an Englishman interested in tbe Servian people and
anxious to see the country. I was going to empty the contents
of one rucksack on tbe ground while he examined the other, but
he stopped me and said he had seen enough. He could not
speak German ; in fact, the Servians did not care to see Germans
and Austrians in their country, but Englishmen were different.
I apologised for my scanty knowledge of Servian, but he
laughed, and said, Razumjete vetj dosta {" You understand
enough already "). He supposed I was going to Belgrade. I
said I was, and hoped to procure a horse in Mokra Gora to take
me to Uzhitze . Thereupon he offered to accompany me back to
the village and see what could be done. On the way he changed
me ten Austrian crowns into Servian money with scrupulous
exactness, and resolutely refused to accept a single para for his
trouble.
Half-way down the hill we met two peasants, who eyed me in
a manner the reverse of friendly. My companion then
explained that I was English, and wished to hire a horse to take
me to Uzhitze. I passed my cigarettes round, which were
graciously accepted, and the ice was broken. Yes, they had a
horse, but it was working in the mountains, and would have to
be fetched. They would want eight dinars for the trip to
Uzhitze, and I must pay them something down, as it would take
several hours to bring the horse down from the mountains,
and they did not want to find me gone when it canie. I handed
over an Austrian two-crown piece, which the elder man spat on,
either for luck or in contempt, and pocketed. I had reason to
remember this coin, as I shall presently relate.
They were a pair of magnificent brigands, these peasants,
and their dark, drooping moustaches gave them an air of great
fierceness, which was perhaps more apparent than real. They
wore sandals of sheepskin and loose gaiters, bound round the
calves with thongs of the same material, through which a knife
of crude native workmanship was thrust ready for use . I after-
wards secured one of these trophies for a dinar (tenpence) from
a peasant in the train on the way to Kraljevo. The Servian men
wear white breeches and a kilt or apron of the same colour,
which reaches almost to the knees. These garments are
secured about the waist by a sash, the many folds of which
serve as a receptacle for provisions, weapons, and other odds and
ends. The shirt is also white, and partly covered by a small,
100 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
open waistcoat, which varies in magnificence according to the
means of the wearer. The outfit is completed by a blue serge
cap, which fits fairly tightly on the head, and has a peak at
each side.
When the earnest money had been paid over a noisy dialogue
ensued between my companions and a little figure in a farmyard
down below, beyond the stream. Presently I was informed
that a woman had been sent for the horse, and I must wait for it
at the chief Custom-house, which lay immediately below. With
this the two peasants bade me a curt good-morning and
departed .
It was about six o'clock when we reached the Custom-house,
and after my new friend had introduced me to two of his col-
leagues and explained my requirements he returned to his post,
though not before all three had posed for a photograph. The
others then did their best to entertain me with a concertina until
about eight, when the arrival of one or two superior officers put
an end to their hilarity. At nine I was still waiting. Shortly
afterwards the monotony was broken by the arrival of a stout,
j ovial Servian from Yardishte . He said he had not been allowed
to leave the station, being without passport, and had been
obliged to return to Yishegrad and wait two days until it
arrived. He was delighted to meet me, and assured me the
landscape at Mokra Gora was a hundred times more beautiful
than the accursed country beyond the hill, shaking his fist vehe-
mently in that direction. He regretted he could not go with
me to Uzhitze, as his business was taking him through the forest
to Bajina Bashta, but assured me that the horse would arrive in
due course, and that I should complete my journey without the
slightest difficulty. He pointed out with pride a coloured
picture of King Peter inside the Custom-house, and also a
fearful medley of men, horses, artillery, and smoke, which he
said was a picture of Servians in battle. He assured me that
there was no nation in the world to equal them in martial
valour, a sentiment I heard expressed at least once a day by
every man with whom I conversed until I crossed the Save.
When the commanding officer arrived about ten I was sitting
on the steps trying to kill time by shaving with cold water and
no mirror. He seemed amused, but heard all about me from
his colleagues within, and sent for my passport, which he deco-
rated on the back with an inscription in Cyrillic characters. I
Highways and Byways in the Balkans loi
expect he entered my name in his register as " Grey." Before
the present Government came into power I believe English
travellers in the Balkans were all set down as " Lansdowne."
The prominence given to the Foreign Secretary's name and the
insignificance of one's own is the greatest beauty of the English
passport. I shall long remember the fellow-traveller in the
train between Budapest and Yienna, who asked to see my pass-
port out of curiosity, read it with awe, and returned it gingerly
with the assurance that he could not too highly appreciate the
singular honour of having met a member of the English Parlia-
ment of such high distinction as myself.
At eleven I was still sitting on the steps, making soup from
tabloids over a spirit-lamp. Again I was interrupted, this
time by a young peasant who introduced himself as Lazar Some-
thingovich, and said he was going to be my guide to Uzhitze.
The horse had not yet arrived, but would I go with him to the
farm and have some dinner? I decided that they had had
enough of me at the Custom-house and went. The farm was
a mere collection of hovels on a hill-side, but I welcomed it as
an agreeable change of scene. Pigs, fowls, and small children
were scrambling sociably about the yard, and a woman, who was
either Lazar's wife or sister-in-law — I could not quite gather
which — grabbed at my hand to kiss it. I was rather startled at
first, though I soon afterwards discovered that it was the custom
for women in these parts to kiss the hands of strangers, even
their own countrymen, presumably in token of subjection.
There is evidently scope for a women's suffrage crusade in
Western Servia.
Whenever my conversation with Lazar broke down — and my
powers were, of course, very limited — the woman had a turn,
speaking at twice the speed and with less than half the success.
However, after putting minute questions concerning my person,
occupation, and ancestry, and getting little out of me except
Ne razumijem (I don't understand), they reverted to the subject
of food, and I understood a little more. Taking me into the
principal hovel, they asked me if I would have some mutton,
indicating a piece of meat which was just visible through a film
of blue-bottles. I said I was passionately fond of eggs. They
have their faults sometimes, but are impervious to blue-bottles
until the shell is broken. And so I had two eggs and Lazar
devoured the mutton. About half -past twelve he gave a shout
of joy, and pointed out a black speck moving rapidly down a
102 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
steep trail. It resolved itself into- the horse, in charge of
Lazar's sister, and in due course reached the farm.
It really seemed now as though my troubles were at an end.
The horse was fed and watered ; Lazar put on his best cap, and
devoted his energies to packing my luggage in the saddle-bags.
When all was ready he told the elder woman to bring the horse,
which was now quietly grazing close by, and I thought another
five minutes would see me in the saddle and on the road to
Uzhitze. But apparently the horse had ideas of his own on the
subject. As the woman approached to seize his halter he
blinked suspiciously, wagged his ears, and moved on a little.
She began to run, so did he, and before we had time to realise
what was happening he had hopped over the low fence which
surrounded the yard and was galloping at full speed through a
field of Indian corn, with the woman running after him. Her
frantic shouts only served to spur him on, and, leaving the field,
he gave his heels a final fling and vanished into the forest.
Meanwhile Lazar was stamping about the yard, fuming and
cursing. He now sent the other woman to join the chase, and
kept up a running fire of invective until their answering voices
died away in the distance. Then he decided it was about time
he went himself, and left me with the pigs and two small chil-
dren.
As I had quite made up my mind not to be disconcerted or
annoyed by anything, I amused myself with my camera for
about an hour until the younger woman returned, thoroughly
exhausted, and disappeared into the hut without a word about
the horse. About half an hour later the elder woman came
back, equally done up. She informed me that Lazar was still
after the horse, and would no doubt catch it. But when he
turned up, about half-past two, furious and weary, with his
face streaming with perspiration and clothes soiled and torn
with scrambling over the stones, the horse was not with him.
After again cursing the two women systematically for what he
regarded as their negligence, he besought me to wait an hour or
so and then he would try again. I said that if the horse did
not return by three o'clock I should proceed on foot. Then, to
the surprise of everybody, it actually did appear. It left the
forest and began to graze unconcernedly at the top of the maize
field. Thus encouraged Lazar and his satellites set off again,
with some corn in a box this time. As they approached, the
animal seemed to reflect a little, then tiirned round and ambled
Fig. 5. vServia. River vSave from Fortress, Belgrade.
Fi.<
Servia. Belgrade, view from Fortress towards Semliii (Hungary),
Highways and Byways in the Balkans 103
gently into tlio wood, increased its pace to a trot, tlien to a
gallop, and the chase began once more. Within half an hour
the three were back again, breathless and bad-tempered, but
without the horse. By this time I had had enough of the game,
and told Lazar I was going to walk to Uzhitze, or at least until I
found a horse that could be caught. In vain did he assure me
that it would come back of its own accord at nightfall, and pro-
mise to make an early start next morning, if I would only spend
the night in the village kavarna, or inn, a wretched shanty at
the foot of the hill. I was so sick of Mokra Gora that I did not
care where I slept as long as it was somewhere else, I said,
remembering that I might have been more than half way to
Uzhitze if I had trusted to my own legs at the beginning of the
day. With these words I shouldered my rucksacks and left
him on the verge of tears. I expect he took it out of the horse
when he caught it.
Leaving the steep path which led to the farm, I descended
into a fairly wide road, which I presumed would take me to
Uzhitze, as there was a line of telegraph wires along it. A
young Servian was walking a few yards ahead, so I hastened to
overtake him and inquire the way. As he seemed a pleasant
sort of fellow I introduced myself as an English teacher,
whereat he was much interested. It seemed he was himself
going to Kremna, a little village some ten or twelve miles away,
where I had planned to spend the night. He was apparently
not averse to having a companion, and shared with me some deli-
cious apples he was carrying. I, too, was glad to make a new
friend, though I should have liked him better if he had walked
more slowly. Either he did not realise that I was carrying
nearly forty pounds of baggage on my shoulders, or else he was
secretly amusing himself by trying to run me off my legs. How-
ever, after we had been going about two hours, he did offer to
take one of my rucksacks, and I was glad to see that he soon
began to grunt and slacken speed.
We had not been long on the way before another man over-
took us. My companion told him all about me, although they
spoke so rapidly that I could not understand half they said.
The newcomer was apparently a Post Office clerk. He had a
bag full of money, and evidently saw a chance of doing business
as a money-changer. I fear he was disappointed in me. Pre-
sently we reached the cluster of houses which forms the prin-
cipal portion of the village of Mokra Gora. A battered old tin
104 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
box hung up outside one of them seemed to indicate the Post
Office, so I told the clerk I wanted some stamps for a postcard I
had written earlier in the day. About a dozen men were loafing
about the doorway, and, of course, they were all astonished
to see a stranger and curious to know my business. I heard
surly growls of suspicion, but the youth with the apples
explained that I was English; the atmosphere cleared, and a
more friendly interest was shown in me. The man who seemed
to be in charge asked me to go inside, and the crowd surged in
after me. Had a Martian suddenly left his planet to visit the
earth he could scarcely have made a greater sensation than I did
in the Post Office at Mokra Gora. They asked me my name,
but it sounded so uncouth that I was requested to write it down
on a large sheet of official paper. Even then they could not
read it until I wrote it a second time in Cyrillic capitals, where-
upon they managed to pronounce it quite tolerably. Only when
the general curiosity had been satisfied did the postmaster
remember that my business with him was to buy a ten-para
stamp, not to recite an autobiography.
Eventually I got clear, and continued my journey with some
satisfaction, confident that the general atmosphere was friendly
and that I had little to fear from the natives as long as I
approached them openly and cheerfully answered all questions.
The Post Office clerk came no further, but the youth with the
apples in his handkerchief was still tearing along at breakneck
speed talking to me over his shoulder. He seemed very anxious
to learn what I carried in my rucksacks, and was much inter-
ested to hear I had some books with me. Indeed, he could
scarcely believe me until I showed him a German-Croatian
dictionary, which he fingered with awe, being quite unable to
decipher the Latin characters. This curious reverence for
books reappeared when we happened to pass a priest. Just for
the sake of conversation I inquired who it was, and he replied :
" The pope. He reads books ! " as though the ability to read
were the height of human wisdom.
It was on this walk to Kremna that I first fully realised the
subordinate position of Servian peasant women. We met at
least a dozen, and not a single one failed to stoop and kiss our
hands. An incident also occurred which impressed me very
strongly, and testifies to the simplicity and sturdy honesty of
the people of these parts. A group of men were standing talk-
ing by the wayside, and as we exchanged the usual greeting one
Highways and Byways in the Balkans 105
of them called to me to stop, and came to me, holding out a coin
in his open hand. I looked at the coin, which was an Austrian
two-crown piece, then at the man, and recognised the peasant to
whom I had given the earnest-money for the horse nearly twelve
hours before. "Where is the horse?" he asked. I replied
that it had run away into the forest and Lazar had not been able
to catch it. Thereupon the man pushed the coin into my hand,
wished me a brief good-afternoon, and turned away. I soon
discovered that this refreshing straightforwardness was a charac-
teristic of all the Servian peasants with whom I came into con-
tact. When I reached Belgrade the British Minister, to whom
I told the story, said that the Servian is at his best in theaie
remote western parts of the country, but often demoralised and
treacherous to the east of the main line of railway.
Presently we reached a high hill, round the side of which the
road, which was in a fair state of repair, wound in long zigzags.
Taking what he called a short cut, my companion proceeded to
give me the severest gruelling I have ever had. But for the
few springs of clear, cold water at which he stopped to quench
his thirst — the Servians drink gallons of water and little of
anything else — thus allowing me to get my breath at intervals, I
think I must have collapsed by the way. I had eaten practically
nothing all day except two eggs and a few lozenges of concen-
trated food, and was consequently feeling tired and hungry. It
seemed ages before we reached the top of the pass, where we
rested by mutual consent, and the cool evening breeze revived
me. My companion now thought the opportunity had come for
a thorough investigation of my luggage, so I emptied my ruck-
sacks for his inspection. He gazed in wonder on my camera,
and when I had explained its use as well as my knowledge of
Servian would allow wanted to have his photo taken on the spot,
although the sun had now set. After replenishing my voca-
bulary from a pocket-dictionary I tried to point out that the
presence oi sunce (sun) was necessary for the production of a
slika (picture), but he seemed only half convinced. Then my
spirit-lamp claimed his attention for a while, but what charmed
him most was a collapsible knife and fork. He sadly wished
to buy it from me, and was very downcast when I said I needed
it for my own use . However, I succeeded in restoring his good
spirits with a present of two safety-pins, with which I proceeded
to fasten his shirt-sleeves, and I can honestly say that I have
never seen a man more delighted with a present in my life.
io6 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
The village of Kremna now lay below us — part of it, at least,
for Servian villages are very elusive. It is always difficult to
tell where one finishes and the next begins, so scattered are the
houses. Indeed, it is possible to walk for an hour or more and
still be in the same village. For instance, Stapari, through
part of which I passed the next afternoon, was indicated on my
map in three different places five or six miles apart, and the
same is true of many others,
My companion had now reached his destination, and pre-
pared to leave me. He said there were two kavarnas, or inns,
in Kremna ; in fact, one was close at hand, and ho indicated a
building I should have mistaken for a cowshed. I said I
should prefer the other, whereupon he told me to follow the road
a little further and I should pass it. Although my feet were
weary, I plodded along for another half -hour, and then decided
to camp out for the night. It was a lovely evening, fine and
warm. Darkness was rapidly falling, and in the distance I
could hear the peasant women calling the cattle home. About
two hundred yards away a straggling line of bushes betrayed the
neighbourhood of a river. Altogether it was a pleasant spot,
so I spread out my things on a grassy slope about fifty yards
below the road, filled my can with water from the river — no easy
task owing to the steepness of the banks, the thick bushes, and
the shallowness of the stream — lit my lamp, and prepared to
enjoy a well-earned rest. Then suddenly, as I was meditatively
listening to the bubbling of the water and grinding a soup
square to powder, somebody came galloping along the road at a
great pace, caught sight of me and my belongings in the field,
and shouted, ^' Who is that ? " I waited for the question to be
repeated, and then answered wearily : " I don't understand
Servian. I am an English traveller." Contrary to my hopes,
my questioner, instead of minding his own business and going
away, dismounted and came to me in the field, bringing his
horse with him. As it seemed a superior sort of animal I saw
the man must be a person of authority, and I should have to be
careful. He pointed at my lamp, over which the water was
now boiling merrily, and kept on saying it was not allowed. I
answered his observations with a monotonous chant of Ne
razumijem, thinking he would get tired and leave me to my own
devices. But he really was in earnest, and almost foamed at
the mouth, so I thought it convenient to understand a little
more. When he saw me make a move to extinguish the lamp
Fig. 7. Servia. Belgrade, National Mortgage Bank with vStatue of
Prince Michael.
Fig. 8. Servia. Belgrade. Royal Palace.
Highways and Byways in the Balkans 107
and pack up lie grew quite amiable, and said that the English
were a fine nation, but I really could not sleep out and make
fires in the open. There was a farmhouse close by, he informed
me, and a kavarna about fifteen minutes further along the road.
I thought it hopeless to attempt to explain that I wished, to sleep
out to avoid sleeping in, so I left the field, whereupon my dis-
turber shook hands very affably, mounted his horse, and
galloped away in the direction of Mokra Gora.
After about ten minutes I began to feel tired, and sat down
on a heap of stones to chew another food tablet and think things
over. A mouthful of wine from my flask put me on my feet
again, so, shouldering my rucksacks once more, I trudged for-
ward. As I was leaving a small wood I heard a curious howl-
ing, and saw a light coming from a building just ahead. As
the door was open I guessed it was the inn, and entered. When
I stepped out of the darkness into the dimly-lighted room the
noise, which proceeded from a quartette of natives, apparently
drunk, ceased abruptly, and all eyes were turned on me. The
inn consisted of one long, whitewashed room only, with a sort of
counter in one corner, which served as a bar. Round the four
or five rickety tables perhaps a score of Servians were gathered
playing cards, singing, and drinking rakia, or sugar and water.
The host, with an assistant or two, was attending to a small fire
placed breast high on a raised hearth in the wall opposite the
doorway. He immediately brought me the customary glass of
sugar and water, and inquired my wishes with courtesy and
dignity. Yes, he said, I could have a room for the night, also
eggs, bread, and milk. While the food was being prepared the
other guests were gazing at me open-mouthed in wonder, and I
answered the usual round of questions, and also took the oppor-
tunity of inquiring if I could hire a horse to take me to Uzhitze
the next day. The host said it was a long journey, and would
cost me eight dinars (about six-and-sixpence). Considering
that a man would have to go with me to bring the horse back,
it was very cheap, so I made the bargain, and was told the horse
would be ready at six o'clock the next morning.
The ladder outside the building, up which I was conducted
to my sleeping quarters, looked as though it might have led to a
fowl-house, and the room itself looked a mere loft in the dim
light of the lantern, but I was too tired to be fastidious. One
of the young men knelt down to remove my boots, but my putties
were beyond his powers, so I dismissed him and began to explore
I08 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
the apartment. It contained a table and two beds, nothing
more. Fortunately the walls had been recently whitewashed,
so the place was not obviously verminous. Perhaps I was too
tired to notice much, for I slept soundly until five. Neverthe-
less, when morning dawned I saw enough to make me draw on
my boots without delay and make a speedy exit.
Then came the fearful ceremony of washing. Producing a
decanter, which held about half a pint, the innkeeper poured
the contents over my hands as I rubbed them together. This is
usually the beginning and end of the proceedings, so he seemed
mildly surprised when I brought out a cake of soap and asked
him to repeat the operation. However, he submitted with a
good grace, and I kept him busy for some time. Not knowing
the Servian for " bucket," I was rather at a disadvantage,
though I doubt whether the establishment possessed such an
article, and, even if it had, I might perhaps have been loth to
use it.
While I was busy with my breakfast a man came up the road
leading a horse, which he proceeded to tie up at the inn door.
After contemplating the animal for some time, I began to
wonder whether this could really be my horse. After my experi-
ence of the previous day I had begun to regard horses as beyond
the bounds of possibility for me. Still, as this one remained
quietly standing by the door, and nobody seemed ready to take
it away, I ventured to inquire whether the horse was for me or
not. /' Oh, yes ! " said the innkeeper; " it is only waiting for
you." The owner then arranged my rucksacks on the saddle.
I mounted, and off we set at a dignified walk. Presently we
reached a farm, and my new companion said he was not going
with me himself, but would send a Tnornak, or servant, with me.
I could pay for the horse at the end of the journey.
Milosh, the Tnornak, was a quaint figure. He was shorty
thick-set, and elderly. He limped badly, had only one eye,
and his neck was swollen to twice its natural size with goitre.
He plodded steadily ahead, and the horse followed patiently
and tirelessly, bearing me and my luggage. Like all Servian
horses, it was small, but very tough and wiry, and as nimble a&
a cat. It carried me uphill and down until late in the after-
noon without the slightest sign of distress. Occasionally, when
the path became so steep as to be dangerous or so stony that the
horse could scarcely pick its way, it would stop as a sign that I
must get off and walk a little.
Highways and Byways in the Balkans 109
For the first few miles the road was good, and I felt that I
was really making progress. After the previous day's delay it
was a relief to be moving even at a walking pace. My way
lay through a pleasant valley, fertile and fairly well populated.
We passed through one or two straggling villages, Meany,
Bioska, and it was at the latter, I think, that we stopped for
lunch (see Fig. 3). The inn was similar to the one in which
I had spent the previous night, though somewhat larger. Water
with sugar was brought, and Milosh produced from some part
of his person a piece of coarse bread, resembling a door-mat in
appearance and texture, also a wooden box containing thick,
yellow fat of some kind. H© divided the bread, lathered his
own share with the grease, and pushed both across to me. I
asked him if we could have some beer, and he asked the pro-
prietor, who replied, '' Ima " (there is), and went on smoking.
Milosh said we would have some, so a large wooden case, which
seemed to have been reposing for years in one corner of the inn,
was opened, and I was supplied with a bottle that held nearer a
quart than a pint. It was villainous stuff, so I did not wonder
that Milosh preferred another glass of rakia, a low-grade spirit
consumed by the poorer classes. Slivovitz, or plum brandy, is
a more expensive beverage. The ordinary Servian is tem-
perate, and drinks more water than anything else.
When we had finished and the horse was sufficiently rested
I paid the bill, which amounted to about sixpence all told,
and off we set again. Passing through a small village
(Fig. 4), we came to a high hill, up which we toiled for about
an hour. The road then led across a high plateau, which com-
manded an extensive view towards the Sanjak of Novibazar.
Presently my guide left the main track for a path to the right,
saying that we should in this way save an hour. For a mile
or two it led through a fine glade of oak trees, but then emerged
on to a wild expanse of barren and stony moorland. So rough
did the road now become that my horse could scarcely find a
foothold between the stones, and I was obliged to dismount
several times and walk a mile or two. At last we reached the
north-eastern edge of the plateau, and came in sight of our
•destination, the town of Uzhitze, lying some two or three miles
ahead in the deep valley below our feet. The descent was at
first extremely steep, and the path at one point so narrow that I
had to walk behind the horse. Since midday we had seen very
few people, but now began to meet the peasants returning from
no Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
market. We stopped beside a spring where a small party was
halted, and Milosh proceeded to explain me and my business
to everybody present. They were all consumed with curiosity,
but very friendly, and wished me a pleasant journey. It is
astonishing what quantities of water these Servians drink.
Whenever we passed a spring Milosh would stop, put his head
into it, and take in long draughts like a horse. I fancy this
rough-and-ready method of drinking any kind of water any-
where has something to do with the prevalence of goitre in these
parts.
I shall never forget the awful cobbles with which the streets
of Uzhitze are paved. The descent into the town was fairly
steep, and we plunged into a crowd of peasants returning from
market with horses, cattle, and other animals. By the wayside
sat a beggar, who was producing weird sounds from a fearful
weapon of music called a guzla. At last we entered the main
street, and drew up at a little den with which Milosh was
apparently familiar. He seemed to think that I should be
satisfied to spend the night there, but I was firm, and insisted
on being taken to the best hotel. Here we parted — I glad to
have reached a more or less civilised place, he delighted with a
present of 60 paras (6d.) over and above the hire of the horse.
The Hotel Ilija Grbitj is the leading hostelry in Uzhitze,
which is not saying much. For a dinar and a half (Is. 3d.) I
was provided with a room which boasted two beds, two pairs of
slippers, a jug with about a pint of water, and a washbowl about
eight inches across. Luxury indeed after Yardishte and
Kremna ! However, the cooking was very good, and I really
enjoyed my supper on the little ramshackle verandah before the
door. Here I got into conversation with several officers and
Customs officials, who waxed eloquent, and gave me much
advice and information when I told them I was English.
Uzhitze is an enterprising little place with about 7,000
inhabitants and a brisk trade in cattle and agricultural produce.
I was informed with pride by my new acquaintances that it
boasted electric light, a luxury enjoyed by no other Servian
town except Belgrade . They told me I had done well to visit
Uzhitze, as I was thus seeing the real Servia. Belgrade was
merely a degenerate cosmopolitan city.
It was too late in the day to take photographs, so after a dis-
jointed but friendly conversation on the verandah, in the course
of which I learned, to my great surprise, that the railway had
Hlf/
Fig. 9. Servia. Belgrade, Old (ratewa}^ in Fortress with Lieut. Djuritj
and Mr. Todorovich.
Fig. 10. Servia. Belgrade, l*alinula Church, Old Cemetery. Burial place
of King Alexander and Queen Draga.
Highways and Byways in the Balkans iii
just been completed as far as Uzhitze and that one train was
running to Stalatj daily at 6 a.m., I retired for the night. By
this time I had given up my intention of proceeding to Novi-
bazar. It was clear to me that my equipment scarcely provided
for delays and emergencies, the distances seemed to be much
greater than I had calculated, and I realised that if I had any
further difficulties in obtaining horses I might find myself
stranded miles from anywhere. The next morning, therefore,
found me at the station along with a crowd of travellers
and spectators, for the inhabitants had not yet grown accus-
tomed to their new toy, and turned out in large numbers to look
at the trains. The carriages, I observed, were made in Berlin,
the locomotives in France or Belgium, I forget which. I am
inclined to think that Britain does not share as largely in the
trade of Servia as she might.
Leaving Uzhitze, the train entered a narrow gorge, and then
proceeded to Pozhega along the broad and fertile valley of the
Morava. The general character of the country is hilly, but
well wooded and watered. Along the banks of the river there
are fine stretches of rich pasture and fields of maize and tobacco.
My companions in the train were, of course, all natives.
Opposite to me sat two women, who rolled cigarettes and
spat about incessantly. One man, who sold me his knife for a
dinar, asked me the usual string of questions, and, learning that
I was unmarried, pointed to three or four women in the carriage,
who were listening intently, and suggested that I should take
my choice. I extricated myself with difficulty. Meanwhile
we passed several important towns — Chachak, Trstenik, and
Kraljevo, the latter only a good day's ride from Novibazar. The
heat was intense, and at every station my companions left the
train to refill their water bottles at the pump. At last, about
two in the afternoon, we reached Stalatj, an important junction
between Belgrade and Sofia, and I had time for a good lunch
before proceeding northwards.
Then followed a long but not uninteresting ride in a badly-
lighted and abominably stuffy carriage via Jagodina and Lapovo
to Belgrade. On the way the weather changed completely, and
I felt glad that I was not on the road to Novibazar. Lightning
flashed, thunder rolled, and by the time I reached the capital,
about 9.30 p.m., the rain was falling in torrents. After some
difficulty I reached the Hotel Balkan. The streets were in an
appalling condition. Where they were paved the cobbles
112 Journal ot the Manchester Geographical Society
seemed to come right through my boots, and elsewhere I sank
up to the ankles in mud. Repairs were apparently in progress.
The cobbles were being taken up all over the town, and wood
blocks were being laid down. I saw only the first stage of this
process, and as the war broke out immediately after I left I
very much doubt whether any progress has been made with the
wood blocks.
Next morning, as I was leisurely breakfasting in the
restaurant, I fell into conversation with a talkative Servian
gentleman at the next table. He was busy spicing his food
with paprika, which, he remarked, was a fiery stuff — like the
Servian character. Then he proceeded to dilate on the warlike
temper of his race, a subject on which I was already singularly
well informed. However, learning that I was English, he
became even more amiable, introduced himself, and volunteered
to show me the town, an offer which I gladly accepted, espe-
cially as he said he was on good terms with the military
authorities, and I might take photographs practically anywhere
I pleased.
Few towns in Europe are more picturesquely situated than
Belgrade. On the western side it is washed by the Save
(Fig. 5) ; on the east by the Danube, which here receives the
waters of its great tributary. The old fortress, crowning the
heights at their confluence, commands a fine view of both rivers
(Fig. 6), together with the low, flat island known as the great
""War Island," and in the distance the Hungarian fortress of
Zimony (Germ. Semlin, Serv. Zemun).
Belgrade (Serv. Beograd, i.e.. White Town) was, when I
saw it, a flourishing city of about 60,000 inhabitants, with a
large proportion of foreign residents. True, the streets were
in an appalling state, being either rudely paved with cobbles or
uneven setts (Fig. 7), or else, like the main thoroughfare
(Fig. 8), in a condition of utter upheaval. Still, several fine
buildings were in process of construction, and some were
already completed, e.g., the National Bank, before which is a
fine statue of Prince Michael Obrenovich, who was assassinated
in 1868 (Fig. 7) The Eoyal Palace (Fig. 8) is a very respect-
able structure, and will certainly look much better when the
street in which it stands is set in order. Other important build-
ings are the Cathedral and the University.
The most imposing feature of Belgrade is the fortress.
Originally known by the name of Singidunum, it was first a
Highways and Byways in the Balkans 113
Celtic, then a E-oman strongliold. After changing hands at
least a dozen times before the fourteenth century, it was held
by the Servian kings until 1427. Then it became a bone of
contention between the Hungarians and the Turks. After
being repeatedly captured and recaptured, it was again held by
the Servians from 1807 to 1813, when it was wrested from them
by the Turks, in whose possession it remained until 1866. In
that year the energy of Prince Michael, helped by diplomatic
pressure from the Great Powers, procured its restoration to
Servia.
My new friend, Mr. Kosta Todorovich, was of great help to
me here. He introduced me to Lieutenant Djuritj, the
Adjutant, who introduced me to a Colonel, who passed me on to
a General, who presented me to the Governor, who graciously
gave me permission to take photographs within the fortress itself.
I was informed that this privilege had never been granted to
any foreign visitor before, in which case the pictures shown in
Figs. 5, 6, and 9 are unique.
I shall always remember with the deepest gratitude the
trouble my new friends gave themselves on my behalf. They
explained to me the history of the fortress and explored with me
some of its innermost recesses, taking me to parts to which
ordinary visitors are not allowed access. The most I could do
in return was to take their photographs, and so Fig. 9 shows
Mr. Todorovich and the Adjutant standing by one of the gates
overlooking the Save. The marks of bullet and shell are
plainly visible on the heavy wooden door and adjoining wall.
After a long scramble round the ramparts (Fig. 6) I was taken
down a deep shaft, at the bottom of which lies an inexhaustible
well of drinking water. Tunnels have been constructed in all
directions beneath the hill, and great was my astonishment
when, after a long descent through dark and damp subterranean
passages, I was told that I was standing beneath the river
bed. In spite of all these devices the citadel is not equal to
the task of resisting a modern siege, and I was informed that in
case of attack by Austria the Servians would not defend
Belgrade but retire into the interior.
It may sound incredible, but it is none the less true, that
during my journey through Servia, only about a month before
the outbreak of the war, I never heard the slightest rumour that
any such event was likely to take place. It is true that every-
body I met in Belgrade was talking about war, but it was war
114 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
with Austria, not with Turkey. Austria-Hungary was the
possible enemy, and my Servian friends were so confident in
their courage and military skill that in imagination they were
already before the gates of Vienna. I often wonder whether
they took the field against the Turks and whether they are
still alive.
After leaving the fortress I paid a short visit to the British
Minister, and then turned my steps to the gloomy Palinula
Chapel in the Old Cemetery (Fig. 10). Here, in 1903, the
bodies of the slaughtered Alexander and his Queen were uncere-
moniously interred — not even side by side. The history of the
Servian princes during the nineteenth century is little more
than that of a blood feud between the Obrenovich and Kara-
gjorgjevich families. In 1804 Gjorgje Petrovich, or
Karagjorgje (Black George), the son of a swineherd, fought
with temporary success against the Turks, but was eventually
defeated and forced to leave the country. In 1815 Milosh
Obrenovich, of equally illustrious descent, headed another
national rising with better success, and became a sort of prince.
Presently Kara-Gjorgje returned, and there were two Rich-
monds in the field, each apparently jealous of the other. In
1817 Kara-Gjorgje was murdered, and Milosh Obrenovich
reigned undisturbed until 1839, when he abdicated and went
abroad. He was succeeded by his son Milan, who died the
same year. Milan's brother, Michael, followed, and reigned
until 1842, when he was deposed, and a Karagjorgjevich came
to the throne in the person of Alexander, son of Kara-Gjorgje.
In 1859 he too was deposed, and old Milosh was recalled. His
death in 1860 again made room for Michael, who reigned until
1868, when he was murdered, presumably by partisans of the
other side. His successor was his cousin, Milan Obrenovich,
who made the ill-fated match with Natalie and abdicated in
favour of his son, Alexander, in 1889. The murder of
Alexander and Draga put an end to the Obrenovich dynasty,
and so King Peter Kara-Gjorgjevich has some prospect of dying
a natural death.
In the evening I left Belgrade by steamer, and spent a night
at Semlin, whence a pleasant run of about six hours took me to
Budapest and Western civilisation.
N.B. For typographical reasons it has not been possible to
keep the correct spelling of Serbo-Croatian words and names in
all cases.
Erratum, p. 37, 1, 5 : for Bruck read Salzach.
Spitsbergen : Past and Present 115
SPITSBERGEN: PAST AND PRESENT.
By William S. Bruce, LL.D., F.R.S.E.
[Addressed to the Society in the Geographical Hall on
Tuesday, October 2Ut, 1913.)
Spitsbergen, along with Bear Island, was discovered by the
Dutch in 1596. But the British were the first to exploit the
commercial resources of the country when, in 1604, the Muscovy
Company, of London, sent a ship thither which brought back a
valuable cargo of walrus ivory from Bear Island. In 1609
Captain Poole, of the Muscovy Company, discovered good coal
in Spitsbergen, and it is a striking fact that this valuable dis-
covery was not followed up until the present century. Hudson
visited Spitsbergen in 1607 in the " Hopewell," and reported
many whales; and in 1610 Poole visited and explored Prince
Charles Foreland, and named some bays and anchorages on the
west coast. He captured 120 walruses, 21 reindeer, and 30
bears, besides reporting an abundance of whales. Britain
followed up the reports of Hudson and Poole, and started
regular whale fishing with two ships sent by the Muscovy Com-
pany in 1611. The following year there were four British
whalers on the scene, and one Dutch and one Spanish whaler in
charge of two British masters. In 1613 King James granted
a charter to the Muscovy Company, giving them sole right to
the whaling industry in Spitsbergen seas, with power to exclude
all other ships, British or alien. This year eight British ships
visited Spitsbergen, including one for discovery and the
"Tiger," 250 tons with 21 guns, for protection. While King
James had given British whalers the charter of whaling mono-
poly, the Dutch also received a commission granted " by the
Grave Maurice for to fish in Spitsbergen," and the Dutch fared
badly at the hands of the British. In 1618, however, the Dutch
made serious reprisals, having no less than 23 ships in Spits-
bergen waters compared with the Muscovy Company's 13 with
two pinnaces. Many inducements had been made by the
Muscovy Company to get men to winter in Spitsbergen, but
without success. In 1630, however, a British party deserted
ii6 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
by their ship, consisting of Edward Pelham and seven others,
successfully wintered at Recherche Bay, and were found alive
and well the next year.
British, Dutch, French, and Danes were fishing at this time,
and it was nearly all harbour fishing . Ships anchored close to
the shore, and huts were built. Besides huts they had ware-
houses, furnaces, coppers, and boilers for the boiling out of the
blubber. The shores were busy with coopers and other work-
men, and the whales were towed ashore and there flensed, the
blubber was boiled down, the oil casked, and the casks floated
off and hoisted on board. The division of bays amongst the
nations had been a matter of much divspute and trouble.
Britain, first in the field, claimed exclusive rights, but the
Dutch resisted the claim, and Danes and French Basques also
claimed right of access. But all the bays from Clase Cove
(Cross Bay) and Deer Sound (King's Bay) down to Horn Sound
were generally admitted to be British. The principal resort of
the Dutch was at Mauritius Bay, in the north-west of Spits-
bergen, where Smeerenburg (or Blubber-town) developed,
which is now known as Smeerenburg Sound. The remnants of
this and other Spitsbergen settlements are marked to-day by
traces of the boiling furnaces, by remains of wooden houses, and
by many graves of men and women. In Smeerenburg Sound
there is a place known as Grave Point, where about 200 coffins
and skeletons lie half unearthed, and there are many similar
sights on a smaller scale all round the shores of western Spits-
bergen. At this time the Dutch had both a chapel and a fort
at Spitsbergen, and sent up about 4,000 tons of shipping, or
fully 20 ships. In 1632 the Danes attempted to assert rights
over Spitsbergen, and, being prevented by the Dutch, went to
Jan Mayen and pillaged and destroyed the Dutch station there
selling the plunder at Eouen. Consequent on this, and the
successful British wintering by Pelham in 1630, the Dutch
received a new charter to keep in continuous occupation — in
short, to colonize in Smeerenburg and Jan Mayen. Wintering
parties were left at both places ; those at Jan Mayen all died,
but the seven in Spitsbergen survived the winter. Next year,
1634-35, other seven wintered in Spitsbergen, but all died by
February, because they largely lived on " all manner of neces-
saries " provided for them instead of living a healthy life hunt-
ing for reindeer, bears, and other fresh food.
In the British whaling fleet at this time the Muscovy Com-
Spitsbergen : Past and Present 117
pany alone brought home 1,100 tons of oil and employed 1,000
men, and their annual tonnage- was 3,500. Soon after this
Hamburg ships took part in the fishery, and then French ships
increased, but the bay whaling declined, and then the Dutch
especially took to whaling at sea. The Dutch ceased to fish at
the end of the eighteenth century, and during the nineteenth it
passed entirely to British, and more especially to Scottish
ships, but this fishing was mostly away from Spitsbergen in the
open sea. In recent years Scotland alone has held the field in
this bowhead, or Greenland whale fishing, but mostly in Green-
land waters and Davis Straits. Alas ! two years ago for the
first time the Dundee whaling fleet was lying idle in the docks
with not a single ship sent out to Arctic seas. On the other
hand, the twentieth century has seen a revival of whaling in
Spitsbergen by Norwegians, but the results, at first satisfactory,
are now no longer so, and it seems likely that it will not be
worth while continuing much longer. This whaling was for
the finner and not for the bowhead whale.
Many of these British whalers were also explorers, and, as
already noted, British men-of-war and exploring ships often
accompanied the whaling fleet to Spitsbergen. Fotherby made
extensive discoveries, especially in the north, while Poole
explored Prince Charles Foreland and many of the western
bays. Marmaduke discovered Hope Island and Edge Island.
The British also discovered Wiche's Land and North-East Land.
Russian trappers frequented Spitsbergen in the eighteenth
century and till the middle of the nineteenth, and Norwegian
trappers have hunted there during the latter half of the nine-
teenth century. There are still some few of these so-called
hunters left, but they have done such wholesale slaughter, with
not only firearms and traps but with poison, that now Western
Spitsbergen is a desert. In many places that I visited in 1912
and in 1909 not a single fox was to be seen where arctic and
blue foxes abounded in previous years, and in fertile valleys
where herds of reindeer used to roam only skeletons and carcases
are now to met with. Ptarmigans have also been slaughtered,
and only wild pink geese re-echo their warning cries in glens
where there is no other living creature to respond to them.
During the recent British expedition (1912) very few eider
ducks, no white whales, and one seal were met with in Icefiord,
and everywhere in Spitsbergen all were scarce. The walrus is
never seen in West Spitsbergen now, and only a few bears
Ii8 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
wander there in winter time. The sooner such brutal massacre
by so-called hunters is stopped the better, if the fauna of Spits-
bergen is not to be entirely wiped out. Nor have so-called sports-
men been free from blame in this matter. The only way to stop it
is for one strong country to take Spitsbergen under its wing and
to stop all killing for a number of years until the animals have
time to recover, and then to regulate hunting, both on sea and
ashore.
Economic development in Spitsbergen at the present day is
almost confined to the west coast. The warm surface drift
from the Atlantic and the prevailing westerly winds make that
coast readily accessible all summer. Ice seldom interferes with
navigation at that season; in fact, but for the freezing of the
fjords, the west coast could often be reached in winter. The
east coast is much less accessible owing to pack ice.
British interests, which, together with American, are the
most important in Spitsbergen, are chiefly centred in Bell
Sound, Ice Fjord, and Deer Sound (King's Bay), as well as
Prince Charles Foreland, but a British company also claims land
in Stor Fjord, on the east.
Most of the west coast and its hinterland has been prospected
for minerals, and almost every part of any value has been laid
claim to. In fact, so numerous are these claims, though many
of them are derelict, that they have begun to overlap.
Almost every mile of the long and much-lauded Ice Fjord
has been claimed by one company or another. In Green Harbour
is situated a Norwegian whaling station and a Norwegian
Government wireless telegraphy station. Th^ whaling station,
we learnt in 1912 on our last visit, had had little success in
whaling that season, and was likely to be given up. The
powerful wireless station which was set up in 1911 by the Nor-
wegian Government seems to be out of all proportion to the
commercial claims Norway has in Spitsberg^^r , which are not
nearly of such great im])ortance as the American and British
ones. It is true there is a land whaling station and another
floating one in Gbeen Harbour, but the wireless station is of no
use to them, and especially also in view of recent results. There
are also many claim boards here and in Spitsbergen elsewhere
set up by Norwegians and Swedes, and in too many cases those
individuals or companies attempt to " jump " territory pre-
viously claimed by others. In Green Harbour one Norwegian
company has made several holes along a coal seam where the
Spitsbergen : Past and Present 119
chief work has been done by the Americans. There are also the
so-called Norwegian hunters, who have practically exterminated
the game in Western Spitsbergen, and in summer two or three
Norwegian tourists' boats go to Spitsbergen. But these Nor-
wegian interests cannot justify the erection of a costly wireless
station, the subsidising of a small boat to carry the mails to and
from Tromso, and the financing of survey expeditions, which
must one and all be of political significance only.
In Advent Bay the Americans, after about ten years' work,
have wonderfully developed the country, and it was reported
that the company had orders for 45,000 tons of coal for ship-
ment during the summer of 1912. This coal has a high calo-
rific value, and is very well suited to steam-raising purposes.
The engineers on board two ships with which I have been asso-
ciated assured me that this coal is almost equal to South
Wales coal ; this is borne out by analysis. The seams are of a
good thickness, and crop out on fairly steep faces above the sea,
where they are reached by level adits. The coal is carried to
the jetty by a wire ropeway. The American company is well
supported with capital, and is continuing to extend the equip-
ment of its well-equipped coal workings and settlement. This
summer a veritable forest of timber has been put ashore, and
rapid progress was being made with the erection of many more
houses and stores. Wireless communication to Europe, via Green
Harbour, has been established. The demand, in fact, for this
Spitsbergen coal has apparently increased at such a rate that
during the summer of 1912 there was insufficient accommoda-
tion for the number of miners and others, about 300, employed.
This, indeed, appears to have been the cause of a serious strike,
which the Americans faced with successful results by replacing
all the malcontents, mostly Fins and Swedes, with other more
willing workers. Some of the leading workers are British, and
this contingent of expert miners, who have given great satisfac-
tion, seems likely to be increased. Our American cousins are
to be congratulated on the businesslike way in which they have
developed these Spitsbergen coal deposits. As mentioned above,
they have been backed with plenty of capital. That capital has
been used judiciously but freely, and with satisfactory results ;
and if the mineral resources of Spitsbergen are to be fully
developed it is necessary to have, in the first place, plenty of
capital, a considerable part of which must be spent in pro-
specting by capable geologists and expert mining engineers, and
120 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
to have that preliminary work followed up in the way the
Americans have done in spending freely and wisely large sums
on equipment. Besides the present workings another mine is
being opened on the opposite, i.e., the east side of Longyear
Valley. A busy coal jetty, steam shovels, wire ropeway, ships,
coaling, and stores going ashore for the winter all indicate
serious business, while a herd of a hundred pigs, a bull, and
some cows, as well as fowls, indicate present domestic comforts
of the inhabitants of the rapidly-developing Longyear City.
The fact that during the winter the temperature, on account
of the proximity of the warm Atlantic waters, is higher than
that of many large American cities, and the prevalence of fine
weather in that season add to the progress of this American
settlement. The darkness of winter is easily overcome by
electric light.
Next to the American, British capital has done most to
develop the mineral resources of Spitsbergen. On the opposite
side of Advent Bay a British company has a coal mine, and has
shipped a large quantity of coal, but the work has not been
followed up as at the American mine. In Bell Sound two British
companies have extensive claims, and have done detailed pro-
specting work, especially in relation to coal deposits, while
active work in marble-quarrying by a British company is going
on in Deer Sound. Prince Charles Foreland, English Bay, and
the land from Sassen Bay to Klaas Billen Bay have all been
exploited by British companies, as well as extensive territory
right across Spitsbergen to Wybe Janzs Water (Stor Fiord).
Altogether over 7,000 square miles of territory are claimed and
have been worked upon by British companies.
In 1911 a conference was held in Christiania at which
Russia, Sweden and Norway were represented, and it was pro-
posed that these three countries should select two representa-
tives each to a common Council for the government of Spits-
bergen. Britain was not represented at this conference, though
she probably holds at present, and has held in the past, the
greatest stake in the country. Naturally America is not
interested in the annexation of an outlying archipelago of
Europe, but it is probable that American claimants would
favour the idea that one country should be responsible for the
government of Spitsbergen and not a nondescript international
council of three countries, not one of which have the stake in
the country that American and British citizens have. No doubt
Spitsbergen : Past and Present 121
also Americans would desire to have the protection of a country
where mining laws would be conducive to the development of
their enterprise in the country. There can be no doubt, in
short, that American citizens would be satisfied with, nay,
desire, British protection. The clear duty, therefore, of the
British Government is to take this step either a£B.rming her act
of annexation in 1615 or re-annexing now, instead of giving her
adherence to this scheme of triple control.
Organised protection there must be because at present
property is not respected in Spitsbergen and there is no security
of tenure in mining claims; and the strongest reason of all is
that there is an unlimited supply of coal practically equal to
the best Welsh coal (within fifty-three hours of British shores)
which should not be allowed to be at the disposal of any other
European navy but the British Navy.
122 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
THE BftlTISH ANTAECTIC EXPEDITION, 1910-13.*
By Commander E. E. G. E. Evans, C.B., E.N.
{Addressed to the Society in the Free Trade Hall on Friday,
October Slst, 1913.)
So much has been piiblislied concerning tlie British Antarctic
Expedition, the tragic loss of its gallant leader and his four
brave companions, whose names we know so well, that there is
no need to preface the story by telling you at length how
Captain Scott made his preparations. His organisation was
complete, his equipment splendid, and no expedition ever left
our shores wth a better outfit or a more enthusiastic and deter-
mined personnel. Thanks to Captain Scott's fine organisation
our expedition remained self-contained, even after his death.
On June 1, 1910, the Terra Nova left London with most of
the members of the expedition. She finally left New
Zealand on November 29. Captain Scott had with him fifty-
nine officers, scientists and seamen. The Terra Nova left New
Zealand a very full ship ; besides four hundred tons of coal she
carried provisions for three years, two huts, forty sledges, fur
sleeping bags, bales of clothing, all kinds of instruments, and
the hundreds of little items of equipment necessary to a Polar
expedition with an ambitious scientific programme. Besides
these things which filled our ship's holds and the between deck
spaces, we carried nineteen Siberian ponies, thirty-four dogs,
three motor sledges, 2,500 gallons of petrol, and our paraffin on
the upper deck. The animals were under the charge of Mr.
Cecil Meares, who with Lieutenant Bruce had brought them
down from Siberia. The ponies after we left New Zealand
were taken charge of by Captain Oates, of the Inniskilling
Dragoons.
The first exciting incident on the southward voyage
occurred on December 2, when we encountered a gale which, in
the deeply laden condition of the ship, nearly caused the loss of
the expedition. First the engine-room choked, and then the
" Reprinted, with the Maps from the '* Geographical Journal " by the kind
permission of the Royal Geographical Society.
The British Antarctic Expedition, 1910-13 123
hand pumps. Heavy seas washed over the vessel, and fires had
to be extinguished as the engine-room was feet deep in water.
"While the pump suctions were being cleared the after-guard
formed a bucket discharge party and baled the ship out con-
tinuously for twenty-four hours. At the end of this time the
gale abated, and we proceeded southward, having come through
with no loss save two ponies, and one dog which was drowned.
Proceeding south on the meridian of 179° W., the first ice
was seen in lat. 64° S. The ship passed all kinds of icebergs,
from huge tabular to little weathered water-worn bergs. The
Antarctic pack was reached on December 9, in lat. 65° S., and
the ship boldly pushed through for some 200 miles under steam
and sail, when her progress was retarded to such an extent that,
to save coal, engines were stopped, sail was furled, and the ship
lay under banked fires for some days. We spent three weeks
in the pack, and emerged on December 30, after pushing
through 380 miles of ice. The time was not wasted : magnetic
observations, deep-sea soundings, and serial sea-temperatures
were obtained. The zoologists and marine biologists secured
valuable specimens. Once in open water we proceeded full
speed to Cape Crozier, as Dr. Wilson wished to study the
embryology of the Emperor penguins during the winter
season. Captain Scott was quite prepared to make Cape
Crozier our base, if a suitable landing-place was to be found.
As no good place was to be seen, we rounded Cape Bird at mid-
night and entered McMurdo Sound. It was remarkably clear
of ice. We passed Shackleton's winter quarters, and noticed
his hut at Cape Royds looking quite new and fresh. Six miles
farther south the ship brought up against the fast ice, which
extended right across the Sound.
On January 4, 1911, thirty-six days out from New Zealand,
Captain Scott, Wilson, and myself went across the ice and
visited a little cape which looked, and subsequently proved to
be, an ideal spot for wintering. This place Captain Scott
named Cape Evans. Immediately the winter quarters were
selected, out came the stores and transport. Lieutenant
Pennell took charge of the ship. Lieutenant Campbell the trans-
port, over the mile and a half of sea-ice; the charge of the base
was given to me, while Captain Scott supervised, planned, and
improved .
Meares' dogs, Oates' ponies, and Day's motors, supple-
anented by man-hauling parties, bustled between ship and
124 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
shore, transporting stores over the frozen sea. At the cape,
Davis, the carpenter, with his willing crew, put up the tent.
In less than a week the main party had their equipment ashore.
We will now follow Captain Scott and his companions at the
principal base. The weather was so hot when first we landed
that the ice melted, and we could wash in fresh water and even
draw our drinking water from a cascade. We built ice-caves
IGO^Loug". 170 East J80 LongM70 Vest 160
BRITISH
ANTARCTIC EXPEDITION
1910-13.
to stow our fresh mutton in and for magnetic observations.
Outside the hut we soon had fine stables. Directly the con-
struction of the base station was assured away went every avail-
able man to lay a depot. We said good-bye to the ship, and
on January 24, 1911, Captain Scott and eleven companions left
with two dog teams and eight ponies to lay out a depot of food-
stuffs before the Antarctic winter set in. Nearly one ton of
provisions was taken out to a point 144 miles from our base.
The British Antarctic Expedition, 1910-13 125
This spot was named One Ton Depot. The party for the
return journey was split up into three detachments. Captain
Scott, with Meares, Wilson, and Cherry Garrard, came home
with the dogs. Scott and Meares had the misfortune to run
along the snow bridge of a crevasse. The bridge gave way,
and all the dogs but Osman, the leader, and the two rear
animals, disappeared down a yawning chasm. With the
greatest difficulty the dogs were rescued. Scott and Meares
were lowered by, Wilson and Cherry Garrard into the crevasse.
They found the dogs twisting round suspended by the harness,
fighting, howling, and snapping. One by one they were freed
from the trace and hauled up on to solid ice; as each animal
regained safety he lay down and slept. It was an anxious
period for all concerned. Captain Scott spoke most highly of
Wilson, Meares, and Cherry Garrard's behaviour and resource
on this occasion.
One party, consisting of the second in command and two
seamen, returned from the depot with the three oldest and
weakest ponies — Blossom, Blucher, and James Pig. The ponies
were in very poor condition, and Oates, their master, expected
all three to give out on their return march. They were chris-
tened by the seamen '^ The Baltic Fleet." Two of them died
owing to the severe weather conditions that obtained at the end
of February, but the third pony, James Pig, was a pluck}' little
animal, and he survived. Lieutenant Bowers, in charge of the
detachment which built up " One Ton Depot," returned after
the other two parties. He had with him Cherry Garrard and
Crean when on March 1 he was sent across the sea-ice to reach
Hut Point. The ponies were tired and listless after their
hard journey and in bad condition, and they had to be fre-
quently rested. As they advanced towards Hut Point cracks
in the ice became apparent, and when the party reached a crack
which showed the ice to be actually on the move, they turned
and hastened back — but the ice was drifting out to sea ! The
ponies behaved splendidly, jumping the ever-widening cracks
with extraordinary sagacity. Bowers, Cherry Garrard, and
Crean launched the sledges back over the cracks in order not to
risk the ponies' legs. Eventually they reached what looked
like a safe place. Men and ponies were thoroughly exhausted.
Camp was pitched, and the weary party soon fell asleep.
Bowers soon awoke, hearing a strange noise. He found the
party in a dreadful plight — the ice had again commenced to
126 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
break up, and tliey were surrounded by water. One of their
four ponies had disappeared in the sea. Camp was again
struck, and for five hours this noble little party fought their
way over three-quarters of a mile of drifting ice. They never
thought of abandoning their charge, realising that Scott's
Polar plans might be ruined if four more ponies were lost with
their sledges and equipment. Crean, with great gallantry,
went for support, clambering with diflS.culty over the ice. He
jumped from floe to floe, and at last climbed up the face of the
Barrier from a piece of ice which touched the ice-cliff at the
right .moment. Cherry Garrard stayed with Bowers at his
request, for little Bowers would never give up his charge while
a gleam of hope remained. For a whole day these two were
afloat, and eventually Captain Scott, Gates, Gran, and Crean
appeared on the Barrier edge, and on seeing them Bowers and
Cherry Garrard jumped some floes till they reached a piece of
ice resting against the Barrier face, thanks to the returti of the
tide. Bowers and Cherry Garrard were rescued, and after a
further piece of manoeuvring a pony and all the sledges were
recovered. The other three ponies were drowned. During
this trying time Killer whales were about almost continuously,
blowing and snorting in the intervening water spaces. Only
those who have served in the Antarctic can realise fully what
Bowers' party, and also Scott's own rescue party, went through.
By March 4 all the depot parties were safely, if not com-
fortably, housed at Hut Point, with the two dog teams and the
two remaining ponies. We were unable to return to Cape
Evans for six weeks, as the sea would not freeze over properly
on account of persistent high winds. "We lived in the old hut
left by the Discovery, and our existence was rather primitive.
Meares and Gates perfected a blubber stove. We killed seals,
and thus obtained food and fuel. Although rather short of
luxuries, such as sugar, we were never in any great want of
good plain food, and the time passed agreeably enough. On
March 14 the depot party was joined by Grifiith Taylor, Deben-
ham, Wright, and Petty-Officer Evans.
Taylor's party had been landed by the Terra Nova on
January 27, after the start of the depot party, to make a geo-
graphical reconnaissance. They traversed the Ferrar glacier,
and then came down a new glacier, which Scott named after
Taylor, and descended into Dry Valley, so called because it
was entirely free from snow. Their way led over a deep
The British Antarctic Expedition, 1910-13 127
freshwater lake four miles long, which was only surface frozen.
This lake was full of algse. The gravels below — a promising
region of limestones, rich in garnets — were washed for gold,
but only magnetite was found. When Taylor had thoroughly
explored and examined this region his party retraced their
footsteps and proceeded southward to examine the Koettlitz
glacier. They returned from the Koettlitz glacier along the
edge of the almost impenetrable pinnacle ice, and part of their
journey actually led them through an extraordinary and diffi-
cult ice-field. It took two days to negotiate six miles of this
surface; the party were then able to get back on to sea-ice, and
without mishap marched to Hut Point.
We now numbered sixteen at this congested station, and 15
miles of open water separated us from Cape Evans. The gales
were so bad that spray dashed over the hut sometimes, and all
round the low-lying parts of the coast spray ridges of ice
formed . But at last ice formed which was not blown out, first
in little pancakes, which cemented together and formed floes,
these in their turn were frozen together, and at last a party of
nine made the passage over the new sea-ice to Cape Evans, and
on April 13, 1911, they marched into the hut at our main base,
dirty but cheerful. The cook soon had all kinds of luxuries
prepared for us. Captain Scott was delighted at the progress
made by those left in our hut under Dr. Simpson.
And now that communication was established between Hut
Point and Cape Evans we settled down for the winter. Thanks
to Pouting, our photographic artist, we have a magnificent pic-
torial record of events. Pouting went everywhere with his
camera and kinematograph machine. Even when .we came
south in the ship he kinematographed the bow of the Terra
Nova breaking the ice. If a sledge party set out, a penguin
appeared, or a pony " played up," or even if a dog broke adrift.
Pouting was there with his artillery ready for action. He
even had a galloping carriage with his quick-firing cameras
drawn by dogs. He would get seals to pose for him if he
wished, by his persuasive methods, or by exciting their
curiosity. Pouting never missed an opportunity of making an
artistic photograph.
We must now hurry through four months' darkness. The
first winter seemed to pass very quickly. Every one was busy
at his special subject. Dr. Wilson, the chief of our scientific
staff, helped us all. He was our Solomon. To " Uncle Bill "
128 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
we all went for sound practical advice. Wilson was a friend
and companion of Captain Scott, and, indeed, to all in tlie
Expedition.
During the winter months holes were made in the sea-ice
through which we lowered a wire fish tray. By this means we
caught a number of Notathenia. When Atkinson, the Helmin-
thologist, had examined these fish, they were handed to the
166^
Routes of
I St Year -^
1/T~.. \Criffiths Ta-ylor
Wilson
Stafute Miles
10 O lO 20 30 40 50
JI60
cook, who served them up for breakfast. These fish were a
great delicacy.
A small hut was erected some 50 yards from the main station
to contain the magnetic observatory under Dr. G. C, Simpson,
of Simla. His place was at the base station; his important
work as physicist and meteorologist prevented him from taking
an active part in our sledge journeys. When he was recalled
to Simla in 1912, his work was ably continued by Wright, the
The British Antarctic Expedition, 1910-13 129
Canadian chemist, who made a special study of ice structure
and glaciation.
On June 27 Dr. Wilson, with Bowers and Cherry Garrard,
started on a remarkable journey to Cape Crozier. Their object
was to observe the incubation of the Emperor penguins at their
rookery. During this first Antarctic mid-winter journey the
temperatures were seldom above 60°, and they actually fell to
77° below zero, that is 109° of frost. The party took a fort-
night to reach Cape Crozier, meeting with good weather — that
is, calm weather — but bad surfaces, which handicapped them
severely. After rounding Cape Mackay they reached a wind-
swept area, and experienced a series of blizzards. Their best
light was moonlight, and they were denied this practically by
overcast skies. Picture their hardships — frozen bags to sleep
in, frozen finneskoe to put their feet in every time they struck
camp. They scarcely slept at all. And when they reached
Cape Crozier, only about one hundred Emperor penguins could
be seen. In the Discovery days this rookery was found to con-
tain two or three thousand birds. Possibly the early date
accounted for the absence of Emperors. However, half a dozen
Q^g% were collected, and three of these are now in our pos-
session. Wilson on his return told us that he picked up
rounded pieces of ice which the stupid birds had. been cherish-
ing, fondly imagining they were eggs. The maternal instinct
of the penguin is very strong.
At Cape Crjozier, Wilson's party had built a stone hut
behind a land ridge on the slopes of Mount Terror. This hut
was roofed with canvas. The same night that the eggs were
collected a terrific storm arose. One of the hurricane gusts of
wind swept the roof of the hut away, and for two days the
unfortunate party lay in their bags half-smothered with fine
drifting snow. The second day was Dr. Wilson's birthday.
He told me afterwards that had the gale not abated, then they
must all three have perished. They dare not stir out of the
meagre shelter afforded by their bags. Wilson prayed hard
that they might be spared. His prayer was answered; but, as
you know, two of this courageous little band lost their lives
later on in their eager thirst for scientific knowledge. When
the three men crept out of their bags into the dull winter gloom
they groped about and searched for their tent, which had blown
away from its pitch near the stone hut. By an extraordinary
piece of good fortune it was recovered, scarcely damaged, a
130 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
quarter of a mile away. Wilson, Bowers, and Cherry Garrard
started home the next day. They were caught by another
blizzard, which imprisoned them in their tent for forty-eight
hours. After a very rough march, full of horrible hardships
and discomforts, the little band won through and reached Cape
Evans on August 1, having faced the dreadful winter weather
conditions on the great ice barrier for five weeks. On their return
they wanted bread, butter, and jam most, and loaves disappeared
with extraordinary speed. They were suffering from want of
sleep, but were all right in a few days. A remarkable feature of
this journey was the increase of weights due to ice collecting in
the sleeping-bags, tent, and clothing. The three sleeping-bags
weighed 47 lbs. at the start, and 118 lbs. on their return.
Other weights increased in the same proportion, and their
sledge had dragged very heavily in consequence. The three
men, when they arrived in the hut, were almost encased with
ice. I well remember undressing poor Wilson in the cubicle
he and I shared. His clothes had almost to be cut off him.
From this journey we derived additional experience in the
matter of sledging rations. Thanks to the experiments made,
we arrived at the most suitable ration. This was for the colder
weather expected during the second half of the forthcoming
Polar journey. It was to consist of 16 ozs. biscuit, 12 ozs.
pemmican, 3 ozs. sugar, 2 ozs. butter, 0.7 oz. tea, 0.6 oz.
cocoa — equals 34.4 ozs. food daily. This is one man's food per
day. No one could possibly eat this in a temperate climate;
it was a fine filling ration even for the Antarctic. The pem-
mican consists of beef extract with 60 per cent, pure fat.
No casualties occurred during the winter, but Dr. Atkinson
had a severely frostbitten hand. He had gone out to read a
thermometer on the sea-ice 800 yards from the hut. It was
blowing and drifting, and Atkinson lost his way in the blizzard.
He was adrift for eight hours, but luckily found his way back
during a lull in the weather.
During the second half of the winter we were all busy pre-
paring for the sledge expedition to the Pole. Food rations had
to be prepared, instruments calibrated, sledges specially fitted
to carry the travelling equipment, and our own clothes adapted
for sledging according to experience gained in the depot and
winter journeys. Meares and the second in command took parties
out and laid depots during the early spring, and Captain Scott
made a coastal journey to the west. These spring journeys
The British Antarctic Expedition, 1910-13 131
were all interesting in their way, but cannot now be dwelt on
owing to time limit.
On October 24 the advance guard of the Southern party,
consisting of Day, Lashly, Hooper and myself, left with two
motor sledges. We had with us three tons of stores, pony food
and petrol, carried on six sledges. The object of sending for-
ward such a weight of stores was to save the ponies' legs over
the variable sea-ice, which was in some places hummocky, and
in others too slippery to stand on. The first 30 miles of Barrier
was known to be bad travelling. The motor party had rather
trying experiences, owing to the frequent over-heating of the
air-cooled engines. Directly the engines became too hot we
had to stop, and by the time they were reasonably cooled the
carburetter would refuse duty — it had often to be warmed up
with a blowlamp. Day and Lashly, the engineers, had great
trouble in starting the motor-sledges . We all four would heave
on the spans of the towing-sledges, to ease the starting strain ;
the engines would generally give a few sniffs, and then stop.
It is true that the motors advanced the necessaries for the
Southern journey 51 miles, but at the expense of the men who
had charge of them. The engineers continually got their
fingers frost-bitten tinkering with the engines and replacing
big end brasses, which several times gave out. But although
the temperatures were low, we were all very happy, and Day
was most keen to bring the motors through with credit. They
were abandoned a mile south of Corner Camp, but had ad-
vanced their weights in turn over rough, slippery and crevassed
ice, and thus given the ponies a chance to march light.
The first 30 miles of barrier surface led over very deep soft
snow, and, in fairness to the despised motors, they went better
over soft snow than any other part of our transport. The man-
hauling party, as we now became, marching for a fortnight,
covered nearly 180 miles, and halted at a rendezvous on
November 15 in lat. 80° 32^ south. We waited here six days,
and built an enormous snow cairn 15 feet high. We called this
rendezvous Mount Hooper, after our youngest member.
On November 21, Captain Scott arrived with eleven men,
ten ponies and two dog teams. We heard that they had been
delayed partly by bad weather, and had purposely kept down
the marches to give the weaker animals a chance. However,
every one was well and eager to advance southward. Captain
Scott ordered us to continue to go forward in advance of the
132 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
dogs and ponies. We marched exactly 15 miles daily, erecting
cairns at certain pre-arranged distances, surveying, navigating,
and selecting the camping site. The ponies marching by night
were able to rest when the sun was high and the air warmer.
Meares' dogs would bring up the rear ; they started some hours
after the ponies, as their speed was so much greater.
Captain Scott's plans worked easily and well. The ponies
pulled splendidly, and their masters vied with each other in
their care and management. Oates always kept a very careful
look-out on his charges. The tough little beasts pulled about
650 lbs. each, and were fed daily on 10 lbs. of oats and 3 lbs.
of oilcake. On camping, large walls would be erected by the
pony leaders to shelter their animals from the wind, and while
this was being done the cook of each tent would prepare the
supper hoosh. We were all so happy and full of life on the
march over the great ice barrier that we often would wrestle
and skylark at the end of the day. We had our good and bad
weather, and we had our turns of snow blindness. This ail-
ment was common to the ponies and dogs as well as to our-
selves. Depots were made every 65 miles. They were marked
by big black flags, and we saw one of them, Mount Hooper,
9 miles away. Each depot contained one week's rations for
every returning unit. That outward barrier march will long
be remembered — it was so full of life, health and hope. Our
sad days came when the ponies were killed one by one. But
hunger soon defeated sentiment, and we used to relish our
pony meat, which made the hoosh more solid and satisfactory.
Day and Hooper were the first to return, their places being
taken in the man-hauling party by Atkinson and Wright,
whose ponies, Jehu and Chinaman, were first shot. With two
invalid dogs. Day and Hooper left us at 81° 15^ and marched
back to the base. With only two they had great difficulty in
pulling their sledge home, so cut it in half and saved them-
selves considerable labour. On December 4 we arrived within
12 miles of Shackleton's Gap or Southern Gateway. We could
see the outflow of the Beardmore glacier stretching away to our
left as we advanced southward that day. Hopes ran high,
for we still had the dogs and five ponies to help us. Captain
Scott expected to camp on the Beardmore itself after the next
march. Luck was against us. On December 5 we encountered
a blizzard which lasted four whole days. The temperature
rose to 35° Fahrenheit, and the drift was very bad indeed.
The British Antarctic Expedition, 1910-13 133
The snow was in big flakes, driving from tlie S.S.E., but as
the gale took its course snow was succeeded by sleet, and even
rain. The barrier surface was covered with 18 inches of slush.
The poor ponies had continually to be dug out from the snow-
drifts, which accumulated behind their walls. The dogs
suffered less, but they themselves looked like wet rats when
Meares and Demitri went to feed them. All our tents, clothing
and sleeping-bags were soaked. On December 9 the blizzard
was over, and all hands dug out sledges and stores. We
wallowed sometimes thigh deep in this Antarctic morass, and
after marching for fourteen days on end the remaining five
ponies were shot, as no food was left for them. Poor things !
they did their job well, and I believe every pony leader gave
half his biscuits to his own animal, so they had some little
reward for their last march.
As arranged, three teams of four, pulling 170 lbs. per
man, now advanced up the glacier. Meares and his Russian
dog-boy came along with us for two marches, and then turned
homeward. To help us Meares had travelled further south
than his return rations allowed for, and for the 450-mile north-
ward march to Cape Evans he and his companion Demitri
went short one meal a day, rather than deplete the depots. It
is a dreadful thing on an Antarctic sledge journey to forfeit
a whole meal daily, and Meares' generosity should not be for-
gotten. The advance of the twelve men up the Beardmore was
retarded considerably by the soft wet snow which had accumu-
lated in the lower reaches of the glacier. Panting and sweat-
ing, we could only make four-mile marches until the 15th. But
after that the surfaces were better, and we were far less tired
in doing more than twice the distances.
On December 16 we reached Blue Ice, 3,000 feet above the
barrier, and, with the exception of little delays caused by
people falling into crevasses, our progress was not impeded.
Wilson did a large amount of sketching on the Beardmore.
His sketches, besides being wonderful works of art, helped us
very much in our surveys. We had fine weather generally,
and with twelve men the Beardmore glacier was overcome
without great difficulty. Of course, we had Shackleton's
charts, diaries, and experience to help us. We often discussed
Shackleton's journey, and were amazed at his fine performance.
We always had full rations, which Shackleton's party never
enjoyed at this stage. Our marches from December 16 worked
up from 13 to 23 miles a day.
Xong.S.
Xoiv|."W.,
BRITISH
ANTARCTIC EXPEDITION
1910- 13.
ScaJe 1:13,000,000 orlIttnh.= 205StBt.Maec
300
The British Antarctic Expedition, 1910-13 135
On December 21 we were on the plateau in lat. 85° 7^ S.,
6,800 feet above tbe barrier, and fit and ready to go forward.
Here we established tbe Upper Glacier depot. The third
supporting party, consisting of Atkinson, Wright, Cherry
Garrard, and Keohane, left us the next day, and marched
home 584 miles. They spent Christmas Day collecting geo-
logical specimens, and reached Cape Evans on January 28,
after a strenuous journey of 1,164 miles. They had some sick-
ness in the shape of enteritis and scurvy. But Dr. Atkinson's
care and medical knowledge brought them through safely.
Captain Scott with his two sledge teams now pushed for-
ward, keeping an average speed of 15 miles a day wij:h full
loads of 190 lbs. a man. We steered south-west for the first
two days after leaving the Beardmore, to avoid the great
pressure ridges and icefalls which were plainly visible to the
south. On December 23 we came across enormous crevasses
which were as big as Regent Street. They were nearly all well
bridged with snow, but we took them at the rush and had no
serious falls. The dangerous part is at the edge of the snow
bridge, and we frequently fell through up to our armpits, just
stepping on to or leaving the bridge. We experienced on this
plateau the same tingling southerly wind that Shackleton
speaks of, and men's noses were frequently frost-bitten. On
Christmas Eve we were 8,000 feet above the barrier, and we
imagined we were clear of crevasses and pressure ridges. We
now felt the cold far more, when marching, than we had done
on the Beardmore. The wind all the time turned our breath
into cakes of ice on our beards. Taking sights when we stopped
was a bitterly cold job, fingers had to be bared to work the
little theodolite screws, and in the biting wind one's finger-tips
soon went. On Christmas Day we marched 17 J miles, and
during the forenoon again crossed a badly crevassed area.
Lashly celebrated his forty-fourth birthday by falling into a
crevasse 8 feet wide. The laden sledge just bridged the chasm,
and poor Lashly was suspended below spinning round with 80
feet of clear space beneath him. We had great difficulty in
hauling him up on account of his being directly under the
sledge. When he reached the surface, one of the party wished
him a happy Christmas and another many happy returns. I
will not tell you what Lashly 's reply was.
At 7.30 we camped and had our Christmas dinner — extra
thick pemmican with pony meat in it, a chocolate and biscuit
136 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
hoosh, plum pudding, cocoa, ginger, and caramels, and a mug
of water each. We were all so full that we could hardly
shift our foot-gear, and although the temperature was well
below zero, we lay on our sleeping-bags unable to muster the
energy to get into them. The 87th parallel was reached on
New Year's Eve, after a short march; we made a depot here,
and the seamen of the party converted the 12-foot sledges
into 10-foot ones by the spare short runners we had brought
along. This took nine hours, but the reduction in bearing
surface was worth it. "We saw the New Year in that night
with a fine feed of pemmican and a stick of chocolate which
Bowers had kept for the occasion.
On January 3, Captain Scott came into our tent and told
us that he was sure that he could reach the Pole if my party
gave up one man and made the homeward journey short-
handed. Of course we consented, and Bowers was taken into
the Polar party. On January 4 the last supporting party,
consisting of Lashly, Crean, and myself, marched south to
lat, 87° 34^ with the Polar party, and seeing that they were
travelling rapidly, yet easily, we halted, shook hands all round,
and said good-bye.
Up to this time no traces of the successful Norwegians had
been seen, and we all fondly imagined that our flag would
be the first to fly at the South Pole. We gave three huge
cheers for the Southern party as they stepped ofl, and then
turned our sledge and commenced our homeward march of
nearly 800 miles. We frequently looked back until we saw
the last of Captain Scott and his four companions, a tiny black
speck on the horizon, and little did we think that we were
the last to see them alive, that our three cheers were the last
appreciation they would ever know.
The return of the last supporting party nearly ended in
disaster, After the flrst day's homeward march, we found
that we could not do the necessary distances in the nine hours,
owing to being a man short. This was serious, and in order
not to make my seamen companions anxious, that night I
handspiked my watch, putting the hands on one hour, so that
we therefore turned out about 4 a.m., making: from ten to
twelve hours a day. On January 8 we were overtaken by a
blizzard, which continued for three days. We dare not stop
our marches, and thanks to the wind being with us we were
able to push on. But the soft snow spoilt the surface, and
The British Antarctic Expedition, 1910-13 137
the outlook was so bad we cut off a big corner and saved two
days' marcli, by shaping course direct for the Upper Glacier
Depot under Mount Darwin. This led us over Shackleton's
ice-falls at the head of the Beardmore glacier. We descended
many hundred feet, mostly riding on the sledge; we had
frequent capsizes and broke the bow of the sledge. Crean had
the misfortune to catch his trousers somehow in our headlong
flight and had them torn to shreds. We reached the Upper
Glacier Depot the same day, however, and reclothed Crean,
who had left a pair of Mandleberg wind-proof trousers in the
depot cairn with some of his tobacco wrapped up in them.
Returning down the Beardmore, we had some misty weather
which hid the land, and we were embarrassed by getting into
a mass of ice-falls, pressure ridges, and crevasses. We fell
about a great deal, and were two days getting clear. We had
no food left, and when we reached the next depot under
Cloudmaker mountain we had marched 17 miles without any-
thing to eat except one biscuit and a mug of tea. To make
things worse, I developed scurvy about January 17, when we
had 500 miles to go. My condition became daily more serious,
until I entirely lost the use of my legs. But I could not
afford to give up as I was the only one in the party who knew
anything about navigation, and I had to keep them marching
until they could see Mount Erebus, or some known landmark.
When 75 miles from Hut Point I ordered Crean and Lashly
to leave me with my sleeping-bag and some food, and go on,
sending out relief if possible. They refused to do this, and
strapping me on the sledge, dragged me 40 miles in four days,
helped by a southerly wind. When 35 miles from Hut Point
we had a heavy snowfall, which made it impossible for Lashly
and Crean to move the sledge.
Crean then left us on February 19, and marched for
eighteen hours with nothing to eat but a few biscuits. He
plodded on solidly through the soft snow, and eventually
reached Hut Point utterly exhausted and numbed with cold;
but he gave our whereabouts to Dr. Atkinson, who was there
with Demetri and the dog-teams, and they came out and
rescued us. Lashly undoubtedly saved my life by his careful
nursing. It was very brave of him to stay with me, as he only
had three meals left, and if relief had not come in time he
could never have walked in without food, as he himself waa
very done after hauling in my sledge-team for over 1,500 miles.
138 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
Crean Yolunteered to come out again with Atkinson, but was,
of course, not allowed to.
And now we will turn again to the Polar party itself. They
covered the 145 geographical miles that remained in a fort-
night. Captain Scott came across Amundsen's dog-tracks
soon after lat. 88°, and followed them to the Polar area. Scott,
Wilson, Gates, Bowers, and Seaman Evans reached the South
Pole on January 17, 1912. They fixed the exact spot by
means of a 4-inch theodolite, and the result of their careful
observations located the Pole at a point which only differed
from Amundsen's by half a mile, as shown by his flag. This
difference actually meant that the British and Norwegian
observers differed by one scale division on the theodolite, which
was graduated to half a minute of arc. Experts in naviga-
tion and surveying will always look on this splendidly accurate
determination as a fine piece of work by our own people as well
as by the Norwegian expedition.
Lady Scott has remarked on the magnificent spirit shown by
her husband and his four specially selected tent-mates, when they
knew that Queen Alexandra's little silk Union Jack had been
anticipated by the flag of another nation. Scott and his com-
panions had done their best, and never from one of them came an
uncharitable remark. On January 19 the homeward march was
commenced; the party had before them a distance of over 900
miles. They came back at a fine pace over the ice-capped
plateau. A blizzard stopped them from travelling on January
25, but otherwise their progress was. not retarded materially.
Seaman Evans was causing anxiety, and his condition
naturally worried Captain Scott and his comrades. But, how-
ever great their anxieties, they looked after Evans most care-
fully, and hoped to pull him through. He was rested on the
Beardmore glacier. Gates looking after him while the others
made a halt for geographical investigation by the Cloudmaker
depot. But Evans also sustained a serious concussion through
falling and hitting his head, and then the party were greatly
hampered. They were so delayed that the surplus foodstuffs
rapidly diminished, and the outlook became serious. Bad
weather was encountered, and near the foot of the Beardmore
poor Seaman Evans died. He was a man of enormous strength,
a tried sledger, and a veteran in Antarctic experience. Cap-
tain Scott had the highest opinion of this British seaman. He
was the sledge-master, and to Evans we owed the splendid
The British Antarctic Expedition, 1910-13 139
fitting of our travelling- equipment, every detail of whicli came
under his charge.
Seaman Evans' death took place on February 17, and then
the bereaved littlo band pushed northward with fine per-
severance, although they must have known by their gradually
shortening marches that little hope of reaching their winter
quarters remained. Their best march on the Barrier was only
9 miles, and in the later vstages their marches dropped to 3
miles. The depots were 65 miles apart, and contained six
weeks' provisions; they knew their slow progress was not good
enough, but they could not increase their speed over such bad
surfaces. The temperature fell as they advanced, instead of
rising as expected, and we find them recording a temperature
of — 46.2 one night.
Poor Gates' feet and hands were badly frost-bitten — he con-
fitantly appealed to Wilson for advice. What should he do,
what could he doi^ Poor gallant soldier, we thought such
worlds of him. Wilson could only answer, "Slog on^ — just
slog on." On March 17, which was Gates' birthday, he walked
out to his death in a noble endeavour to save his three comrades
beset with hardships, and as our dead leader wrote, " It was the
act of a brave man and an English gentleman.^'
Scott, Wilson and Bowers fought on until March 21, only
doing about 20 miles in the four days, and then they wer6
forced to camp 11 miles south of Gne Ton Depot. They were
kept here by a blizzard, which was too violent to permit them
to move, and on March 25 Captain Scott wrote his great
message to the public.
Thanks to Atkinson and the search party, we have all the
records of these brave men, and so the surviving members
of the expedition can work on them, and for Scott's and
Wilson's sakes particularly let us hope justice will be done to
these same records.
I must now take you right away from the main party to
give you an insight into Lieut. Victor Campbell's work.
Campbell's party consisted of Surgeon Levick, Raymond
Priestley, geologist, and Seamen Abbott, Browning and
Dickason. Lieut. Pennell, who now commanded the Terra
Nova, took this expedition along the Barrier to King Edward's
Land in the beginning of February, 1911. They got within
10 miles of Cape Colbeck, but the most formidable pack ice
yet seen lay between them and the ice cliffs of this inhospitable-
140 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
looking land. It was out of the question for Campbell to put
his hut and gear out on to sea-ice, with no certain prospect
of heing able to climb the cliffs of King Edward YII. Land.
So he and Pennell reluctantly returned to seek a landing else-
where.
Coal was short, and the season drawing on. The Terra
Nova steamed back along the face of the Great Ice Barrier, and
in the Bay of Whales sighted the Fram, The two ships' com-
panies soon made friends, and the commanding officers ex-
changed calls. Amundsen was anxious for Campbell to winter
alongside of him, but Campbell decided to make his winter
quarters in another region — it being undesirable to have two
expeditions wintering at the same base. Campbell eventually
landed at Cape Adare, after vainly searching for a more pro-
fitable wintering place. He was most handicapped by the
shortage of coal in the Terra Nova, which limited the radius of
their search.
Campbell and his party did excellent meteorological, geo-
logical and magnetic work, and he himself made some very>
good surveys. Levick made a special study of the penguins,
and Priestley, with his previous Antarctic knowledge, made him-
self invaluable, apart from his own scientific work. Campbell
was loud in his praise of the seamen in this party.
Lieut. Pennell, in the Terra Nova, revisited Cape Adare
after the first winter, took off the party and their collections,
and landed them again on January 8 at the Terra Nova Bay,
to sledge round Mount Melbourne to "Wood bay, and examine
this part of Victoria Land. Campbell and his crew returned,
after a month's sledge journey to Terra Nova bay, on February
6. They had found garnets and many excellent fossils on
this trip. Campbell did some very good work surveying, and
has added a good deal to the existing maps.
On February 17, the party began to look for the Terra Novo,
but as time went on and she did not put in an appearance,
Campbell prepared to winter. Pennell, who had brought the
Terra Nova back to pick this sledge team up, met with ice con-
ditions that were insuperable, and never got within 30 miles
of Terra Nova bay. Pennell, Rennick and Bruce did all that
any men could do to work their ship through, but communica-
tion was impossible that season, and so Campbell was left with
only four weeks' sledging provisions to face an Antarctic
winter. His party could not have been better chosen to help
him through this ordeal. Campbell knew his men absolutely,
The British Antarctic Expedition, 1910-13 141
and they themselves were lucky in having such a resourceful
and determined officer in charge.
On March 1 Campbell selected a hard snow slope for their
winter home, and into this they cut and burrowed until they
had constructed an igloo or snow house, 13 feet by 9 feet. This
they insulated with blocks of snow and seaweed. A trench
roofed with sealskins and snow formed the entrance, and at the
sides of this passage they had their store rooms and larder.
All the time this house was under construction a party was
employed killing penguins and seals, for which they kept a
constant look-out. By March 15 their larder contained 120
penguins and 11 seals. After this date gale succeeded gale, and
the winter set in with a long round of bad weather.
Campbell and his companions led a very primitive existence
here for six and a half months. They only had their light
summer sledging clothes to wear, and these soon became
saturated with blubber; their hair and beards grew, and they
were soon recognizable only by their voices. Some idea of
their discomforts will be gleaned by a description of their
diet. Owing to their prospective journey to Cape Evans,
Campbell had to first reduce the biscuit supply from eight to
two biscuits a day, and then to one.
Generally their diet consisted of one mug of pemmican and
seal hoosh and one biscuit for breakfast. Nothing for lunch.
One and a half mug of seal, one biscuit and three-quarters
pint of thin cocoa for supper. On Sunday, weak tea was sub-
stituted for cocoa ; this they reboiled for Monday's supper, and
they used the dried tea-leaves for tobacco on Tuesday. Their
only luxuries were a piece of chocolate and twelve lumps of
sugar weekly. They sometimes used tea-leaves and wood
shavings for tobacco. They kept twenty-five raisins each for
birthdays. One lucky find was thirty-six fish in the stomach
of a seal, which, fried in blubber, proved excellent. The
biscuit ration bad to be stopped entirely from July to September.
The six men cooked their food in sea-water as they had no
salt, and seaweed was used as a vegetable. Priestley did not
like it, and no wonder, for it had probably rotted in the sun for
years, and the penguins had trampled it all down, etc.
Campbell kept a wonderful discipline in his party, and as
they were sometimes confined to the igloo for days, Swedish
drill was introduced to keep them healthy. A glance at their
weather record shows how necessary this was. We find one day
l4Ji Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
snowing hard, next day blowing hard, and the third day
blowing and snowing, nearly all through the winter. But
there was never a complaint. On Sundays divine service was
performed. This consisted of Campbell reading a chapter of
the Bible, followed by hymns. They had no hymn-book, but
Priestley remembered several, while Abbot and Browning and
Dickason had all been at some time or other in a choir.
To add to their discomforts, owing to the state of their
clothing and meagre food supply, they were very susceptible to
frost-bites, and Jack Frost made havoc with feet, fingers and
faces. Then sickness set in, in the shape of enteritis —
Browning suffering dreadfully, but always remaining cheerful.
The sickness was undoubtedly due to their meat diet, and its
ravages weakened the party sadly.
On May 6 Campbell's party sustained a severe disappoint-
ment, for they saw what appeared to be four men coming to-
wards them. Immediately they jumped to the conclusion that
the ship had been frozen in and this was a search party. The
four figures turned out to be Emperor penguins, and although
disappointing in one way they served to replenish the larder,
and so had their use.
Campbell and his five companions started for Cape Evans
on September 30. Progress was slow and the party weak, but
thanks to their grit and to Campbell's splendid leadership, this
party all got through to the winter quarters alive. Browning
had to be carried on the sledge part of the way, but fortunately
they picked up one of Griffith Taylor's depots, and the biscuit
found here quite altered Browning's condition.
It seems a pity that full justice cannot be done to all the
parties who went forth sledging in various directions, but a
single lecture does not permit very full descriptions. Grifiith
Taylor, the Australian physiographer, with Debenham, Gran,
and Seaman Forde, made a most valuable journey along the
coast of Victoria Land for geological and surveying purposes.
I hope Taylor will deliver a paper on this expedition at some
future date. The work of the Terra Nova is also worthy of a
special lecture; and here I would like to say that Lieut.
Pennell, her commander, Lieuts. Rennick and Bruce, Mr.
Drake and Mr. Lillie, have worked incessantly in the ship and
on the less frequented coasts of New Zealand for nearly three
years. They have been ably and loyally assisted by the seamen
and stokers of the Terra Nova — worthy fellows, whose bye-word
has been, " Play the game.''
The Formation of the Soil of Hungary 143
THE FORMATION OF THE SOIL OF HUNGARY *
By Bela de Inkey (Ex-Professor of Geology).
{Communicated by Mr. W. H. Shrubsole, F.G.S,, in place
of a Report of the Lecture delivered by him, on
Tuesday, November 18th, 1913.)
About a thousand years ago seven tribes of Magyars, conducted
by their elected chief Arpad, crossed the Eastern Carpathians
and took possession of all the land encircled by these moun-
tains and the Danube.
There these hitherto nomadic people settled down and laid
the foundation of the Hungarian State.
The land, which thus became national property, also has its
history, the opening chapter of which may be found by tracing
backward the stages of geological evolution to the period when
the outlines of the present features of the land began to be
visible.
This period is marked with sufficient exactness as being in
the middle of the Tertiary Period, when enormous changes took
place in the features of ancient Europe; when, by horizontal
movements of large masses of the earth's crust and by compres-
sion of the formerly level strata, most of the mountain chains of
Europe were uplifted.
Supervening on these changes volcanic energy revived with
extraordinary force, and began to build up its own monuments ;
while elsewhere large tracts of land subsided and formed new
sea-basins.
The result was the present contour of the south of Europe,
the formation of the Alps, the Apennines, the Carpathians, and
the Balkans, as well as the Mediterranean Sea,
The Alps of Switzerland and Austria consist of a group of
highly-compressed folds running mainly west and east. But
towards the east the pressure seems to have relaxed, and the
folds begin to diverge like the ribs of an open fan. On the
southern side the folded ridges turn to the south-east, and form
the Dinaric Alps around the Adriatic Sea.
* The Society is in lebted to the Hungarian State Railways, through Mr.
Shrubsole, for the illustrations.
144 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
The northern part of the mountain folds turns north-east
till it reaches the Danube near Hainburg, the low chain on the
opposite bank being the beginning of the Carpathians.
In the angle formed by the divergence of the Alpine folds
lies the bay of Gratz, filled up now with the sediment of
Tertiary seas.
Around it some of the central branches of the Alpine system
extend their diminishing ends eastward, but soon disappear in
the Hungarian plains; only one of them seems to survive in
the mountain-chain, known as the Bakony Forest, that runs
east-north-east, and divides the lesser Hungarian Plain from
the Great Alfold.
Differing from the Alps in structure and composition, but
due to the same process of side pressure and folding, the Car-
pathian range describes part of a vast circle around Hungary,
enclosing that country on three sides. In the south-east corner
of Transylvania the chain bends sharply to the west, and, still
marking the boundary of Hungary, extends to Orsova, where
for the second time it encounters the Danube, whose picturesque
channel separates it from the Balkans.
The land area within the Carpathian ring is mainly a
sunken lowland traversed by the Danube, whose entrance into
the circle we have noticed as occurring between Hainburg and
Deveny.
Crossing first the smaller Hungarian Plain, the mighty
stream flows through a lovely channel between large masses of
plutonic rocks before it reaches Budapest, and enters with a
sharp southward bend into the Great Plain. Unimpeded by
any other obstacle, it reaches the southern frontier at Belgrade,
and, turning again to the east, runs between Hungary and
Servia, soon entering the magnificent gorges between Bazias
and Orsova that give the sole outlet to nearly all the waters of
Hungary.
For in its course the Danube collects, with some trifling
exceptions, all the tributaries that drain the Hungarian soil, as
well as those that, coming from the west, have their source in
the Alps, and also the northern and eastern afiluents which rise
within the Carpathian circle.
"Westward from Belgrade, or rather from Zimony, the Save
indicates the natural limit of the Hungarian State, whereas to
the north of it the Drave serves as the boundary between Hun-
gary proper and the annexed kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia.
bo
The Formation of the Soil of Hungary 145
So it is seen that the political boundaries of Hungary are
marked out on three sides either by mountain ranges or by
rivers.
Only the west side is devoid of natural limits, as the political
frontier between Austria and Hungary runs across river valleys
and the somewhat hilly land of Styria and Lower Austria.
This geographical configuration proved to be of deciding
influence in the historical evolution of the Hungarian State.
This is also symbolised by the armorial bearings of Hungary,
which show on the right side four white bars, signifying its
principal rivers, the Danube, the Tisza, the Save, and the
Drave ; and on the left three green hills surmounted by the
double cross of the Apostolic King Stephen I., showing that the
dominions of the Hungarian Crown extend as far as the moun-
tains and the rivers. And so it is, in fact, for the natural
boundaries thus traced encircle the land which was first occu-
pied by the conquering Magyars and held throughout all the
vicissitudes of history during ten centuries down to the present
day.
Whenever the domination of the Hungarian kings was
extended beyond these natural limits — as it was more than once
in the Middle Ages — it proved to be unstable and of short dura-
tion.
These natural boundaries impeded communications on three
sides while the facility of intercourse on the west invited com-
munication with the higher civilisation of the western European
nations. Therefore the Magyars were drawn into the sphere of
western religion and culture, while their natural boundaries
sometimes served to keep at bay aggressive barbarians.
The Carpathian mountains are not so lofty as the Alps, and
their crests do not reach the line of permanent snow. Still, in
many parts of that long chain, the zone of forest trees is far
exceeded, and there are found either wild, rocky crests and
peaks, with occasional patches of snow in summer, which are
the haunts of chamois, bears, and eagles; or softer slopes and
grass-covered ridges offering good pasture for cattle and sheep.
The highest summits crown the splendid group known as
the High Tatra, where the altitude of 7,000 feet is surpassed
by many peaks.
Next in height is the mighty wall of the Southern Carpa-
thians, consisting, as in the Tatra, of granite or closely allied
rocks of igneous character. Where the mountain range is
146 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
built up mostly by sandstone the elevation is less and the forms
are softer, but even here, as well as in several groups of the
inner chains, the height of 6,000 feet is attained, and the forest
is confined to the lower parts of the slopes. These forests con-
sist of various species of pine and, lower down, of beech and
oak. They are more than sufficient to supply other parts of
the country with wood, and the rivers descending towards the
central lowland facilitate its transport.
While the process of folding and uplifting was shaping the
mountainous margin of Hungary, as well as some inner eleva-
tions, the interior of this circle was subjected to the contrary
process of depression, and was occupied first by the sea, forming
a large bay, which was connected with the southern sea-basins,
the predecessors of the existing Mediterranean. In fact, the
fossil shells found in the Miocene strata lying on the inner
slopes of the Hungarian mountains are the direct predecessors
of the marine fauna living to-day in the Mediterranean Sea.
Therefore this group of sediments bears the name of Mediter-
ranean.
Later on this connection with the sea in the west and south
seems to have been interrupted by the continual uplifting of the
Dinaric Alps. But then the Hungarian depression found
another communication eastward, over the lower part of the
mountain margin, with the waters that covered at that time
Poland and the south of Russia — that is, the ancient Sarmatia .
In consequence we call Sarmatian the sea deposits of this
period, whose fossil mollusca are related to forms living now in
the Black Sea and in the Caspian Lake.
After some time this connection was broken, and the Hun-
garian bay changed its character, and became first a brackish
and then a fresh-water lake. This was in the period known
as the Pontic, or Pannonian. It corresponds to the English
Lower Pliocene, and its sandy and clayey deposits, often con-
taining beds of brown coal, occupy large tracts of low, undu-
lating land.
The next period, corresponding to the Upper Pliocene, when
the large Pannonian lake was greatly diminished and broken up
into smaller basins, is called the Levantine.
During these periods the water level of the Hungarian bay
was being continually lowered, the rivers flowing from all
sides into it and bringing enormous quantities of sedimentary
matter, the central depression was filled up and converted into
be
a
bfi
The Formation of the Soil of Hungary 147
a plain diversified by some- shallow lakes and extensive swamps.
But at tlie same time the rivers were cutting through the older
Miocene and Pliocene deposits, leaving a range of low hills
between the plain and the higher mountains.
At the time when great movements in the earth's crust were
most active in building the principal mountain chains of
Europe — that is, in the Miocene Period — volcanic forces also
contributed in great measure to the formation of the present
geographical features of Hungary.
Along fissures, probably caused by the one-sided strain that
raised the Carpathians, innumerable volcanic vents were
opened ; enormous masses of molten material and fragmentary
ejections issued from them to the surface and accumulated over
them, forming either isolated cones, or groups or chains of
hills, some being of considerable height.
The volcanic formations are spread over nearly the whole
land, but especially on the shores of what was then the Miocene
bay, and later on the Pliocene lake. This volcanic activity
lasted, according to geological evidence, from the end of the
Miocene to the later Pliocene Period, producing first different
kinds of andesites and liparites, and, finally, basaltic cones.
After the extinction of the subterraneous fires the volcanic
formations were subjected to the destructive powers of the atmo-
sphere, and have lost much of their original height and form;
still, what is left contributes many beautiful features to Hun-
garian landscapes, as, for instance, the fine basaltic cones on
the shore of Lake Balaton, the vine-covered hills of Tokay, or
the curious hills of Transylvania, from which more gold is
obtained than from the whole of the other European mines.
In the preceding pages it has been shown that the principal
features of Hungarian territory were worked out in the Tertiary
Age, at the end of which not only was every connection with the
sea interrupted, but also the Pliocene freshwater lake of the
interior was drained and filled up by sediments.
Destruction by running water and accumulation of pebbles,
sand, and silt in the lower districts took place in the last stages
of this age, and was continued throughout the Pleistocene
Period.
Then the climate grew colder; the Scandinavian ice-cap
extended far over central Europe, and reached even to the out-
ward rim of the Carpathians, and glaciers descended far down
into the valleys.
148 1 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
Such vestiges of the Great Ice Age as are found in the Alps
do not occur in the Carpathians, whose summits and ridges are
much lower, yet traces of ancient glaciers are not entirely want-
ing, and ancient moraines, circuses, ice-formed lakes, erratic
blocks, and rocks polished and striated by ice, can be seen in
many parts of the higher mountain groups, especially in the
Tatra and in the Transylvanian Carpathians.
It is certain that the northern ice-drift did not pass over the
wall of the Carpathians, although in the inner basin enormous
masses of Pleistocene sediments were deposited. Artesian
borings on the great Plain have shown that such deposits there
attain the thickness of more than 400 feet — that is, some hun-
dred feet beneath the present sea-level, — which proves that the
downward movement went on throughout the Pleistocene
Period, and possibly this is still going on.
After the Ice Age the climate of these regions became drier
and less severe. The land was converted into treeless, grassy
plains resembling the great steppes of the interior of Asia.
Enormous clouds of dust were swept from the decaying rocks of
the mountains and scattered over the lowland, where herds of
mammoth, antelopes, horses, and other grass eaters swarmed.
Retained between the grass blades, this dust accumulated
during many centuries, and formed a loamy soil of yellow colour
and fine-grained texture, containing no pebbles nor any remains
of animals that live in water, but only small shells of land snails
and occasionally the bones of mammals.
The seolian origin of this yellow earth, called " Loess " by
the Germans, has been demonstrated by Hichthofen, who
observed its development in the western part of China. The
Loess forms a coating many yards in thickness over nearly all
the lower hills and plains of Hungary, and is a very valuable
part of its geological deposits, which is highly appreciated by
agriculturists as being one of the best soils.
At the close of the Pleistocene Period the geographical
aspect of the land was as we find it to-day, and a glance at an
orographical map shows the final result of all the changes and
processes we have considered in the preceding pages. It is, in
fact, a well-defined geographical unity, whose boundaries are
traced out by an almost uninteiTupted circle of mountains,
whose interior plains are watered by the mightiest stream of
Central Europe and its confluents, and bordered by lower hills of
a
o
The Formation of the Soil of Hungary 149
various forms and origin. Now man has taken possession of
this land, and lives on the products of its soil.
In considering the quality of the various Hungarian soils it
is well to begin by noticing its geological formation, which
explains the topographical forms underlying the soil and
reveals the raw material from which the soil has been derived.
Crystalline rocks — such as gneiss, primitive schists, granite,
diorite, syenite, and eruptive rocks generally — must be regarded
as the primary source of all sedimentary formations. Their
fine particles, resulting from weathering, are carried off, and
give the material for sedimentary layers, or the rocks, remain-
ing in situ, are covered by fresh deposits. By chemical
decomposition of their silicates clay is produced, and soluble
salts necessary for the nutrition of plants are mingled there-
with.
The geological map of Hungary shows that granite, diorite,
and crystalline schists enter in large measure into the composi-
tion of the Carpathians and of many of the mountain groups in
the interior of the land. Even more than these old formations,
the numerous Tertiary eruptive rocks, with their easily decom-
posed masses of tufa and conglomerates, supply the soil with
much useful mineral matter.
A certain brown loam called " Nyirok," which covers the
surface of these volcanic rocks, is considered to be one of the
best soils in Hungary, and the highly-renowned Hungarian
wine known as Tokay is grown on decomposed crystalline rocks.
Limestone and dolomite, although frequent in the Hun-
garian mountains, do not occupy extensive areas by themselves
except in that part of the Dinaric Alps in Croatia, which,
because of its sterility, has been named the '* Karst."
In the Carpathians and in the Bakony the limestone and
dolomite hills have retained their soil-covering, and are adorned
with fine forests.
A large part of the outer Carpathian chain consists of sand-
stone called " Karpatensandstein " by Austrian geologists. Its
age is partly Cretaceous and partly Eocene. This friable
rock does not yield a very fertile soil, but as it is frequently
intermingled with layers of clay and marl it is able to produce
fine timber, and forms good pasture land.
Rain and rivers have carried the detritus of the sandstones
down to the lowlands, and this explains the large amount of
sand on the Great Plain. Where this is not protected, either by
150 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
a sheet of water or by dense vegetation, it is acted upon by the
wind and piled up into unstable dunes, such as are seen in
several parts of the Plain, or spread out in sandy wastes.
Great care has always been bestowed by the State authori-
ties on plantations on these sandy tracts in order to arrest the
formation of dunes, and edicts and laws to this end are known
which were issued in the Middle Ages; yet the most efficacious
measure proved to be the planting of *' Robinia pseudacacia,"
commonly known as the " False Acacia," which was introduced
from America in the eighteenth century.
About forty years ago, when the Hungarian vineyards were
devastated by the phylloxera, experiments in the sandy districts
proved that vines grown there were immune from attacks of
that injurious insect.
The areas formed by Tertiary deposits offer a great variety
of soils, some of them being highly valued for agricultural use,
as, for instance, the so-called " Mezoseg," in the centre of the
Transylvanian basin.
The origin in the Quaternary Period of the finely-grained
marly clay called " Loess " has been already noticed. Owing
to its formation by wind-blown dust the Loess is not stratified,
and its loose stiTicture, showing a network of small, vertical
fissures and tubes, the vestiges of grass-blades and roots, makes
it able to absorb a large part of the rainfall, and at the same
time assures easy working of the soil.
The subsoil beneath the Loess always contains a considerable
quantity of carbonate of lime, which is often found concen-
trated into marly nodules. It also contains hydrate of iron
oxide in the form of small pisolitic granules.
The Loess formation covers a large part of the land, and it
may be said that nearly half of the best soils for wheat-growing
either rests on it or is derived from it. On the slopes of the
hills and on higher plateaus, where it has been carved into
gently undulating hills, the Loess has not been altered since its
formation, and there the light-yellow colour of the subsoil is
seen merging by degrees into a light-brown upper soil. But in
the level tracts of the lowland, the original Loess stratum has
been frequently inundated and changed into swampy grounds,
in which abundant humus was produced which tinted the upper
layer two or three feet thick with a dark brown or even black
colour that strongly contrasts with the yellow subsoil. This
kind of Loess soil is remarkably fertile.
Anna's Lake, near Tusnad. (Ancient Crater.)
Mount Szentgyorgy, with its Basaltic Columns,
The Formation of the Soil of Hungary 151
Travelling across the seemingly endless Plain in the middle
of Hungary, where alternating fields of wheat and Indian corn
testify to the fertility of that brown soil, one is surprised to
encounter at times large stretches of barren land destitute of
crops, trees, or any other vegetation, except a short, bluish grass
turf trodden by herds of cattle and horses, who from a distance
seem to float on the trembling waters of the " Fata Morgana."
These alkaline regions, called " Szikesfold " in Hungarian,
resemble the alkaline areas in the west of the United States of
America or in the interior of the Asiatic continent.
Their origin, also, is evidently due to similar rapid evapora-
tion of water. On the Great Plain the rivers Tisza, Koros,
Maros, and Berettyo tend with sluggish flow toward the
Danube, with its sole outlet through the rapids of Bazias and
the Iron Gates. Frequent inundation having been, as it still
is, the consequence of the outlet being very narrow, much of the
widespread waters evaporated and left their soluble salts in the
ground. Some of these salts are profitable to vegetation; some
others, especially the salts of sodium, have a directly noxious
effect, not only upon the roots of plants, but also on the soil
itself, rendering it heavy and impermeable by water and air.
In fact, the alkali soils, containing even a very small per-
centage of carbonate of sodium, are, when dry, so hard that
neither plough nor spade can work them, whereas in wet weather
the uppermost layer turns into a dark, slimy mud equally unfit
for agricultural labour.
In ponds and miry depressions the carbonate of sodium
accumulates to such a degree that after desiccation in summer
time the ground is covered with a snow-like efflorescence which
formerly was collected and used as soda.
In less quantity than the carbonate, the sulphates of sodium
and magnesium occur in the stagnant waters of the Szik soils,
and in some places near to habitations and stables saltpetre is
found in efflorescence, evidently formed on a calciferous soil by
the nitric acid derived from animal dejections.
Various methods for the reclamation of these alkaline soils
for agricultural purposes have been tried, and experiments are
still being carried on by the State. The use of gypsum as a
means of converting the injurious carbonate into a neutral
sulphate of sodium, as recommended by Mr. Hilgard in Cali-
fornia, has been proved to be in some degree efficient, but it is
too expensive for general application.
152 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
Evidently the best method would be the cleansing of the soil
by irrigating water, and several schemes of canalisation and
irrigation are being prepared, and experiments on a small scale
are now going on.
In the description of his journey to the camp of Attila, on
the banks of the Tisza, Prisons Ehetor, the Bysantine Emperor's
ambassador, mentions with horror the endless swamps and
morasses he had to pass through. And maps of Hungary made
in the eighteenth century show a wide expansion of marshy
ground in the Great Plain. At the present day most of the
morasses have disappeared owing to canalisation and regulation
of the rivers. Yet some still exist, and peaty soils occupy con-
siderable areas, not only near the rivers, but also near to the
great freshwater lakes, Balaton and Ferto, in Western Hun-
gary. They are partly used for turf-cutting and partly
drained and reclaimed as plough land.
This short review has shown a large amount of fertile land
at the disposal of the Hungarian nation. Farming is the
occupation of the greatest part of the people, and the produce
of the soil is the principal source of wealth in Hungary. But
we know that the simple practice of farming inherited from our
fathers is no longer sufficient to keep up the standard of agricul-
ture required in our time .
Modern agriculture has to avail itself of the results of
modern science, and among these the scientific investigation of
the soil stands foremost. Pedology, as the science of soil is
called, is one of the youngest branches of natural science, yet
Hungary does not stand behind other nations in regard to this
science.
More than fifty years ago, long before our Western neigh-
bours thought of such work, soil investigations were carried on
in Hungary.
The systematical survey of Hungarian soils, based on the
geological maps, began more than twenty years ago, and is
going on with satisfactory results. The sciences of chemistry,
biology, and climatology contribute their share to the progress
of knowledge of the soil, and the agricultural experimental
stations in different parts of the land stand between the prac-
tical experience of the farmer and the result of scientific
investigation.
Allusion has been made to the care of the Hungarian
Government in promoting the reclamation of alkaline tracts,
bjo
.2f
The Formation of the Soil of Hungary 153
moying sands, and peaty land, all of tliese works requiring tlie
aid of scientific inquiry.
But as no science can develop well if confined witliin the
limits of a single land contact with the scientific work of other
nations has to be sought. Other branches of natural science
have felt that need, and have found periodical international
congresses to be the best means of creating that contact.
The first international meetings of pedologists was proposed
by the Hungarian Government, and was held at Budapest in the
year 1909.
The second was in Sweden, and the third will soon follow in
Russia. It is to be hoped that soon all civilised nations will
join in the ever-increasing work of soil investigation, which
must have very valuable results, both for science and for the
practice of farming.
154 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
IReviewa*
" Photographic Supplement to Stanford's Geological Atlas of Great Britain
and Ireland." Arranged and Edited by H. B. Woodward, F.R.S.,
F.G.S., with the Co-operation of Miss Hilda D. Sharpe. London : E.
Stanford Ltd., 1913.
This photographic Supplement to Stanford's Geological Atlas of Great
Britain and Ireland is an excellent book. The photographs are well arranged
and illustrate the typical points of the atlas. Great care and discrimination
have been shown in the selection of the views. A great step in advance,
however, would be the use of parallel views with the actual colours repro-
duced. This of course is a matter of much further expense.
The book owes much to the personal work of Miss H. D. Sharpe, and the
editor is to be congratulated on the production of a very useful book. J.H.B.
"Anglo-Egyptian Sudan : A Report on the Land Settlement of the Gezira
(Mesellemia District)." By H. St. G. Peacock, Judge of Sudan Civil
Courts, Settlement Officer, Gezira Land Settlement, 1906—1910. (Sale
Agents — London : Sifton Praed & Co., Ltd., 1913.)
The attention of the members is directed to this Report. It forms a very
valuable compendium of information on the work already accomplished and
still being carried on. The Registration and Settlement Officers have per
formed a great work and have an extremely busy time. The plans and
illustrations add greatly to the value of the Report.
"The Change in the Climate and its Cause." By Major R. A. Marriott,
D.S.O. London: E. Marlborough & Co. 1/6.
This book attempts to give the date of the last ice age. This is supposed
to have ended about 7,000 years ago and to have lasted about 15,000 years, —
to be precise, "the last glaciation began 23,700 B.C., and came to an end in
5,624 B.C." (p. 17). The cause of the Ice age is stated to be the increased
obliquity of the earth's axis, which, according to Major-General Drayson,
varies between the limits 35" 25^ 47 // and 23" 25^ 47//. When the obliquity
was at the maximum in 13,544 b.c. there would be very hot summers and very
cold winters. We are now (according to this theory) only 385 years from
the time of minimum obliquity, when the contrasts between the seasons will
be least. It follows that the Arctic circle must have varied between 54" 34/
13// and 66" 34/ 13//, so that all Scotland and Northumberland would be in
the frigid zone.
Reviews 155
This theory is worked out by Major Marriott in a very interesting way,
and he thoroughly believes in his master, Dray son. One remembers the like
enthusiasm for the theories of Croll a generation ago, and these seem to have
been abandoned. (By the way, is the author quite fair to the astronomers
when he assumes them to support Croll's theory ? The astronomers can, no
doubt, take care of themselves.) Then there came the very plausible modifi-
cation of the late Sir Robt. Ball with its tempting 63 and 37 per cent, of the
sun's available heat, distributed over 199 days and 166 days respectively.
When the greater amount of heat was distributed over the shorter time, and
the lesser amount of heat over the longer time, then were the conditions of
maximum glaciation in one hemisphere, and, at the same time, the minimum
glaciation in the other. And this very plausible and tempting theory seems
to have gone too. Will Major-General Drayson's theory have any better luck ?
We must follow the advice of the politicians and " wait and see." The book
is, as far as the present writer can judge, a fair statement of the case, and
should be read by all interested in glacial geology and in the study of pre-
historic man.
One might ask the writer two or three pertinent questions. If glaciations
came every 31,000 years what becomes of the apparently long warm period
of the Eocene, and the apparent gradual cooling through the later Tertiary?
We refer, of course, to the teachings of British deposits.
Again, what is the meaning of the almost complete unanimity of the later
school of British glacialists in accepting only one Pleistocene ice age, and not
a series with a large number of inter-glacial periods? (See the work of Mr.
Lamplugh, Prof. Kendall, Dr. Jowett, Dr. Wilmore, Mr. Stather, Mr.
Shepheard — chiefly in the North of England — and others.)
Thirdly, is it really necessary to have an astronomical theory at all?
Kamschatka is in the same latitude as the British Isles, and it has at least an
approximation to a glacial period. The same is true of Tierra del Fuego in
the southern hemisphere. Lastly, is it quite certain <hat the winters are
becoming warmer and the summers cooler? Do not both Greenwich and
Stonyhurst refuse to commit themselves to such a change? It is not long
since we had the warmest simimer day for about a hundred years, and we have
had very severe winters within the lifetime of the present generation, just as
there were mild winters in the British Isles a hundred years ago. A.W.
156 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
lprocecMnQ0 of tbe Society*
July I St to December 31st, 191 3.
The 937tli Meeting of the Society was held on Thursday, October
2nd, 1913.
The Library and Museum were open for inspection from 6-30 p.m.
special objects of interest in the latter being the shields, spears, and
other curios brought by Mr. Ains worth from East Africa, mostly
presented by him to the Society, some being specially lent by him
for the evening's exhibition.
At 7-30 the President, Mr. Harry Nuttall, M.P., F.R.G.S., took the
Chair in the Lecture Hall.
The Minutes of the Meetings held on March i8th, 28th and 29th
were taken as read.
The Chairman announced that the following members had been
elected since the last meeting : — Life : Mr. Arthur Holt. Ordinary :
Miss S. A. Burstall, M.A., Mrs. C. Garnett, Miss G. E. Mort, Mrs.
N. Tatham, Messrs. F. S. Abbott, F.C.A., John Dugdill, C. V. Groves,
E. H. Langdon (President, Chamber of Commerce), W. A. McGrath,
A. McPherson, W. J. Medlyn, T. H. Nightingale, G. R. Swaine,
C. Taylor, W. J. Tyrie and S. W. Williams. Associate : Miss M.
Groves.
Mr. Nuttall, by special request of the Executive Committee,
announced that the following six ordinary members had become Life
Members in order to enable the Society to acquire Shares in the
Building Company : — Messrs. A. Burgon, T. E. Edwards, F.R.G.S.,
Alderman T. Hassall, J.P., W. Morton Johnson, F.R.G.S., L. Emerson
Mather, F.R.G.S., and the President himself.
The Chairman also mentioned that since the last Meeting the
Society had lost the following Members by death : — Messrs. S. Oppen-
heim, J. P., J. C. Waterhouse, Joseph Donnell, J.P., J. Lanyon, J.P.,^
J. Tetlow Lewis, J.P., and R. H. Reynolds.
The first two were Original Members and the first, Mr. vS. Oppen-
heim, had been Vice-President for many years. Previously he had
served as Hon. Treasurer, and of late he had helped as a Member of
the Executive Committee. He had in many ways supported the
Society, and his loss would be keenly felt. His last and splendid
gift to the Society was the bequest of his holding of Shares in the
Building Company, and he thus provides a worthy example for the
other Shareholders of the Building Company, who have the interests
of the Society at heart.
• The Meetings are held in the Geographical Hall, unless other-
wise stated.
Proceedings of the Society 157
The President then welcomed Mr. John Ainsworth, C.M.G.,
F.R.G.S., in his third visit to the Society during his over twenty-
years' administrative work in East Africa, first at Machakos, then
at Nairobi, and finally at Kisumu.
Mr. Ainsworth gave an address on " East Africa," illustrating
his remarks with about 70 splendid slides prepared from his own
photographs. (See p. 10.)
Mr. T. E. Edwards, F.R.G.S., moved a vote of thanks to the
Lecturer for his interesting account of East Africa and its Govern-
ment, and for the fine illustrations shown. The Chairman seconded
the resolution, which was carried unanimously.
The 938th Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, October
7th, 1913, at 7-30 p.m.
In the Chair, Mr. T. W. vSowerbutts, F.S.A.A.
The Minutes of the Meeting held on October 7th were taken as read.
The Election of the following members was announced : —
Ordinary : Mrs. Heigh way, Mrs. A. T. Johnson, Miss Woolf, Messrs.
A. Grime, Dr. Larmuth, A. C. Morris, E. Keith-Roach, and Norman
H. Zimmern. Associate : Miss J. Hamilton and Miss Harden.
Dr. Mercier Gamble gave a lecture on " Life in San vSalvador do
Congo," illustrating his remarks with original lantern views.
The Lecturer described the journey up the Congo and over-
land to San Salvador, then gave his experiences as a Medical
Missionary in charge of the Hospital, concluding with an interesting
account of " vSleeping Sickness," and their method of treating it,
which had been attended with success in many cases.
The Chairman, on behalf of the Meeting, tendered hearty thanks
to Dr. Gamble for his intensely interesting address.
The 939th Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesdaj^ October
14th, 1913, at 7-30 p.m.
In the Chair, Mr. F. Zimmern, F.R.G.S.
The Minutes of the Meeting held on October 7th were taken as read.
The Chairman mentioned the death of Mr. W. Ha worth, J. P., who
had been a member for many years. It was resolved that the
sympathy ot those present be conveyed to Mr. Ha worth's relatives
in their sad bereavement.
Mrs. H. L. Lees, F.R.G.S., A.R.C.I., described a " Visit to New
Zealand," illustrating her remarks with slides kindly lent by the
High Commissioner for New Zealand.
The Chairman, on behalf of the meeting offered hearty thanks to
Mrs. Lees for the intensely interesting account which she had given
of her journey.
158 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
A short report of the Lecture is here given : —
Mrs. Lees gave an account of Sydney Harbour and its favourable
geographical position from a commercial point of view. A dramatic
reception was accorded the lecturer on the evening of her arrival
at the Hot Lake District, Rotorua, a severe earthquake occurring.
The Thermal district, or " Nature's Dispensary," with its wonderful
curative baths reputed to cure almost every ailment known to man,
including cold feet, was next described. The Hamurana spring
across Lake Rotorua is the only place on earth where one cannot
** sink money," owing to the immense volume of water given out,
which prevents anything sinking to the bottom, and it was recom-
mended by the lecturer to investors as being absolutely safe. A
description of the " conception and birth " of minerals was
explained in several areas, including sulphur, oxide of iron, silica,
alum, pumice, fuller's earth, and slate. In places remote from the
tourists' track are rivers where iodine and quicksilver are found.
The Tarawera eruption of 1886 was described, also the eruption of
Wairnunga geyser. A photograph was shown of a group of
tourists, four of whom, through being too venturesome, were
enveloped in the boiling water and steam and literally boiled to
death.
The Maoris believe that the mountain at the foot of which the
Waidaupo Hotel stands will soon be in eruption, "as no animal
will graze on it, no bird ever alights on it, and it is hot to the
touch." The lecturer spent a night alone at this hotel, and whilst
in conversation with some Maori women remarked that a storm
was approaching because of the distant thunder that was heard,
and was told ** that the thunder was under her feet, not over her
head." The " Rainbow Mountain," so called because of the
beautiful shades of colour of which it consists (a specimen of
which the lecturer produced), was explained to be volcanic dust,
the various colours being produced by the presence of minerals. A
beautiful specimen of jade, or New Zealand greenstone, so intensely
valuable to the Maoris, and from which they made their battle-axes,
their only means of defence, was also exhibited.
Mrs. Lees next gave a description of a journey down the
Wanganui River, navigable for 140 miles. At Fairlie the lecturer
met Miss du Faur, of Sydney, the only lady at that time who had
made the ascent of Mount Cook, 12,349 feet. A drive was taken of
a hundred miles by motor-car through the Mackenzie country to
the hermitage at the base of Mount Cook. From there a sixteen-
mile journey on horseback led across the Hooker River and along
the Hooker Valley, the road being only a bridle path, two or three
hundred feet high, winding in and out of the mountain side, with
many " devil's elbows " to negotiate. The " Ball Hut," on the
Tasman glacier, was reached, and a night spent there. Next day
a walk of five miles was taken across the glacier with the guide,
who often had to cut steps in the ice and make many detours to
Proceedings of the Society 159
avoid crevasses. On the return journey to Ball Hut Mrs. Lindon,
of Geelong, with two guides, came into the hut. This party of
three had started the day before to make the ascent of Mount Cook,
and for several hours had had to cut themselves steps on the face
of the mountain. The adventure without mishap was warmly
applauded, and the whole party returned together on horseback to
the Hermitage. Thus the lecturer had been fortunate in meeting
the only two ladies who had made the ascent of Mount Cook.
{Manchester City News.)
The 940th Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, October
2ist, 1913, at 7-30 p.m.
In the Chair, Mr. F. Zimmern, F.R.G.S.
The Minutes of the Meeting held on October 14th were taken
as read.
The Chairman announced the election of the following members : —
Ordinary : Miss E. N. Openshaw, Messrs. J. C. Aldred, Edwin
Barlow, Henry Briggs, B. Jordan, and H. L. Littler. Associate :
Miss E. Pearson.
Dr. W. vS. Bruce, F.R.S.E., Director of the Scottish Oceano-
graphical Laboratory, gave a lecture on " Spitsbergen : Past and
Present." (Seepage 115.)
The Lecturer gave an account of the discovery, exploration, and
recent important commercial and political development of the Archi-
pelago, and illustrated his remarks with many original lantern views.
A hearty vote of thanks was passed to Dr. Bruce for his interesting
and instructive address so well illustrated.
The 941st Meeting of the Society was held in the Free Trade Hall
on Friday, October 31st, 1913, at 7-30 p.m.
The President of the Society, Mr. Hany- Nuttall, M.P., F.R.G.S.,
presided and was accompanied on the platform by the lecturer.
Commander E. R. G. R. Evans, C.B., R.N. (See p. 122.) They
were supported by the following Officers and Members of the
Council :— Mr. F. Zimmern, F.R.G.S., Rt. Rev. Bishop Welldon,D.D.,
Colonel H. T. Crook, V.D., J.P., Messrs. J. McFarlane, M.A., M.Com.,
F.R.G.S., D. A Little, Egbert vSteinthal, W S. Ascoli, F.R.G.S.,
J. E. Balmer, F.R.G.S., C. A Clarke, G. Ginger, J. Howard Hall,
T. C. Middleton, J.P., F.C.A., F. S. Oppenheim, M.A., T. W. F.
Parkinson, M.Sc.,F.G.S., A. Ree., Ph.D., T. W. Sowerbutts, F.S.A.A.,
T. Gregory, J.P., F.C.A., and Harry vSowerbutts, Assoc.R.C.Sc.
Mr. Nuttall, in introducing the Lecturer, offered him, the Second
in Command of the Expedition, on behalf of the Geographical
Society, the heartiest possible welcome to Manchester. Remembering
as they did that Commander Evans accompanied Captain Scott to
i6o Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
within 150 miles of the Pole, they were delighted to see him looking
so strong and well. Commander Evans, in accordance with Captain
Scott's arrangements, returned in charge of the last supporting party,
and travelled 750 miles in conditions which nearly cost him his life.
The Scott Expedition had given the world a most striking example
of nobility of character and extensive and important scientific
results.
Commander Evans pointed out that the story of this last British
expedition to the Antarctic was indissolubly bound up with the
life-story of its leader, Robert Falcon Scott, who after having
achieved his object and penetrated to the Pole itself, perished with
his brave companions within a few miles of the food depot at One
Ton Camp about March 27, 1912. On his previous expedition
Captain Scott got to within 463 miles of the Pole. The work in
the South was continued by Sir Ernest vShackleton, who on January
9, 1909, planted the Union Jack 100 miles from the Pole. Captain
Scott left England on July 16, 1910, on his final quest. On October
30, 191 1, just before the last advance was made, he reported that
ofi&cers and men were all in splendid health and anxious to go
forward. When within 150 miles of the Pole, and the last sup-
porting party was returning, all was still well, although the snow--
storms and blizzards had been unusually severe. On January 3,
1912, he went forward into the darkness with four others — Dr.
Wilson, Captain Oates, Lieutenant Bowers, and Petty Ofiicer Evans.
The Union Jack w^as planted at the South Pole within easy reach
of the flag which Amundsen had left there a few^ weeks earlier.
The rest of the story was soon told. Evans died from concussion
on February 17. On March 17 Oates heroically walked out to his
death, and as near as could be told the others, Scott last of all,
joined the immortal band of heroes about March 27. Captain
Scott's ** Message to the public," one of the most tragic diaries ever
penned, described the end. (Manchester City News.)
Commander Evans told the story of the return of the " last sup-
porting party," which consisted of himself and two seamen, Crean
and Lashley On the way Commander Evans developed scurvy,
and was for a time paralysed. He was brought back to
safety by these two men, to whose courage and almost super-
human endurance he paid a high tribute. He showed pictures of
the two men. " It will interest some of you to know," he said,
" that Lashley had been a teetotaller and a non-smoker all his life.
— (Cheers.) It will interest others to know that Crean had been
neither." At this sudden turn of thought the audience laughed a
great deal. The passage was characteristic of the whole lecture,
which was a most boyish and winning performance. The narrative
was naturally saddened by the shadow of death, but Commander
Evans wisely avoided the process of making things worse, and he
warmed and illuminated the evening with many touches of humour
and humanity.
Proceedings of the Society i6i
At one point " Pickwick " appeared as the only literary work
the party possessed. The reader came to the passage in which Mr.
Weller is invited by a select company of the Bath footmen " to a
friendly swarry." This passage had a very powerful and moving
effect upon the audience of explorers, but it was not exactly the
effect contemplated by the author, the humour of the affair being
quite overlooked in the painful and concentrated interest excited
by the " boiled leg of mutton with the usual trimmings." At
another point the familiar penguin appeared, this time as the most
stupid bird on earth, so stupid that it not infrequently cherishes
a round piece of ice, thinking it to be an egg. The lecture was
full of little character sketches and appreciations — Commander
Evans had a good word for everybody except himself. There was
the sweet strong influence of Dr. Wilson, a man of learning and
a man of affairs ; there was Lieutenant Bowers, evidently Com-
mander Evans's hero; Captain Gates, the doer of the bravest act
on record, who died as he had lived, magnificently. There were
testimonials for the common seamen for their " sportsmanship "
and for their all-round splendid behaviour. Many very vivid and
beautiful photographs illustrated the lecture, and at the end there
were kinematographic views of Antarctic life. It was a large
audience, and probably no lecture on Polar expeditions of the many
which have been given in this hall has been more enjoyed.
{Manchester Guardian.)
Mr. F. Zimmern, F.R.G.S., moved, and the Rt. Rev. Bishop Well-
don, Dean of Manchester, seconded, a vote of thanks to Commander
Evans, which was carried with acclamation.
Commander Evans said in reply : I think you have already heard
me talking at some length, but before I go I should like to thank
you very much for the way in which you have received my story. I
am only a simple sailor, and it is not given to sailors to soar into
flights of eloquence. We simply have to say what we have got to
say. I should be very ungrateful if I left this hall without expressing
the gratitude of every member of our Expedition for the help which
Manchester gave to it. Manchester put up the money at the begin-
ning, when it was wanted. England has put up the mone}^ when
her heart was touched, to provide for those who are left, but Man-
chester was most generous in making the Expedition possible. The
Chairman of this meeting was very conspicuous in helping Captain
Scott. In conclusion Commissioner Evans thanked the Vice-Chairman of
the Council of the Society (Mr. E. W. Mellor, J.P., F.R.G.S.) for his
services with the lantern which illustrated the lecture.
The 942nd Meeting of the Society was held in the Houldsworth
Hall, Deansgate, on Tuesday, November 4th, 1913, at 7-30 p.m.
In the Chair, Mr. F. Zimmern, F.R.G.S.
The Rev. T. F. Nicholas, M.A., gave a lecture on " The Gambia
River and Protectorate." The Lecturer dealt with the results of his
i62 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
explorations during a nine years' residence, after some reference to
its history, general features and expanding trade.
The lecture was illustrated with original lantern views, shown by
the electric lantern of the Vice-Chairman.
The Chairman moved, and it was unanimously resolved, that the
hearty thanks of the meeting be given to the lecturer for the interest-
ing account of his experiences, and to Mr. Mellor for his services
with the lantern.
The 943rd Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, November
nth, 1913, at 7-30 p.m.
In the Chair, Mr. J. Stephenson Reid.
The Minutes of the Meetings held on October 21st, 31st, and
November 4th were taken as read.
The election of the following members was announced : —
Ordinary : Messrs. E. Bowen and T. Coop. Associate : Mrs. Char-
nock and Miss J. Kewley.
The Chairman mentioned that letters of condolence had been sent
by direction of the Council to the relatives of Mrs. Oram and Alder-
man Wm. Healey, both of whom had died since the last meeting after
a membership of twenty years in each case. The Society was
represented at the funeral of the late Alderman Healey by the Hon.
Treasurer. Mrs. Oram died on the voyage home from South Africa.
Mr. J. Hilditch, M.R.A.S., M.J.S., gave a lecture on ** Japan : Its
Beauties in Nature and Art." The address w^as illustrated with
native coloured slides of photographic views and reproductions of
Paintings in the ** Hilditch " collection.
On the motion of the Chairman, it was unanimously resolved that
the best thanks of the Meeting be given to Mr. Hilditch for his
intensely interesting lecture so splendidly illustrated.
The 944th Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, November
i8th, 1913, at 7-30 p.m.
In the Chair, Mr. E. W. Mellor, J.P., F.R.G.S.
The Minutes of the Meeting held on November nth were taken
as read.
The Chairman announced that Mr. G. H. Warren had presented
a specimen of Tappa Cloth (made from the bark of a tree) from Tonga
or Friendly Islands for the Museum.
Mr. W. H. Shrubsole, F.G.S., gave a lecture entitled ** Among the
Carpathians."
The address was illustrated with original and other lantern views,
mostly artistically coloured.
The Chairman moved, and it was unanimously resolved, that the
hearty thanks of the Meeting be given to Mr. Shrubsole for his
extremely interesting address, so very well illustrated.
Proceedings of the Society 163
The 945th Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, November
25th, 1913, at 7-30 p.m.
In the Chair, Mr. George Ginger.
The Minutes of the Meeting held on November i8th were taken
as read.
The election of the following members was announced : —
Ordinary : Mr. George Heigh way. Associate : Mrs. Lightowler and
Miss Wardle.
Mr. John A. Osborn gave a lecture on " The Rhine : From Basel
to the Sea," illustrating his remarks with a large number of original
and other lantern views.
The Chairman moved, and it was unanimously resolved, that
hearty thanks be given to Mr. Osborn for his interesting address,
and for the illustrations shown.
The 946th Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, December
2nd, 1913, at 7-30 p.m.
In the Chair, Mr. F. Zimmern, F.R.G.S .
The Minutes of the Meeting held on November 25th were taken
as read.
Professor Harold B. Dixon, Ph.D., F.R.S., described his experi-
ences of " Climbing in the Canadian Rocky Mountains." The lecture
was illustrated with original lantern views.
The Chairman moved, and it was unanimously resolved, that the
hearty thanks of those present be given to the Professor for the very
interesting account which he had given of his journeys, so well
illustrated.
The 947th Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, December
9th, 1913, at 7-30 p.m.
In the Chair, Mr. J. Howard Hall.
The Minutes of the Meeting held on December 2nd were taken
as read.
The election of the following members was announced : —
Ordinary : Miss Nanson and Rev. R .M. Tuke. Associate : Miss E.
Fullerton, Miss P. M. Garner, and Miss E. Cockshaw.
The Chairman mentioned the death of Mr. G. A. Harrop, and it
was resolved that the sympathy of his fellow members be conveyed
to his relatives.
Mr. James A. Carter, B.A., gave a lecture on " Glaciers : What
they are, how they are formed, and what they look like — viewed from
a distance and seen at close quarters," and illustrated his remarks
with over one hundred lantern views.
The Chairman spoke in very appreciative terms of the fine lantern
views shown and of the interesting and instructive account given by
l64 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
Mr. Carter, and it was unanimously resolved that the best thanks of
the Meeting be given to the Lecturer.
The 948th Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, December
i6th, 1913, at 7-30 p.m.
In the Chair, Mr. F. Zimmern, F.R.G.S.
The Minutes of the Meeting held on Tuesday, December 9th, were
taken as read.
Mr. Wm. Eller gave a lecture on " Liibeck," illustrating his
remarks with a collection of slides kindly lent by the Municipal
Authorities of that town.
The Chairman moved, and it was unanimously resolved, that
hearty thanks be given to the Lecturer for his interesting remarks,
and to the Ltibeck Authorities for the loan of the slides.
The 949th Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, December
?3rd, 1913, at 7-0 p.m., and took the form of a lecture to the children
of Members. Miss Kate Qualtrough, F.R.G.S., presided.
Mr. G. H. Warren gave a lecture on " The Romance of the North-
West Passage," and illustrated his remarks with a large number
of lantern views.
At the conclusion of the lecture the Chairman thanked the Lecturer
on behalf of those present, and the children showed their appreciation
by hearty applause.
List of Maps 165
Xl0t Of flDap0, Book0, 3ournal0, etc,
ACQUIRED BY THE SOCIETY
FROM JANUARY 1st TO DECEMBER 31st, 1913.
flDap6*
THE WORLD.
The New Graphic Map of the World. By A. Clark, A.M.I.C.E., and J. P.
Strachan. Edinburgh : W. and A. K. Johnston Ltd., 1913. *The
Authors.
Map of the World on a new Projection. By B. J. S. Cahill, F.R.G.S. (See
Books, General.)
Planisphere montrant la Repartition du Globe terrestre entre les 24 fuseaux
horaires. Paris ; Service Geographique des Colonies. 1913. *Ministere
des Colonies,
EUROPE.
Norway. Den Norske Kyst. Sheet : 230, Fysf jorden og Ofotf jorden. Scale
1/100,000. Kristiania : Norges Geografiske Opmaaling, 1913. *Norges
Geografiske Opmaaling.
Norway. Den Norske Kyst. Sheets : 76, fra Raftsund og Stokkmarknes til
Hovden og Sortlandsund ; 78, fra Hovden til Langenes og Risoysund ;
88, fra Hekkingen til Kvalsund. Scale 1/50,000. Kristiania : Norges
Geografiske Opmaaling, 1913. *Norges Geografiske Opmaaling.
Katalog over Norske Sjokarter. Den 1 Januar, 1913. Kristiania : Norges
Sjokartverk, 1913. *The Publishers.
Carta Amministrativa Stradale della Provincia di Torino. Scala 1/250,000.
Novara : Instituto Geografico de Agostini. (Price, Lire 1,20.) *The
Publishers.
Carta Amministrativa Stradale della Provincia di Alessandria. Scala 1/250,000.
Novara : Instituto Geografico de Agostini. (Price, Lire 0.60.) *The
Publishers.
Carta Amministrativa Stradale della Provincia di Milano. Scala di 1/250,000.
Novara : Instituto Geografico de Agostini. (Price, Lire 0.50.) *The Pub-
lishers.
Carta Amministrativa Stradale della Provincia di Padova. Scala 1/250,000.
Novara : Instituto Geografico de Agostini. (Price, Lire 0.50.) *The
Publishers.
ASIA.
Hong Kong and part of Leased Territory. Scale 2^ inches to 1 mile. (2
Sheets.) Geographical Section, General Staff, No. 2667a. *The Director
of Military Operations.
i66 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
AFRICA.
Carte de Adrar des Ifoghas. (Mission Cortier.) By Captain Cortier and
others. Scale 1/500,000. 2 Sheets. Paris : Service Geographique des
Colonies, 1912. *Ministere des Colonies.
Carte du Ouadai, dressee sous la direction du Colonel Largeau, Commandant
le Territoire Militaire du Tehad. Echelle 1/500,000. Two Sheets. Paris :
Service Geographique des Colonies, 1913. *Ministere des Colonies.
Africa. 1/250,000. Cape of Good Hope. South-H-34, D, Upington ; Q,
Carnarvon; X, Victoria West; South-H-35, Q, Mount Fletcher; S.
Naauwpoort. G.S., G.S. No. 1764. London : War Office, 1913. *The
Director of Military Operations.
Map of the German Emin Pasha Expedition according to the Itinerary of Dr.
Carl Peters. Scale 1/1,750,000. London : Ward, Lock & Co. *Mr. John
Ainsworth, C.M.G., F.R.G.S.
Sketch Map of East Africa Protectorate. Scale 54 miles to 1 inch. Prepared
by Public Works Department. London : E. Stanford. *Mr. John Ains-
worth, C.M.G., F.R.G.S.
Map of the Southern Portion of British East Africa. Compiled in the Intel-
ligence Division, War Office, July, 1893. Scale 1/1,584,000. I.D., W.O.
No. 991. *Mr. John Ainsworth, C.M.G., F.R.G.S.
East Africa Protectorate. Map (Provisional) Shewing Alienated and Sur-
veyed Lands, Native, Game, and Forest Reserves, Provincial and District
Boundaries. April, 1909. Scale 25 miles to 1 inch. Southampton :
Ordnance Survey Office, 1911. *Mr. John Aiijsworth, C.M.G., F.R.G.S.
Africa. 1/250,000. East Africa Protectorate. Sheets : North-A-37, T,
Meru; South-A-37, C, Mumoni. G.S., G.S. No. 1764. London: War
Office, 1912. *The Director of Military Operations.
Africa. 1/250,000. East Africa Protectorate. (Provisional) Sheets : North-
A- 36, Q, Elgon; X, Uasin Gishu ; South-A-37, A, Nakuru-Nyeri. G.S.,
G.S. No. 1764. London : War Office, 1913. *The Director of Military
Operations.
AMERICA.
Map of the Dominion of Canada, 1912. Scale 58 miles to 1 inch. Issued by
Direction of the Minister of the Interior. Ottawa, 1912. *The High
Commissioner for Canada,
Map (Railways) of the Dominion of Canada. Scale 100 miles to 1 inch.
Ottawa : Department of the Interior, 1912. *The High Commissioner for
Canada.
Canada. 2 miles to 1 inch. Quebec. Lachine Sheet. G.S., G.S., No. 2336.
London : War Office, 1913. *The Director of Military Operations.
Canada. Department of Militia and Defence. Topographic Map. Scale
1/63,360, or 1 inch to 1 mile. Sheets: No. 37, St. Thomas; 38, Strath-
roy; 41, Wallaceburg ; 44, Chatham; 46, Essex; 48, Windsor; 49, Am-
herstbury; 50, Pelee ; 51, Perch. G.S., G.S. No. 2197. London: War
Office. *The Director of Military Operations.
Panoramic View (Coloured) of the Crater Lake, National Park, Oregon.
Prepared by John H. Renshawe. Scale 1/62,500. Washington : United
States Geological Survey, 1913. *The Director of the Survey.
List of Atlases 167
OCEANIA.
Tasmania. Scale 12 miles =1 inch. Hobart : Surveyor General's Office. *The
Agent-General for Tasmania.
POLAE REGIONS.
Map of the Arctic Regions. Projected and Drawn by A. Briesemeister.
Scale 1/6,300,000. New York : American Musemn of Natural History
and the American Geographical Society, 1912. *American Geographical
Society.
Spitsbergen. Sheet 198. Farvand og Ankerpladser paa Vest- og Nordkysten :
1. Forland Sundet— King's Bay— Cross Bay, 1/200,000. 2. Blomstrand
Hamn, 1/25,000. 3. Ferrier Hamn, 1/25,000. 4. Farm Hamn, 1/25,000.
5. Vulkan Hamn i Bock Bay, 1/25,000. 6. Green Harbour, 1/100,000.
7. Heela Hamn og Finnes Hamn i Green Harbour, 1/25,000. 8, Norske
Hamn paa Bjorn Oya, 1/25,000. (One Sheet.) Kristiania : Norges
Geografiske Opmaaling, 1912. *Norges Geografiske Opmaaling.
ATLASES, PHOTOGRAPHS, Etc.
Testo-Atlante delle Ferrovie e Tramvie Italiane e di quelle estere in comtatto
Francia, Svizzera ed Austria-Ungheria con un indice-prontuario di tutte
le linee, stazioni, fermate, Scali, ecc, delle ferrovie, tramvie e laghi
italiani, di Leonida Leoni. Prefazione dell' Ing. Pietro Lanino. Novara :
Instituto Geografico de Agostini, 1913. (Price, Lire 5.) *The Publishers.
Metodo di Esercizi Cartografici Scolastici in 24 Tavole con testo illustrativo.
Achille Dardano. Novaro : Instituto Geografico de Agostini 1913. *The
Publishers.
Barograms recorded by the Right Rev. the Bishop of Salford's Barograph, at
Alexander Park, Whalley Range. Vol. 1. 11th October to 18th May,
1913. (With a few unavoidable gaps.) *The Right Rev. the Bishop of
Salford.
Photographic Supplement to Stanford's Geological Atlas of Great Britain and
Ireland. Arranged and Edited by Horace B. Woodward, F.R.S., F.G.S.,
with the co-operation of Miss Hilda D. Sharpe. London : Edward
Stanford Ltd., 1913. (Price 4/- net.) *The Publisher.
Model of the Panama Canal. *Mr. J. Herbert Cooke.
Portrait of Captain R. F. Scott, C.V.O.
S.S. "Terra Nova" in the Ice. A drawing by Mr. F. H. Overmann, F.M.S.A.
*The Manchester Captain Scott Memorial Fund Committee.
Fifteen Lantern Slides of Venice. *Mr. J. S. Blake Reed.
Fifty-two Lantern Slides of Hong Kong and Canton. *Dr. R. Gibson.
Picture Postcards (50). Mainly Australian Scenes. *Mr. T. J. Gough.
ADDITIONS TO THE MUSEUM.
Rupee (Silver). Originally issued by the Imperial British East Africa Com-
pany, 1888. *Mr. John Ainsworth, C.M.G., F.R.G.S.
Half Rupee (Silver). East Africa and Uganda Protectorate. King George V.
1911. *Mr. John Ainsworth, C.M.G., F.R.G.S.
East Africa and Uganda. Subsidiary Coinage. 1 Cent., 5 Cents., and 10
Cents. (100 Cents. = 1 Rupee). *Mr. John Ainsworth, C.M.G., F.R.G.S.
Tappa Cloth, Tonga Islards. *Mr. G. H. Warren.
i68 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
GENERAL.
Influences of Geographic Environment : on the Basis of Ratzel's System of
Anthropo-Geography, by Ellen Churchill Semple. Maps. London : Con-
stable & Co., 1913.
A Regional Geography of America, Africa and Australasia, by T. W. F.
Parkinson, M.Sc, F.G.S. Maps and Diagrams. London and Glasgow :
Collins' Clear Type Press, 1913. (Price 2/-.) *The Author.
An Account of a Land Map of the World on a New and Original Projection,
invented by B. J. S. Cahill, A.I.A., F.R.G.S. Maps. Reprinted from
the Journal of the Association of Engineering Societies for October, 1913.
San Francisco : The Cahill World Map Co., 1913. *The Inventor.
The Geographical Teacher. The Organ of the Geographical Association. No.
35, Vol. VII, Part I; 36, Part II; 37, Part III. *Mr. H. Sowerbutts,
A.R.C.Sc.
Cartografia. Elementare Pratica con figure nel testo e 4 tavole. Achille
Dardano. Novaro : Instituto Geografico de Agostini, 1913. *The Pub-
lishers.
The Framework of Union. A comparison of some Union Constitutions.
With a Sketch of the Development of Union in Canada, Australia and
Germany ; and the text of the Constitutions of the United States, Canada,
Germany, Switzerland, and Australia. Prepared for and issued by the
Closer Union Society. Cape Town : Central News Agency, 1908. *Mac-
millan & Co.
The Traveller's Gazette. Illustrated. Vol. LXIII. Nos. 1—12. London :
Thos. Cook & Son, 1913. *The Publishers.
Lloyd-Zeitung. Organ des Norddeutschen Lloyd. Jahrgang XIV, Nos. 6 — 24 ;
Jahrgang, XV, No. 1-6. Bremen, 1913. *The Publishers.
An Almanack for the Year of Our Lord 1913, by Joseph Whitaker, F.S.A.
London, 1913.
The Co-operative Wholesale Societies Limited. Annual, 1913. *Mr. G. H.
Warren.
A Series of Cotton Tables, including the prices of six of the principal kinds
and the total stock of Cotton, also comparative prices of Cotton and Corn,
at the end of each week, together with a supplementary annual digest
thereof from 1837 to 1854 inclusive. Compiled by S. Adolphus Meyer.
Manchester : Ernst & Co., 1855. *Mr. David A. Little.
Library Cataloguing, by J. Henry Quinn. London : Truslove and Hanson,
Ltd., 1913.
BRITISH ISLES.
The Incorporated Accountants' Year Book, 1913-14. *The Council of the
Society of Incorporated Accountants and Auditors.
Guide Through and Round Bath. Plan and Illustrations. Seventh Edition.
Bath : Frederick Curtis, *Mr. Isaac Chorlton.
A Handbook for Birmingham and the Neighbourhood. Prepared for the
83rd Annual Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of
List of Books 169
Science. Edited by George A. Auden, M.D., M.A., F.S.A. Maps,
Plans, etc. Birmingham : Cornish Brothers, Ltd., 1913. *British Asso-
ciation, per Mr. J, McFarlane, M.A., M.Com.
Excursions Guide-Book for Birmingham and Neighbourhood. British Asso-
ciation for the Advancement of Science Meeting, 1913. Illustrations.
Birmingham : Cornish Brothers, Ltd., 1913. *British Association, per
Mr. J. McFarlane, M.A., M.Com.
The Keuper Marls around Charnwood, by T. 0. Bosworth, B.A., B.Sc,
F.G.S. Being the results of researches in Leicestershire, 1904 — 1911.
Maps, Diagrams and Illustrations. Leicester : Leicester Literary and
Philosophical Society. (Price, Paper 3/6, cloth 4/6.) *The Publishers.
The Official Handbook of Manchester and Salford and Surrounding District,
with information on local Institutions and Societies, 1913. Manchester :
Manchester Corporation, 1913.
The Manchester and Salford Official Red Book for 1913. Manchester ; Little-
bury Bros., 1913.
Maijchester Field Naturalists and Archaeologists' Society. Report and Pro-
ceedings for the year 1912. *Mr. W. H. Ward.
History of Halton Castle and its Court Leet, by Joseph Walker. Illustra-
tions. Runcorn : Arthur Dutton, 1910. *Mr. Isaac Chorlton.
EUROPE.
Den Norske Lods utgit av Norges Geografiske Opmaaling, 1871. Iste Hefte.
Kyststraekningen fra Idefjorden til Langesund. Omarbeidet, 1913.
*Norges Sjokartverk, Kristiania.
Den Norske Lods utgit av Norges Geografiske Opmaaling, 1893. 7de Hefte.
Fra Aalesund til Beian og Trondhjem, samt Smolen. Omarbeidet, 1913.
*Norges Sjokartverk, Kristiania.
Svenska Turistforeningens Arsskrift, 1913. Maps and Illustrations. Stock-
holm, 1913. *The Swedish Touring Club.
Souvenirs et Croquis Madrilenes. Chroniques du Regne d'Alphonse XIII.
par Gaston-Routier. Paris : Editions de "L'Epoque Moderne," 1913.
*The Author.
The Times Russian Supplement. Nos. 4, 5, 6. *Mr. Isaac Chorlton.
The British Chamber of Commerce of Turkey and the Balkan States. Quar-
terly Trade Journal. Nos. 21, March; 22 June; 23 September; 24
December. 1913. Report for the year 1912. *Mr. George Thomas, J.P.
ASIA.
Palestine Exploration Fund. Quarterly Statements, 1913. Annual Report,
1912.
Punjab District Gazetteers. B. Vols. II, Hissar District and Loharu State;
III, Rohtak District and Dujana State ; IV, Gurgaon District and Patandi
State; V, Delhi; VI, Karnal District; VII, Ambala District and Kalsia
State ; VIII, Simla District ; IX, Sirmur State ; X, Kangra District ; XII,
Mandi and Suket States; XIII, Hoshiarpur ; XIV, Jullundur District;
XVI, Ferozepore District; XVII, Phulkian States; XVIH, Montgomery;
XIX, Lahore District; XX, Amritsar ; XXI, Gurdaspur ; XXIH, Sialkot
170 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
District ; XXV, Gujrat District ; XXVI, Shakpur District ; XXVII, Jhelum ;
XXVIII, Eawalpindi District; XXIX, Attock District; XXXII, Jhang
District; XXXIII, Multan ; XXXIV, Muzaffargarh District; XXXV, D. G.
Khan District; XXXVI, Bahawalpur State. Lahore: 1912-13. *H.M.
Secretary of State for India.
Gazetteers of the Bombay Presidency. Vols. IV-B, Ahmedabad ; X-B, Ratna
giri and Sa'vantwa'diffi XI-B, Kola'ba and Janjira; XIII-B, Tha'na and
Jawha'r ; XV-B, Ka'nara ; XVII-B, Ahmednagar ; XXII-B, Dharwar and
Savaniir. 1913. *H.M. Secretary of State for India.
Central Provinces District Gazetteers. Mandia District. Vols. A and B.
*H.M. Secretary of State for India.
Bengal District Gazetteers. B. Vols. Birbhum, Bogra, Darjeeling, Dinajpur,
Faridpur, Howrah, Jalpaiguri, Khulna, Midnapore, M^rshidabad. 24 —
Parganas, Rajshahi. *H.M. Secretary of State for India.
Burma Gazetteers. A Vols. Amherst District ; Pakokku District ; Upper
Chindwin District. Rangoon, 1913. *H.M. Secretary of State for India.
Burma Gazetteers. B. Volumes Nos. 1, Akyab ; 3, Kyaukpyu ; 5, City of
Rangoon (Census tables only); 6, Insein; 7, Hanthawaddy (Syriam) ; 9,
Pegu; 10, Prome; 11, Rassein ; 12, Henzada; 13, Myaungmya ; 14, Ma-
Ubin ; 15, Pyapon ; 16, Toungoo ; 17, Salween ; 18, Thaton ; 19, Amherst ;
20, Tavoy; 21, Mergui; 22, Thayetmyo ; 23, Pakokku; 24, Minbu ; 25,
Magwe; 26, Mandalay ; 27, Bhamo ; 28, Myilkyina; 29, Katha ; 30, Ruby
Mines; 31, Shwebo ; 32, Sagaing ; 33, Lower Chindwin; 34, Upper Chind-
win ; 35, Kyaukse ; 36, Meiktila ; 37, Yamethin ; 38, Myingyan. Rangoon,
1912-13. *H.M. Secretary of State for India.
Madrolle's Guide Book. Northern China, the Valley of the Blue River,
Korea. 43 Maps and Plans. London and Paris : Hachette & Co., 1912.
(Price 15/-.) *The Publishers.
AFRICA.
Sierra Leone Messenger. Illustrated. Nos. 81, 82, 83, 84. 1913. *The Rev.
Canon F. C. Smith, M.A., F.R.G.S.
Essai sur L' Amelioration du Regime du Fleuve Congo par la Regularisation
du d^bit des lacs et Anciens lacs Congolais. Capitaine Robert Thys.
Maps and Illustrations. Bruxelles : Compagnie du Congo pour le Com-
merce et rindustrie, 1913. *The Publishers and the Author.
The Government of South Africa. Maps and Diagrams. 2 Vols. Cape
Town : Central News Agency, 1908. *Macmillan & Co.
South Africa. An Illustrated Booklet of Information for Travellers. Map
and Illustrations. London : Thos. Cook & Son, 1913. *The Publishers.
Big Game Shooting in Rhodesia. Maps and Illustrations. London : The
British South Africa Company, 1912. *The Publishers.
Rhodesia. A Book for Tourists. Map and Illustrations. London : The
British South Africa Company, 1912. *The Publishers.
Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. A Report on the Land Settlement of the Gezira
(Mesellemia District), by H. St. G. Peacock, Judge of Sudan Civil Courts,
Settlement Officer, 1906—1910. Maps, Diagrams and Illustrations.
London : Sifton Praed & Co., 1913. (Sale Agents.) *The Sale Agents.
List 01 Books 171
AMERICA.
The Canada Year Book, 1911. Second Series. Ottawa, 1912. *The High
Commissioner for Canada.
A Study of Maya Art, its subject matter and historical development, by
Herbert J. Spinden. Map and Illustrations. Cambridge : Peabody
Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University,
Memoirs, Vol. VI, 1913. *The Museum.
The Times South American Supplement. Nos. 31 — 42, 1913. *Mr. Isaac
Chorlton.
Paginas Historicas Colombianas. Ricardo Castro. Medellin, 1912. *The
Author.
Brazil in 1912. By J. C. Oakenfull. Maps and Illustrations. London :
Robert Atkinson (London) Ltd., 1913. *The Pan American Union.
Through the Heart of the Andes. Illustrations. *Argentine Gt. Western
Railway Co.
OCEANIA.
The Handbook of Western Australia. Maps and Illustrations. Perth : The
Immigration and Tourist Department, 1912. *The Agent-General for
Western Australia.
The Year Book of South Australia, 1912. Map and Illustrations. *The
Agent-General for South Australia.
The Official Year Book of New South Wales, 1911. Map. Sydney : Bureau
of Statistics, 1912. *The Agent-General for New South Wales.
The Year Book of Queensland, 1913. ^Nlap and Illustrations. *The Agent-
General for Queensland.
Glimpses of Sunny Queensland. Illustrations. Second Edition. *The Agent-
General for Queensland.
The Pocket Queensland, containing general information regarding the Great
North-Eastern State of the Australian Commonwealth. Maps and Illus-
trations. ^ Revised Edition. Brisbane, 1912. *The Agent-General for
Queensland.
Papua : "A Grandchild of the Empire." By Gordon Inglis. Illustrations.
London : Charles Hooper & Co., 1912. *The High Commissioner for
Australasia.
The New Zealand Official Year-Book, 1912. Wellington, N.Z., 1912. *The
High Commissioner for New Zealand.
POLAR REGIONS.
The North Pole and Bradley Land, by Edwin Swift Balch.. Philadelphia :
Campion & Co., 1913. *The Author.
To the South Pole : Captain Scott's Own Story. Told from His Journals.
Photographs by H. G. Pouting, F.R.G.S. London : Strand Magazine,
July, August, September, October, 1913. *Mr. H. Sowerbutts.
172 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
%\Bt of Correaponbing Societiea, etc*
(leycbangee)*
BRITISH.
Belfast. Natural History and Philosophical Society. Report and Proceedings
for the Session 1912—1913.
Birmingham. Natural History and Philosophical Society. Annual Report
for the Year 1912. Proceedings, Vol. XIII, No. 1.
Cardiff. Naturalists' Society. Report and Transactions, Vol. XLV, 1912.
Croydon. Natural History and Scientific Society. Proceedings and Tran-
sactions, 1912—1913.
Edinburgh. The Royal Scottish Geographical Society. The Scottish Geo-
graphical Magazine, 1913, Vol. XXIX, Nos. 1-12, and Index.
Glasgow. Geological Society. Transactions, Vol. XIV, Part III, 1911-12.
Glasgow. Royal Philosophical Society. Proceedings, Vol. XLIV, 1912-13.
Hertford. Hertfordshire Natural History Society and Field Club. Transac-
tions, Vol. XV, Part I.
Hull. Yorkshire Naturalists' Union. (Nothing received.)
Leeds. Geological Association. Transactions. (Nothing received.)
Leeds. Yorkshire Geological Society. Proceedings. (Nothing received.)
Leicester. Literary and Philosophical Society. Transactions and Annual
Report, Vol. XVII, 1913.
Liverpool. Geographical Society. Transactions and Twenty-First Annual
Report for the Year 1912.
London, The Anti-Slavery Reporter and Aborigines' Friend. Series V, Vol.
n. No. 8^ III, 1, 2, 3.
London. British Association for the Advancement of Science. Report of
the Eighty-Second Meeting, Dundee, 1912. Report of the Corresponding
Societies' Committee and of the Conference of Delegates held in Dundee,.
1912.
London. The Colliery Guardian, 1913, Nos. 2714—2765.
London. The Colonial Office Journal. Vol. VI, Nos. 3, 4 ; VII, 1, 2.
London. The Royal Colonial Institute. Journal, "United Empire." Vol.
IV, Nos. 1—12. Year Book, 1913.
London. Emigrants' Information Office. Combined Circulars on Canada,
Australasia and South Africa. 1913, Quarterly.
London. Royal Geographical Society. The Geographical Journal, 1913, Jan.
to Dec. Year Book and Record.
London. Imperial Institute. Bulletin. Vol, XI, Nos. 1-4.
London. India Office. (See list of Books.)
London. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Bulletin. 1913, Nos. 1—10, and
Appendices I — IV.
List of Exchanges 173
London. Royal Society of Literature. Transactions. Vol. XXXII, Parts I,
II, III. The Academic Committee. Addresses of Reception to John
Masefield by Sir Walter Raleigh, to Mrs. Margaret Louisa Woods by
Maurice Hewlett, to the Dean of St. Paul's by A. C. Benson, to Max
Beerbohm by Laurence Binyon. Award of the Edmond De Polignac
Prize to James Stephens by W. B. Yeats, Nov. 28th, 1913.
London. The Near East. 1913, Nos. 87 — 138, with Supplement "Egypt and
the Sudan."
London. War Office. Geographical Section, General Staff. (See List of
Maps.)
London. War Office. Catalogue of Maps. Accessions. 1913, Jan. to Dec.
London. War Office Library. Accessions. 1913, January to December.
Catalogue of the Library, Part III (Subject — Index). First Annual Sup-
plement, 1912.
London. War Office. Catalogue of Maps in Books and Periodicals contained
in the War Office Library. Accessions, 1913.
Manchester. The British Cotton Growing Association. Publications. Nos.
53, 54 (Nos. 51, 52 not received).
Manchester. Godlee Observatory. The Municipal School of Technology.
Annual Report for the Year 1912.
Manchester. Literary and Philosophical Society. Memoirs and Proceedings.
Vol. 57, Parts I, II, III.
Manchester. Museum. The University. Museum Publication 74. Report
for 1912—1913.
Manchester. Public Libraries Committee. Sixty-First Annual Report, 1912-13.
Manchester. The Textile Recorder. 1913, January to December.
Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Tyneside Geographical Society. Journal. (Nothing
received.)
Newcastle-upon-Tyne. North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical
Engineers. Transactions. Vol. LXIII, Parts 1-8; LXIV, 1, 2. Annual
Report, 1912—1913.
Oxford. Clarendon Press. (Nothing received.)
Penzance. Royal Geological Society of Cornwall. Transactions. Vol. XIII,
Part IX.
Rochdale. Literary and Scientific Society. Transactions. ( Nothing received.)
Salford. Museum, Libraries and Parks Committee. Sixty-Fifth Report,
1912-13.
York. Yorkshire Philosophical Society. Annual Report for 1912.
MISSIONARY.
Freiburg-im-Breisgau. Die Katholischen Missionen. 1913, January to Dec.
London. Baptist Missionary Society. The Herald. 1913, January to Dec.
London. British and Foreign Bible Society. 109th Annual Report, 1913.
"Have ye never read?" A Popular Illustrated Report, 1912-13. "The
Bible in the World." 1913, January to December. Manchester and
Salford Auxiliary. 102nd Annual Report, 1912.
London. Church Missionary Society for Africa and the East. Report of
Proceedings, 114th year, 1912-13.
174 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
London. Church Missionary Eeview. 1913, January to December,
London. Colonial and Continental Church Society. Greater Britain Mes-
senger. 1913, January to December.
London. The London Missionary Society. 118th Report for the year ending
March 1913.
London. Illustrated Catholic Missions. 1913, January to December.
London, The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts.
Report of the year 1912.
London. Universities Mission to Central Africa. "Central Africa." 1913,
January to December.
London. The United Methodist Church. "Missionary Echo." 1913, Jan.
to December.
Mangalore. Basel German Evangelical Mission in South Western India.
Report for the year 1912.
COLONIAL.
Adelaide. Royal Geographical Society of Australasia. South Australian
Branch. Proceedings. Vol. XIV, 1912—1913.
Brisbane. Royal Geographical Society of Australasia. Queensland Branch.
Queensland Geographical Journal. Vols. XXVI— XXVII, 1910—1912.
Brisbane. Queensland Museum. Memoirs. Vol. II, 1913.
Brisbane. Department of Mines. Geological Survey of Queensland. Publi-
cations. (Nothing received.)
Bulawayo. Rhodesia Scientific Association. Proceedings. Vol. XII, 1912-13.
Cape Town. Royal Society of South Africa. Transactions. Vol. Ill, Parts
1, 2, 3.
Georgetown. The Royal Agricultural and Commercial Society of British
Guiana. The Journal. "Timehri." Vol. Ill, No. 1.
Halifax. Nova Scotian Institute of Science. Proceedings and Transactions.
Vol. XII, Part 4, 1909—1910.
Melbourne. Royal Geographical Society of Australasia. Victorian Branch.
Victorian Geographical Journal. Vol. XXIX, 1912.
Melbourne. Department of Agriculture of Victoria (per the favour of the
Agent General). Journal. Vol. XI, Parts 1-12.
Melbourne. Victorian Statistical Department. Year Book, 1912-13.
Perth, Western Australia. Geological Survey (per the favour of the Agent
General). Bulletin. Nos. 42, 44.
Port ^loresby, Papua. Annual Report for the year ended 30th June, 1913.
Quebec. Societe de Geographie. Bulletin. Vol. VII, Nos. 1-6.
Sydney. New South Wales. Department of Mines. Annual Report for the
year 1912.
Sydney. New South Wales. Department of Mines. Geological Survey.
Mineral Resources. Nos. 7, 17.
Toronto. Canadian Institute. Transactions. Vol. X, Part 1, November,
1913 (No. 23). Year Book and Annual Report, 1912—1913.
Victoria. Department of Mines. Province of British Columbia. Annual
Report for the year ending 3l8t December, 1912.
Wellington. New Zealand. Department of Lands and Survey. (Nothing
received.)
List of Exchanges 175
FOREIGN.
Alger. Societe de Geographie d'AIger et de L'Afrique du Nord. Bulletin.
1913, 1, 2.
Ann Arbor. The Michigan Academy of Science. University of Michigan.
14th Report, 1912.
Antwerp. Societe Royale de Geographie. d'Anvers. Bulletin. Tome
XXXVI, Fascicules 3, 4; XXXVII, 1-4.
Baltimore. Johns Hopkins University. Studies in Historical and Political
Science. Series XXXI, Nos. 1, 2. Circulars. 1913, Nos. 1-6.
Baltimore. Maryland Geological Survey. (Nothing received.)
Barcelona. Sociedad de Geografia Comercial. Publicaciones. 1913, No. 8.
Belgrade. Sociehe Serbe de Geographie. Bulletin. 1912, Vol. II.
Bergamo. Rivista Mensile lUustrata D'Arte-Letteratura-Scienze e Varieta.
"Emporium." 1913, January to December.
Berkeley. University of California. Publications in American Archaeology
and Ethnology. Vol. X, No. 5. Publications in Geography. Vol. I,
Nos. 1, 2.
Berlin. Gesellschaft fiir Erdkunde. Zeitschrift. 1913, Nos. 1-10.
Berlin. Deutsche Kolonialzeitung. 1913, Nos. 1 — 52.
Bern. Geographische Gesellschaft. Jahresbericht. Band XXIII, 1911 — 1912.
Bordeaux. Societe de Geographie Commerciale. Revue de Geographie Com-
merciale. 1913, January to December.
Bremen. Deutsche Geographische Gesellschaft. Blatter. Band XXXVI,
Hefte 1-4.
Brussels. Congo Beige. Bulletin Official. 1913, Nos. 1 — 14 et supplements.
Brussels. Societe Royale Beige de Geographie. Bulletin. 1913, Nos. 1-6.
Brussels. Le Mouvement Geographique. 1913, Nos. 1 — 52.
Brussels. Institut Colonial International. (Nothing received.)
Brussels. Societe Beige d'Etudes Coloniales. Bulletin. 1913, Nos. 1 — 11.
(1912, No. 12, and 1913, No. 12 not received.)
Brussels. Commission Polaire Internationale. Proces- Verbal de la Session
Tenue a Rome en 1913.
Budapest. Hungarian Geographical Society. Bulletin. Tome XLI, .Fasci-
cules 1, 2, 7, 8, 9, 10; XLII, 1. International Ed., Vol. XL, Parts MO.
Buenos Aires. Instituto Geografico Argentino. Boletin. (Nothing received.)
Buenos Aires. Museo Nacional de Historia Natural de Buenos Aires. Anales.
Tomo XXIV.
Buenos Aires. Monthly Bulletin of Municipal Statistics. 1913, Nos. 1 — 12.
Year Books of the City of Buenos Aires. Year XXII — 1912.
Buenos Aires. Ministerio de Agricultura. Boletin. (Nothing received.)
Cairo. Societe Khediviale de Geographie. Bulletin. (Nothing received.)
Cambridge. Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology.
Harvard University. Memoirs. Vol. V, No. 3; Vol. VI. Papers, Vol.
Ill, No. 5. Contents and Index.
Cassel. Gesellschaft fiir Erd-und Volkerkunde. Jahresbericht XXX und XXXI.
Christiania. Norges Geografiske Opmaaling. (See List of Maps.)
Copenhagen. Geografisk Tidskrift udgivet af Bestyrelsen for det Kongelige
Danske Geografiske Selskab. Bind XXII, Hefte 1-4.
176 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
Darmstadt. Verein fiir Erdkunde. Notizblatt. Folge IV, Heft 33.
Dijon. Societe Bourguignonne de Geographie et d'Histoire. Memoires.
Tome XXVIII, 1913.
Douai. Union Geographique du Nord de la France. Bulletin. 1913, Nos. 1-4.
Dresden. Verein fiir Erdkunde. Mitteilungen. Band II, Heft 7, 8. Mit-
glieder Verzeichnis, April, 1913. Satzung und Geschafts-Ordnung, 1910.
Dunkerque. Societe de Geographie. Bulletin. No. 39.
Firenze (Florence). Kivista Geografica Italiana e Bollettino della Societa di
Studi Geografici e Coloniali. Annata XX, Fascs 1 — 10.
Firenze (Florence). L'Opinione Geografica. Rassegna dell' Insegnamento di
Geografia. Anno IX, Fascs. 1-2.
Frankfurt. Verein fiir Geographie und Statistik. Jahresbericht. (Nothing
received.)
Geneva. "Le Globe." Organe de la Societe de Geographie. Bulletin. Tome
LII, Nos. 1, 2, et Memoires. Numero Special, XVIIe Congres des
Societes Suisses de Geographie, 1913.
Geneva. Societe des Anciens Eleves de I'Ecole Superieure de Commerce.
Bulletin. Nos. 98, 99, 100, 101.
Giessen. Geographische Mitteilungen aus Hessen. (Nothing received.)
Griefswald. Geographische Gesellschaft zu Greifswald. Jahresbericht. XIII,
1911—1912.
Halle. Sachsisch-Thiiringischen Vereins fiir Erdkunde. Mitteilungen.
(Nothing received.)
Halle. Kaiserlichen Leopoldinisch-Carolinischen Deutschen Akademie der
Naturforscher. Leopoldina. Heft 49.
Hamburg. Geographischen Gesellschaft. Mitteilungen. Band XXVII.
Hamburg. Haupstation fiir Erdbebenforschung. Professor Dr. R. Schiitt.
Mitteilungen. 1913, Nos. 1 — 43. Neuere Fortschritte auf dem Gebiete
der Erdbebenforschung, vom Dr. E. Tams.
Hannover. Geographische Gesellschaft. Neunter Nachtrag zum Kataloge der
Stadt-Bibliothek zu Hannover.
Havre. Societe de Geographie Commerciale. Bulletin. 1913, Trimestres 1, 2,
Havre. Societe Geologique de Normandie. Bulletin. (Nothing received.)
Helsingfors. Societe de Geographie de Finlande. Fennia 33.
Helsingfors. Meddelanden af Geografiska Foreningen. (Nothing received.)
Irkutsk. Imperial Russian Geographical Society. East Siberian Section.
Journal. (Nothing received.)
Jena. Geographische Gesellschaft. Mitteilungen. (Nothing received.)
Kazan. Naturalists' Society of the Imperial University. Journal. (Nothing
received.)
Konigsberg. Physikalisch-okonomischen Gesellschaft. Schriften. Jahrgang
LIII, 1912.
La Paz. Sociedad Geografica de La Paz. Boletin. Nos. 39, 40.
La Paz. Republica de Bolivia. Direccion General de Estadistica y Estudios
Geograficos. Boletin. Ano IX, No. 86.
La Plata. Direccion General de Estadistica de la Provincia de Buenos Aires.
Boletin Mensual. Ano XIII, Nos. 147—149.
La Plata. Museo de La Plata. Revista. (Nothing received.)
List of Exchanges 177
Leipsic. Gesellschaft fiir Erdkunde. Mitteilungen. 1912.
Lille. Societe de Geographie. Bulletin. 1913, Nos. 1 — 12.
Lima. Sociedad Geografica. Boletin. (Nothing received.)
Lima. Cuerpo de Ingenieres de Minas del Peru. (Nothing received.)
Lisbon. Sociedade de Geographia, Boletin. 1913, Nos. 1-9. Eapport au
sujet de I'Etude des Problemes Coloniaux.
Liibeck. Geographische Gesellschaft und Naturhistorische Museums. Mit-
teilungen. (Nothing received.)
Lwowie (Lemberg). Towarzystwo Ludozonaweze Kwartalnik Etnografiezny.
"Lud." Tom. XVIII, Zeszyt 1-4.
Madison. Wisconsin Academy of Science, Arts and Letters. Transactions.
(Nothing received.)
Madison. Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey. Bulletin. No.
XXVI.
Madison. Journal of Geography. Vol. XI, Nos. 5 — 10 ; XII, 1, 2.
Madrid. Real Sociedad Geografica. Boletin. Tomo LV, Trim. 1-4. Revista.
Tomo X, Nos. 1—12.
Madrid. Ayuntamiento de Madrid. Boletin, Nos. 836 — 887. Estadistica
Demografica. Resumen del Ano 1910.
Magdeburg. Museum fiir Natur-und Heimatkunde und Dem Naturwissen-
Schaftlichen Verein in Magdeburg. Abhandlungen und Berichte. (Noth-
ing received.)
Marseille. Societe de Geographie. Bulletin. Tome XXXVI, No. 4.
Metz. Verein fiir Erdkunde. Jahresbericht. XXVII, 1908—1911.
Mexico. Sociedad Mexicana de Geografia y Estadistica. Boletin. Tomo VI,
Nos. 1 — 10. "Noticias de Nutka." Manuscritos, Mandados publicar por
Acuerdo de 17 de Julio de 1913.
Mexico. Sociedad Cientifica "Antonio Alzate." Memorias y Revista. Tomo
XXX, Nos. 7—12 ; XXXI, 1—12 ; XXXII, 1-8 ; XXXIII, 1-8.
Milan. L'Esplorazione Commerciale. Anno XXVIII, Fasc. 1 — 12.
Missoula. University of Montana. Bulletin. Nos. 75, 77, 78, 83, 84, 87, 88.
Montevideo. Museo Nacional. Anales. (Nothing received.)
Montpellier. Societe Languedocienne de Geographie. Bulletin. Tome XXXVI,
Trim 1-4.
Moscow. Geographical Section of the Imperial Society of Natural Science of
the University. Journal. 1913, Vol. XX, Nos. 1, 2, 4.
Munich. Geographische Gesellschaft in Miinchen. Mitteilungen. Band
VIII, Hefte, 1-4.
Nancy. Societe de Geographie de L'Est. Bulletin. 1913, Trim. 1.
Nantes. Societe de Geographie Commerciale. Bulletin. 1913, Trim. 1-4.
Naples. Societa Africana d'ltalia. Bollettino. "L'Africa Italiana." Anno
XXXII, Fasc. 1—10.
Neuchatel. Societe Neuchateloise de Geographie. Bulletin. Tome XXII,
1913.
New Haven. Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences. Transactions.
Vol. 18, June, October
New York. American Geographical Society. Bulletin. Vol. XLV, Nos. 1-12.
178 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
New York. American INIuseum of Natural History. Forty-Fourth Annual
Report for the Year IbVJ..
New York. Public Library, Astor Lenox and Tilden Foundations. Bulletin.
1913, January to December.
Novara. Instituto Geografico de Agostini. "La Geografia." Nos. 3, 4, 5.
Nurnberg. Naturhistorische Gesellschaft. Abhandlungen. Band XX. Mit-
teilungen. 1909, Band III, No. 2; 1910, IV, 1, 2.
Odessa. Club Alpin de Crimee et du Caucase. Bulletin. 1913, Nos. 1-4.
Omsk. Imperial Russian Geographical Society. West Siberian Branch.
Journal. Vol. I, Nos. 1, 2. Report of Proceedings. Vol. XXXVI, No. 2.
Report, 1912.
Oran. Societe de Geographic et d'Archeologie. Bulletin. Tome XXXIII,
Fascicules 134—137.
Para (Brazil). Museu GoeJdi (Museu Paraense) de Historia Natural e Ethno-
graphia. Boletim. Vol. VII, 1910.
Paris. Societe de Geographie. "La Geographic." Bulletin. Tome XXVII,
Nos. 1-6 ; XXVIII, Nos. 1-6.
Paris. Societe de Geographie Commerciale. Bulletin. Tome XXXV, Nos.
1-12.
Paris. Societe de Speleologie. Bulletin et Memoires. Spelunca. Tome IX,
No. 71.
Paris. Societe de Topographic de France. Bulletin. Tome XXXVII, Nos.
1-6.
Paris. Comite de L'Afrique Fran^aise et du Comite du Maroc. Bulletin.
1913, Nos. 1—12. Renseignements Coloniaux. 1913, Nos. 1—12.
Paris. Service Geographique et des Missions du Ministere des Colonies.
Revue Coloniale. (Nothing received.)
Philadelphia. American Philosophical Society. Proceedings. Vol. LII, Nos.
208—212.
Philadelphia. The Philadelphia Museums. (The Commercial Museum.)
Annual Report for the Year 1912. "Commercial America." 1913,
January to December.
Philadelphia. Geographical Society of Philadelphia. Bulletin. 1913, Nos.
1—4.
Philadelphia. University of Pennsylvania. Free Museum of Science and
Art. The Museum Journal. Vol. IV, Nos. 1-4.
Prague. Societe de Geographie tcheque a Prague. Revue. (Nothing
received.)
Rochefort. Societe de Geographie. Bulletin. 1913, Nos. 1-4.
Rolla, Mo. Missouri Bureau of Geology and Mines. Publications. (Nothing
received.)
Roma. Reale Societa Geografica. Bollettino. 1913, Nos. 1 — 12.
Roma. Direzione Generale della Statistica e del Lavoro. Annuario Statistico
Italiano. Seconda Serie Vol. II, 1912.
Roma. Commissariato dell' Emigrazione. Bollettino. 1913, Nos. 1 — 14.
Roma. Cosmos. Del Prof. Guido Cora. Serie 11, Vol. XIII, No. V.
Rome. International Institute of Agriculture. Monthly Bulletin of Agricul-
tural Intelligence and of Plant Diseases. 1913, Nos. 4 — 12.
List of Exchanges i7<)
Rouen. Societe Normande de Geographie. Bulletin. 1912, Trims. 1-4.
San Francisco. Geographical Society of the Pacific. (Nothing received.)
San Francisco. Southern Pacific Eailway (per the favour of Mr. Rud Falck,
Liverpool.) "Sunset." — The Pacific Monthly. 1913, January to Dec.
San Jose. Museo Nacional. Boletin de Fomento, organo del Ministerio de
Fomento. Ano III, Nos. 1—12.
St. Louis, Mo. Washington University Studies. Vol. I, Part I, II.
St. Nazaire. Societe de Geographie Commerciale. Bulletin. (Nothing
received.)
St. Petersburg. Imperial Russian Geographical Society. Journal. Vol.
XLIX, Nos. 1-3.
San Salvador. Direccion General de Estadistica. Monografias Departamen-
tales. Vol. X. Departamento de la Union.
Santiago de Chile. Deutschen Wissenschaftlichen Vereins. Verhandlungen.
Band VI, Heft 3. Deutsche Arbeit in Chile. Band II.
Shanghai. China. The Maritime Customs. Gazette. I. Statistical Series.
Nos. 3 and 4. Returns of Trade and Trade Reports, 1912. Part I ; II,
Vols. I— V; III, Vols. 1, 2.
Shanghai. China. Ministry of Communications. Directorate General of
Posts. II. Public Series ; No. 2. Report on the Working of the Chinese
Post Office for the First Year of Chung-Hua Min-Kuo (1912).
Stettin. Gesellschaft fiir Volker und Erdkunde. (Nothing received.)
Stockholm. Svenska Sallskapet for Antropologi och Geografi. Ymer. 1913,
Haft 1-4^.
Strassburg. Gesellschaft fiir Erdkunde und Kolonialwesen. Mitteilungen.
(Nothing received.)
Stuttgart. Wiirttembergische Vereins fiir Handelsgeographie. (Nothing
received.)
Tokyo. Tokyo Geographical Society. Journal of Geography. 1913, Nos.
289—295.
Toulouse. Societe de Geographie. Bulletin. 1913, Nos. 1, 2.
Tours. Societe de Geographie. Revue. 1913. Nos. 1-4.
Upsala. University of Upsala. (Nothing received.)
Urbana. Illinois State Geological Survey. Bulletin. No. 25.
Vienna. K. K. Geographischen Gesellschaft. Mitteilungen. Band 56, Nos.
1—12. Abhandlungen. Band X, No. 3.
Vienna. Verein der Geographen an der K. K. Universitat in Wien. (Nothing
received.)
Vienna. K. K. Naturhistorischen Hofmuseums. Annalen. Band XXVII,
Nos. 1-3.
Washington. D. C. National Geographic Society. Magazine. 1913, Vol.
XXIV, January to December.
Washington. D. C. United States Department of Commerce. Coast and
Geodetic Survey. Reports for the Fiscal Years ended June 30th, 1912,
and June 30th, 1913. Results of Observations made at the Magnetic
Observatories at Cheltenham, Maryland, 1911 and 1912; near Honolulu,
Hawaii, 1911 and 1912. Special Publications :— "Geodesy," No. 13, 16,
17. "Astronomy" No. 14.
l8o Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
United States Geological Survey. Mineral Resources.
U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin. Nos. 522, 525—539.
U.S. Geological Survey. Professional Papers. Nos. 76,
Washington. D.C. United States Geological Survey. Annual Report for
the Year ended June 30th, 1913.
Washington. D.C. United States Geological Survey. Monograph. (None
received.)
Washington. D.C.
(Not received.)
Washington. D.C.
Washington. D.C.
78, 79, 80.
Washington. D.C. U.S. Geological Survey. Water Supply Papers. Nos.
292, 295, 302—305, 307, 308, 310, 311, 313—320.
Washington. D.C. Smithsonian Institution. Reprints from the Report for
1912. Publications 2201, 2221, 2222, 2224.
Washington. D.C, United States National Museum. Report for the year
ending June 30, 1912.
Washington. D.C. U.S. Department of Agriculture. Weather Bureau.
Bulletms. X, Y. Nos. 42, 43. Farmers' Bulletins. Nos. 561, 562, 563,
566, 570.
Washington. D.C. U.S. Department of Agriculture. Bureau of Statistics.
Bulletin. No. 103.
Washington. War Department. Annual Reports, 1912, Vols. I, II, III, IV.
Washington. D.C. United States Bureau of Education. Report of the
Commissioner for the year ended June 30, 1912. Vols. 1 and 2.
Washington. D.C. Library of Congress. Report for the Fiscal Year ending
June 30th, 1913.
Washington. Pan American Union. Bulletin. 1913, January to December.
Washington. D.C. Carnegie Institution. Department of Terrestrial Mag-
netism. Annual Report for 1913.
Washington, Conn. Association of American Geographers. Annals. (Noth-
ing received.)
Zurich. Geographisch-Ethnographischen Gesellschaft in Zurich. Jahres-
bericht, 1912—1913.
List of Members
i8i
Xi0t Of fll>ember0.
DECEMBER, 31st, 1913.
Note. — H signifies Honorary, C — Corresponding, L — Life, A — Associate,
* Affiliated Societies. All others are Ordinary Members.
Abbott, F. S., F.C.A. Baronian, Z. S. Iplicjian
Abbott, James H. Bax, Wm. Robert
Adam, Sir Frank Forbes, CLE. ABaxandall, Miss C.
LAinsworth, John, C.M.G., F.R.G.S.ABayley, Mrs. C. H.
(Kisumu). ABebie, Alfred
Aldred, John C, A.C.A. ABeck, H. S.
AAlexander, Miss M. N. Beer, Walter
Alexander, W. T., J.P. Behrens, Councillor Sir Charles, J.P.
Allen, John W. Behrens, Gustav, J.P.
HAmundsen, Captain Roald. Bell, G. H.
HArgyll, His Grace the Duke of, K.T.cBellamy, C. H., F.R.G.S., Tourcoing
Armitage, G. F., J.P. (His WorshipABellamy, Reginald C, A.C.A.
the Mayor of Altrincham).
Armstrong, F.
Arning, A. W.
Arnold, W, A.
Aron, L.
Ascoli, E.
Ascoli, W. S., F.R.G.S.
AAshworth, Mrs. Ada
AAshworth, Miss D.
Ashworth, Francis, J.P.
AAshworth, Miss R.
AAshworth, S.
Ashworth, Wm., F.C.A.
Ashworth, W. E.
Atkinson, George, F.R.G.S.
Bacon, W. C.
Baerlein, H. A.
ABagnall, John H.
Bailey, W. D.
LBalmer, J. E., F.R.G.S.
LBalmforth, Alfred.
Barber, G.
Bardsley, G. W.
Barlow, Edwin.
Barlow, John R., J.P.
Barningham, Mrs. James
Barningham, Thomas, J.P.
Baron, J. W., C.C.
Bentley, John Howard, F.R.G.S.
Berry, G. F.
Berry, R. H.
Berry, W. H., Free Public Library,
Oldham.
Beving, C.
ABickerton, Richard
Bishop, J. K.
Blaikie, W. V.
Blake, George Ingle
ABlanchoud, Miss
Blass, A.
Bles, Marcus S., J.P.
Bles, Philip
Bock, Richard
LBoddington, Henry, J.P.
HBodio, Senator Luigi, Rome
ABolivar, Mrs. A. de
nBonaparte, S. A. Prince Roland, Paris
HBond, Rt. Hon. Sir R., K.C.M.G.,
Newfoundland
HBotha, Rt. Hon. Louis, Pretoria
Bourne, Thomas
Bowen, E.
ABoyes, Miss S.
Bradley, N., J.P.
Bradshaw, Wm.
Bramwell, Samuel
cBrice, A. Montefiore, F.R.G.S.
i82 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
Brier, Charles
xBrierley, James, M.A., F.R.G.S.
Briggs, Henry
Briggs, Herbert
Broadhurst, E. Tootal, D.L., J.P.
ABrobson, Miss
LBrooks, Mrs. S. H.
LBrooks, S. H., J.P., F.R.G.S.
Broome, Henry
Brown, A. E. Buchanan
i.Brown, James, J.P.
Brownell, Thos. W.
Brumm, Charles, J.P.
Bryant, James
cBryce, J. Annan, M.P.
Buckley, W. S.
Burgess, Alfred, A.C.A.
i^Burgon, Anthony
Burke, Thomas
*Burnley Literary and Scientific
Burstall, Miss S. A., M.A.
Butterworth, Walter, J.P.
Bythell, J. K., J.P.
Bythell, W. J. S., B.A., M.D.
Byrne, Miss T. G.
Calvert, D. R.
Campbell, Richardson
jvCardwell, J. J.
Carr, Arthur
Carson, Isaac Pitman
xCarver, W. Oswald
Chadwick, J. J.
Champ, F.
ACharnock, Mrs. E.
Cheetham, Rt. Hon. J. F., J.P
Chorlton, Isaac
Chorlton, James
Clapham, Col. W. W.
Clapham, Thomas, F.R.G.S.
Clarke, Charles A.
AClegg, Miss C. E.
ACockshaw, Miss E.
cCoIbeck, Rev. A.
LColley, T. H. Davies
ACollinge, Miss A.
Collmann, C.
^Colquhoun, A.R., F.R.G.S., M.I,
Colt, W. H.
Cooke, J. Herbert
Cookson, G. P.
Coop, Thos.
LCooper, Mrs. A. H.
aCox, C. H., B.Sc, L.C.P.
Cox, Dr. Frederic
Crawford, A.
Crawford, W. L.
Crewdson, Alfred
Crompton, Mrs.
Crompton, Thos. A.
Crook, Col. H. T., D.L., V.D.
M.Inst.C.E.
Crosland, Leo.
ACrosthwaite, Robert, M.A., B.Sc.
Crowther, Miss E.
Darbyshire, Alfred
ClubADaves, Miss A.
David, Henry E.
ADavies, Charles J.
Dawkins, Prof. W. Boyd, J. P., M.A.
F.R.S.
Dawson, Arnold
nDeakin, Hon. Alfred, Australia
Deakin, G. G. D.
Deakin, Thos. S.
Dean, J.
Dean, J. N.
Dehn, Gustav
Dennis, Cammack, J.P.
LDerby, Rt. Hon. Earl, G.C.V.O.
Dixon, H. C.
Donner, Sir Edward, Bart.
Dowson, Rev. H. E., B.A.
LDoxey, Alex. S.
Duckworth, Charles
Duckworth, Alderman Sir James, J. P.
F.R.G.S.
Dugdill, John
Dunkerley, Frank B.
Dyckhoff, C.
Earnshaw, John A.
Eason, Edward A.
*Eccles Prov. Ind. Co-op. Soc, Ltd.
• C.E. Eckhard, Gustav, J.P.
List of Members
183
Edleston, C. V. M.
LEdwards, T. A., F.R.G.S.
Egerton of Tatton, Rt. Hon. Lord
Ellinger, George
Ellinger, Martin
England, A.
LErmen, Charles
Evans, E. Roose
Evans, E. Russell
Evans, J. H.
Evans, L. C.
Fairhurst, Thomas
cFedotoff, A., Moscow
Ferguson, Wm.
Fern, George
cFisher, Rev. A. B., F.R.G.S.
Fison, K. G.
Fletcher, R.
Flinn, W. Leonard
Follows, F. W.
Forsyth, Henry
Franc, Henry
Frank, Ernest
Frankenburg, Alderman I., J. P.
HFreshfield, Douglas. W., F.R.G.S.
Frischmann, A.
AFuchs, Paul
AFullerton, Miss E.
Gamble, J,
AGarner, Miss P. M.
AGarner, Charles T. I.
Garnett, Mrs. Charles
Garnett, Charles
Geiler, Hermann
Gibbons, Fred C.
LGinger, George
Glazebrook, Philip K., M.P.
Gleave, Joseph James
Glossop, J. P. B.
Godbert, Councillor Chas. W.
Godlee, Francis
Goodbehere, Frederick G.
Goodwin, J. W.
Gordon, T. Hodgetts, C.C, B.A.
Green, H., M.A.
Green, Walter
Greenhow, J. H., Vice-Consul for
Norway
AGreenough, Richard, Leigh
Greg, Colonel Ernest W., J.P., C.C,
F.R.G.S.
Gregory, Theodore, F.C.A., J.P.
Grey, Dr. Edgar
LGriffiths, Albert, D.Sc.
Grifl&ths, Alderman John
Grifl&ths, Horatio
Grime, A.
AGroves, Miss M.
Groves, Charles V.
LGroves, J. G., J.P., D.L.
LGroves, W. G.
Guest, R,
Guggenheim, A.
Gumbrell, Mrs,
Giiterbock, Alfred
Giiterbock, Richard
Guthrie, Mrs. S. F.
Hacking, Nicholas H., J.P,
Hahlo, Charles
Hailwood, Councillor Anthony, J.P.
Hailwood, R. Emmett
AHalksworth, Miss M.
AHall, Miss Hilda
LHall, Mrs, J, Howard
lHrII, J. Howard
Hall, Robert, J.P.
Hallworth, Joseph
Halsall, Frank, F.CA,, J.P.
AHamilton, Mrs.
A Hamilton, Miss Joyce
Hammond, G. S.
Hamp, E. H.
Hancock, J.
AHandcock, H. C.
Hanemann, A.
cHanlon, Rt. Rev, Henry, Bishop of
Teos, and Vicar Apostolic of the
Upper Nile
Hardcastle, G. L.
AHarden, Miss C.
Hardy, H, Waters
LHargreaves, George
AHarper, William
i84 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
Harrap, Thomas
AHarris, Miss E. M.
Harris, Mrs. Isabella M.
Harrop, James
LHassall, Alderman Thomas, J.P.
Hawkins, William
Haworth, Alfred, J.P.
Haworth, G. C, J.P.
Heap, Alderman, W. T., J.P.
HHedin, Sir Sven, K.C.I.E., F.R.G.S
Heighway, Mrs.
Heighway, George
Helm, John
cHerbertson, Professor A. J., M.A.,
Ph.D.
Herd, Harry
Hertz, F. M.
Hesketh, W. R.
AHewit, R. P., J.P.
Heycock, A. H.
LHeys, John, J.P.
Hey wood, Abel, J.P.
Hiersemann, K. W., Leipzig
Higginbottom, Walter
Higham, J. Sharp, M.P.
Hilditch, John, M.R.A.S., M.J.S.
Hindle, James, L.R.A.M.
Hinrichsen, S.
Hockin, C. Owen
Hodgson, Jas. T.
Hodgson, William
AHolden, Henry
AHollingworth, Edgar W.
LHolt, Arthur
Hopkinson, Sir A., Q.C.
Hopkinson, Edward, D.Sc.
Horsfall, T. C, J.P.
Houghton, John
Houldsworth, Sir W. H., Bart.
Hoyle, E.
cHoyle, W. E., M.A.
Hudson, James H., M.A.
Hughes, Joseph David
Hulme, C. J.
Hutton, D. W.
LHutton, J. Arthur
Hyde, Thomas
Illingworth, Charles
Irving, R. J.
Jackson, Fred J.
Jameson, John W.
nJameson, Rt. Hon. Sir L. S., C.B.
Janovski, R.
Janus, H.
Jefferson, Alfred Hy.
Jenkins, Alderman T. H., J.P.
Johnson, Mrs. A. T.
Johnson, E., J.P.
Johnson, James
Johnson, Lionel M.
LJohnson, Wm. Morton, F.R.G.S.
cJohnston, Sir H. H., G.C.M.G.,
K.C.B., F.R.G.S.
Johnstone, Charles Andrew
Johnstone, P. T.
Jones, Frederick A.
Jones, R. Lomas
Jones, Wm., J.P., Eccles
Jones, Wm., Didsbury
Jordan, Bernard
Kalisch, Max
Kalisch, Moritz
Kalisch, Richard, F.R.G.S.
AKay, Miss Katie
AKay, Miss L.
cKeiffer, F., Moscow
Keith-Roach, Edward
AKelley, H. F.
Kelley, J. Macpherson
HKeltie, J. Scott, LL.D., F.R.G.S.
Kershaw, B.
Kessler, Philip W.
AKewley, Miss Jane
Keymer, Sidney L., F.R.G.S.
AKiesling, A. E.
Kinch, W. S., C.C.
Kirkpatrick, Henry, J.P.
Knowles, Peter
Knudsen, A., Consul for Denmark
Kolp, Ernest
Kukla, Charles
Kullmann, Herbert C.
cLabbe, Paul, Paris
ALancaster, James, J.P.
Langdon, E. H.
Larmuth, Dr.
List of Members 185
HLaurier, Rt. Hon. Sir W., G.C.M.G. Mandleberg, S. L., J.P.
ALaw, Miss Annie E., L.L.A. AMarkham, Mrs, M.
Lawson, R. G. cMarrs, F. W., M.A., Bombay
ALea, Miss F. LMarsden, James, J.P.
Lea, John Martin, Horace C, F.R.G.S.
Leah, S. P. Martin, Thomas
Lederer, Robert, I. and R. Austro- Marx, Charles
Hungarian Consul Massey, Harold F.
ALedward, H. Davenport Massey, L. F.
Leech, Miss AMassey, Samuel
cLeech, Wm. Booth LMather, Loris Emerson, F.R.G.S.
Leemann, E. Mather, Rt. Hon. Sir William, J.P.
Lees, Mrs. H. L., F.R.G.S., A.R.C.L May, Wm.
Lees, Walter AMaybury, J. H.
Leigh, James AMaybury, W. H.
*Leigh Literary Society Medlyn, Wm.- John
Leite, J. Pinto, Vice Consul for Melland, Councillor Will.
Portugal LMellor, E. W., J.P., F.R.G.S.
Lemon, Miss Ada LMellor, Geoffrey Robert
LLemos, Professor Angel Ma Diaz Middleton, T. C, J.P.
Levinstein, Herbert Midwood, T. C.
Levinstein, Ivan Miller, Fred.
ALightowIer, Mrs. E. Miller, Paul C.
Little, David Ainsworth Miller, T.
Littler, Henry Landon Millers, R. Townley
Lomas, J. A. Milligan, Wm., M.D., CM.
Longden, A. W. Mills, Albert
Lord, Charles nMoor, Rt. Hon. F. R., Natal
ALowe, Miss M. E. Moore, A. E.
Lowe, Wm. AMoore, Miss Isabel
Lunn, Joseph Morehouse, James T.
Morreau, M.
Macara, Sir C. W., Bart., J.P. Morris, A. C.
cMcDermott, Rev. P. A., C.S.Sp. Mort, Miss G. E.
HMacdonald, Major-Gen. Sir J. R, L. Moxon, Thomas Bouchier
R.E. Murton, T. P., London
McDougall, Charles
McDougall, Robert nNansen, Dr. F., G.C.V.O.
McFarlane, H. H. Nanson, Miss W.
McFarlane, John, M.A., M.Com., Nathan, Fred P.
F.R.G.S. LNeil, Alexander
M'Grath, W. A. Neild, F. E., F.C.A.
HMacGregor, H. E. Sir Wm., M.D.. Neild, Jesse
K.C.M.G. ANewbigging, Thos.. D.Sc, M.Inst.C.E.
McPherson, Alexander Newton, Geo. D.
Makin, E., junr. Nichol. Wm.
*MancheRter Corporation, Free Libra- Nichols, Geo. Wm.
ries Committee Nicholson, Joseph
Mandleberg, G. C, J.P. Nightingale, Thos. H.
H
i86 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
ANoar, H.
Norbury, Thos.
LNuttalC Harry, M.P., F.R.G.S.
Nuttall, Mrs. Harry
cOederlin, F.
Ogden, A.
Oldham, Edwin, J.P.
OWham, H. Yule, M.A., F.R.G.S
Cambridge
O'Leary, J. W.
cO'Neill, H. E., F.R.G.S.
Openshaw, Miss E. N.
Oppenheim, F. S., M.A.
Ormrod, Miss B.
Osborn, John A.
Ost, Emil
Parkinson, J. B.
Parkinson, T. W. F., M.Sc, F.G.S
Peace, Alfred
APearson, Miss E.
Pearson, J. A.
nPeary, Rear-Admiral R. E.
Peters, Miss S. Kate
APeters, Ralph
Philips, Miss
Phythian, J. Ernest
Pickstone, E.
Pidd, Arthur J.
APidd, Leslie S.
APidd, Mrs. Eli
APidd, Miss Maggie
Pigott, A. W.
Pilcher, Colonel Jesse, V.D.
Pilkington, Charles, J.P.
LPilkington, Edward, J.P.
Pilkington, Lawrence, J.P.
cPing.stone, G. A.
Pingstone, H. C.
Poole, James
APotts, Mrs.
APres?cott, Mrs.
APrescott, Miss E. M.
Prestwich, R. H.
Proctor, Mrs.
AProctor, Miss
Pro vis, Frank M,
Prusmann, Robert Henry
Putz, F. R.
Qualtrough, Miss Kate
Quine, Dr. R. H., L.R.C.P., etc.
Raby, C. R.
ARadcliffe, F.
Ramsay, P. J., J.P.
ARawlinson, Miss Maud
Reade, Charles E.
' Ree, Alfred, Ph.D.
Reed, J. Howard, F.R.G.S.
Reekie, W. M.
Reid, James Stephenson
LReiss, Alec
Reiss, Gustav
Renold, Hans
Renshaw, James
ARenshaw, Miss L. W.
Reynolds, Mrs. R. H.
Rhodes, Edward
Richmond, Wm., J.P.
Rigby, Wm,
Riley, R. J.
HRoberts, Field Marshal the Right
Hon. Earl, V.C, K.G., etc.
Robertshaw, James
Robertson, W. J.
Robinow, W.
Robinson, W. H.
Robson, J. Walter, J.P.
Rogerson, James
Rothband, H. L.
Rotherham of Broughton, the Right
Hon. Lord
Rothwell, Alderman W. T., J.P.
Royse, Councillor Sir S. W., J.P.
Rudolph, Henry B.
Russell, A. C.
Russell, C. E. B.
Ruttenau, Wm.
Saalfeld, A.
Salford, the Rt. Rev. the Bishop of
*Salford Corporation Free Libraries
Committee
Samson, Oscar
Schlagintweit, T., Imperial Germr^n
Consul
, Schofield, Edwin, J.P.
Scholfield, Councillor A Y.
List of Members
187
Schiitt, Professor Dr. R,, Hamburg
Scott, C. Archibald
Scott, C. P., J.P.
Scott, J. E. P.
Scott, John G.
• Scott, W.
Segalla, Emil
Sever, John
HShackleton, Sir E. H., C.V.O.
F.R.G.S.
Shann, Alderman Sir T. T., J.P.
Shaw, A. E.
AShaw, Miss A. E.
Shaw, Matthew
Sheppard, E. F.
Shipman, Mrs. W. M.
Shorrocks, Henry
ASidebotham, J. F.
Sidebotham, John Jas.
Siegler, H.
Simmons, C. L.
Simon, Alfred
Simon, Louis
Simon, Salis, Swedish Consul
Simpson, Alfred, J.P.
Simpson, C. J.
ASimpson, Miss F.
Sivewright, Wm.
LSmith, Rev. Canon F. C, M.A
F.R.G.S.
ASmith, Miss E.
Smith, James
Smith, J.
Smith, J. H. H., J.P.
Smith, R. Heaton
ASmith, Mrs. R. Heaton
Smith, Mrs. Samuel
Smith, Sidney
Smith, T. M.
Somerset, Henry
Southam, T. Frank, M.D., F.R.G.S.
ASouthern, John E.
nSowerbutts, Mrs. Eli
ASowerbutts, Harry, A.R.C.Sc.
Sowerbutts, T. W., F.S.A.A.
Speakman, Walter
ASpencer, Miss M. R.
ASpencer, S.
Spencer, Wm.
Sprott, W. J., M.D., xM.R.C.S.
Staniforth, R. A.
LSteinthal, Egbert
Stephens, Alderman Sir W., J.P.
Sternberg, S.
Stevenson, Frederick
Stevenson, John
AStevenson, Miss W.
,AStewart, Robert
Stoker, R. B., F.R.G.S.
LStonehewer, Walter
Stordy, Mrs.
Storey, Henry E.
AStott, Miss
AStott, Miss Gladys
AStott, Miss G. A.
Stowell, Hugh
Stubbs, Wm. T.
Susmann, Councillor E. F. M., J.P.
Sussum, Geo. H.
Sutton, Charles
Swaine, Geo. Raymond
Swallow, Miss Eunice
HSwallow, Rev. R., M.D.
Swallow, R. W., B.Sc.
LSykes, Arthur H., D.L., J.P.
Symonds, The Rev. Canon
, Tatham, Mrs. N.
ATatton, Lees W.
ATaylor, Albert
Taylor, Miss A. I.
Taylor, B. A.
Taylor, C.
Taylor, Frederick
Taylor, John Tyson
ATaylor, Miss M.
ATaylor, Miss Ruth
Taylor, Walter
Taylor, William
Tejeria, Antonio Maria, Spanish Con-
sul
Terry, Henry
Thewlis, Councillor J. Herbert, J.P.
LThomas, George, J.P.
Thomson, A. E.
cThomson, J.P., F.R.S.G.S., Brisbane
Thomson, R.
Thomson, Wm., F.R.S. (Ed.)
i88 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
Thorpe, Walter Whalley, Joseph, F.R.G.S.
Tout, Prof. T. F., xM.A. Whitby, W. H.
LTrafford, Su* Humphrey F. de, Bart. Whitehouse, E. C.
Tuke, Rev. R. M. Whitfield, A. R.
LTulloch, Angus A. G. LWhittaker, Mrs. A. H.
Turner, Mrs. S. A. AWhittaker, Miss F.
ATydeman, B. R. Whitworth, Herbert
ATyldesley Higher Education Commit- Wihl, G.
tee
Tyne, W. J.
Vallance, A. C.
Vaudrey, Alderman Sir W. H., J. P.
Viehoff, Miss F.
H Wain Wright, Joel, J. P.
Wainwright, Thomas Foster, J. P.
Walkden, Arthur
Walker, George
Walker, G. H.
Walker, J. Alan
Walker, John
Walker, Sam
AWallace, Miss M. W.
LWallace, Reginald W.
Wallwork, Herbert
Walmsley, R.
Wilde, Miss
Wilde, J. J.
Wilkinson, T. F.
Wilkinson, Wm.
Willcock, Thomas
nWillcocks, Major-General Sir Jame.s,
K.C.M.G., D.S.O.
Williams, James
Williams, S. W.
Williamson, R. T., M.D., F.R.G.S.
Williamson, William Henry
Wilmore, Albert, D.Sc, F.G.S.
AWinstanley, T. G.
Wood, A. W.
Wood, George Hervey
LWood, George W. Rayner, J. P.
Wood, Henry
Woodhouse, J. H., F.R.I.B.A.
Woodruff, Herbert
Walter, Miss L. Edna, B.Sc, H.M.I. Woods, W. D.
Warburton, Miss L. M.
HWard, Sir A. W., M.A., Litt.D.
HWard, Rt. Hon. Sir J. G., K.C.M.G.
New Zealand
LWard, Wm. H.
Ward, Ziba Armitage
AWardle, Miss
Woolf, Miss M. A.
Woolfenden, Miss Alice H.
, Woolfenden, Joseph
Woolfenden, R. S. H.
Woolley, George Stephen
LWoolley, Hermann, F.R.G.S.
Worthington, S. Barton
cWardrop, Capt. A. Tucker, F.R.G.S.LWrathmell, T.
AWarren, Geo. H. Wright, Reginald
A Warrington, Miss M.
Waterhouse, Gilbert, F.R.G.S. Young, Harold
AWatson, Col. Sir C. M., K.C.M.G., Young, Leonard
R.E. Young, Robert
AWebster, John
Welldon, Rt. Rev. Bishop, Dean of Zabern, T. von
Manchester AZellweger, I.
Welsh, W. Zimmern, Fritz, F.R.G.S.
Welter, H. (Bibliotheque Nationale Zimmern, N. H.
Section des Cartes, Paris.) Zimmern, W. H.
r
Rules 189
IRwlce.
L OBJECT AND WORK.
The object of the Manchester Geographical Society is to promote the study
of all branches of Geographical Science, especially in its relations to commerce
and civilisation.
The work of the Society shall be : —
1. To further in every way the pursuit of the science; as, by the study of
official and scientific documents, by communications with learned, industrial
and commercial societies, by correspondence with consuls, men of science,
explorers, missionaries, and travellers, and by the encouragement of the
teaching of geography in schools and colleges.
2. To hold meetings at which papers shall be read, or lectures delivered by
members or others.
3. To examine the possibility of opening new markets to commerce and to
collect information as to the number, character, needs, natural products and
resources of such populations as have not yet been brought into relation with
British commerce and industry.
4. To promote and encourage, in such way as may be found expedient,
either alone or in conjunction with other Societies, the exploration of the less
known regions of the earth.
5. To inquire into all questions relating to British and Foreign colonisation
and emigration.
6. To publish a Journal of the proceedings of the Society, with a summary
of geographical information.
7. To form a collection of maps, charts, geographical works of reference,
and specimens of raw materials and commercial products.
8. The Society shall not enter into any financial transactions beyond those
necessarily attached to its declared object, and shall not make any dividend,
gift, division, or bonus in money unto or between any of its members.
II. ORGANISATION.
9. The Society shall consist of ordinary, associate, corresponding, and
honorary members.
10. A Council shall be chosen annually from the ordinary members to con-
duct the affairs of the Society. It shall consist of a President, four or more
Vice-Presidents, a Treasurer, two or more Honorary Secretaries (including a
Secretary for Foreign Correspondence), and twenty-one Councillors.
11. There shall be three Trustees elected by the Society, who shall hold
office until death, disability, insolvency or resignation. They shall be members
of the Council by virtue of their office,
12. Any vacancy occurring in the Council during the current year may be
filled up by the Council.
III. ELECTION OF MEMBERS.
13. Every candidate for admission into the Society as an ordinary or an
associate member must be proposed by a member. The proposal shall be read
out at the next Ordinary Meeting of the members, and any objection shall be
forwarded in writing to the Secretary within seven days.
14. The election of members is entrusted to the Council. The names of
those elected shall be announced from the chair at the next Ordinary Meeting
after the election.
XQO Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
15. The Secretary shall within three days forward to every newly-elected
member notice of his election, a copy of the Rules of the Society, and a card
announcing the days on which the Ordinary Meetings will be held during the
session. But the election of an ordinary or associate member shall not be com-
plete, nor shall he be permitted to enjoy the privileges of a member, until he
shall have paid his first year's subscription. Unless such a payment be made
within three calendar months from the date of election the election shall be
void.
16. The Council shall have power to elect honorary and corresponding
members.
17. Women shall be elipble as members and officers of the Society.
IV. PAYMENTS.
18. An ordinary member shall pay an annual subscription of £1. Is., or he
may compound by one payment of £10. 10s. An associate member shall pay
an annual subscription of 10s. 6d. The Society's year shall begin on the first
day of January.
19. Members shall not be entitled to vote or to enjoy any other privilege of
the Society so long as their payment shall continue in arrear, but associate
members shall not vote nor shall they take any part in the government of the
Society.
20. The first annual payment of a member elected in November or December
shall cover his subscription to the 31st of December in the year following.
21. On the first day of January in each year there shall be put up in the
rooms of the Society a complete list of the members with the amount of their
subscription due, and as the amounts are paid the fact shall be marked on the
list.
22. Notice shall be sent to every member whose subscription shall not have
been paid by the first of February, and if the arrears are not discharged by
the first of July the Council may remove the member from the list of members.
Any member, whose subscription is in arrear for two years shall not be entitled
to receive the Journal of the Society.
V. MEETINGS.
23. The meetings of the Society shall be of three kinds — Ordinary, Annual,
and Special.
24. In all meetings a majority of those present shall decide on all questions,
the President or Chairman having a casting vote in addition to his own.
Ordinary Meetings.
25. The Ordinary Meetings of the Society shall be held once a month, from
the month of October to the month of May, or oftener, if judged expedient by
the Council.
26. All members whose subscriptions are not in arrear shall have a right to
be present. All ordinary members shall have the privilege of introducing one
visitor.
27. The order of the proceedings shall be as follows : —
(a) The minutes of the last meeting to be read and if correctly recorded
they shall be signed by the Chairman,
(b) Presents, whether of money, books, maps, charts, instruments or
specimens, made to the Society to be announced.
(c) The election of new members to be declared and the names of
candidates to be read.
(d) Papers and communications to be read and discussed.
Rules 191
28. At these meetings nothing relating to the rules or management shall be
brought forward, but the minute book of the Council shall be on the table at
each meeting for the inspection of any member, and extracts therefrom may,
with the consent of the chairman, be read to the meeting on the requisition of
any member.
29. On occasions of exceptional interest the Council may make provision for
a larger admission of visitors.
Annual Meetings.
30. The Annual Meeting of the members shall be held at such time and
place as the Council may determine.
31. Fourteen days' Notice of such meeting shall be sent to every member
within the United Kingdom who has given his address to the Secretary, and
notice of the meeting shall be advertised in such newspapers as the Council
may direct.
32. The object of this meeting shall be to receive the Annual Report of the
Council and the Treasurer's Balance Sheet, to hear the President's address, to
elect the Council and officers for the ensuing year, and to transact any other
business.
33. Any two ordinary members may nominate candidates for the Council or
for office not later than one week prior to the day of election, and the names
of candidates so nominated shall be at once put up in the rooms of the Society.
The election of the Council and officers shall be by ballot.
Special General Meetings.
34. The Council may call a Special General Meeting of the Society when-
ever they shall consider it necessary, and they shall do so if required by 20
ordinary members.
35. A week's notice of the time and object of every Special Meeting shall
be sent to all members. No other business shall be entertained than that of
which notice has been thus given.
36. Twenty ordinary members shall form a quorum.
VI. COUNCIL AND OFFICERS.
The Council.
37. The government of the Society shall be entrusted to the Council, sub-
ject to the rules of the Society.
38. The Council shall annually elect a Chairman and Vice-Chairman.
39. The President or the Chairman, or any three members of the Council,
may at any time call a meeting thereof, to which every member of the Council
shall be summoned.
40. Seven shall form a quorum.
41. In order to secure the most efficient study and treatment of the various
subjects which constitute the chief work ot the Society, the Council may
appoint Committees for special purposes. These Committees, with the appro-
bation of the Council, may associate with themselves any persons — whether
members of the Society or not — from whom they may desire to obtain special
assistance or information. The Committees shall report to the Council the
results of their proceedings.
42. The President, Chairman, Vice-Chairman of the Council, and the
Honorary Secretaries, shall, by virtue of their offices, be members of all Com-
mittees appointed by the Council.
President and Vice-Presidents.
43. The President, is, by virtue of his office, the chairman of all the
192 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
meetings of the Society. In the absence of the President, one of the Vice
Presidents may preside.
Chairman of the Council .
44. It is the duty of the Chairman of the Council to see that the rules are
properly observed, to call for reports and accounts from Committees and
Officers, and to summon, when necessary, special meetings of the Council and
of Committees.
Treasurer.
45. The Treasurer has the charge of all accounts;. he shall pay all accounts
due by the Society after they have been examined and approved by the
Council.
46. He shall see that all moneys due to the Society are collected, and shall
have power, with the approval of the Council, to appoint a Collector. All
moneys received shall be immediately paid to the bankers of the Society.
47. The bank passbook and the book of accounts shall be laid upon the
table at every ordinary meeting of the Council.
48. The accounts shall be audited annually by two members, who shall be
elected at an ordinary meeting at least one month before the Annual Meeting.
Secretaries.
49. The duty of the Honorary Secretaries shall be : —
(a) To conduct the correspondence of the Society and of the Council.
(b) To attend the meetings of the members and of the Council, and
minute their proceedings.
(c) At the ordinary meetings, to announce gifts presented to the Society
since their last meeting ; to read the names of all new members and
of candidates for admission, and the papers communicated to the
Society, which have been directed by the Council to be read.
(d) To have immediate superintendence of all persons employed, to make
arrangements for the meetings of the Society, and to take charge of
all maps, books, furniture and other effects.
50. It shall be the more especial duty of one of the Honorary Secretaries to
conduct, as may be directed by the Council, correspondence with Foreign
Societies, and with persons resident abroad.
51. In addition to the Honorary Secretaries, there shall be a paid Secretary
appointed by the Council, whose duties shall be to assist the Honorary Secre-
taries, to issue the notices of the Council and of the Society, and to act under
the instructions of the Council.
The foregoing Rules, as now amended, were approved and adopted at a
meeting of the members of the Society, of which due notice had been given to
the members, held in the Town Hall, Manchester, Wednesday, October 3rd,
1894. (Signed) GEORGE, President.
S. ALFRED STEINTHAL, Chairman.
F. ZIMMERN, Honorary Secretary.
JAS. D. WILDE, M.A., Honorary Secretary.
ELI SOWERBUTTS, Secretary.
[Copy.]
It is hereby certified that this Society is entitled to the benefit of the Act 6
and 7 Vict., Cap. 36, intituled "An Act to exempt from County, Borough,
Parochial, and other Local Rates, Lands and Buildings, occupied by Scientific
or Literary Societies." Seal of Registry of
Friendly Societies.
This 15th day of January, 1895. E. W. B.
^-^^-^-«>fp-^
E. W. M. 1,
Chhatris at Udaipur.
THE
JOURNAL
OF THE
MANCHESTER GEOGRAPHICAL
SOCIETY
VOL. XXX.
PUBLISHED FOR THE
MANCHESTER GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY
BY
SHERRATT & HUGHES
LONDON AND MANCHESTER
X914
THE
COUNCIL AND OFFICERS
OF THE
MANCHESTER GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY
FOR I914.
patron.
HIS MAJESTY THE KING.
iprcsiDent.
Mr. harry NUTTALL, M.P., F.R.G.S.
lDtce*ipre6iDent6»
The Right Hon. the Earl of Derby,
G.C.V.O.
The Right Hon. Earl Egerton of
Tatton.
The Right Hon. Lord Rotherham of
Broughton.
The Right Rev. the Bishop of Salford.
The Right Rev. Bishop Welldon,
D.D., Dean of Manchester.
The Right Hon. the Lord Mayor of
Manchester.
His Worship the Mayor of Salford.
The Right Hon. Sir William Mather.
The Rt. Hon. J, F. Cheetham.
Sir W. H. HouLDSwoRTH, Bart.
Sir C. W. Macara, Bart.
Sir Humphrey F. de Trafford, Bart.
Sir Frank Forbes Adam, CLE.
Alderman Sir J. Duckworth, J. P.,
Crook, J. P., V.D.
Boyd Dawkins, J. P.,
F.R.G.S.
trustees.
Mr. H. NuTTALL, M.P., F.R.G.S. Mr.
Mr. E. W. Mellor, J.P
Ibonorarg treasurer.
Mr. David A. Little. |
Ibonoravg Secretary (IDictorians).
Mr. C. A. Ciarke.
Colonel H. T.
Professor W.
F.R.S.
Major P. K. Glazebrook, M.P.
Colonel E, W. Greg, J.P., C.C, F.R.G.S
Mr. J. G. Groves, D.L., J.P.
Mr. J. S. Hicham, M.P.
Mr. John McFarlane, M.A., M.Com.,
F.R.G.S.
Mr. E. W. Mellor, J.P., F.R.G.S.,
Vice-Chairman of the Council.
Mr. J. Howard Reed, F.R.G.S.
Mr. C. P. Scott, J.P.
Mr. George Thomas, J.P.
Mr. Hermann Woolley, F.R.G.S.
Mr. F. Zimmern, F.R.G.S., Chairman
of the Council.
Sidney L. Keymer, F.R.G.S.
F.R.G.S.
Ibonorar^ Secretary.
Mr. Egbert Steinthal.
Mr. W. S. AscoLi, F.R.G.S.
Mr. J. E. Balmer, F.R.G.S.
Miss S. A. BuRSTALL, M.A.
Mr. C. A. Clarke.
Mr. C. COLLMANN.
Mr. George Ginger.
Mr. J. Howard Hall.
Mr. Alderman T. Hassall, J.P.
Mr Richard Kalisch, F.R.G.S.
Mr. H. C. Martin, F.R.G.S.
Mr. L. Emerson Mather, F.R.G.S.
Council.
Mr,
T. C. Middleton, J.P.
Mr. F. S. Oppenheim, M.A.
Mr. J. A. OsBORN.
Mr. T. W. F. Parkinson, M.Sc,
F.G.S.
Mr. Alfred Re'e, Ph.D.
Mr. Wm. Robinow.
Mr. J. Walter Robson, J.P.
Mr. J. Stephenson Reid.
Mr. T. W. Sowerbutts, F.S.A.A.
Miss L. Edna Walter, B.Sc, H.M.I.
Ibonorars BuDltor.
Mr. Theodore Gregory, J. P., F.C.A.
Secretary.
Harry Sowerbutts, Assoc. R.C.Sc.
MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS
PAGE
Asia —
China, Bamboo Suspension Bridge at Kuanhsien 12
China, Lamasery at Tsakulao 16
China, Tachienlu from the South 20
China, The River Yalung 12
China, The State of Kanpo 24
China, View to the South from Tachienlu 20
China, Water-driven Prayer Wheel at Tachienlu 24
China, Young Prince of Wassu and his Chinese Tutor 16
India, Ajmir, the Arhai-din-ka-jhompra 122
India, Dilwarra, Interior of Dome, Temple of Vimala Sah 120
India, Dilwarra, Interior of Temple of Tejapala and Vastupala 120
India, Kathiawar, Apes and Pilgrims before a Jain Temple on
the Girnar Mountain 122
India, Udaipur, Chhatris Frontis'piece
India, Udaipur, Entrance to Juggernath Temple 110
India, Udaipur, Steps to Juggernath Temple 110
Europe —
Belgium, Bruges 140
Belgium, Simplified Regional Geological Map 126
Holland, Sluis 140
Map, 14 A.D 132
Map, 814 A.D 132
Map, 1204 A.D 136
Map, 1648 A.D 136
Oceania —
New Zealand, Bush 42
New Zealand, Canoe Hurdle Race, Ngaruawahia 36
New Zealand, Clinton Canyon and McKinnon's Pass 42
New Zealand, Cooking Pond, Whakarewarewa 28
• New Zealand, Kiwi 38
New Zealand, Lake Te Anau, South Island 36
New Zealand, Milford Sound, South Island 38
New Zealand, Tattooed Head of Maori Chief 28
New Zealand, The White Terraces, Rotomahana 32
New Zealand, Waimangu Geyser and Frying Pan Flat 32
^\ THE WRITERS OF THE PAPERS ARE ALONE RESPONSIBLE FOR THEIR
OPINIONS. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.
CONTENTS.
A
PAGE
Abu Mount, and its temples 117
Accessions, list of 164
Accounts, 1913 92
Achilgar Group of Temples 118
Address by President — Geographical
Progress 94
Africa, South, and Geography 145
Africa, South, Development 149
Agricultural Geography 149
Ainscough, Thos. M., M.Com.,
F.R.G.S.— The Marches of
Chinese Tibet 1, 102
Ajmir City 112
Ajmir-Merwara 112
Albert Hall, Jaipur 114
Alligator Tank, Jaipur 115
Amber, the Ancient Capital of
Jaipur 115
Anniversary, 30th 157
Annual Meeting, 1914 88
Anthropology and Geography 149
Ararat, Mount, from the South ... 55
Aravalli Range of Mountains 107
Architecture, Indian 110
Ardennes, The 125
Armenia, population 52
Armenia, Turkish 45
Arthur River, South Island 43
Asia, Chinese Tibet, the Marches
of 1
Asia, Geographical Conditions 45
Asia, India, Rajputana 105
Asia Minor North Coast 47
Asia, Persian Khurdistan 45
Asia, Turkish Armenia 45
Atlases added to the Library 166
B
Babylonians or Chaldeans and their
inscriptions 70
Bailey, Captain : discovery of the
Brahmaputra-Tsangpo junction 9
Balance Sheet, 1913 93
Battleground of Europe in Central
Belgium 128
Bayazid 56
Belgian Cities, origin of 134
Belgian independence, 1830 142
Belgian Refugees' Fund, Collection
for 158
Belgium and Charlemagne 133
PAGE
Belgium and Feudalism 134
Belgium and the Romans 132
Belgium as a Buffer State 129
Belgium, geology 125
Belgium, history of 130
Belgium, industrial prosperity 127
Belgium in the time of Caesar 132
Belgium, invasion by the Germans 131
Belgium, revolution of 1830 142
Belgium : the Battleground of
Europe— Dr. A. Wilmore, F.G.S. 125
Belgium, the land of Art — Arnold
Williams 130
Belgium under the Habsburgs 139
Belgium under the House of
Burgundy 137
Belloc, Hilaire— The Strategy of
the War in the West 160
Bonpa, or black sect of Lamaism ... 12
Books added to the Library 167
British Corresponding Societies ... 173
Bruges, commercial prosperity of... 136
Burgundy, House of, and Belgium 137
C
Caesar and Belgium 132
Caravanserais of Shah Abbas 64
Carboniferous Basin, Belgium 127
Cartography, future of 151
Caste system of India 10l5
Cenotaph, or Chhatri, of the
Rajputs Ill
Chaldeans and the inscriptions ... 70
Chambal River 107
Changlam, or Great North Road of
Tibet 8
Charlemagne and Belgium 133
Chiamdo Valley, Tibet 3
Chiarung States, Chinese Tibet 10
Chinese Expedition to Tibet in 1792 5
Chinese Tibet, the Marches of 1
Cities of Belgium, Rise of 134
Cold Lakes district. South Island 36
Colonial Corresponding Societies ... 175
Coracles of Skin, construction of ... 17
Corresponding Societies, List of ... 173
Cotelingham, E. G. P.— British
Burma 101
Council, Report of 89
Crook, Colonel H. T., V.D., J.P.—
Recent Changes in our National
Maps 100
VI
CONTENTS
D
PAGE
Damme 136
Darchendo, or Tachienlu 20
Deaths of members announced
100, 101, 102, 157, 168, 159, 160j
Deaths of members in 1913 91
Derge Valley, Tibet 3
Development of South Africa 149
Dilwarra Temples on Mount Abu 119
E
Earthquakes, Recent Great 102
Egypt, Inscription of Ancient 68
Ekkas, at Jaipur 113
Election of Members... 99, 101, 102,
10*3, 157, 158, 159, 160, 163
" Elementary Studies in Geogra'phy
and History " 154
Environment as affecting Man 150
Eruption of Mount Tarawera 31
Erzerum, fortress and town 50
Euphrates and its source 50
Europe, Belgium, the land of Art... 130
Europe, Belgium the Battleground
of 125
Exchanges, list of 173
Exchanges suspended 173
F
Financial position of the Society... 91
Flanders and its municipalities ... 135
Flanders and Van Artevelde 136
Flemish Cities in the Middle Ages 135
Foreign Corresponding Societies ... 176
Future of Geography 151
G
Garrison, W. H. F.RG.S.—
Newfoundland 99
Gelupa, or yellow-capped sect of,
Lamaism 12
Genesis of Geography 68
Geographical Conditions of Persia 62
Geographical Progress — Address by
President 94
Geography and Anthropology 149
Geography and Geology 148
Geography and History 149
Geography at the Universities 146
Geography, future of 151
Geography, its field, its fascination
and its future. — J. Hutcheon,
M.A 145
Geography of Asia 45
Geography, the Genesis of 68
Geography, with special reference
to South Africa 145
Geology and Geography 148
Geology of Belgium 125
German treatment of Belgium 131
Ghent 136
Ginger, George — Sunny Sicily 160
Gimar Mountain in Kathiawar 121
PAGE
Green, T. E., F.R.G.S.— In the
Zuider Zee 100
Gregory, T., J.P., F.C.A., election
as Hon. Auditor \ 98
Gurkhas, defeat by Chinese, 1792... 6
H
Habsburgs and Belgium 139
Hancock, John — Holiday in the
Indian Empire 104
^'Hannibal Once More" 155
History and Geography 149
History of Belgium 130
History of Geography as a Science 145
History of Mankind 71
History of New Zealand 27
Hot Lakes District, New Zealand... 29
Hutcheon, J., M.A. — Geography,
with special reference to South
Africa 145
Hydrographical Surveys 151
I
Independence of Belgium 142
Indian Architecture 110
Indian Population 105
India, Rajputana 105
*' Industrial and Commercial Geo-
graphy^' 155
Industrial Prosperity of Belgium... 127
Invasion of Belgium by the
Germans 131
Iron Works of Liege 127
Irrigation of Chengtu Plain 15
J
Jagniwas Palace, Udaipur 108
Jain Temples on Mount Abu 119
Jain Temples on the Gimar
Mountain 121
Jaipur, State and City 113
Jaipur State Prison, work done at 114
Jantra, or Ancient Astronomical
Observatory of Jaipur 115
Jodhpur Fort 107
Jodhpur, State and City 107
Jogi, or Hindu devotee 119
Joseland, H, L., M.A. — Southern
Sweden 104
Journey through Turkish Armenia
and Persian Khurdistan — M. P.
Price 45
Juggemath Temple, Udaipur 110
Junagadh City, Kathiawar 121
Junglam, or official highway, from
Lhasa to China 3
K
Kathiawar, Girnar Mountain 121
Khoi, Oasis and Town of 61
Khurdistan, Persian 45
Kiwi, or Wingless Bird 39
CONTENTS
PAGE
Kizil Bashis, nomad tribe in
Armenia 53
Kuanhsien Irrigation Works 15
L
Lamaism in Tibet 12
Lamas and Trapas in Tibet 24
Lamaseries and their power in
Tibet 24
Lantern Views added to the
Library 166
Lees, Mrs. H. L., F.R.G.S.—
Journey round the World 158
Lehmann-Haupt, Prof. C. F. —
Armenia 101
Leopold, I, King of Belgium 143
Leopold II, King of Belgium 143
Library additions 164
Liege and its iron works 127
List of Accessions, 1914 164
List of Members 181
Little, D.A., remarks on the Finan-
cial Positon 88
Local Option in New Zealand 35
Lowland of Flanders 129
Luni River 107
M
McKinnon's Pass to Milford
Sound 41
Mahabat Circle, Junagadh 122
Maharajah of Jaipur 114
Maharajah of Jodhpur 108
Maharana of Udaipur 109
Mahasati, or Royal Palace of
Cremation Ill
Maku, the Khan of 59
Mankind, History of 71
Mantzu Women, Life of 14
Maori Regatta 33
Maoris in New Zealand 27
Maoris, Tattooing .*. 28
Maps added to the Library 164
Mayo College, Ajmir 112
Meeting, Annual, 1914 88
Meetings, Reports of, See Proceed-
ings.
Melland, Mrs. E. — Personal Experi-
ences among Maoris and
Mountains in New Zealand... 27, 101
Mellor, E. W., J. P., F.R.G.S.— In
the Home of the Rajput... 100, 105
Members, Deaths of, in 1913- 91
Members, New, Elected, see
Election of Members.
Members of the Society, List of... 181
Mesozoic Terrains, Belgium 128
Meuse Valley, Belgium 127
Milford Sound to Lake Te Anau... 41
Min River in dry and wet weather 16
Missionary Corresponding Societies 174
Monkeys on the Girnar Mountain... 124
Mount Abu Hill Station 117
Museum, additions to 166
N
PAGE
New Zealand, Cold Lakes District 36
New Zealand, History 27
New Zealand, Hot Lakes District 29
New Zealand, Local Option 35
New Zealand, Maoris in 27
New Zealand, Personal Experi-
ences 27
Nomad Khurds in Persia 58
Norgate, Rev. T. T., F.R.G.S.—
The Theatre of the War 157
Nuttall, Harry, M.P., F.R.G.S.—
Geographical Progress in 1913 94
Nyingpa, or Red Lamas 12
0
Oceania, New Zealand, Personal
Experiences 27
Ourthe Valley, Belgium 125
P
Palace of the Maharana of Udaipur 108
Pass from Lake Te Anau to Milford
Sound 41
Persia, Geographical Conditions.... 62
Persian Khurdistan 45
Persian Village in Azerbaijan,
Typical 63
Personal Experiences among Maoris
and Mountains in New
Zealand— Mrs. E. Melland 27
'* Physical Geogra'phy " 153
Pichola Lake, Udaipur 108
Pigs, Wild, in Udaipur Ill
Place-names in Geography 150
Polyandry in Tibet 8
Polygamy in Tibet 8
Population of Armenia 52
Population of Marches of Chinese
Tibet 7
Poyul Valley, Tibet 3
President's Address 94
Price, M. Philips, F.R.G.S.
Turkish Armenia and Persian
Khurdistan 45, 103
Proceedings of the Society 99, 157
Productions of Chinese Tibet 3
Q
Qualtrough, Miss Kate, F.RG.S.—
The Genesis of Geography... 68, 157
R
Race by Maoris 33
Rajah's Palace at Amber, Jaipur ... 115
Rajputs, the Home of the 105
Reed, J. Howard, F.R.G.S.;
Remarks at Annual Meeting ... 98
Reed, J. Howard, F.R.G.S.;
Resignation of Honorary Secre-
taryship 94
Relation of Geography to other
Sciences 147
Relief Funds, Lectures in Aid of... 158
Religion of Chinese Tibet 7
CONTENTS
PAGE
Report of the Council for 1913 89
Rev^enue Account 92
Reviews 144, 153
Revolution of 1830 in Belgium 142
Romans in Belgium 132
Rope Bridges in Chinese Tibet 16
Rotomahana Lake, and Mount
Tarawera Eruption 31
Rules of the Society 189
Russian Political Expansion 45
S
Sambre-Meuse Trough 127
Sambur, Udaipur Ill
Scope of Geography 146
Shrubsole, W. H., E.G. S.— The
Yellowstone Park 159
Skin Coracles on the Tung and
MinRivers 17
Societies, Corresponding 173
Society, Financial Position of 91
Society, List of Members of the ... 181
Society, Meetings of, see Proceed-
ings.
Society, Rules of the 189
So, King, of Wassu 18
South Africa and Geography 145
Steveni, W. Barnes — River Volga
and its Towns 99
Strategy of the War — Hilaire
Belloc 161
Sultanieh and its Ruined Mosque 64
Surajpol, Udaipur 110
Sutton, Charles — Manchester to the
Highlands of Scotland by
Road 163
Sutton, Charles — The Rhine and
the Black Forest 159
Swaine, G. R. — Influences of Geo-
graphical Environment 104
T
Tabriz 61
Tachienlu, Capital of Chala 20
Tattooing of Maoris 28
Te Anau Lake, New Zealand 36
Tea Trade of Tachienlu 21
Teheran 66
Tejapala and Vastupala Temple ... 120
Temples, Jain, on Mount Abu .... 119
Temples, Jain, on the Gimar
Mountain 122
Temples on Mount Abu 117
The Genesis Of Geography — Miss
Kate Qualtrough, F.R.G.S. ... 68
The Home of the Rajputs— E. W.
Mellor, J.P., F.R.G.S 105
The Marches of Chinese Tibet —
Thos. M. Ainscough, M.Com.,
F.R.G.S 1
"The Surface of the Earth" 144
"The Teaching of Geograj)hy'' ... 156
Thomas, George— Gift of Shares... 89
Tibet, Boundaries of 2
PAGE
Tibet, Chinese Expedition to, in
1792 6
Tibet, Productions of 3
Tibet, the Marches of Chinese 1
Tillemont-Thomason, F.E., C.E.—
Recent Great Earthquakes 102
Trade between Western China and
Tibet 4
Trade of Tachienlu 21
Trebizond and its Trade 47
Tung Ling Shan, capital of Wassu
14, 18
Turco-Persian Frontier 55
Turkish Armenia 45
U
Udaipur, State and City 108
Ula, or transport service in Tibet 4
Uparkot, an Ancient Fort at
Junagadh 121
Universities and Geography 146
V
Van Artevelde in Flanders 136
Variscan-Armorican System, Bel-
gium 125
Varzahan and its Ruins 50
Verviers, Woollen Mills of 127
Village, Typical Persian 63
Vimala Sah Temple 120
W
Waimangu Geyser and its Short
Life 32
Wainwright, Joel, J. P., Remarks
at Annual Meeting 98
Ward, Wm. H.— To and Over the
Simplon 163
War in the West, Strategy of ... 161
Wassu State and People 18
Waterhouse, Gilbert, M.A., F.R.G.S.
— Tramps in Tyrol 159
Welldon, Rt. R^ev. Bishop, Remarks
at Annual Meeting 97
Wells, Samuel, F.R.G.S.— Poland... 160
Williams, Arnold, A.C.A. — Belgium,
the Land of Art 130, 163
Wilmore, Dr. A., F.G.S.— Belgium
125, 158
Wilmore, Dr. A., F.G.S.— Rhine
and the Rhineland 103
Wingless Birds of New Zealand... 39
Work of the Geographer 145
Women of Chinese Tibet 14
Woollen Mills of Verviers 127
Y
Yezides, Nomads found in Armenia 53
Ypres 136
Z
Zayul Valley, Tibet 3
Zimmem, F., F.R.G.S., Remarks at
Annual Meeting 97
CDe Journal
OF THE
mancbester Geosrapbical Societp.
THE MARCHES OF CHINESE TIBET.
By Thos. M. Ainscough, M.Com., F.R.G.S.
(Addressed to the Society in the Geographical Hall, on
Tuesday, February 24th, 191 4.)
The study of frontiers and borderlands forms one of the most
attractive and enlightening subjects in the whole field of
geographical research. Lord Curzon in his celebrated
Romanes lecture at Oxford said : " Frontiers are the razor's
edge on which hang suspended the modern issues of peace
or war, of life or death to nations." I propose to-night to
deal with one of the most complex and involved frontier
questions in the whole of Asia — with a land interesting, not
only on account of its wonderful physical configuration, but
mainly on account of the manners and customs of its many
and varied tribes, and the vital political issues which are being
fought out at the present moment on its bleak, treeless
plateaux.
A good deal of misconception prevails with regard to
Tibet. Tibet may be said to be little more than a geographical
expression. With the exception of the rich and fertile valley
of the Tsangpo, and the regions in the immediate vicinity of
Lhasa, which form Tibet proper, the country may be described
as a vast agglomeration of semi-independent and nomadic
tribes, united only in acknowledging the spiritual supremacy
of the Dalai Lama at Lhasa, and recognising in a general way
the vague and shadowy suzerainty of China. ^
It is practically impossible to define the political boundary
between Tibet and China on the east. The whole question is
being threshed out at a conference which has been sitting at
Simla during the last few months between the Longchen
Shatra, or Prime Minister of Tibet, and an Envoy of the
Vol. XXX. Parts I. and II., 19 14.
2 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
Chinese Government, the negotiations being held under the
auspices of the government • of India. The Chinese claim
absolute sovereignty as far as Chiamdo and the line of the
Mekong. The true frontier of Tibet, however, lies some 500
miles to the eastward, and extends almost due north and south
from Sungpau along the banks of the Min to Kuanhsien, and
then through Yachow and the Chien Ch'ang valley to the
Yangtse. Along this line the rounded hills of the red basin
of Szechuen province are left behind, and the traveller sees
before him a mighty buttress of snow peaks, which seem to
keep watch and ward over the plateaux beyond.
To the west of this boundary the inhabitants of the bleak
inhospitable uplands are tribes of Tibetan origin steeped in
Lamaism and in that esoteric Bon cult which is the survival
of the ancient nature worship of Tibet, the Chinese being
confined to the high roads and a few trading centres and
mihtary depots such as Tachienlu, Mengkung and Li Fan
Ting.
It is this vast stretch of country extending from the true
frontier of Tibet at Tachienlu westwards for some 500 miles
to the upper reaches of the Mekong at Chiamdo, which is
known as the Marches of Chinese Tibet, the Marches of the
Mantze. or more frequently as the tribes country. (See Fig. i.)
In the east the country consists of wind-swept treeless
plateaux from 12,000 to 14,000 feet above sea level, surrounded
by high ranges with an elevation of from 17,000 to 20,000 feet,
but as one proceeds westwards one encounters a series of
stupendous mountain ranges, separated by narrow valleys,
well forested in the lower parts with all the higher peaks
extending above the snowline, while on the confines of Tibet
proper we find one of the most remarkable features in Asiatic
orography.
To the east of where the Brahmaputra, after pursuing its
placid eastward course through the heart of Tibet, plunges
southward through the mountain barrier in a series of rapids
before it reaches the plains of Assam at Sadiya — to the east-
ward of this bend we find a containing mountain chain,
distinct and apart from the Himalayan system, rounding off
the heads of shelving valleys which slope westwards to the
Brahmaputra, and dominating a series of enormous parallel
mountain folds, which enclose between their successive crests
The Marches of Chinese Tibet 3
the deep troughs of some of the greatest rivers in Asia. So
close set are the successive ridges and ranges which part the
Salwin from the Mekong and the Mekong from the Yangtse,
that, at a point level with the head of the Assam valley, one
hundred miles would bridge them all and would also include
the Nmai Kha — the source of the Irawadi. It is this region of
eastern Tibet which contains the greatest present wealth and
the greatest promise for the future. Travellers leaving the
cold altitudes of the Chang Tang behind them and descending
gradually through the long narrow valleys to the Chinese
frontier, are never weary of recounting the delightful change
of climate and scenery which they encounter. There are
magnificent forest-covered slopes beneath the snow-clad crests
of the main ridges ; there are numbers of w^ell-watered, well-
cultivated and well-populated valleys hidden away amongst
the folds of the main chains. The larger and better known
valleys such as Derge on the Dre Chu or Upper Yangtse or
Chiamdo on the Nam Chu or Upper Mekong, are populous,
prosperous and priest-ridden, while the lesser known valleys
such as Poyul and Zayul are great centres of Tibetan art and
industry. The whole region is full of unexploited mineral
wealth. Gold is washed in the bed of the Upper Yangtse,
while silver, mercury, iron, copper and lead are found through-
out the region. There is one great drawback, however, to the
development of this country, and that is the lack of good
communications. The piling up of a succession of mountain
chains and river valleys bearing north and south entails for all
routes running east and west the constant crossing of one
divide after another. The road through the Marches is only
once — and that in the valley of the Yalung — below 12,500
feet, while twelve passes, not one of which is under 14,500 feet,
must be crossed. Despite these great physical obstacles the
country is traversed by one of the most celebrated roads in all
Asia, and certainly the most elevated trade route in the world.
This is the great '' Junglam," or official highway, from Lhasa
to China. It is the most important of all the routes connect-
ing Lhasa with the outside world, and is that by which Tibet
has been conquered by China on successive occasions. It
must be remembered that while the gates of Tibet have always
been jealously guarded against European advance from the
west and south, and the wild, bleak steppes of the Chang Tang
have effectually hindered trade development from the north,
4 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
there has always been a steady intercourse carried on with the
western provinces of China, and practically the whole of this
trade flows through the marches to the frontier town of
Tachienlu. The distance between Tachienlu and Lhasa is
roughly i,ooo miles, and the journey occupies two months.
Leaving Tachienlu the road strikes westward over the Jedo
Pass and across the Kaji La to the Yalung at Ho K'ou. Here
a new steel suspension bridge has recently been constructed
by French engineers to the orders of the Chinese Government
and replaces the old method of crossing the river by raft.
Three more passes of over 14,000 feet bring us to Litang with
its Lamasery and Palace, and after a further five days of
strenuous climbing the traveller arrives at Batang on the
Upper Yangtse. From Batang the road strikes through the
country of the Draya nomads to Chiamdo, and thence over a
series of tremendous passes, reaching 18,000 feet in altitude,
and not one of them falling below the height of Mont Blanc,
finally descends to Shobando, from whence the remainder of
the journey to Lhasa is comparatively easy. Along this road
every three years the two Ambans, or Chinese High Commis-
sioners, proceed to Lhasa with an enormous train of officials,
soldiers and couriers, themselves returning three years later
with all the spoils collected during their term of office. To
travel along the Junglam is to realise what a prodigious task
the administration of Tibet really is. The changing of
officials and the upkeep of the garrison in Lhasa means a
constant stream of ingoing and outgoing Yamen runners,
soldiers, couriers, and tribute-bearers connected with the
Tibetan administration, and the problem of their sustenance
and transport is one of the greatest grievances among the
peoples of the Marches. The method employed by the
Chinese is known as '' Ula.*' Ula is a species of socage
service rendered to princes, government officials, and priests.
By this system, in return for a grant of lands adjacent to the
highways, the native tenants are obliged to provide means of
transport from one stage to another. The control of the
system is in the hands of the native chiefs, who form settle-
ments at convenient places along the main roads, where a fixed
number of animals are kept for the transport service. The
nature of the Ula varies in different districts, but the transport
is usually effected by mules, horses, cattle or yak. The system
has been greatly abused by both Chinese and Tibetan officials,
The Marches of Chinese Tibet 5
and it has afforded an opportunity for squeezes which the
avaricious Lama has not failed to turn to his own profit. The
result is that in the region between Tachienlu and Batang,
families are constantly migrating to less public districts away
from the main roads in order to escape the exactions of Ula.
In order to accommodate travellers, solid stone rest houses
have now been erected at the end of each day's march, and a
regular service of postal couriers has been inaugurated between
Chengtu and Lhasa, while the telegraph line has been
extended as far as Batang.
One of the main points of interest, however, connected
with the Junglam is that it is over this most remarkable moun-
tain road that the Chinese armies have constantly passed to
the conquest of Tibet. There is certainly no military route
in the world to compare with it for altitude. The retreat of
the Greeks under Xenophon from Persia, the advance of
Alexander to India over the northern passes, and his subse-
quent retreat from India through the Makran defiles are all
marvellous records surpassing those of modern times, but they
will not bear examination when compared with the crossing
of these awful passes and gorges of Eastern Tibet by succes-
sive Chinese armies. There is, however, one of these expedi-
tions which must rank for all time as one of the greatest of
military achievements, and as it is of special interest as illus-
trating the military possibilities of the eastern and most direct
route between Lhasa and Peking, a brief reference will not be
out of place here.
In 1792, during the reign of the great Manchu Emperor
Ch'ien Lung, the Gurkhas of Nepal inspired by the lust of
loot invaded Tibet. An expedition numbering 18,000 men
crossed the Kuti pass and advanced with great rapidity on
Shigatse. They captured the city and looted the palace. The
cowardly Tibetans fled in a panic. The infant Tashi Lama
was carried off to Lhasa, and Chinese assistance was at once
invoked to repel the invasion. Then followed one of the most
remarkable retributions that the world has ever seen. Over
the gigantic mountains and snowbound passes of Eastern
Tibet a force of no less than 70,000 Chinese was led in two
columns by General Sand Fo into the elevated regions of the
plateau. The Gurkhas rapidly retreated to a position near
their frontier called Tengri Maidan. Here the first battle was
fought and they were completely defeated. The Kuti post
6 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
was captured after a second fight, and the Chinese advanced
by way of Kirong to Khatmandu, the capital of Nepal. The
Chinese artillery consisted of light field guns made of leather,
which fired a few rounds and then burst. The Gurkhas had
no guns, and they made their last stand on the river banks at
Tadi, about twenty miles from Khatmandu.
To appreciate the position it must be remembered that this
unwieldy force of 70,000 Chinese had marched across one
of the most difficult mountain districts in the world for 800
miles from their own frontier before reaching Lhasa. They
had then advanced at least another 400 miles over uplands at
elevations which were never less than 10,000 feet, involving
the passage of many passes higher than Mont Blanc before
meeting the enemy. Practically they were without artillery
and they had in front of them the most tenacious and most
valiant foe that ever stood up to fight in Asia — a foe, too, that
was flushed with recent success. It is true that the strength
of the Chinese at starting may be reckoned to be vastly greater
than that of the Gurkhas in the field against them, and it is
improbable that they dispersed that strength by holding
positions on the line of advance. But they must have lost
numbers in the passes of the mountains which barred their
progress through that 1,200 miles of route from their frontier
(2,000 miles at least from the populated district of China), and
it could have been little more than an advance guard that faced
the Gurkhas on the river at Tadi. The Gurkhas on the other
hand in falling back on their base, were consolidating their
strength from day to day, and as they turned with their backs
to the river (Hke terriers against a wall), they were fighting
for their women and their homes behind them, and they knew
well what defeat would mean. The Chinese wavered. They
w^ere massed in front of the Gurkhas, who were between them
and Khatmandu, and they were terribly spent with the length
and the trials of that long march in the thin atmosphere of
the Tibetan highlands. There seemed a chance that the
attack would fail at the critical moment. It is under such
circumstances as these that great generals prove their right
and title to the confidence which their country has bestowed
upon them. Sand Fo was a great general and he rose to the
occasion. He turned his leather guns on to the rear of his
own wavering troops and drove them and the Gurkhas in
front of them in one comprehensive sweep into the river. The
The Marches of Chinese Tibet 7
Chinese trampled over friend and foe alike, and they speedily-
sacked Khatmandu. Oriental methods of treating the van-
quished are usually distinguished by deeds of the most
ingenious and repulsive barbarity. Even the Gurkha of
to-day is not gentle with a foe. But ingenious as he is in his
methods of savage reprisal he is probably more than equalled
by the Chinaman. Khatmandu has never forgotten the
lesson that was learnt at that blood-stained time. Every five
years a deputation proceeds from Nepal through Lhasa to
Peking, and there oifers tribute at the foot of the Chinese
throne.
Such at least is the story as culled from the lips of an
ancient Gurkha official by Mr. Brian Hodgson, and retold by
Sir Clements Markham in his '^ Tibet." As Sir Thomas
Holdich aptly states : " There may be other ways of account-
ing for the defeat of the valiant Gurkha than those narrated
by this ancient Gurkha warrior, but the fact remains as a
marvellous record of Chinese persistency that Nepal was
utterly subjugated by the Chinese at a distance of some 2,000
miles (stretching across a solid barrier of mountains) from
their base. It is a useful commentary, first on the usual state-
ments of Tibetan accessibility, and secondly on the usual
criticisms applied to the Chinese soldier.
The Marches of Chinese Tibet are peopled by a number
of independent and semi-independent tribes, whose origin and
early history is still to a large extent veiled in obscurity,
presenting problems of the greatest ethnological interest.
They may be divided into two distinct groups : — The indepen-
dent Tibetan states to the west, and the tributary Mantze and
Chiarung tribes inhabiting the uplands on the eastern border.
The western states include the kingdoms of Derg6,
Chantui and Sanai, and the territory inhabited by the Draya
nomads. The states are virtually independent and even
hostile towards China, and are directly controlled by the
Dalai Lama and his Council. The people are indistinguish-
able from those inhabiting anterior Tibet generally. In the
north, along the upper waters of the Dre Chu or Yangtse, are
numerous pastoral tribes, which in 1732 were organised by the
Chinese Government into thirty-nine hundreds each under a
Deba or chieftain. These tribes comprise the Khampa, but
the name is generally applied by western Tibetans to all the
people of Kham or anterior Tibet. The Khampa, the most
8 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
dreaded warriors of the Tibetan army, are fine horsemen, tall
and athletic hut quarrelsome and untrustworthy. They
usually belong to the G61upa or orthodox sect of Lamaism,
but in Derg6 the Nyingpa, or red cap Lamas, are more
numerous and influential. In the pastoral regions to the
north polyandry prevails, while in the agricultural districts
to the south of Jyekundo monogamy is the rule, and polygamy
is met with among the richer classes. In Tibetan countries
the distinction between lowlands and highlands, ploughland
and pasture, is most marked, and it is a general rule that
polygamy obtains in the valley while polyandry prevails in
the uplands. In the valley farms the work is lighter and
more suitable for women, but the rough life and hard fare of
a shepherd on pastures 13,000 feet or more above sea level is
too severe for the sex. The two systems, working side by
side, seem to mutually compensate the evils of each, but it
is a somewhat singular fact that the conduct of courtship and
matrimony should be regulated by the barometrical pressure.
Temporary marriages are, however, recognised throughout
the tribes country, and are not considered immoral — in fact
the matrimonial relations existing throughout all Eastern
Tibet are little removed from promiscuity. Family names
are unknown, and children are spoken of as of such and such
a woman. The father's name is hardly ever mentioned. This
country is almost a terra incognita to Europeans beyond the
limits of the '' Changlam," or Great North Road, which
passes through it. This trade highway strikes to the north-
west at Tachienlu and follows up a succession of valleys
through Romei Chango, Dawo, and Kanze until it finally
drops into the Dre Chu valley at Derge, where the best
saddlery, guns, and swords in all Tibet are made. From here
it passes northward to Jyekundo, and then strikes almost due
west across the Chang Tang highlands for three hundred
miles till it reaches the great pilgrim route connecting the
Kuku Lor with Lhasa. On account of the easy gradients,
most of the brick tea and other articles of trade with China
pass along this highway. The Changlam is essentially the
trade route to Lhasa, just as the Junglam is the official or
Mandarin road. Very few European explorers have pene-
trated this north-western portion of the Marches. Both
Rockhill and Bower, after being turned away from Lhasa,
were forced to return to China by this route. It was near
XheMarchesof Chinese Tibet 9
Jyekundo that the ill-fated French traveller Dutreuil de Rhins
was murdered in 1894, and of late years these valleys have
received considerable attention from Captain Kozlor and other
Russian explorers, who have proved that there is no great
difficulty in reaching them from the Kuku Lor and Mongolia.
With a firm pied a terre at Urga, Russia now practically
controls Mongolia, and dominates the Kuku Lor region of
northern Tibet. It is but a step southward down the long
curving valleys of the Yangtse or Mekong to the rich and
populous Tibetan centres of Poyul and Zayul, while beyond
these lie the Brahmaputra basin, Assam, and the plains of
India. The tireless activity of Russia in Mongolia and N.E.
Tibet, together with recent Chinese pressure upon the fron-
tiers of Assam and Upper Burma has necessitated a complete
revision of Indian frontier policy. The storm centre has, in
fact, shifted from the north-west to the north-east. That the
Indian Government has been fully aware of this fact for some
time was shown by the change in status of Assam by decree
at the last Durbar, a change which foreshadowed the early
formation of a North-East Frontier Province on the lines of
that province, which has been so ably administered for many
years on the north-west border. In 191 1 we saw the Abor
expedition with the Miri and Mishmi political missions
extending our knowledge of the country beyond the Assam
border. This last spring has witnessed the advance of
exploring columns from Myitkyina in Upper Burma up the
headwaters of the Irawadi almost to its source, and the creation
of a new Deputy-Commissionership to administer the wild
region to the north of Myitkyina and lying between that
station and Assam. In this way the Hukong valley and the
scattered Shan villages about the head-streams of the Irawadi
have been taken under British administration, and the whole
region placed in charge of one of the ablest frontier officers
that the government of Burma has in its service.
Before leaving this corner of Asia I should like to mention
the great achievement of Captain Bailey of the Indian Army ;
who, accompanied by Captain Morshead, set out some months
ago from Sadiya in Assam to discover whether the Tsangpo
of Tibet is in fact the Brahmaputra of Assam. After a most
arduous journey through terribly involved Abor country.
Captain Bailey established beyond all question the fact that
the Tsangpo, the Dihang, and the Brahmaputra are one and
lo Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
the same stream. He also satisfied himself that the reports of
the Indian pundit Kinthup, and the information given to
Colonel Waddell with regard to a series of great Falls are
very much exaggerated. To quote Captain Bailey's own
words: — "The river nearly the whole way from Gyala is a
foaming rapid. At Kinthup's Falls the rapid develops into
a Fall of about thirty feet; here rainbows were seen." Again,
referring to the river lower down, he writes : — " We met a
great many people who had seen this part of the river, all of
whom agreed that there was nothing in the way of Falls on
it, though at the confluence of the rivers at Gompo Ne there
are remarkable rapids and whirlpools." I quote these words
in extenso because they refer to the solution of a problem
which has engaged the minds of geographers for the past cen-
tury. It was a problem which I had hoped to solve myself
in the course of my journey last year, but I was obliged to
alter all my plans and route, and finally reached the head-
waters of the Irawadi instead of the basin of the Brahmaputra
as originally planned.
We will now consider the agglomeration of semi-indepen-
dent and tributary tribes lying to the east of the Sino-Tibetan
borderland, who are collectively spoken of by the Chinese as
the Chiarung States, the tribesmen being 'known as Mantzu,
Sifan, or occassionally as Kon Sifan — adulterous Sifan, on
account of their low standard of morality. It is among these
tribes that I was privileged to make two journeys in the spring
of last year, but before giving you an account of my travels,
I will first describe a few of the points of interest connected
with these peoples.
The Chiarung States are eighteen in number, and cover the
mountainous stretch of country from the line of the Min river
westwards to the valley of the Tachin or Great Gold river.
This territory seems to have puzzled geographers ; and, as a
rule, the states are either not marked on the map or else their
relative positions are incorrectly given. As a matter of fact
all these states are independent, their rulers being thorough-
going despots, who seldom, if ever, pay any attention to
China's claims of suzerainty. They wage inter-tribal wars
without either asking China's permission or invoking her aid.
They are not — as is the case with feudal states — bound to
render China military service, and as a rule there are no
Chinese permanently settled in the territory. The origin of
The Marches of Chinese Tibet ii
the Mantzu is veiled in obscurity, but from scraps of history
I have been able to pick up from the people themselves, there
seems little doubt that they are descended from emigrants
from Ngari near Khamba Zong in Western Tibet, who came
over either with Genghis Khan or his son Ogotai at the
commencement of the thirteenth century to help the Chinese
to subdue the warlike tribes of the upper Min river. As a
reward for these military services they were given the land
they occupy to-day. Hereditary titles were conferred on the
Chiefs or '' T'ussu," who were left in control of these moun-
tainous regions if only they would check the raids of the
aborigines, and render tribute to the Chinese Government as
an acknowledgment of China's sovereign right over the
country. The Chinese character Mantzu means '' One who
cannot be overcome," but this has now been altered to the
character signifying "barbarous, unruly," which is con-
temptuously used by the Chinese and is much resented by the
tribesmen.
The Chiarung are essentially agriculturists cultivating
with skill crops of wheat, barley, buckwheat, maize, and mis-
cellaneous vegetables. Sheep, cattle, ponies and goats are
kept by the more wealthy, the ponies being sold to Chinese
traders, but the wool is woven into cloth for their own use.
Like the western Tibetans, they live largely on milk, butter,
and meat. They are skilled gunsmiths and swordsmiths, and
in the state of Somo are manufactured most of the gunbarrels
in use throughout Eastern Tibet. Among the Chinese they
have a great reputation for building embankments, and other
irrigation works, and all the wells on the Chengtu plain are
sunk and kept in repair by Chiarung tribesmen.
The Mantzu live in settlements of from fifty to a hundred
families, invariably perched like an eagle's aerie, crowning
some eminence on the steep mountain side. Each settlement
is dominated by one or more tall, chimney-like towers, some
sixty to eighty feet high, which resemble from a distance the
smokestack of some Lancashire factory. These towers serve
a double purpose — firstly as beacons in case of a sudden raid,
when a fire is kindled on the top and friendly villagers rush
to the aid of the inmates, and secondly as storehouses for
valuables and grain. The cattle are driven into the lower
storey and shut in by great heavy doors. In case of being
hard-pressed, the inhabitants take their stand around the tower
12 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
and finally retreat to the upper storeys, from whence stones
are flung on the enemy. They resemble in many respects the
Peel towers of Great Britain. It is also extremely likely that
these towers have some obscure connection with religious
matters, and in this respect they may have some remote affinity
with the pagodas of China and Burma.
The T'ussu or Chiefs always inter-marry within their own
circle. The son of a chief always marries the daughter of
another chief so that the hereditary rights may be passed on
from one generation to another. The chiefs are absolute
despots within their own boundaries, possessing the power of
life and death over their subjects. Although theoretically the
Chiarung States are tributary to China and under the nominal
jurisdiction of the Viceroy of Szechuen, practically they
acknowledge no obedience save that of fear, and their position
is to a certain extent analogous to that of the independent and
semi-independent states in India. In spiritual matters they
acknowledge the supremacy and direction of the Lama
hierarchy at Lhasa. Lamaism is all-powerful in the Chiarung
States, and appears in all three forms — the Gelupa, the
Nyingpa, and the Bonpa — the yellow, the red, and the black
systems.
The Gelupa, or yellow-capped sect, is the state religion of
Tibet founded by the great reformer Tsongkapa in the four-
teenth century. It owns as its head the pontiffs of Lhasa
and Tashilunpo, usually known as the Dalai Lama and the
Tashi Lama, and is first in importance and numbers through-
out all Tibet. The inhabitants of the Marches, are bound by
the strongest ties of race, instincts, education, and religion to
Lhasa. It is their holy city, and to it all Lamas who wish
to exert any influence at all must go for study, as all appoint-
ments to official posts in the Church are made by Lhasa.
The Nyingpa, or Red Lamas, are regarded as unorthodox,
but except that their ritual is not so elaborate as that of the
G61upa, their temples and religious symbols differ little from
those of the Established Church. The priests are allowed to
marry and are therefore objects of scorn to their orthodox
brethren. The temples of red Lamaism are few and far
between in the tribes country, but in the state of Derge they
are the most numerous.
Lastly we come to the mysterious Bonpa, or black sect
of Lamaism, which exerts an enormous influence throughout
T. M, A.
Fig. 1. The River Yaluiig (an unmapped portion).
r. M. A,
Fig. 2. Bamboo Suspension Bridge at Kuanhsien.
The Marches of Chinese Tibet 13
the Marches, and whose phalHc tendencies are largely account-
able for the low state of morality in certain regions. The
Bon creed is really a branch of Shamanism, and is the survival
of the old nature worship of Tibet, which probably underlies
most of the religious systems of the East. The greatest
prominence is given to the procreative force in nature, the
idols usually representing giants and demons with their female
energies. This is most interesting in view of the Tibetan
conception of the origin of the race. The Tibetans claim as
their first parent a monkey, which crossed the Himalayas and
there married a she-devil of the mountains. The young
progeny of apes ate some magical grain given to them by the
Compassionate Spirit of the Mountains (now incarnate in the
Dalai Lama), and wonderful were the results which happened.
Their tails and hair grew shorter and shorter and finally
disappeared. They began to speak — they were men ! and
noticing the change they clothed themselves with leaves.
Thus they account for their chief traits of character and
disposition — from their father's side they say they have
derived their love of piety, whilst from their mother (as can
only be expected) they have inherited their roughness, cruelty,
ferocity and deceit.
The Bon religion without doubt survives from pre-
Buddhist times, and is to be found in Lhasa itself in the form
of the oracles, wizards, and the black-hatted devil dancers who
are attached to the principal state Lamasery of Depung. In
the ritual, however, the Bonpa deliberately defy the orthodox
Lamas, and this strange and perverse feature must be due to
persecution in post-Buddhistic times. Prayer wheels and
cylinders are wilfully turned from left to right, sacred objects
and Chortens are passed with the left instead of the right side
turned towards the image. The Bonpa refuse to repeat the
mystic formula ''Om mani padme hung," which is continually
on the lips of every orthodox Lamaist throughout Asia, and
have substituted a mantra of their own. Sacred books are
read in the temples, which are the exact counterpart of the
chief Buddhist Sutras with each direction wilfully reversed.
The Bon temples differ entirely from those of the Gelupa and
Nyingpa. They are usually strikingly picturesque, and are
frequently built in places difficult of access, an atmosphere of
secrecy and mystery thus surrounds them which is probably
due to centuries of persecution at the hands of orthodox
14 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
Lamaists, yet notwithstanding this, Bonism retains a firmer
hold on the people of the Chiarung States than any other
religion. The principal symbol in use is the well-known
swastika, fylfot, or flying cross, which is known as Yung-
drung. A mystical bird — the Chiung or Garuda (resembling
a Chinese phoenix), is also regarded with great favour as an
emblem of fruitfulness. I was awarded the privilege of going
through the Bon temple attached to the chief's palace at Tung
Ling Shan, the capital of the state of Wassu, and here
obtained indisputable proofs of the phallic tendencies of the
worship. Aphrodisia is the one topic of all the representa-
tions in the temple at Tung Ling Shan. The most persistent
prominence is given to obscene Vidam groups which are not
only represented in the usual idol form, but also in frescoes
which literally cover the walls.
The effects of this esoteric cult of Bonism on the lives and
manners of the Chiarung tribesmen are most marked.Wher-
ever Bonism is most strongly intrenched, there the morality
of the people is at the lowest ebb. It seems extremely likely
that in mediaeval times the Chiarung States formed part of a
confederation known as the Nii Kuo, or matriarchal kingdoms.
The rulers appear to have been women, and inheritance of
power and property passed down in the female line. Relics
of this system are still to be found. The state of Damba is
still ruled by a woman, and females occasionally act as Chiefs
of Somo. In Badi-Bawang the matriarchal system is in full
force, and the present occupant of the throne is the descendant
of a long line of queens going back for some thirty genera-
tions. It is in Badi-Bawang' that Bonism is the recognised
state religion, and the ancient Bon form of marriage is still
in vogue.
The Mantzu women lead a strenuous life. They cultivate
the fields, tend the flocks, take the farm produce to market,
hew wood and carry water. The domestic duties of cooking,
mending clothes, washing, and housekeeping generally
devolve upon the men, yet the women are not unkindly
treated, and are far from being downtrodden. They are
usually short in stature (averaging about five feet), are sturdy
and buxom with dark olive complexions. When young they
are often good-looking, but once past the early twenties they
age rapidly, and the old women verge on the hideous. The
ordinary garb is a gown of grey homespun serge reaching to
The Marches of Chinese Tibet 15
just below the knee and bound around the waist with a scarf.
The legs and feet are usually bare. Their long black hair is
commonly parted down the middle, and hangs down the back
in a large plait. Bangles, earrings, and amulets, made of
silver inlaid with turquoise or coral, are invariably worn, while
the more wealthy women decorate themselves lavishly with
silver ornaments, and cover their heads with a piece of cloth
held down by the plait of hair, which is wound round and
decorated with silver and beads of coral and turquoise, the
lower part of the cloth hanging free over the back of the neck
and shoulders.
The men average about five feet seven inches in height.
The face is usually oval with pointed chin and straight nose,
sometimes almost aquiline. Their dress is the usual attire of
Eastern Tibet. A pelisse of undyed '' pulu " cloth of local
make or else of sheepskin gathered round the waist by a girdle
from which are suspended flint and steel, tobacco pouch, and
dirk. Round the neck is usually a leather cord from which
is hung over the chest a silver charm-box containing relics.
The legs are swathed in felt putties or else in leather boots
with cloth uppers extending to the knee. The headgear is
usually either a blue cloth turban, or else a pudding basin
shaped black felt hat.
Towards the end of March last year I found myself for the
first time on the borderland of Chinese Tibet, and it may
interest you to trace for a short time the course of my wander-
ings in the frontier regions. After a long journey across the
whole breadth of China, I had decided to come over to
Kuanhsien and attend the official opening of the barrage
which controls the irrigation for the rich Chengtu plain. We
had formed a party of three, the other members being the
British Consul-General at Chengtu, and Mr. W. N. Fergusson
of the British and Foreign Bible Society, one of the greatest
authorities on the Chiarung States and a born traveller and
observer. < The irrigation works at Kuanhsien are among the
most wonderful of Chinese engineering feats. A barrage is
built across the river Min at the spot where it gushes forth
from the mountains of the borderland, and a canal was cut
a thousand years ago which sub-divides into thousands of
channels and dykes, forming a network which efficiently
irrigates the whole of the Chengtu plain with its four millions
of people. (See Fig. 2.)
i6 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
We were sitting in the Taoist temple at Kuanhsien one
evening after a hard day's climbing. We had just heard the
news from native sources that a rising was imminent among
the Chiarung States, and that a coalition of all the tribes from
the Min to the Mekong had been formed, and a great upheaval
against Chinese suzerainty was on the eve of breaking out.
I at once decided to leave the following morning on 4 rapid
tour through the feudal states and Wassu in order to ascertain
whether this rumour was correct before proceeding on the
main journey westward to India. Mr. Fergusson very kindly
provided me with letters of introduction to King So of Wassu
and Colonel Kao, the Chinese Superintendent of the feudal
states, and the following morning I was away at daybreak
with one servant, a headman, and ten coolies.
Our immediate objective was the castle of Tung Ling
Shan, the seat of the Chiefs of Wassu and the capital of that
state, situated across the river Min two days' hard "journey
to the north. The road follows the banks of the Min the
whole way, now along a rock cornice one thousand feet above
the stream, now crossing a small affluent on an improvised
wooden bridge.
The gorge of the Min as seen in the early spring is per-
fectly glorious. High on either side the gaunt bare cliffs
rise almost sheer to a height of three thousand feet and then
gradually recede to the snow-clad summits. In March the
Min was a clear pure stream breaking over a succession of
boulders in foaming cataracts, but upon our return three weeks
later, the melting of the snows in the Tibetan hinterland had
begun, and the waters were already turbid and muddy. A
most striking feature is the number of logs which float down
with the stream. Hundreds of square logs about fifteen feet
long are marked and dropped into the river at Mao Chon, and
then float down on the current as far as Kuanhsien and even
Chiating, some two hundred miles away. The fall of the
river is twenty feet to the mile. Bands of men come down
and set the logs free from places where they pile up on the
banks, but each village usually attends to the logs piling up
on its shores. This practice is a very ancient one and the
logs are never stolen.
I entered the state of Wassu by the undignified expedient
of sliding down a rope, or rather I should say across a rope
bridge. These single rope bridges are found throughout the
Cs
T. M. A.
Fig. 3. The young Prince of Wassu and his Chinese Tutor.
T. M. A.
Fig. 4. The Lamaser^^ at Tsakulao.
The Marches of Chinese Tibet 17
Chiarung States. They differ entirely from any bridges
found in China proper, but are of similar designs to those in
constant use in Sikhim, Nepal, and Bhutan, and thus furnish
additional evidence of the affinity of these peoples. A hawser
made of three strands of bamboo and usually from eight
inches to a foot thick is stretched across a stream from cliff
to cliff, usually from a higher to a lower point. The ends of
the hawser are stretched over a wooden frame on each bank
and usually made fast to boulders. To cross the bridge one
is supplied with a length of strong hempen rope hanging free
from a circular runner of oak or some other tough wood. The
runner clips the cable, and the rope is fastened under and
around the legs and waist to form a cradle. When all is
properly secured, one grips the runner with both hands, gives
a slight spring or push-off with the feet, and then shoots away
down the rope at increasing speed. The momentum obtained
in the downward rush carries the passenger as far as the
bottom of the sag in the cable, which is usually three-quarters
of the way across, and the remainder of the distance has to
be covered by laboriously hauling-up, hand over hand.
Crossing these bridges is somewhat fearsome work to the
novice, and for a heavy man the hauling-up is exceedingly
laborious. The essentials are to keep a cool head and to see
that one's hands are clear of the cable, otherwise they would
be cut open by the terrific friction. The tribespeople, both
male and female, hardly ever use ropes. They simply throw
one arm over the runner and suspend from that. It is a
common sight to see men with loads and women with children
on their backs cross these bridges. Heavy loads and animals
are slung from the runners and hauled across by a rope.
The rivers of the tribal territory are not navigable in the
ordinary sense of the word, but on certain stretches of the
Tung river, and also on the Min, skin coracles are used, which
vie with the rope bridges for sheer, crude sensation and
excitement. I never was called upon to travel by coracle
during the course of my wanderings, but saw them in use on
the Min. The construction is exceedingly simple. A willow
framework in the form of a husfe basket is covered with a coat
of bullock hide, the seams of which are carefully sewn together
and coated with pine pitch. The structure when complete is
quite watertight and looks like a huge oyster shell some four
feet in diameter and three feet deep. The problem on these
i8 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
waterways is to have a craft which can stand the strain of the
fierce rapids and be steered with almost no sweep. It must
also be light enough to be carried to the starting point. The
coracle, weighing about 70 lbs., answers these purposes, but
by no means inspires the novice with confidence as to its
construction and mode of progress. Fergusson, who has used
the coracles on many occasions, describes one river crossing
as follows : ^
""AH hands huddle down in the bottom with their legs
curled up in a most uncomfortable position, and it is fatal to
move after the craft is shoved off. As for ourselves, we shot
upstream in the backwater until we struck the current, when
the coracle was sent swirling round and round in the vortex,
and bobbing like a cork on the waves. One moment we were
down in the trough with the feeling that we would surely be
engulfed ; the next, we were riding the crest of the waves, but
all the time being carried down stream at the rate of fifteen to
twenty miles an hour. Just below the landing stage the river
foamed over some boulders, and cut the shape of the letter S.
To a stranger it looked as though we must surely be carried
on to the boulders. But the ferryman, by means of his paddle,
steered and propelled the coracle forward in a wonderful way
and safely landed us."
As a novelty productive of excitement not unmixed with
danger these coracles and single rope bridges may, with
confidence, be recommended to '' World's Fair " promoters
and showmen generally.
But — to continue our journey. After reaching Wenchuan
and sending a special messenger up to the castle with my
card and letter of introduction, the Chief sent down word that,
although he was unwell and would not be able to look after
me himself, he would be glad if I would stay a few days with
him. The castle of Tung Ling Shan is some 2,000 feet above
the river Min and occupies a perfect strategic position. The
fastness itself is a settlement of some sixty families in the
centre of which is the palace of the king — the whole being
dominated by a tall watch tower. The houses are built of
stone and present a well-cared for appearance, but the streets
and alleys are indescribably dirty and evil-smelling. We
were hospitably received by the Chief's private secretary, a
Chinese, who also acts as tutor to King So's only son — a
bright youth of fourteen, who is also the heir to the neigh-
The Marches of Chinese Tibet 19
bouring Kingdom of Druckagi. Both King So and his son
speak fluent Chinese, and so we were able to converse freely.
The king himself was brought in to see me, being carried on
the back of a serving man, and looking very much pulled
down by fever and the effects of excessive opium smoking and
drinking. He is a man of 52 years of age and is the tw^enty-
eighth Chief of Wassu in a direct line of succession extending
back over 800 years. He is a great sportsman, and as the
mountains, forests, and ravines of his kingdom teem with wild
animals (among which may be counted such rare specimens
as the takin, seron, and goral) he has been occasionally visited
by European sportsmen on shooting expeditions. (See Fig
3.)
The state of Wassu is one of the wildest and most beautiful
of the Chiarung States, but is most sparsely peopled, and the
total population would not exceed 20,000. The state is
divided into twenty-eight *' Chai " or districts, each under a
headman, and they take it in turn to supply the personal
servants at the castle and also the men who till the king's
private lands. The religion of the people is Bonism, but the
presence of Chortens, mani mounds, and prayer flags indicate
the influence of orthodox Lamaism. The chief denied the
existence of an anti-Chinese league, but was open in his
contempt for the new republican authorities, describing the
new officials as children, having — as he put it in the vernacu-
lar— " neither reason nor a knowledge of custom." Under
the Manchu regime tribute was paid to Peking every twelve
years, and to the Viceroy at Chengtu every five years, but
since the revolution, these customs have been allowed to lapse.
The opium question, however, proved to be the main
grievance. Poppy cultivation has always been extensively
carried on in the tribes country, and the Chinese have, of late
years, made an effort to stop this without success. Since
Wassu is the nearest of the Chiarung states to Chengtu, the
chief has been pestered with Chinese spies and emissaries
seeking information with regard to opium. This is the more
annoying inasmuch as the poppy has never been extensively
grown in Wassu, the tribesmen not being sufficiently skilled
in slitting the pods and extracting the opium. #
We spent the remainder of the day in feasting and tea
drinking, and the chief placed the contents of his cellar at my
disposal. It was amusing to see the various bottles of cheap
20 Journal of -the Manchester Geographical Society
liqueurs, which had either been left by previous travellers or
else purchased in Chengtu, but as the labels betrayed names
which seemed strangely uncouth, I deemed it wiser to confine
mvself to the usual native spirit, distilled from maize, and to
the tea which is grown on the Kuanhsien foothills. After a
comfortable night spent in the official guest-room, I expressed
a wish to see the chief's private temple, and was taken round
by the young prince, who explained the significance of the
various phallic emblems with the greatest sang froid. The
head Lama is a cousin of the chief. This relationship between
Lamas and rulers is quite common. In the Tsakulao
Lamasery the principal Lamas are all relatives of native chiefs,
and the present king of Chala belongs to a family of Lamas.
(See Fig. 4.)
After a further long chat with the chief, a meal was served
at noon and he begged me to stay a few days longer, but it
was necessary that I should continue my journey in order to
reach Tachienlu in May, so we were obliged to leave. As the
bearers set down my chair and all was ready for departure, the
old chief was carried out to say good-bye. He asked me
which way I intended to travel on my long journey to India.
I said, '' Through Tachienlu and Batang." He put his hand
on my shoulder and said : '' What is the use of running into
danger unless it be in battle. Go by the main road, and do
not be like my old friend Po Lu Ke." (This refers to Mr. J.
W. Brooke, the daring explorer, who was murdered in the
independent Lolo country in 1908). I told him that it was
the custom of Englishmen to find out new roads. He replied,
*' I fear it will be with you as it was with Po Lu Ke, and I
don't want to lose my friends." He gave my men a lot of
food and presented me with a large pod of musk and a leopard
skin, and we retraced our steps down the hillside to the foam-
ing Min. I hope I may see him again. Despite his many
failings he is every inch a man.
About two months after the journey which has just been
described we found ourselves in the wonderful frontier town
of Tachienlu, the capital of the state of Chala, ^nd the starting
point of the great trade routes to Lhasa and ulterior Tibet.
Constituting, as it does, the gate into a corner of Tibet which
is by far the richest in cultivation, the best in climate, and the
most productive in mineral wealth, the importance of
Tachienlu cannot be overestimated. The town of Darchendo
T. M. A.
Fig. 5. Tacliieiilu from the vSouth,
T. M. A.
Fig. 6. The View to the vSouth from Tachienlu.
The Marches of Chinese Tibet 21
or Tachienlu lies at an elevation of 8,500 feet and is built, as
its name implies, at the confluence of the Dar and the Chen,
at the western end of a narrow valley, so narrow that for miles
together it has no floor but the path and the torrent, which —
after fifteen miles of cataracts — plunges into the Tung at
Wassu Kon. The town itself is hemmed in on all sides by
steep treeless mountains, whose grassy slopes lead up to peaks
clothed in eternal snow. Formerly Tachienlu occupied a site
about half a mile above the present town, but about one
hundred years ago it was totally destroyed by a landslip due
to a moving glacier, and earthquake shocks are frequently felt.
(See Figs. 5 and 6.)
Notwithstanding its great political and commercial impor-
tance, Tachienlu is a meanly built and filthy city. The houses
are usually of one storey and are built of wood resting on
foundations of shale rocks. Disastrous fires are of constant
occurrence^ when the whole town is gutted with the exception
of the few fine old stone Tibetan '' Gochuang," or Hongs.
The population consists of about 700 Tibetan families and 400
Chinese families, and with its floating members may be
reckoned at a total of 9,000 souls. Tachienlu may be said to
be impregnated with a nomadic atmosphere. It is one of
those wonderful frontier towns where one meets all the types
and hears all the dialects of Central Asia. Yak caravans from
the Horba states and even from Lhasa and the remote regions
of Western Tibet swing in daily over the Jedo pass and the
great north road bringing musk, wool, skins, deerhorns, gold
dust, and medicines for Chinese use, and taking back brick
tea and Chinese fancy articles. The annual trade through the
town reaches the total of Tls. 2,800,000 (nearly ;^40o,ooo), of
which brick tea alone accounts for ;^ 120,000 in value, and
amounts to the prodigious total of 11,400,000 pounds in
weight. Inasmuch as tea is perhaps the most important item
in the diet of the Tibetan, a few remarks concerning this
enormous trade may not be out of place.
The tea, which is exported in such tremendous quantities
from China to Tibet, consists almost entirely of the merest
refuse, which is grown in the district of Yachou in Western
Szechuen. I have seen it myself being taken into Yachou to
be packed, and at first thought it was fuel. It looks like
brushwood, and is, in fact, merely branches broken off the
trees and dried in the sun without any pretence at picking.
22 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
In Yachou it is taken to the Chinese factories and made up
into bricks for the ignorant Tibetan — as the Chinese call him.
It is no exaggeration to say that the tea of the Tibetan market
is ten times worse than the worst tea in China. The leaves
and twigs, already sun-dried, are steamed in a cloth suspended
over a boiler. The mould consists of four stout boards, inside
which is a neatly-woven mat basket, and the steamed and
softened leaves and twigs are dropped into it. A little rice
water is added to agglutinate the mass, which is then con-
solidated, layer after layer, by blows from a heavy iron-shod
rammer. The mould is afterwards taken to pieces, the cake
with its mat envelope is brought back to the fire, and when it
is thoroughly dried the ends are closed up and the long narrow
package is ready for transport to Tachienlu on the backs of
porters.
The coolie's burden is arranged on a light wooden frame-
work disposed along the whole of his back and rising in a
curve over his shoulders and high above his head, the struc-
ture being supported by a couple of coir strings, through
which his arms are passed. The great weights which can be
carried in this manner are incredible. On one occasion I
passed a man with as many as eighteen packages, each of
eighteen catties in weight^ — a total of over 400 pounds on his
back. The greatest burdens are carried not by the most
muscular men but by those of the straightest conformation.
Every few hundred yards or so a rest is taken, and as it would
be impossible for the carrier to raise his burden if it were
deposited on the ground, he carries a kind of short crutch,
which is slipped beneath as a support. Travelling six or
seven miles a day, and resting in wretched hovels of inns at
night, these porters toil with their prodigious loads over two
mountain passes, 7,000 feet above their starting place, along
an execrable road where every step of the way must be picked,
making the 120 miles from Yachou to Tachienlu in 20 days
or less, and receiving 250 to 300 Cash a day (approximately
5d.), only half the sum received by a good chair coolie.
Before leaving the question of the tea trade with Tibet, I
would like to refer to the ingenious attempts which have been
made to estimate the population by the amount of tea entering
the country. Fergusson, who is an authority on the subject,
has estimated the total quantity of tea annually consumed in
Tibet to be roughly 28^ million pounds. Allowing four
The Marches of Chinese Tibet 23
pounds of tea per person per annum, he arrives at a population
of 7,100,000 souls. This is obviously excessive. I would
incline to the opinion that an allowance of six pounds per
head should be made, although I am aware that the Tibetans
use a family pot and stew the tea until every ounce of tannin
is extracted. This is a very poor method of computing the
population of a country, but as there are no statistics available,
and the estimates of experts vary from one and a half millions
to eight millions, one is reduced to crude methods. The only
general census we have to guide us was one taken by the
Chinese in 1737 for the two provinces of U and Tsang only,
which gave a total of 316,000 Lamas and 636,000 laity.
Making a liberal allowance of over 500,000 people for the
province of Kham this only gives one and a half millions as
the total population of the country. There seems to be no
doubt whatever that the population is dwindling. The cause
of this decrease is chiefly the enormous tax of celibate Lamas,
which the present priestly government extracts from the
people — about one out of every two males ; and to a lesser
degree the practice of polyandry and promiscuity, decimating
epidemics of smallpox, and excessive infantile mortality. The
high death-rate among the infants is largely due to the rough,
exposed life led by the Tibetans, though excessive altitudes
have their effect, which has been proved by the distressing
experience of the Moravian missionaries in Ladak, where the
cemetery is filled with infant graves, few or no children having
survived their second year.
Tachienlu is a great religious centre, both the yellow and
red sects of Lamaism being represented. In and near the
town are as many as eight monasteries, while the symbols of
the Faith are everywhere apparent in the form of prayer-
wheels, prayer-flags flying from the roofs and the summits of
the hills, mani stones and cairns. Everywhere is kept revolv-
ing the mystic spell of '' Om mani padme hung." According
to the Lamaist creed the Dalai Lama at Lhasa is the reincarna-
tion of the most powerful of the early kings of Tibet — the
great Srongtsan Gampo, who in his turn was an earthly
incarnation of that compassionate spirit of the mountains,
who had given the early Tibetans the magical food which
transformed them from monkeys to men. This compassionate
spirit is identified with the most popular of the Bodhisattras —
namely Aralokita, the '' Lord of Mercy," who relinquished
24 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
his prospect of becoming a Buddha and passing into the
Nirvana of extinction, in order to remain in heaven and be
available to assist all men on earth who may call upon him to
deliver them from earthly danger, to help them to reach
paradise, and escape hell. All of these three great objects are
secured by the mere utterance of the spell of this Lord of
Mercy, namely ''Om mani padme hung," which means
'' Hail ! oh thou Jewel in the Lotus." It is not even necessary
to utter this spell to secure its efficacy. The mere looking at
it in its written form is of equal benefit. Hence the spell is
everywhere made to revolve before the eyes. It is twirled in
myriads of prayer-wheels, incised on stones in cairns or mani
mounds, carved on buildings, as well as uttered by every lip
throughout Tibet, Mongolia, Ladak, and the Himalayan
Buddhist states down to Bhutan, and from Baikal to Western
China. (See Fig. 7.)
Strictly speaking only the abbot of a monastery has the
right to be called a Lama, which means '' Superior One."
All the other inmates of monasteries are called Trapa or
students. The monastic life is open to all men or women who
are pure Tibetans or Mongols, with the exception of butchers,
who are regarded as outcastes. Meat is a staple diet with the
monks of Tibet excepting the few who have taken the higher
vows. The Lamas evade the Buddhist prohibition to take life
for this purpose by employing butchers to do it for them,
whilst they assign to the butchers for doing this the position
of outcastes. When no butchers are available it is usual for
the Lamaist to drive the cattle over a precipice or make the
beast strangle himself. Roughly speaking, one half the
population of Tibet are Lamas. In the villages and towns
most families contribute one member to the fraternity, and this
is often exceeded by two or three. Most orphans and nearly
all illegitimate offspring are sent to the Lamasery, while super-
fluous girls (due to polyandry) enter the nunneries. Under
these circumstances one can realise the force of the Tibetan
proverb : " Without a Lama in front, one cannot approach
God."
In Tibet proper the Lamaseries control the wholesale
commerce of the country, and the enormous tea trade with
China is also in priestly hands, although in buying an article
from a Chinese merchant the Lama has to deal with very
different mettle to what he would encounter in a bargain with
T. M. A.
Fig. 7. A Water-driven Prayer Cj'linder at Tachienlu.
T. M. A
Fig. 8. The State of Kanpo.
The Marches of Chinese Tibet 25
one of his own unsophisticated countrymen. I would
shrewdly suspect that the honours in the tea trade rest with
the Chinese.
During- my stay in Tachienlu I called on the king of
Chala at his castle of Se To, and obtained an interesting
insight into New China's methods of dealing with subject
chiefs. The Ming Cheng T'u Ssu, or "" Clear bright Ruler'*
as he is known in the vernacular, is a pleasant-mannered
gentleman of forty-five years of age, and is the twenty-fifth of
his line to sit upon the throne of Chala. He does not seem to
possess the ability, and certainly has not the regal bearing
which characterised King So of Wassu. I am told that the
principal hobbies of the Chala chief are mending clocks and
extracting teeth. His prowess with the forceps is well known
throughout his kingdom. He received me very kindly and
offered us tsamba and buttered tea. The tea is really quite a
warming and refreshing beverage if one only entirely rejects
the idea of tea from one's mind, and imagines that one is
drinking soup. The tea was offered in a silver-lined bowl,
and a plate of tsamba or parched barley meal was placed
before us. The correct procedure is to drink the tea until
there is just a little left at the bottom of the bowl, then add a
lump of butter and several spoonsful of tsamba, and work the
whole into a paste with four fingers of the right hand, keeping
the thumb clear ; then break a piece off, roll it into a ball in the
palm of the hand, and eat it, finally washing all down with a
draught of tea. Tsamba is quite good as a rule, it is the
sourness of the yak butter, which spoils the flavour of every-
thing it touches.
The Chief had a horse brought round and we rode out
together to his summer palace at Yii Lin Kung, twelve miles
to the south of Tachienlu, where we spent the day inspecting
his flocks, bathing in a hot natural sulphur spring, and dis-
cussing the past, present and future of Chinese Tibet. The
Chief has been shamefully treated by the Chinese officials.
Much of his temporal power had been appropriated by the
Chinese during H.E. Chao Erh-Feng's regime, but now all
the state revenues have been taken over, his brother has been
executed on a trumped-up charge of treason, and even some
of his private lands and cattle have been confiscated. As a
sop to his injured feelings the Chinese Governor of the
Marches has presented him with medals, uniform, a sword,
26 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
and a pension of 200 Taels a month. Although most of the
other Chiefs in the Marches have been placed on the pension
list, this is the only case where their personal property has
not been respected, and it is the more unjust inasmuch as the
help and co-operation of the Chala T'ussu have been essential
to the Chinese advance. Since I returned to England I have
received news that the king disappeared the very night last
August on which the Chinese Governor of the Marches
entered Tachienlu. His whereabouts are unknown, but he is
believed to have fled westward to join the revolted tribes.
If the true history of this first Chinese republican expedi-
tion is ever published, it will provide an amazing record of
inefficiency and incompetence. Although the men are better
armed and equipped than the frontier guards of the last
expedition, as a fighting force they cannot be compared with
the old troops, whose discipline was excellent, and who are
still feared throughout all Tibet. Although glowing accounts
have been written of Chinese successes in the field, there is no
doubt whatever that, had there been the merest semblance of
cohesion among the revolted Tibetans, the expeditionary force
would have been driven out of the country beyond Tachienlu.
The fighting has never been other than guerilla warfare.
There is not the slightest doubt that a division of northern
troops could have crushed the rebellion a year ago. Should,
however, the present peace conference prove abortive, it is
doubtful whether even the whole Chinese army could hold the
borderland in face of the open hostility of Lhasa.
The future lies in the hands of the peace delegates now
sitting in conference at Simla, upon whom the task has
devolved of demarcating for all time the political frontier
between China and Tibet. We can only hope — and after all
the consideration and kindness I have received at the hands
of the Tibetans I sincerely do hope — that the results of their
deliberations will be to the benefit and the amelioration of the
conditions of life of the tribesmen of Chinese Tibet.
*' Personal Experiences in New Zealand " 27
" PERSONAL EXPERIENCES AMONG MAORIS
AND MOUNTAINS IN NEW ZEALAND."
By Mrs. Edward Melland.
(Addressed to the Society in the Geographical Hall on
Tuesday, February lyth, 1914.)
The Maoris of New Zealand are acknowledged to be the
finest and most intelligent of what we call savages yet dis-
covered in the world. It is true they were cannibals about
eighty years ago, eating their enemies, more as a matter of
custom than as food, in order to acquire the courage and skill
of the deceased. But very quickly they adapted themselves
to circumstances after the white people came to settle in the
land. They took to European clothes, afterwards some became
members of Parliament, and now we have Maori lawyers,
doctors, schoolmasters, editors of newspapers, and so on.
They take a real interest in the welfare of their own people,
who they at last realise are in danger of dying out from
disease, ignorance, neglect, and the insanitary state of some
of their villages. They are, as a rule, of a cheerful, happy
disposition, with a keen sense of humour, intensely fond of
sport of all kinds, and distinctly interesting and attractive
as a race.
The Maoris came to New Zealand somewhere about six
hundred years ago, for they were really the first colonists.
They used to arrive in large numbers from Raratonga, and
some other Polynesian islands, in their old double canoes
(two lashed together), travelling about 2,000 miles of lonely
ocean, steering by the stars, until they arrived at New Zealand
nearly starved to death. When they first sighted the country
they took it to be a cloud, so ever afterwards called it
*' Ao-tea-Roa," meaning '' The Long White Cloud." The
coming of the white man to New Zealand in any considerable
numbers did not take place until a very much more recent
date, and it is just about 73 years since England took the
country for her own. During the pioneer days which
followed, the voyage from the old to the new country was
still a very serious business — being undertaken entirely by
small sailing vessels, in one of which, years afterwards, I was
28 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
taken out as a tiny child. Our family party consisted of the
parents, ten brothers and sisters, some servants, and — a cow !
The cow must not be forgotten, because the food and drink
part of the business was a difficult matter in those early days,
especially where so many young children were concerned,
and considering the voyage might occupy anything from three
to six months. There was no such thing as condensed milk
or tinned meats or fish, or food of that sort, neither had it
been discovered that it was possible to make fresh water out
of sea water. So, besides live sheep, pigs, and fowls, many
of which succumbed to bad weather, the captain had to
calculate how many tanks full of water he would have to take
on board at the London docks for all his passengers and crew.
Although first-class passengers, we were obliged to completely
furnish all our cabins, including candles, soap, etc., etc.
Previous to the annexation, when the white people began
to come and live in the country, the chief occupation of the
Maoris was fighting against neighbouring tribes. At the
close of a battle any chiefs taken prisoners would have their
heads cut off, and after they had been dried they would be
stuck up on poles round the fortification, while their bodies
would be eaten. The accompanying illustration (Fig. i) gives
a good idea of the tattoo marks on one of these heads. It is
from a fine drawing in my possession, done by Major-General
Robley, who was out in New Zealand in the early days, and
is the first authority on tattooing. He has written a book
on the subject, beautifully illustrated by himself, and also at
one time possessed the largest collection of these dried tattooed
heads.
Only the very upper class Maoris, the aristocrats, were
permitted to have themselves beautifully decorated like this :
it was a sign of high birth. Tattooing was a very painful
operation as performed in those early days, and occupied
weeks, and months when the body was done as well as the
face. The instruments used were sharp chisels made of bone
or stone (they had no metal), and into the little bleeding
trenches thus made in the flesh they rubbed a vegetable pig-
ment to give the blue colour. These chiefs' heads were left
sticking round the fortifications as trophies of victory. When
the old whalers and stray white traders began to visit the
shores of New Zealand they took a fancy to the dried heads
and exchanged tomahawks, nails, rifles, or scrap iron for
Fig. I. Tattooed Head of Maori Chief.
Fig. 2. Cooking Pond, Whakarewarevva, Hot Lakes District,
*' Personal Experiences in New Zealand " 29
them. The white men knew very well collectors in England
would give as much as ;^i8 apiece for them, so a brisk trade
in these heads set in, and chiefs began to tattoo their slaves
in order to sell their heads. But the missionaries called in
the help of a Governor of Australia, and the whole thing was
put down.
About the middle of the North Island, the Hot Lakes
district, the crust of the earth is so thin that w hat is down
inside breaks through in all kinds of wonderful ways. There
are boiling lakes and boiling pools, and ponds and pools of
every degree of temperature one could wish. Thick boiling
sulphurous mud ponds, bubbling up like porridge, some
fearsome and terrible, with loathsome smells, while some
springs are exquisitely beautiful, with hot, clear, sparkling
water flowing over white or primrose-coloured alabaster-
looking material.
Most of the natives live in the North Island and many
in the Hot Lakes district. It is all so deliciously warm and
convenient — never any need of fires in their houses: Nature
does all that for them. Several years ago two of my daughters
and I were in these parts at the native village of Whakare-
warewa — our home being in the South Island. As we
wandered about alone we came upon a little Maori child
cautiously placing some Indian corn cobs to cook in the
shallow edge of the boiling cooking pool ; the rest of the
dinner was cooking in a tin, and the little kettle boiling for
a cup of tea, as shown in the accompanying illustration (see
Fig. 2). The story of how the first chimney came to be
built in this village is always told as follows : A white man
had a tiny hut here, where he lived and sold groceries, bad
peaches, and oranges (the natives used to prefer their food
decayed). One day steam began to pour up out of the middle
of his floor. But he was not going to move; he just buih
a chimney round that steam and let it ,carry itself through the
roof and went on living happily on that uncertain ground !
Washing day has no terrors for the Maori wife in those
parts. She finds convenient ponds of various temperatures
all close together. And, as we would gather round the fire
on a coldish day, they get into a hot pond instead, up to their
necks, they and their families and their friends' families,
enjoying a smoke and a chat. The women invariably carry
30 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
their babies on their backs, secured by a shawl. I remember
hearing years ago of a fine young married woman who was
placing her dinner at the edge of a boiling pond. Somehow
the baby shot over her head into the centre of it. Without
stopping to think she dived in after the baby, and both were
instantly scalded to death. But it is wonderful how seldom
there are accidents of that kind. At Rotorua we had oppor-
tunities of sampling the many kinds of delicious baths
established by the Government utilising the natural hot
springs.
While strolling about in the neighbourhood of the Hot
Lakes village of Ohinemutu, we quite unexpectedly came
upon a memorial the Maoris erected to " Our beloved White
Queen," as they called Queen Victoria in later days. They
are very proud of it, and there is some good work about it.
A picturesque group of natives, in bright coloured clothing,
were sitting round it, busily engaged in making flax bags
and mats. Some natives have a strong objection to cameras ;
they think that by taking a photograph of one of their precious
buildings or of themselves it gives the photographer some
claim over the thing taken, and also that the " evil eye "
may pursue them for life. These men and women did not
seem to notice us at first, till the click of the camera made one
woman look up. Then the fat was in the fire ! They all
rose up angrily, shouting and gesticulating. I said, " Throw
the camera in amongst them and let's run!" But an old
Maori spread out his arms crying, " Ka pai, ka pai!"
meaning " Very good — it's all right," and things were
quietening down as we hurried off as fast as the boiling pools
and steaming holes would allow us.
By far the best part of this bit of Wonderland was
destroyed in a fearful eruption about 29 years ago. It
comprised the Pink and the White Terraces, with their
charming pools and ponds of any temperature, from
boiling hot to nearly cold (see Fig. 3). The basins
were all of pure silica, and those of the Pink as
beautiful as alabaster, but not quite so hard, slightly
yielding. One theory is that Lake Rotomahana in the
immediate neighbourhood did the damage. Although a
fairly cold lake, it had always had boiling springs in parts
of^ it. The crust of the earth under the waters was very
thin and could no longer hold up the increasing weight of
" Personal Experiences in New Zealand " 31
waters. So part of the bottom of the lake, so to speak, fell
out one night, and water poured down into the earth where
everything is so hot. You can imagine the steam and
commotion that would set up. It blew out the side of Mount
Tarawera, which poured forth hot ashes, cinders, boiling
liquid mud, and all kinds of horrible material on many miles
round. It ruined lovely country, beautiful bush land, and
destroyed the world-famous Pink and White Terraces, besides
burying several native villages with all the people in them.
As we rowed in a small open boat across Lake Rotomahana,
with some half-caste Maori guides and three Englishmen
tourists, it was a very hot day. I was trailing my hand in
the cold water when suddenly the Maoris shouted to me to
take it in or it would be scalded in a minute. We then
passed over the boiling part of the lake. I put my hand to
the flooring of the boat; it was piping hot. You usually feel
the thud and throbbing of the boilmg water under the keel
if the men stop rowing for a minute.
I honestly did not trust that lake, and was glad when we
were landed. Some tourists shirk it altogether, for you
never know what the wonder parts are going to do next.
After negotiating that wicked lake Rotomahana, we walked
for some distance to Lake Tarawera, and boated to the usual
landing beach. Between the two lakes we walked over two
lovely little Maori villages, houses and natives all smothered
up and buried, beneath a deposit of 40 feet at the tune of
the eruption.
On the night of the trouble, when the terraces were des-
troyed, Mr. Morgan, Government surveyor, was camped in a
hut with his Maori workmen, and although some distance from
the scene of action things were "growing very serious indeed.
During the night he heard one of his native men praying
fervently in the Maori language for things to stop and his life
be spared. Things were going from bad to worse — the
surrounding bush country had caught fire in places from the
red hot cinders and deposit ; the earth was heaving up and
down continually. Mr. Morgan had given up all hopes of
any of them seeing the light of another day when, above all
the din, he heard the Maori praying in English this time :
*' Oh, Lord, if you will only stop all this and spare my life
I will give you £2^ and Morgan can stop it out of my wages !"
Some time after this Mr. Morgan called in at one of our
32 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
sheep runs in the South Island, and while discussing the
subject told our manager that this story, which had appeared
in all the newspapers at the time, was absolutely correct.
One day, about fourteen years ago, great excitement was
caused in the Hot Lakes district by the birth of what tourists
called **The greatest geyser on earth." For those who
flocked out to see it, all the accommodation at first was a
couple of canvas tents, so if these were full visitors had either
to lie down in the fern for the night or drive away unsatisfied
if " she " did not happen to be going off at the time. Then
the Government built a long wooden one-storey hotel, with a
large verandah commanding a splendid view at a safe distance.
The Maoris christened the geyser Waimangu, which means
'* Black Water," while the half-caste guides and some of the
people at the hotel spoke of it, with bated breath, as " She."
We engaged beds in the hotel not by the day, but until we
had seen a shot, as it was called. The geyser went off pretty
regularly, about once in 36 hours, occasionally at shorter or
longer intervals. We had to stay two days and nights before
we saw one, and did not sleep during that time for fear of
missing something. We were, however, rewarded by an
extra high shot of 1,000 feet in the air! At the hotel they
had some means of gauging the height — these, and descrip-
tions of each shot, were preserved. Waimangu in action was
a marvellous sight. When she was quiet there was just a
large 5unken pond, about six times the size of the Manchester
Geographical Hall, of steaming grey water, then with an
awful rush and roar what looked like hundreds of tons of
black boiling water, rock and stones and steam, shot up out
of the earth by the pond 1,000 feet into the air— sometimes
higher, sometimes lower. Eighten months before we arrived
here two girl iriends of my nieces were killed by the geyser.
They, along with a guide and two other men, were taking
snapshots of the steaming sunken pond when all of a sudden
the geyser went off. When the mass of black water, rocks,
stones, etc., sank back into the pond again it could not get
away into the earth quick enough so it overflowed, and a
boiling water river was formed for the time, which dashed
over huge volcanic rocks. A' mile down this temporary
boiling water river the girls' bodies were found, also those of
the guide and tourists — all sweprt away and killed together.
(See Fig. 4.)
Fig. 3. The White Terraces, Rotomahana^ Hot Lakes District.
Fig. 4. W'aimangu Geyser and Frying Pan Flat.
" Personal Experiences in New Zealand " 33
While we were waiting for the geyser to go off, one
day we engaged a guide and asked him to take us as near
as we dare go to the sunken steaming pond. This involved
crossing " Frying Pan Flat," so called because it was com-
posed of fairly firm dark grey sand, with boiling water
bubbling up through it, exactly like a little fat boiling in a
frying pan. Several tourists joined us, until we were fourteen
of a party. Our feet soon felt burned through our boots,
the steam became denser and denser, one by one the people
dropped out and turned back — it was so fearsome — till only
two of us were left, and we were not exactly happy. At last
I lost sight of the guide altogether, and could not see two
yards in front of me for masses of steam rising up from the
sand rolling past and giving a suffocating sensation. I
shouted out into space where I had last seen the guide
disappear that I had had enough, and groped my way back
more than satisfied. Our feet had a scorched feeling till
next day.
Four and a half months after this we were all in England,
where I read in the English newspapers that '* three acres
of Frying Pan Flat, in New Zealand, have collapsed, and a
boiling lake api>eared instead." That was exactly where
we had been walking four and a half months before ! Next
mail brought me a letter from one of my sisters in New Zealand
to say, " Waimangu has gone to sleep," and she has been
asleep ever since, that is to say for the last ten years. So
"she," Waimangu, "the greatest geyser on earth," had a
short but a merry life of about three and a half years, and I
am very glad I was fortunate enough to see her. No photo-
graphs or descriptions can really give any idea of what a shot
was like.
At Ngaruawahia, in the North Island, where two immense
rivers join (cold rivers), we went to see a quaint and very
interesting Maori regatta. One of the many events was
called, "A Race for a Bride." In the first act, two pretty
young Maori girls competed, each in her own canoe, as to
which should take the important part of the bride. That
having been decided, the race proper began. The bride
started at a |X)int up the river to paddle her little canoe at a
great rate down stream; she was quickly followed by large
canoes full of native men. When one of them overtook her
she hurriedly but gracefully stepped from her own into that
34 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
of the men. Those who had captured her now had a start,
and the other canoes came in hot pursuit. When one over-
hauled the canoe in which she sat, she quickly left it, stepped
in amongst the successful crew, and so it went on till the crew
who had her sitting amongst them when they reached the
finishing post had won. Unfortunately, half way through
there was a sad dispute over the bride, and the event had to be
postponed.
But quaintest of all were the canoe hurdle races.
Several things like goalposts, with the crossbar a couple of
feet or so above the surface of the water, had been erected,
at fairly long distances, not very far from shore. Competitors
started up the river and paddled their hardest down the
course. They had to get such impetus on that the canoe
bows would slide up on top of the hurdles, the occupants
scramble forward, their weight making the canoe splash down
by the bows safely over the hurdle. With this operation the
Maoris w^ere usually thrown into the river, and the canoe
nearly filled with water, but they hurriedly baled out and
started off for the next hurdle. (See Fig. 5.)
The illustration shows a snapshot we secured during the
wahines's (women *s) race, taken just at the second the canoe
was balanced on top of the round hurdle. There was an
amusing incident in connection with this event. Only three
canoes entered — two wahines in each ; the first and second
finished successfully, but the third capsized on the wrong
side, at the last hurdle, close to the winning post. They went
up stream to the starting point and had another try, but with
no better luck. As there was half-a-crown for third prize —
to be divided — these two wahines were not going to give it
up for anyone ! So, during the remainder of that long
summer's day, whenever there was a slight pause in the
proceedings, down they would come, paddling their hardest,
but always happy and contented looking. Just as they
would come opposite us they would capsize on the wrong
side of the hurdle, sink under the water, but come up smiling,
bale out, and start again for another try.
The sun was beginning to set, and we to think of tearing
ourselves away from this fascinating spot, when shouts and
cheers made us look round, just in time to see the two wahines
safely over the last hurdle — the half-crown won !
'* Personal Experiences in New Zealand *' 35
In large parts of New Zealand no alcoholic drinks are to
be had. They hay^ had local option out there since 1893.
The same year the Women's Suffrage Bill was passed, so
all women as well as men can vote as to whether there shall
be any sale of strong drink in the constituency. As we women
went to the polling booth to cast our votes for members of
Parliament, at the same time we voted on the drink question.
At the first vote prohibition was carried in one constituency
only. After some years the constituencies on either side,
seeing it had not been ruined by its experiment, boldly
followed its example, and now there are twelve ** no licence '*
constituencies.
To carry prohibition a bare majority is not enough — 60
per cent, of the votes polled have to be in favour. This is a
rather wise provision, to prevent too many changes. At the
last general election for the first time a vote could be given
for what they call national prohibition — that is to say, for
preventing the sale of drink in the whole dominion, and its
importation, too. The result was an actual majority for
national prohibition, but as the majority was 56 instead of
60 per cent, the proposal was not carried. Both sides,
however, expect it to be carried in the near future. If such
were the case, I dare say the chemists would be allowed to
sell some for medical pur|x>ses, but if so it would have to
come into the country under the Poisons Act, and be sold
with the same precautions.
At one time large numbers of Chinese used to come over
to New Zealand, attracted by the discovery of gold. Many
of them took to market gardening, and for years grew almost
all the vegetables for the colony — bringing them to our doors
for sale. We always found those who came were most
{peaceful, honest, quiet men, though they had a curious idea
of English law sometimes. I remember one day a batch of
about 100 landed at the jetty in our town, straight from China.
Some boys started to tease them beyond endurance, and in
the scuffle a policeman was wounded, a Chinaman arrested
and sentenced to fourteen days' hard labour. Next morning
very early there was a loud knocking at the prison door.
When opened, thirteen Chinamen presented themselves.
They said they did not want to leave their friend behind ;
they had made plans to travel all together to the goldfields.
36 Journal of the Manchester Geographicail Society
So thirteen of them had come to do one day's hard labour
each for the Government.
We have left the North Island, with its Hot Lakes district,
whose chief interest is its strangeness. There is nothing-
quite like it in the world, and we shall go for a little to the
Cold Lakes district of the South Island, where the scenery is
a little more like what may be seen in other countries, with
the additional charm of wildness, for much of it has yet to be
explored by man.
For very many years we have been closely connected with
this part of New Zealand, a beauty spot of a beautiful country.
Large lakes stretch long arms back into the huge range of
mountains, while the Pacific Ocean on the other side has
worked its way in amongst the mountains too, and sends huge
arms running inland, as if trying to meet the lakes. These
are the world-famous sounds, and much of the high wooded
mountains lying between them and some of the lakes is still
unexplored (see Fig. 6). One of these lakes is Te Anau,
our lake, as we called it, where we rented a sheep run from the
Government of 80,000 acres, not counting forest country,
which we could have for miles and miles for no rent at all,
if we could make any use of it. Lake Te Anau is about 40
miles long by about six miles at its broadest, and, in addition,,
it has huge fiords running into the mountains. On the shores.
of Station Bay, half way up, our homestead buildings stood.
We had the lake for years all to ourselves; there were no
other human habitations near, and it has been most interesting
to watch it and Lake Manipouri being gradually opened up
for tourists. At one end of our Te Anau sheep run our
boundary was a whole degree of latitude — you may say — no
need of fences; there was nothing to fence out, but the unex-
plored, evergreen, bush-clad mountains.
Opposite our homestead buildings, across the lake, which
was here six rniles broad, one of our men was exploring one
year in the slack season when he discovered a lovely little
lake. It was about three and a half miles long, shut in by
high wooded mountains, and the surface of its -syaters was
crowded with wild duck and teal of different kinds, grebe,
and other wild fowl. Neither they nor their ancestors had
ever seen a human being, dog, or gun, so they knew no fear,
and allowed our man to come as close as he liked and never
Fig. 5. Canoe Hurdle Race, Ngaruawahia.
Fig. 6. Lake Te Anau, Cold Lakes District, South Island.
" Personal Experiences in New Zealand '* 37
offered to fly. This is Lake Katharine, called after myself.
Our Te Anau sheep station was at the uttermost ends of the
earth, so to speak, the very back blocks, and no place for
women and children. So we lived near a town, in civilisation,
and went up to the lake in summer, or at busy seasons of the
year — a three days' journey from home. Formerly, the last
day's travelling tO' get to Te Anau homestead took me between
eleven and twelve hours in the saddle, no roads at all, and
fording innumerable streams and large rivers. One, the
Upukerora, we had to cross twelve times as we wandered up
its narrow valley. This may sound commonplace, but,
remember, those snowfed mountain rivers have very strong
currents and are very often in high flood when they are
discoloured, and there is no telling how deep they are. And
the ** get out " is no joke when your horse, finding the shingle
banks undermined, and too steep, begins to fall back upon
you, and you throw yourself off his back into the flooded river
for safety, as happened to me one day. Then you think of
the New Zealand death, as it is called. The newspapers, in
giving an obituary notice of some one, will say, " He fell
a victim to the New Zealand death." They do not stop to
explain. We all know what that means — drowning.
All the same, life in these wild parts is very fascinating.
The charm of the unexplored is strong, with its feeling of
expectancy, of wondering what you may discover next, while
the danger which enters into it all makes it all the more
enthralling. Adam Lindsay Gordon, the Australian poet,
said : —
" No game was ever worth a rap
For a sensible man to play,
Into which no accident — no mishap
Could possibly find its way."
The New Zealand Government had offered to reward
anyone who would discover a pass over the mountains from
Lake Te Anau to Milford Sound, or to any of the sounds,
so that a good walking track might be made for hardy tourists.
(See Fig. 7.)
As I mentioned before, although Lake Te Anau was fully
40 miles long, ours were the only buildings anywhere near
it. Some years after we had taken over the sheep run, stray
men began to come about the lake and pitch their tents about
38 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
i8 miles from us. They were men who had had an unhappy-
past and who wanted to get as far away from civiHsation
as possible; they would come and offer to work for us at the
busy seasons, and we were thankful to have them. One of
these waifs and strays was '* Dick " ;' he built the first mansion
on the lake (that is to say not counting our own), a one-roomed
hut thatched with scrub. It was through no fault of his that
he had fled from his fellow creatures, but through the fault
of another. An honest, clever, sober, entirely self-educated
man, a boat builder by trade, he developed into a great
naturalist, and became an authority on the strange wingless
birds, and flightless ones too, which have their home in these
wild wooded mountains, across th6 lake from our homestead.
During nine years he worked for us whenever we needed
him. Life in these wilds makes people self-reliant and
resourceful. Dick took us to see his htit one day, and on
entering I was met by an overpowering smell of decayed
animal matter and quickly backed out. " Oh, it's only my
mousetrap, which has been catching mice while I've been
away from home the last three months. You see, they would
destroy all these valuable wingless bird skins up in the rafters,
so I had to think of something that would go on killing the
mice while I was away." It was such an ingenious trap.
I must describe it. He had a large, square, empty oil tin,
with the top cut off, which he had filled three parts full of
water. He had made a tiny Wooden wheel, like a treadmill,
and fixed it across the top of the tin and baited it. The oil
tin was sunk beneath the floor of the hut— which was on piles,
only a hole cut in the boards to show the wheel. The mouse
ran across the floor to the bait, stepped on the small wooden
platform, the wheel revolved with the weight of the mouse,
round it went depositing the mouse in the water, and was
so nicely balanced that it set itself again, ready for the next
victim.
Here, when at home, Dick would sit in the evenings
studying natural history. He had a fishing line from he
hut to the lake baited for eels, and after dark, as the eel took
the bait, it rang a bell at the other end of the line in the hut-
Dick would quietly lay aside his volume, go down to the lake,
and haul in to-morrow's dinner for himself and his dogs.
We call New Zealand a new country ; it is only new so far
Fig. 7. Milford Sound, West Coast, South Island.
Fig. 8. Kiwi. (Apteryx Australis).
" Personal Experiences in New Zealand "
39
as white people are concerried.* Running up through the two
large islands is a high range of mountains, the whole of
which are older and have been longer above the sea than
almost any other part of the world. If the New Zealand
Islands were not so old we would not have that curious bird
life out there, the birds without wings, such as the kiwi, and
those like the kakapo, that have large wings but cannot fly
(see Fig. 8). It takes countless ages for a bird to change
as the kiwi has done and for its wings to become atrophied
from want of use.
Another of the stray men who began to come about the
shores of Lake Te Anau was Brodrick, known as " Old
Broad " (suggested by his name and immense width). He
must be mentioned, because he was the first to put a steamer
on the lake. He drifted up our way, coming originally from
the lumber camps of Canada, where, according to his own
story, he had fled to avoid having to fight in the American
Civil War. He was a hardy, rough, old pioneer, with a keen
sense of humour, and full of anecdote, capable, and full of
resource, but not fond of work for work's sake. He soon
fell under the spell of Lake Te Anau and took a deep personal
interest in it. His main occupation was pressing wool at
our station and sailing our wool boat up and down the lake.
For many years it was the only vessel on Lake Te Anau,
and often he had used it to take a stray tourist up to the
head and down again, on which occasions he was delighted
to act captain and crew of the little 15 ton boat, also as cook,
general provider, giiide, philosopher, and friend. At last the
county authorities began to talk of making a road to' the
foot of the lake, and old Brodrick then felt moved to prepare
for the reception of the expected tourists. He took, indeed,
such a deep personal interest in the lake, as if it were his
own property, that he could not have the place disgraced, as
it would have been, if tourists had not been able to see the
beautiful fiords and head of the lake. I think it was more
from this reason, than with any expectations of making his
fortune, that Brodrick went down country to the little town
of Invercargill and bought a poor little old steamer, had her
cut in half j and conveyed to the lake with great difficulty,
almost all the way without any made roads, a huge bullock
team to each half, and the journey lasting weeks.
In course of time the two halves were joined together,
40 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
with a bit added in the middle, and the weird little craft was
safely launched on Lake Te Anau (a bottle of whiskey being
broken over the bows, but not a drop of the contents being
wasted !). The boiler and engine were very poor, and the
only fuel was firewood, so, at the very best, six to seven miles
an hour was the maximum speed. But as ** Old Broad,"
who was captain, engineer, and crew, was quite unused to
machinery, and was by nature both dirty and lazy, the top
speed soon became four to five miles an hour, and breakdowns
were frequent. He had painted the name, " Te Uira " —
after an old Maori chief — on the bows, but as someone pointed
out that was Maori for the lightning, he got unmercifully
chaffed and could not stand it any longer, so painted out the
old name, putting ** The Ripple" in its place. He was
rather proud of this choice until one moonlight night — after
three breakdowns on three successive trips — someone found
the paint jx>t and neatly inserted a large " C " in front of
Ripple. Then there was trouble, though it is said he had
been up the lake and down again before he noticed the
addition.
Many good and true stories are probably still being told
by English tourists who chanced to risk their lives on that
little boat. Too lazy to cut good supplies of firewood in
advance, his fuel was always green and had to be stacked on
top of the boiler to dry. The boiler was soon very hot, the
wood began to smoulder and even blaze. The few passengers
were often much alarmed until they noticed with what accus-
tomed calmness Brodrick at the wheel dipped a bucket in the
lake and put out the fire. Again, it was a very common
occurrence for an announcement to be made, *' I must run
her ashore — firewood's done !" And passengers found them-
selves (axes and tomahawks handed round) expected to go
ashore into the bush and cut down a good load of firewood.
As for breakdowns — people benighted without food or
blankets, sometimes in gales of wind and torrents of rain — -
these were too common to be much noticed.
Just one more of these waifs and strays, and that was
McKinnon. He, poor fellow, was fleeing from drink, and
was quite safe at Lake Te Anau for years, till later drink
followed him, and someone erected a small four-roomed
wooden cottage, at the foot of the lake, as accommodation
house and secured a licence. McKinnon also worked for us
" Personal Experiences in New Zealand " 41
at busy seasons of the year. A clergyman's son, he had
ruined himself with intemperance, deserted his wife and two
little children in another country, and come to this lonely and
beautiful lake to forget and be forgotten. Soon the fascination
of the unexplored took a hold of him, as it did of most people
brought in contact with it, and McKinnon was the first to
discover a pass over the mountains from Lake Te Anau to
Milford Sound. So he gained the Government reward, and
everyone was singing his praises — he had opened up what
one of the London papers. The Spectator, called, when giving
an account of it a few years ago, "The finest walk in the
world." At first it took a week to walk or scramble across;
one had to carry tent, blankets, provisions, etc. Now the
double journey can be done in little more than half that time
by any ordinary tourist, while huts at easy intervals have been
erected by the Government. Shortly after the discovery of
the pass, when I walked across with my husband, Mr. C ,
and our man Dick, we took six days to reach the ocean, partly
owing to floods by the way. We had to carry blankets,
provisions, change of clothing, etc., for four people for that
time. Oatmeal porridge and sugar was our chief food on
those excursions; oatmeal is light to carry, and porridge with
sugar on the top is very satisfying.
After negotiating Lake Te Anau and sleeping the night
in a rough empty slab hut m the bush, our first day's walk
from 8 a.m. to 7 p.m. was in glorious weather and unspeak-
ably beautiful scenery. The valley of the Clinton, up which
we went, is more of a canyon than a valley, and filled with
bush for the first eight miles. Its length is about twelve
miles, and its width half a mile or less, while precipitous
mountains rise on either side to the height of 3,000 or 4,000
feet. A turbulent glacier-fed river rushes alongside, though
well below, the track. This track is sometimes on the bare
mountain-side and sometimes cut through " bush " — " mixed
bush," from great beach and pine trees, down to the ribbon
wood, with its beautiful white flowers, not unlike syringa,
and the innumerable ferns of all sorts and sizes, often con-
nected with trees, with long festoons of bright green moss.
Once over McKinnon 's Pass, down the valley of the Arthur
River, this ** bush " becomes much more luxuriant — the trees
are bigger and more varied, and great tree ferns and cabbage
trees give the forest almost a semi-tropical appearance. (See
Fig. 9.)
42 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
That first day, though so enjoyable, had an unpleasant
ending. At the lake, the day before, we spoke to three English
tourists and their guide ; they promised to push on to a hut
over the pass and not get in our way, as we intended camping
for the night in a rough fern shelter we knew about. One
of the Englishmen, an elderly man, I had met before, and
warned him not to try the walk. He was rather offended,
and wrote back to say where a woman could go he could.
When we reached Dismal Camp, or Inferno, as we christened
it, because it was made of ferns, and we had such a wretched
time there — we were horrified to find the English party and
guide in possession, Mr. B , the elderly man, utterly
broken down, really ill, and unable to go a step further.
Dismal Camp was situated in a very narrow part of the
Clinton Valley in a thick patch of "bush," rather dark and
gloomy, where the sunshine could not penetrate, and where
high ferns and dripping mosses, even in fine weather, kept it
damp and wet and depressing. It was only twelve feet long
by six feet broad. Into this seven rnen and myself had to
crawl and spend the night. Soon tropical rain set in and
poured down on us through the fern all night. Rats ran
over us as we lay on the damp mud floor. Avalanches of
snow, loosened by the warm rain, thundered down into the
narrow valley where we lay, sounding unpleasantly near,
while the curious night birds, the kiwis and kakapos, boomed
and whistled, making night weird and uncanny. Of course,
we could not sleep, so as soon as the first streak of daylight
came we rose and made some porridge and started to climb
over McKinnon's Pass, voting it was much pleasanter
— (see Fig. lo) — to walk all day, though drenched to the
skin, than to sit and have the rain pouring on us through the
fern. Poor old Mr. B-— — could not walk, so his fellow
travellers left him some food, and promised to call back for
him.
The New Zealand Government had sent a batch of convicts
round by sea to form the track on the ocean side of the pass,
thinking that owing to the wildness of the bush country,
and to being shut off from civilisation by huge mountains,
lakes, and fiords, thaf the men would be cjuite safe with the
ordinary numbers of warders. But these convicts kept
escaping in couples and coming down on our homestead
nearly starved to death for their first chance of food. Of
Fig. 9. New Zealand Bush.
Fi^. 10. The Clinton Canyon and McKinnon's Pass,
Te Anau-Milford Track.
"Personal Experiences in New Zealand " 43
course, they took the precaution first to steal clothes, some-
times those belonging to our shepherds camping out, in order
to discard their prison ones. They then told a long story, how
they were explorers, and had lost their way. We knew better,
and on one occasion our manager was able to pass word on to
civilisation, and that couple were eventually caught. The
convict settlement at Milford Sound was soon voted a failure,
the men were taken back to prison, we had peace, and
McKinnon's track was finished by decent bush hands!
The chief features on the Pacific Ocean side of the pass
are the Sutherland Falls — :very beautiful, 1,904 feet high —
Lake Ada, and the Arthur River. Lake Ada was called after
an old friend of my young days, she being the first woman
to see it, approaching it from the ocean side years before
McKinnon's Pass was discovered. It is a most uncommon
lake, because it has a forest growing up from the bottom —
at least, I suppose the trees are long since dead, but the
black jagged tops of huge pine trees still appear in places
above the surface of the waters. It had evidently been a fine
wooded valley at one time, blocked by avalanches, and turned
into a lake. The scenery here is very beautiful (as it is
along the whole of the route), but as it was my business to
bale out the water from a crazy little boat of McKinnon's,
while the men rowed, I had not time to look about me.
Do\Vn the Arthur River, with its rapids, we went in the same
little old boat, and nice and exciting work it w'as !
' Of course, all this has been changed— I am speaking of
the track 23 years ago; things' have been made easy by the
Government, who have had good tracks cut out of the face
of the cliffs, so doing away w-ith the necessity of boating on
the rather treacherous Lake Ada and down the upper reaches
of the Arthur River. Comfortable little huts have been
erected at fairly short intervals, where provisions, blankets,
and porters can be obtained during the summer months, and
where, I am told, they have even added mattresses to sleep
on ! To my thinking much of the charm has been taken away
by these so-called irhprovements, but one must remember
by their means far more tourists are enabled to undertake this
extremely beautiful and enjoyable walk.
Mr. Melland and some friends interested in the beauties
of the track and of Lake Te Anau subscribed and lent money
to a Mr. and Mrs. Garvey, who erected an accommodation
house at the head of the lake so that tourists could have a
44 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
comfortable bed after their long day on Te Anau and before
the walk proper began. Before that tourists were rather a
nuisance to us, coming sometimes in parties — always men,
of course — sometimes with horses too, and calmly asking our
manager, or ourselves if we were there, to take them in. Of
course, we had to; there was nowhere else for them to go,
and it was always the busy season. Then they would take a
fancy to the very rough life amidst beautiful natural sur-
roundings; it was an experience for them, and it was often
very difficult to get rid of them. They would stay for days,
men we had never seen or heard of before, and never would
again. Occasionally there were amongst them interesting
celebrities and some members of the English nobility.
Just before we went across " The finest walk in the world ''
McKinnon disappeared. The New Zealand Government
had engaged him to put in three months at clearing the track
a little of saplings and jungle. So he laid in a supply of
provisions and called in, in his whale boat, at our sheep
station for some mutton, then set off up the lake with a fair
wind.
Nothing was heard of him for months, so when we were
up at our Te Anau run, ready to walk across his track to
Milford Sound, a search party of police constabulary sent by
the Government arrived at our homstead to hunt for
McKinnon. As one of our shepherds had picked up his cap
on the shore of the lake one day, that part was searched first.
We all joined, either boating or on foot, and Dick and Mr.
C soon found McKinnon's whale boat sunk in a bay of
the lake, the tip of the mast just showing above water.
His tucker box and sou'wester were picked up on the shore
oppMDsite, but his body has never been found.
On the beach of this bay, where his sunken whale boat was
discovered — just three miles from the homestead — there lies
a huge block of granite, the only one lying on the shore for
many miles round. It was thought this would make a good
tombstone, so his name, '' Q. (Quinton) McKinnon, Dec,
1892," was carved upon it.
4
Turkish Armenia and Persian Khurdistan 45
A JOURNEY THROUGH TURKISH ARMENIA AND
PERSIAN KHURDISTAN.
By M. Philips Price, F.R.G.S.
(Addressed to the Society in the Geographical Hall, on Tues-
day, March loth, I9i4.)»
In my journey through the provinces of Asiatic Russia in
19 10 from Siberia to the Caucasus, I made it my object to
study the effects of the political expansion of Russia and the
consolidation of her Eastern Empire.
I visited the fertile wheat belts of Siberia, the barren
plateau of Mongolia, the sandy wastes of Turkistan and the
highlands of the Caucasus. Throughout this country I came
into contact with Russian civilisation in process of absorbing
the relics of the former Tartar Empires of Central Asia.
This stimulated me to visit those countries beyond the
Russian frontier, where I could see the relics of the ancient
Mohammedan kingdoms still untouched and judge for myself
what the future is likely to bring forth.
It is abundantly true that geography is the basis, not only
of political history, but of the scientific study of mankind, and
therefore I first refer to some of the geographical conditions
of the continent of Asia.
Across a large part of this continent, from the Pacific to
the Mediterranean, runs a zone of elevated tableland, rising
from the North Siberian Steppes in the North and from the
plain of Hindustan in the South. This tableland is known
by different names in different parts : there is the Gobi Desert
of Central China, the Plateau of Tibet, the Highlands of
Afghanistan, the Iranian and Armenian plateaux of the near
and middle East.
If we look closely then, we shall see that this tableland is
traversed by ranges of mountains which trend across the con-
tinent in, roughly, easterly and westerly directions. When
I crossed Siberia on my way to Mongolia, I felt as if I was
gradually ascending a staircase. From the lowlands of
Yenesei I rose up across ridges of mountains, first 1,000 then
2,000 then 3,000 feet and so' on, Until at last I found myself
in the plateaux of Mongolia where the bottoms of the valleys
were 8,000 feet above the level of the sea.
But the most important feature of this plateau is the fact
46 Journal ofth^ Mahchcster Geographical Society
that in its centre it narrows into a neck, and the earth's sur-
face is much crumpled by inaccessible mountain ranges.
Eastwards to China and west to Persia, the plateau opens out,
broadens, and the mountain ranges become less complex.
North-east Asia Minor and North-west Persia form an in-
tegral part of the series of tablelands which connect the Medi-
terranean with the Pacific Ocean. The geographical condi-
tion of this plateau throughout its whole length therefore
makes access across it from north to south difficult and in
places impossible, on account of the transverse ranges run-
ning east and west across it. On the other hand, no natural
obstacle obstructs the passage along the tablelands from east
to west, and once access is obtained to the plateau, easterly
and westerly movements are easy. We thus see how impor-
tant are the geographical features of Central Asia as being the
main factors governing the movements of the human race in
that continent. It is a significant fact that all the race move-
ments of mankind, which, originating in Asia, have ultimately
affected Europe, have roughly followed the lines set forth by
the physical conditions of this plateau.
The Mongol invasion of the 13th century which had its
birth on the Mongolian steppes swept southwards till it
reached the edge of the plateau in its most impenetrable part
in Afghanistan and then followed westwards over the Caspian
Sea to Russia. Other great political movements such as that
started by Timur of Samarkand in the 14th century and later
still by the Ottoman Turks culminated in military invasions
which have an easterly and westerly movement, chiefly
westerly.
Europe has awakened since the days of those invasions
from Asia.
The Russian Empire has covered in its political net the
lower steps of the plateau on the north, creeping slowly south-
wards. The British Empire in India has covered the lower
steps of the plateau on the south, and like a sentinel is stan-
ding on guard behind the natural frontiers of Afghanistan
and Tibet. Between these Empires lie the independent
States of Tibet, Afghanistan, Persia and Turkey. The Otto-
man Empire acts as the bulwark between the Caucasus and
the frontiers of Egypt, while Persia and Afghanistan bar the
way from Turkistan to the Indian frontier.
These facts have consideriable political significance. If
these independent Mohammedan States fall into decay, the
Turkish Armenia and Persian Khurdistan 47
Russian and British Empires stand facing one another in
Asia. It is useless to disguise the fact that the civilisations
of these two empires are wholly diverse, and their methods of
government, particularly in Asia, totally dissimilar. If once
either of these two powers is established on the plateau, their
influence must permeate its whole system and destroy the
buffer civilisations existing there.
Moreover the preservation of these civilisations cannot be
without effect upon the culture of the world, for though they
have fallen into decay in recent years, they have in the past
deeply affected the religion, philosophy, art and literature of
Europe, and indeed have been the main inspiration of all the
higher European culture.
How far is it possible to regenerate these native civilisations,
these buffer states on the Central Asian plateau? What is
their relation to the two great empires to the north and south ?
To study these problems in relation to the physical condition
of the country, was in part the object of my journey.
I started from Constantinople in September, 191 2, and
sailed to Trebizond on a Turkish cargo ship, which coasted
along the north coast of Asia Minor. There was a mixed
cargo of Mecca pilgrims, Turkish soldiers, Khurdish shep-
herds and various animals. The rocky coast is forested with
oak scrub and spruce, and is intersected by deep valleys
running northwards to the Black Sea. These valleys contain
at their mouths small deltas, where little Turkish towns
have been built. The north coast of Asia Minor is not
rich, but the climate is good and its valleys are important as
the sole means of access to the plateaux behind. At last I
reached Trebizond, where I left the ship.
Trebizond is the gateway to north-east Asia Minor and
North-west Persia, it is the most easterly town on the Black
Sea and the only free port open to the commerce of Europe
which gives access to the plateaux of Armenia and Northern
Persia. Since the Russian annexation of the Caucasus, all
Caucasian ports are closed to European commerce, and now it
is only from Trebizond that caravans of European goods can
reach the territories behind. This is important to Man-
chester.
British participation in the trade of the territories behind
has been of long standing. On behalf of our commercial
interest there were secured alterations of the San Stefano
48 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
treaty at Berlin in 1878 in order to prevent Russia from
blocking the route from Trebizond into Persia by annexing
Bayazid. Although the trade has declined of recent years
owing to various causes, it is still a highly important route
for British, German and Austrian goods, chiefly cotton, iron
ware, and sugar to the markets of eastern Turkey and
northern Persia.
The town of Trebizond is an old centre of Roman civilisa-
tion. For centuries under the Christian Byzantine Empire it
became partially independent, but finally succumbed to the
Ottoman Turks in the 15th century. The town is built on a
rock in the shape of a trapeze, hence its name in Roman times.
I found the Turks broad-minded and free from fanaticism and
I was able to wander in any of the mosques without trouble
and photograph the military barracks and the garrison.
After a few days in Trebizond, I hired a cart, set forth with a
Circassian servant who had come from the Caucasus to meet
me, and made my way up country.
Travelling in the interior of Asiatic Turkey though not
difficult, is not without discomfort. There are no railways
and few good roads, the latter being worn in holes and ruts
by caravans, bridges across rivers are non-existent, or else
broken. Along the best roads one can travel by phaeton, but
the safer if slower method everywhere else is pack horse.
One proceeds from stage to stage along the road, sleeping
the night in caravanserais or public wayside inns. Travelling
is generally safe, occasional robberies take place near the
Turco-Persian frontier, but with introductions to Government
officials, prestige with the natives may be obtained by a couple
of Turkish mounted police with whom it is best to travel in
any disturbed district.
I thus left the Black Sea coast, plunging into the interior of
north-east Asia Minor following the Turkish military road
leading across rugged mountain passes towards the plateau
of Turkish Armenia. The scenery on leaving the Black Sea
coast is one of surpassing beauty. The road wound along
valley bottoms and zigzagged up dizzy heights, looking down
on vast expanses of rocky forest land, while mountain torrents
careered wildly northwards to the sea. Here indeed was
Switzerland in the heart of Asia Minor. Even the little
Turkish houses in the valley bottoms were built of wood in
the same shapes as those of the Swiss peasants.
Turkish Armenia and Persian Khurdistan 49
The Turks were busy on their harvest of maize, which forms
the staple food of the population. Usually the Turks were in
the valley bottoms, and Greeks on the higher ground. The
former are descendants of military colonists, and the latter
descendants of Byzantine citizens. At night I rested in little
caravanserais, when many caravans of camels pvassed north-
wards from the Armenian plateau bound for the Black Sea;
one night 500 camels passed, bearing cotton, rice, and dried
fruit from Persia, gliding past the caravanserai in which I
was staying, filling the air with the music of deep-toned bells
while the occasional cry of a weary camel and the shout of a
Turkish caravan bashi rent the air.
Next morning I reached the summit of Zegana, and looking
north I beheld a wonderful sight of rolling rocky country and
the edge or lip of the Armenian plateau before it plunges to
the level of the Black Sea. The rain-bearing winds from the
sea had by this time spent their force, and the country, which a
day's journey to the north was densely forested, was now
covered by a few scrub pines and shrubs. Bushes of the rho-
dodendrons with flowers faded in the autumn sun freckled the
mountain sides, while far away in the valley below I could see
the road along which I had come winding like a serpent, and
here and there upon its track little specks where the caravans,
which I had passed hours before, were slowly crawling north-
wards.
It was on this wonderful spot that Xenophon, marching
with his 10,000 Greeks across Asia Minor after many hard-
ships at last saw the sea, and exclaimed in words that have
become famous : '' Thalassa ! Thalassa !"
Leaving the summit of this beautiful pass, I sank down into
the valleys on the southern side but my fall here was gradual,
and I reached at the bottom of the Gumesh-Khaneshat a
higher level than the valley which I had left. I had, in fact,
ascended the first step of the Asiatic plateau, and w^as now on
the tableland of Turkish Armenia with its broad valleys, the
bottoms of which were 2,000 or 3,000 feet above the level of
the sea, and shut in from the north by rolling downs, and a
few rocky ridges running mostly east and west.
I quickly observed the difference in the atmosphere from
that of the sea coast. The temperature was extreme, and I
suffered much in the day time from scorching sun, while at
night the temperature dropped to freezing, although it was
only September. The features of the country were severe and
D
50 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
hard, almost terrible in their barrenness, but when the evening
came, and the slanting rays of the sun shot across the plateau,
the plains glowed like lire, and the desert hills show^ed forth
their outline in details of delicate light and shade. To see
sunset on a desert plateau is worth all the miseries and dis-
comforts of a day's trek in the hot sun.
One evening I came to the ruins of a beautiful Armenian
city. I had now reached the land partly inhabited by Arme-
nians, an ancient race of Iranian stock who have inhabited this
plateau since the dim dawn of history. Nowhere do they
number the majority of the population, but everywhere along
this plateau of North-east Turkey their colonies are scattered
about, along with those of their Mohammedan neighbours
the Turks, in all places where cultivation is possible. At
Varzahan, which was the name of the place which I had
reached there was only a collection of peasant huts, but all
around were the ruins of curious Armenian churches built in
octagonal shai>e, with cylindrical towers composed of hard
grey stone, almost terrible in its severity. They date
back to the loth century A.D. and are typical of Armenian
architecture. Inside all was ruin and decay, but on the walls
of one I just discerned the fresco paintings of Christian saints
in crude medieval style.
After leaving Varzahan, I ascended and crossed the Kopdag
Pass, which traverses one of the great mountain systems of
Armenia, and is at the head waters of the Euphrates. From
its summit I could see the whole trend of the mountains of
Turkish Armenia running east and west like giant caterpillars
lying parallel across a table, while the Euphrates, here a little
stream, trickled in and out of their great flanks.
After another day's journey to the east I reached the famous
Turkish city of Erzerum. Here I found a veritable fortress.
I was closely scrutinised by the bemedalled Turkish officers
as I passed through the great fortifications and reached the
teeming human rabbit warren which calls itself a city that lay
inside the great military cordon. The city, at one time the
most easterly outpost of the Roman Empire, has been in the
hands of the Ottoman Turks since the 15th century. It lies
close to the head waters of the Euphrates just below a crescent
of hills which divide the water-sheds of that river from the
Araxes. It is surrounded by heights on the north, south,
and east which have been fortified by the Turks. There are
earthworks on the west. The importance of Erzerum
Turkish Armenia and Persian Khurdistan 51
cannot be exaggerated from the international standpoint,
because in the words of Moltke, "The power which holds
Erzerum can control the lower reaches of the Euphrates and
ultimately dominate Mesopotamia." The maintenance of
Erzerum in Turkish hands is therefore of paramount impor-
tance to the political stability of eastern Asia Minor.
The tide of war has more than once surged round the fort-
ress of this city on the Armenian plateau, and twice it has fallen
into the hands of the Russians ; in the Crimean war, and again
in the war of 1877, but each time European diplomacy caused
the Russians to withdraw and plant themselves behind the
frontiers of the Caucasus.
In Erzerum itself everything has a very military aspect.
Turkish soldiers clad in khaki, putties and red fezes slouch
lazily about their duties, while officers with fur caps and long
grey cloaks sit dreamily in cafes sipping coffee and chatting
with one another about war and rumours of war.
Near the outskirts of the city I visited a beautiful building,
said to be the mausoleum of one of the early Turkish sultans.
The streets of the town were indescribably filthy. On a
little hill above the end of the town was a Turkish cemetery,
where the bodies of faithful Mohammedans were laid to rest,
often not very deep in the ground. The pariah dogs had been
at work, and had brought sundry human relics to the surface.
Lower down the hill I found a large number of Turkish and
Armenian houses half buried in the hill-side, and all the
washings from the cemetery must have poured into their
drains. There is no sanitary inspector in Erzerum.
Of course I paid a visit to the Turkish Vali, or governor-
general of the province, who resided in Erzerum. It happened
that shortly after I arrived it was the morning of the Sultan's
birthday, and in company with the British Consul I went to
call upon His Excellency in Government House. This con-
sisted of a great barn-like place with plaster tumbling off the
walls and a few tattered flags of the Star and Crescent flying
from the roof. We ascended a rickety staircase, at the top
of which a Turkish brass band with blatant cornets and trom-
bones blared forth something, which I was told was supposed
to be " God Save the King," in honour of our British
Nationality. In a room hung with Turkish carpets and
furnished with French chairs and tables sat the governor-
general, a sedate old Turk with heavy eyelids and a nose like
a f>otato. My interview with him was interesting, as it was
52 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
here that I first learned of the outbreak of the Balkan War.
The governor informed me that he had received instructions
from Constantinople that morning to mobilise 5,000 troops
and send them to the front at once, and that he was proposing
to dispatch all the peasants in his province between the ages
of 18 and 25 on foot to trek the roads to the Black Sea coast.
It is small wonder that the Turkish Army took a month and
a half to mobilise by such methods, but in the absence of rail-
ways nothing else was possible.
After I left the Vali, I witnessed a review of the Hamadian
cavalry. The nomad Khurds, who live in the mountains of
this part of Asia Minor, some years ago were formed into an
irregular cavalry by Abdul Hammed, ostensibly for the pur-
pose of strengthening the cavalry, but really for the .purpose
of massacring Armenians. They still exist, chiefly as an
organisation for licensed ruffianism to levy blackmail on their
I>eaceful peasant neighbours. The Turks have allowed them
to remain armed, but the reforms in Armenia will probably
disarm most of these free-booters. They are supposed to be
officered by Turks, but I met one of them in Erzerum who
told me that, as he was unable to control them, he sent them
to their homes with all their arms while he himself sat down
in the cafe of the town and enjoyed himself. I witnessed a
review of this so-called cavalry on the plains of Erzerum, and
afterwards a Khurdish dance, in which the soldiers formed
themselves into a ring and danced slow measures to the tune
of a little Khurdish bagpipe and drum beaten with the palms
of the hands.
After some days at Erzerum, I hired four horses and with
my servant and an escort of Turkish soldiers lent to me by the
governor-general, I rode out of the city eastwards towards the
Turco-Persian frontier. The country I traversed was high
tableland in the head waters of the Araxes. Low ridges of
desert hills lay scattered over the plateau, while little rivers
and streams wandered aimlessly. The country was very
barren, and cultivation only possible by irrigation near the
streams.
I found that the population consisted of two types, the
Nomad and the settled. The settled population lived in
villages and consisted of Christian Armenians and Mohamme-
dan Turks who lived side by side, often in the same villages,
and were indistinguishable except by their religious customs
and language. The relations between these Christians and
Turkish Armenia and Persian Khurdistan 53
Mohammedan peasants were amicable in every way. In
one village I found the tomb of a saint used as a praying
ground both for Armenian and Turk, and one evening I wit-
nessed Christians and Mohammedans praying at the same
shrine side by side.
But there are also the Nomads who inhabit the stoney hills
above the valley bottoms and who live in tents with their
flocks of sheep and horses. These people are called Khurds,
people of Iranian stock who speak a language akin to Persian,
and are hostile to the settled population, whether they be Turk
or Armenian. In the country through which I passed after
leaving Erzerum I saw a few Khurdish nomads, the majority
living in a semi-settled, semi-nomad state, indicating clearly
that they were in an intermediate state preparatory to settling.
All through this country the relations, not only between
Mohammedan and Christian, but even between nomad and
settled, were amicable. It was not till I reached the Persian
frontier that the truculent attitude of the nomads became
apparent.
In addition to the people which I have mentioned, I came
across some colonies of people called Kizil Bashis, another
nomad tribe in partial process of adopting settled habits. The
Turks informed me that they had peculiar religious cere-
monies, which they described to me as Orgiastic, and alto-
gether they regarded them as heretics.
I also came across some remarkable people called Yezides,
who are mainly nomads but seem in every respect like the
Khurds. But I was told by my Turkish soldiers that they
were Devil-worshippers and they had great contempt for
them. So much so, that as we passed an encampment of them
one morning my Turkish soldiers spat violently on the ground
and cried. " May the graves of these pigs be defiled ! " A
Turk is devoted to his religion of Islam, and he is in every
way tolerant of orthodox Christianity, which he regards as a
sister religion to his own, but he cannot stand fancy religions
like Devil-worship ; and when he sees a people like the Yezides
observing certain Christian saint's days once a week, certain
Mohammedan fast-days another, and for the rest of their time
worshipping the Devil, he becomes like a bull who sees a red
flag.
During this part of my journey I spent the nights in the
villages that Preached at sundown, and as there were no inns
I was the guest of the head man of the village. The inhabi-
54 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
tants of this part of Asia Minor are Troglodite. The houses
are literally tunnelled into the sides of the hills. The
entrances are surrounded with stone and turf, and on entering
you pass through a long tunnel some 30 or 40 feet into the
hill-side above. The access to each house is obtained from
the roof of the house below it, and looking at these villages
from a distance one can see nothing but a few platforms on
the hill-side and holes in the hill which are the entrances to
the houses. In the central room lighted by this one shaft, is
a raised platform where the men sleep, but the rest of the room
is overrun by sheep, goats, cattle and buffaloes, which latter
are used as beasts of burden. I spent two nights in such a
place as this, but needless to say my repose was not satisfac-
tory. The odour of the larger animals coupled with attacks
of the smaller and invisible ones made sleep an impossibility.
Matters became desperate when about 2 a.m. I discovered a
bullock saying good morning to me by putting his nose in my
face. But I endured that night and the following night in
this manner, and after that I decided that it was more pleasant
to sleep out of doors in the dust outside the Peasant's house
and to allow the pariah dogs to sing me to sleep by the pale
glimpses of the moon.
It is interesting to note that Xenophon, when he crossed
through this country with his 10,000, notes that the inhabi-
tants, who were probably the ancestors of the Khurds and
Armenians of to-day, lived in exactly the same manner in
underground houses. But he also mentioned that they
burned wood, and that timber was prevalent. To-day there is
not a single tree to be seen over this desert plateau, and the sole
article of fuel used by the inhabitants is dried horse and camel
droppings. It would appear, therefore that man has been
responsible for the denudation of the forests, or that the
climate has undergone a process of dessication.
In the manner described above I wandered from village to
village eastwards across the rugged plateau of Turkish
Armenia towards the Persian frontier.
One morning a wonderful sight greeted my eyes. Crossing
a little neck of hills dividing one plateau valley from another, I
saw away to the north-east a gigantic mountain mass, rising up
out of the plateau in a perfect cone, and towering like a monster
with a snowy cap. It was Mount Ararat. I had seen it
before from the northern or Russian side when I was in the
Turkish Armenia and Persian Khurdistan 55
Caucasus in 191 1, but I now saw it from the southern side.
It rises up over 16,000 feet out of a plateau 2,000 to 3,000 feet,
and is the remnant of an ancient but gigantic volcano now
extinct and covered with a cap of eternal snow. Mount Ararat
appears to be the most northerly limit of an ancient volcanic
chain which stretched roughly along the present line of the
Turco-Persian frontier. There are other volcanic mountains
like Ararat further to the south, but not so magnificent. It
appears that the earth's crust has undergone complex fractures
about here. The north and south pressure which has created
the east and west trend of the mountains is traversed by other
earth movements, which have created at this point a northerly
and southern trend. The cross fractures thus caused appear
to have facilitated volcanic action and hence we have the relics
of ancient volcanoes all along this line where these two earth
movements meet.
Other extinct volcanic mountains are to be seen in the off-
shoots of the Anti-Taurus and in Lesser Armenia, and with-
out doubt in some of the peaks of the Lebanon and in the Jebel
Druse on the edge of the Arabian Desert. None however are
so perfect as Mount Ararat, and small wonder that all the tra-
dition and romance of history is centred round this great
mountain.
On the day when I first saw it, as the sun rose in the
heavens the blue-grey mist, which usually rises with it over
the plateau, enveloped the mountain, and through the mist I
could see its glistening snows. It was as if I was looking at
the face of some very beautiful and supernatural being, which
had clothed itself in a veil of mauve.
That night I reached a little Turkish Block-house, where
some Turkish soldiers were stationed as frontier guards.
The Russian frontier lies just to the north and the Persian
frontier to the east. Here three empires meet on the summit
of a little spur at the side of Mount Ararat. I spent the night
with four Turkish soldiers in this little block-house, ate rice
with the fingers, drank curdled milk, talked about brigands
and listened to the fears of a coming Russian invasion.
Next day I arrived at the last Turkish frontier town of
Bayazid. The town is chiefly inhabited by Turks, and there
is a military garrison with a Turkish governor or mutssarif,
whose acquaintance 1 speedily made, visiting him in a low
mud building whence the Star and Crescent floated in the
breeze, and announced myself as a British traveller on his
56 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
way to Persia. He gave me every assistance for the continu-
ance of my journey, and meanwhile sent some soldiers to show
me round the town. It is situated in an amphitheatre sur-
rounded by rugged cliffs, which in one place is a knife-edged
schist, inaccessible from either side. The strata of the schist
have been tilted in a vertical position, and denudation of all
but a certain hard layer in the schist has created this remark-
ably thin wall of rock, rising to a height of several hundred
feet. A medieval castle with underground passages clings to
the rocky slopes below this cliff. The natives say that it is a
Genoese castle used by the Genoese merchants in the middle
ages, but the natives of Asia Minor say that of every medieval
castle, and my investigation of it went to show that it was
Armenian, for I found some Armenian inscriptions on some of
the stones. It had probably been taken by either the Arabs or
the Seljuk Turks at one time, for I found a Cufic inscription
over one of the entrances.
In the town itself was a citadel on which a beautiful building
rested. It w^as made by one of the governors and built after
the Persian style in pure red sandstone. It is now the mili-
tary barracks and the arsenal, and to my surprise the governor
gave me permission to go right over it. The Turkish soldiers
were much interested in me, and I found them very pleasant
companions while they showed me round. They were simple
Turkish peasants and true Oriental fatalists. About a week
before, a portion of the roof had fallen in and killed six
soldiers. No attempt had been made either to clear up the
mess or to prevent a catastrophe of a similar nature occurring
in the rest of the roof, reasoaing that if the barrack roof fell
in, it was unfortunate but they could not help it.
I actually saw right inside the arsenal, which was part of
the ruined palace. The ammunition was very old, and I ex-
pressed some doubt as to whether it would be of any use in
action if they came to use it on the Russians, but the only
answer was, '' If not, it will be the will of Allah, and what am
I to do? " How ihin was the veneer of western life upon this
all-pervading oriental ground work.
A portion of the palace was used for civilian purposes. In
the absence of either a prison or a lunatic asylum in Bayazid,
both prisoners and lunatics shared the same quarter adjoining
the arsenal. A Khurdish brigand appeared to be getting on
very happily with an old Turk who had softening of the br^in.
What would otherwise have been a tragedy in the west, thus
Turkish Armenia and Persian Khurdistan 57
becomes a natural phenomenon in eastern life. The prisoner
strolled about anywhere, indeed he followed me to the place
where I was staying, and begged to be allowed to accompany
me as a servant into Persia. I afterwards wished that I could
have taken him.
Afer a few days rest at Bayazid I left it to cross the Persian
frontier riding with a caravan of pack horses, and with an
escort of Turkish soldiers sent with me by the governor of
Bayazid. As I proceeded westwards I could see the hills
which mark the Turco-Persian frontier to the south-east. The
frontier runs directly north and south, and for a long distance
follows a distinct geographical line which marks the water-
shed between rivers flowing westwards to the Euphrates and
to Lake Van, and those flowing eastwards to the Araxes River
and Lake Urmia.
Half a day's journey south of Mount Ararat, the ridge of
hills marking the watershed stops short, and plunges down
into the plains of the southern arm of the Araxes. These
plains separate the ridge from Mount Ararat, which stands out
in a lofty cone surrounded by plains to the north, south and
east, and connected with the high ground of the Armenian
plateau only on the west. After leaving Bayazid, I crossed
the Turco-Persian frontier at the point where this natural
ridge breaks off and descends into the valley of the Araxes.
Reaching a little col on the plain at the foot of this ridge,
I was informed that on this spot the Turkish Empire ended
and the Persian began. My Turkish soldiers now left me,
and I was alone on the frontier with my Circassian servant and
four horses. There was no Persian guard-post, no customs
official to be seen as I left the land of the Star
and Crescent and entered the land of the Lion and
the Rising Sun. I proceeded to try and find a village
to sleep in for the night, otherwise I should have
to sleep out under a rock. Skirting the end of the
ridge which marked the frontier about nightfall, I observed an
encampment of felt tents, which I knew were those of some
Tartar nomads. They were the encampments of Khurds, the
gentlemen who are notorious for brigandage especially in this
district. As I had very little worth stealing I decided to go
straight to them. At the edge of the encampment I met two
Khurds who came out to see who I was. They had large
black turbans, hooked noses, hanging cheeks, and an expres-
58 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
sion which suggested that they would cut anyone's throat for
very little.
I explained that I was an Englishman going to Persia and
that I had heard of the wonderful people called Khurds so I
had come all the way to see them. This little oriental blarney
worked like a charm, I was invited into the camp, and in a few
minutes I was squatting cross-legged on the floor of the tent,
while a few black-eyed ruffians squatted round me eyeing me
like a prize bull. When once their suspicion was allayed, two
of them went off to fetch a sheep to kill for me, and I settled
down in comfortable quarters in the corner of this felt tent.
The women, w-ho live in a separate quarter of each tent but are
unveiled and have quite handsome features, brought me some
of their embroidery work. Nomad shepherds of this type
are chiefly monogamous. It is only the chieftains or the more
wealthy flock owners who go in for polygamy. The price of
a wife ranges from ten to twenty horses apiece, and appears to
vary according to the price of horses. Women are not by
any means oppressed however, and within the precincts of the
tent their \yord is law. Anything to do with external policy
such as the migration of the tribe, the position of the tent, the
safety of the flocks is unreservedly in the men's hands. I
found that the native language of these people was Khurdish,
but most of them spoke Turkish which is the dialect running
all through this part of the country, whether on the Turkish
or the Persian side of the frontier. There was a tendency
however to introduce a number of words which were not
purely Ottoman, and which are confined to the dialect of
Turkish, spoken by the inhabitants of -the Middle East and
allied to the language of the Sarts of Turkistan, the Tartars
of the Caucasus, and the Persians of Azerbaijan.
During supper, I discovered that these Khurds were
nothing else than professional robbers, who supplemented
the produce of their flocks by occasional sheep raiding in
Turkish territory, and looting caravans which entered Persia
from the Black Sea. They belonged to a tribe ruled by a
famous Khurdish chieftain called Sinko, a notorious brigand
about whom I had heard great complaints from the Turkish
governors in Armenia. On his behalf they were scouring
this country on the watch for any wealthy caravan that might
pass through this territory and which might be regarded as
Turkish Armenia and Persian Khurdistan 59
fair game. Under the circumstances I felt happy to think that
my worldly possessions were so small at that time.
It seems that the Khurds are divided into two social castes,
and this primitive state of society is largely responsible for the
state of disorder existing along the frontier. There is first of'
all a military caste represented by a few chiefs with their ser-
vants, who are supposed to keep a rough and ready law and
order of their own interpretation. These Khurds protect a
second' caste, which is engaged in stock-raising, and which
pays an annual contribution in return for protection. The
Khurdish chiefs on the Turco-Persian frontier claim the right
to protect many of the Khurds now settled in the villages on
the Turkish side, and also some Armenian villagers too. The
consolidation of Turkish authority in the districts west of the
frontier have caused these Khurdish chieftains to lose many
of their retainers, and their chieftains now find amusement
in distracting the Turkish authorities by periodically reviving
their old claims and putting them into force by systematc raids
and caravan looting. A war between nomad and settled
population goes on all over the country. It is not a religious
war, because the Khurds are nominally Mussulmen and are
more bitter against the Turkish authorities and the settled
Moslem natives in Armenia than they are against the Arme-
nians themselves. This kind of social warfare is prevalent
all over the Middle East, and is the clash of two civilisations,
nomad and sedentary. It is economic rather than religious.
Next day I left my Khurdish robber hosts, and they sent
one of their number to accompany me to the residence of the
Khan of Maku, a Persian prince who lived a day's journey
from here, and whom it was necessary for me to visit. I
arrived at Maku at sundown, and found a magnificent man-
sion where the Khan lived in true regal pomp, surrounded
by groves of poplars and willows, running streams and gar-
dens laid out with lily ponds and formal beds of flowers.
After days of travelling in the desert, it was like an entry into
Paradise, and I thought of the passages in the Koran where
Paradise is pictured as one of these fertile oases. The Khan,
whose family had for centuries ruled this i>art of north-west
Persia, was now hereditary lieutenant-governor of the frontier
district between Mount Ararat and Lake Urmia, under
suzerainty of Persia. I spent six days with the Khan as the
guest of a true Oriental despot, a portion of his mansion was
set apart for myself and my servant, and every evening I
<5o Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
dined with the Khan, squatting on the floor of a large hall
and eating with our fingers, fatty rice, sheep's ribs, and deli-
cate Persian vegetables. During dinner a musician sat in
the corner of the hall and sang songs and ballads from the
'Persian classics. I noticed at once how different from the
wild abandon of the Khurdish pipe was the delicate music of
the cultured Persians. It is in its way very highly developed.
The tones are divided into minute fractions and the harmony
is highly complex. Persian music is indicative of an ancient
and highly cultured people. I found that the khan of Maku
was also a great scholar, and had many illuminated copies of
the Rubiyat of Hafiz. Every evening one of his servants
read passages aloud to us from these books. The Persians
think nothing of Omar Kayam on account of his heterodox
religious views, but Hafiz is regarded with deep reverence.
Even in the wild parts of Khurdistan, surrounded by savage
nomad tribes, the Persian aristocrat is a man of letters who
loves his country and her literature.
But my ideal of the Persian aristrocrat received a shock
when I observed the unmistakable signs of semi-European
corruption creeping in. One of the Khan's reception rooms
was crammed with cheap Russian furniture, the walls covered
with crudely painted plaster, an empty vodka bottle or two
and a portrait of the Czar lying about, told the tale of Russian
influence. Moreover, I was not long before I came into direct
contact with it. A man in a blue uniform and round peak
cap, who purposed to be a friend of the Khan, introduced him-
self to me one day, and whilst vouchsafing no information
about himself plied me with numerous questions as to what
I was doing. I at once stood on my guard, realising that he
was a Russian spy sent in from the Caucasus. I subsequently
discovered that the Khan dare not transact any business with-
out his permission, and indeed this man had the insolence to
try and act on behalf of the Khan in all official interviews that
I had with him. With the assistance of my servant, and with
a knowledge of Russian and a little Turkish, however, I was
able to defeat his intrigues. The following is a typical
example of Russian methods in this country. The Khan of
Maku has an eldest son who he hoped would succeed as lieu-
tenant governor of the Persian province bordering the Russian
frontier. Russian agents induced the Khan to let his son be
educated at Tiflis, the capital of the Caucasus. Here he had
been taught first of all the gentle art of how to drink, and then
Turkish Armenia and Persian Khurdistan 6r
he had been studiously put into the company of the most unde-
sirable moral element in the place, and had returned to Persia
a hopeless dissolute. This man the Russians hoped to put
in the place of his father some day, and use him as a tool for
Russian intrigue. The Khan, however, told me quietly one
evening that he wished to make his second son the heir, for
he had not thus been corrupted by so-called education in
Russia. This bright young man took me out one day
hawking, and I spent a pleasant day riding over the desert
hills chasing partridges with peregrine falcons. The bag was
somewhat restricted on account of the crazy behaviour of our
Khurdish servants, who whenever they saw a partridge^
screamed wildly and waved their arms.
After resting six days with the Khan, I took my leave, and
with an escort of two of his Khurdish soldiers or ruffians I
made my way southwards. I passed the wonderful town of
Maku, which is surrounded by an amphitheatre of over-
hanging cliffs, in which are old caves where Christians
used to worship for fear of the Mohammedans.
The first night I spent near a hot sulphur spring where we
all bathed, and after two more days' journey to the west across
the desert plateau and past a few ridges of barren hills, I
reached the plain of Khoi, a fertile alluvial spot at about 1,500
feet above sea level. It lies about a day's journey north of
Lake Urmia, from which it is separated by a low ridge of hills.
In the centre of the plain stands the Oasis of Khoi. I found
that the town was surrounded by a fine old mud fortress with
four gates on each side.
At last I reached Tabriz, where I found one of the few
British Consuls in the north of Persia, where there is a guard
of British-Indian soldiers. Here I rested about a week and
went about the town, wandering in the bazaars and visiting
the Persian officials.
Tabriz is the principal town in the north-west of Persia,
and the second largest in the whole of Persia. It is the
great distributing centre for Azerbaijan and the centre of
Persian culture and political progress. But the action of
Russia in recent years has stamped out all enthusiasm for re-
form, and I found the population singularly submissive, and
ready to acquiesce in annexation to the Caucasus through fear
of assassination by Russian agents.
Leaving Tabriz I proceeded on my way to visit Teheran,.
62 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
the capital of Persia, crossing some loo miles of the Iranian
plateau along the trade route connecting the two towns. The
country through which my road lay was somewhat different
from that which I had traversed in Armenia and on the Turco-
Persian borderland. Rugged plateau valleys and desert hills
running in every direction, gave place to vast expanses of
desert plains endless as the sea. As one approaches Central
Persia, the rugged mountains of the Turco-Persian borderland
sink to the level of the desert which is here a vast plateau plain
at about 2,000 feet in elevation.
The desert of central Persia itself is not a sandy one, but is
composed largely of dry mud and pebbles, the relics of an
ancient shallow sea, which at one time covered the Central
Asian plateau. Little Persian villages are clustered beneath
the chains of desert hills, where perhaps a little spring oozes
from the rocks and alone makes human life possible in this
vast and dreary waste. Perhaps only once a day a traveller
sees a collection of mud huts surrounded by groves of poplars,
the only indication that human life exists at all. Every now
and then a beautiful oasis is reached, where by some gushing
stream a leafy forest of elms and poplars has risen, surrounded
by vineyards and rice fields. The fertility and beauty of these
oases present the most striking contrast to the wilderness out-
side, and form one of the most characteristic features of Central
Persia. The inhabitant of such an oasis is naturally a lazy
person, for he would be more than human if he desired to
leave such a home for the desert outside. These are just the
sort of conditions which have produced the natural charac-
teristics of the Persian, laziness and indolence, not unmixed
with cowardice but highly intelligent, a lover of art and letters,
and indeed the cultured man of the east. He has developed
the aesthetic side of his nature at the expense of his physique
and manly qualities. He is a striking contrast to the Turks,
Khurds and Armenians, who live in the plateaux of Khur-
distan and who have in their native surroundings all the
characteristics of a highland race with its virile physique.
As I wended my way from Tabriz across the endless sea of
waste where not a living thing but a prickly desert shrub
could hold out in its war against the elements, a peculiar sen-
sation used to come over me, I will not say a depression, but
a sense of weakness, of impotence against the vast forces of
Turkish Armenia and Persian Khurdistan 63
nature which were manifested around me. This is the atti-
tude of mind indicative of Oriental fatahsm as we know it all
through the east. Is not this the type of mind which will
flourish under such circumstances and environment as this ?
The road between Tabriz and Teheran is really no road at
all, but only a track which has been followed for centuries by
caravans of mules and camels. No cart could travel along it
and reach its destination in safety ; there are no bridges across
the streams, and yet this is one of the principal highways
of Persia. Persia, in fact, possesses no roads as we know
them in Europe. My caravan consisted of five horses and two
servants, and each day we averaged about 22 miles, changing
horses in the villages as we went along.
The following is a typical view of a Persian village in Azer-
baijan ; a broad street of mud houses, surrounded by high
walls. The walls alone are visible from the street, and it is
impossible to see what population lies behind these walls. On
entering the door through these walls, one comes into a court-
yard, where collections of flat-roofed houses built of mud and
straw meet the eye, and in these the Persian p>easant lives.
He stores his grain upon the roof of his house, and keeps his
cattle in the out-houses of his court-yard. One part of his
house is set apart for his wife and family, and the other part
for strangers, to whom he never refuses hospitality. In this
respect he is just like any other Mohammedan in Central
Asia. Outside the village lie the vineyards, surrounded by
old mud walls decayed in many places. Here the vines,
planted in their trenches, creep above the ground, and an old
watch tower situated above them is used by the villagers to
watch for patrols of robbers.
A Persian never ill-treats his animals by beating them, but
he frequently starves and overworks them, and often I have
seen horses and mules that had broken down on the roadside
through overwork, left to die, or their skeletons bleaching in
the hot dry sun.
Four days from Tabriz I reached the town of Mianeh and
then crossed a range of desert hills which leads into the valley
of the upper Kizil Uzun. This range is the boundary be-
tween the province of Azerbaijan and the provinces of Central
Persia. Looking back northwards, I could see the great
plateau of north-west Persia stretching away to the Caucasus.
64 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
Emerging into the open plains again, I passed caravans of
camels bound northwards and resting on their journey. Often
did I pass small caravans of two or three camels gliding like
ships over the desert. Tawny-skinned Persians with round
felt hats sat dreamily upon a heap of beautiful carpets and
saddle trappings, swaying to and fro and singing old caravan
songs which had been handed down for generations.
Sometimes I arrived at a little place in the desert where
stood a huge caravanserai or wayside inn. Not a soul was to
be seen and the place was tumbling to ruins. It was one of
caravanserais of Shah Abbas, the great Shah of Persia, who
lived in the i6th century and built great caravanserais all over
the trade routes to accommodate the traders and to perpetuate
his name. Giant Arabic arches, inlaid with blue enamel tiles
and covered with inscriptions from the Koran, towered up
above. I entered the imposing gateway and found a great
court-yard inside, where a battalion of soldiers might drill,
and where accommodation for countless camels, horses and
men could be found in the battered buildings that surrounded
it. But the roofs had mostly fallen in, and not a soul was to
be seen. I found a little tower at one corner of the great wall
which had evidently served as a watch tower for soldiers, I
tethered my horses to their food in the court-yard and ascended
the winding staircase which which led to the tower. Here I
found an old room, probably a guard house, where safe and
secure I could sleep for the night, and here I and my two ser-
vants squatted down, cooked our food on a fire of camel drop-
pings, and laid to rest. The wind howled round us, and the
bats and owls flitted over our heads, and I thought of all the
many scenes which this old tower had witnessed in the dim
past ages; of the great and powerful Shahs of Persia and their
generals who may have slept within its walls, and of the lines
of Omar Kyam, " Look on this battered caravanserai, etc."
And then I came to a wonderful place, a little oasis in the
desert of the Kizil Uzun. Wonderful buildings and giant
mosques half in ruins, whose brilliant domes glittered in the
autumn sun, rose from the desert, and the little mud hovels of a
few Persian peasants clustered underneath their shade. This
was Sultanieh, the former capital of the Persian Empire where
ruled the powerful sultans of the Mongol dynasty, who came
from the plateaux of Mongolia and ruled Persia in the 13th
Turkish Armenia and Persian Khurdistan 65
century. The great mosque of the Sultan Hudda Bendeh rose
imposingly out of the desert. It was a great dome covered
with beautiful enamelled tiles of azure blue, and eight ruined
minarettes stood at the eight corners of its walls. I went in-
side and found a vast great hall littered with the ruins of bricks
and tiles, and here I found several beautiful relics of encaustic
tile work. There I saw the tombs of the former Sultans, now
covered with dust and decay, there I saw the spot where the
Sultans themselves used to pray to Allah, morning, noon and
night. The walls which towered over my head were inlaid
with the most exquisite tile work and mosaic, setting forth
passages in the Koran, but gaping cracks now rent the sides
and the rock dove now built her nest in them and flitted about
beneath the giant dome.
After passing Zinjan, a large Persian town, I heard wild
rumours of civil war. Everyone whom I met on the road
told me that Salar-ed-Dowleh, the brother of the ex-Shah and
a famous reactionary leader, was on his way from Kerman-
shah in the south of Persia, with a large army, to attack
Teheran the capital, and was now only a few days' march ahead
of where I was. It was somewhat startling news to hear that
the capital of the country in which I was travelling and to
which I was bound, was just about to be besieged by a rebel
army and I somewhat doubted the news until a day later I
reached the main road to Hamadan, and there sure enough
saw signs of what had taken place. Salar-ed-Dowleh 's army
was only a few days' march ahead of me and had been in all
the villages on the way robbing and looting from the inhabi-
tants. Several of the villages were deserted, the inhabitants
having fled, and every article of food had been taken. As I
was to some extent dependent upon the food I could pick up
on the way, I was reduced to some straits.
I pushed on with considerable haste, hoping that I might
see a battle between Salar-ed-Dowleh 's army and any force
which the Persian government might think fit to send out
against him, but a day's journey from Teheran I heard the
news that Salar-ed-Dowleh had feared to attack the capital and
had subsequently disappeared into the mountains bordering
the Caspian Sea to the north.
At length my journey ended, and the great city of Teheran
came in sight on the eastern horizon. I entered the west gate-
E
66 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
way where, in the congested traffic, I had to push my way
through caravans of camels and donkeys. Here I found a
hearty welcome from the British Legation, and spent a week
basking in the beautiful sunshine of a Persian autumn.
Although it was November the weather was like a fine English
July, and the heat during midday was such that one could
only remain in doors.
About two days' journey south of Teheran are the ruins of
Rae, a very ancient and remarkable place contemporary with
Babylon and mentioned in the Bible as one of the places to
which the children of Israel were exiled. Countless tumuli
and remains of ancient mud walls and bits of pottery lay
strewn all over the place, showing that the place would well
repay systematic excavation. At present nothing has been
done there, and the Persian Government has given no
concession for excavation as yet.
On a hill above the ruins of this city are to be seen one of
the Towers of Silence, used by theZoroastrians,the last remains
of the old Fireworshippers whose religion was once so preva-
lent all over Persia. Perched away up on a desert hill rose this
weird mysterious tower of cup-like shape. Inside, the
Zoroastrians put their dead to be eaten by vultures, and all
around I found human bones and bits of skull bleaching in
the sun.
The worship of fire and the sun-god, which was accompa-
nied by this method of treating the dead was part of the
religion founded by Zoroaster about 2,500 years ago, and was
the religion of Persia for over 1,000 years until the great wave
of Islam swept across Asia. Persia then became Mohamme-
dan, and Zoroastrianism decayed, but a few fire worshippers
still remain in Persia, of whom a few hundred families are to
be seen in Teheran, and the rest are mainly in the south of
Persia. The majority of these people migrated into India
and form the Parsees of to-day ; their original home however
is in Persia.
I left Teheran in the second week of November and
travelled northwards to the Caspian Sea, reaching the moun-
tains which fringe the lip of the Persian plateau, and made my
way over a road built by the Russians through rocky gorges,
passing endless caravans of camels bound southwards from
the Caucasus,
Turkish Armenia and Persian Khurdistan 67
Suddenly I sank down to the plains of the Caspian Sea.
For over two months I had been on this Central Asian table-
land never below 2,500 feet and now I suddenly sank down
over the edge of the plateau to the level of the Caspian Sea
85 feet below sea level.
The difference in this country and the climate was most
extraordinary. From barren wilderness I came to dense forest
and jungle, rice fields, and swamps where flamingoes and
pelicans stood solemnly on the brink. The Persians who up
to now I had seen living in their desert homes, in little mud
houses, had here erected for themselves straw thatched
houses of wood and wattle. Although they still wore Persian
dress, their features were quite different from those of their
kinsmen on the plateau ; they were tall, thin and emaciated,
and evidently their frames were saturated with fever. I
passed quickly through this country, for I knew it was feverish
and dangerous to remain in after so long on the high plateau.
I reached Resht on the Caspian Sea, boarded a ship bound for
Baku in the Caucasus, and, sailing away from the swamps on
the southern shores of the Caspian Sea, I said good-bye to the
land of Iran.
I have endeavoured to show that this part of the Central
Asian plateau is inhabited by people, who if they are studied
and understood with a broad sympathy and tolerance, may
still revive under European influence many of their former
good qualities, and it must be hoped that it will be possible to
infuse into these people just that element of material civilisa-
tion which will enable them to strengthen their position again,
once more to fulfil their role in a modified form as a buffer state
of the Central Asian plateau and once more to be a light to
lighten the art and literature of Europe.
68 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
THE GENESIS OF GEOGRAPHY.
By Miss Kate Oualtrough, F.R.G.S.
{Addressed to the Society in the Geographical Hall on
Tuesday, October isth, 19 14.)
To the indifferent geography is an elaborate gazetteer, but to
the learned student of nature it is the natural description of
the earth, there being no subject concerning the welfare of the
human race in which the geographical element does not
predominate. In times of peace it is paramount in commerce,
in industry, in colonisation, and in trade ; and in times of war
an adequate geographical knowledge of roads, terrain diffi-
culties and climate has more than once saved empires, just as
ignorance of these subjects has been visited with ignominious
defeats or barren victories, because geography is, in its highest
sense, that science of localisation which has determined the
major portion of history.
From man's first entry into the world he has been a
wanderer and an explorer — in fact, an unconscious geographer.
It is evident from the ethnological map of the world that the
world was not peopled by accident — by a mere chance
scattering of nations^ — for the five great races are spread out
over vast regions as if they grew there, and the peculiar type
of each race being more or less connected with the climate in
which it lives, viz., the Black Race to the Equatorial regions
in Africa and the East Archipelago, the Yellow Race to
Central and Southern Asia, and the White Race to temperate
Europe and Asia. But all races must have a common
ancestry, because of the general likeness in the structure of
their bodies and the working of their minds, and the fact that
all the human race, notwithstanding differences of form and
colour, are capable of intermarrying.
Ancient inscriptions and figures in Egypt give some idea
of the races of men as they were at the dawn of history more
than 4,000 years ago. The Egyptians themselves were in
stature and features much the same as they were in later times.
The celebrated inscription of Prince Una, of the Sixth
Dynasty beyond 3000 B.C., mentions the Naksi, or negroes,
who were levied and drilled by tens of thousands for the
The Genesis of Geography 69
Egyptian Army, and under the Twelfth Dynasty a procession
of Amu, or tribute-bearers, is represented on a wall painting
in the tomb of Knumhetp. These can be seen by their features
to be of the race to which the Hebrews and Egyptians belong.
The wall paintings of the tomb of Rekh-ma-ra at Thebes
of the Eighteenth Dynasty have coloured portraits of the
four great races distinguished by the Egyptians : (i) The
red-brown Egyptians themselves ; (2) the people of Palestine,
with their aquiline profile and brownish complexion; (3) the
flat-nosed thick-lipped African negroes; (4) the fair-skinned
Libyans. Mankind even then being divided into well-marked
races, distinguished by colour and features, it is surprising
how even now these old world types can still be recognised,
so that ancient monuments, geography and history alike prove
that the great race divisions of mankind are of no recent
growth but fixed before the beginning of the historical period
which is the modern period of man's life on earth, preceding
it being the pre-historic period when the chief work of forming
the races of mankind and spreading them over the earth was
done.
But these ancient monuments also show that 5,000 years
ago the ancient nations of the East had already come to an
advanced state of culture while no doubt the greater part of
the world was then peopled by barbarians and savages as in
later times. But in the regions of the Nile, Euphrates and
Indus there was civilisation, the Ancient Egyptians having
the greatest mark of a civilised nation — the art of writing — the
hieroglyphical characters of their inscriptions being the origin
of our alphabet. They were skilled in agriculture, raising
from their fields (fertilised by the yearly inundation) the grain
on which their dense population subsisted. How numerous
and how skilled in constructive art the Ancient Egyptians were
is seen by viewing the pyramids, the great Pyramid of Gizeh
being still one of the wonders of the world. The perfection
of its huge blocks and the beautiful masonry of the inner
chambers and passages show the skill not only of the stone-
cutter but of the practical geometer. The setting of the sides
to the cardinal points is so exact as to prove they were excellent
observers of the elementary facts of astronomy, the day of
the equinox can be taken by observing the sunset across the
face of the pyramid, and the neighbouring Arabs still adjust
their astronomical dates by its shadow. Almost as far back
70 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
as anything is known of the Egyptians they appear to have
worked in copper and iron as well as gold and silver, so that
their arts and habits, their sculpture and carpentry, their
reckoning and measuring, their system of official life with its
governors and scribes, their religion with its orders of priest-
hood and its continual ceremonies all appear the result of long
and gradual growth.
Of the early Babylonians or Chaldeans less is known, yet
their monuments and inscriptions show how ancient and how
high was their civilisation. Their writing was in cuneiform
or wedge-shaped characters, of which they seem to have been
the inventors and which their successors, the Assyrians, learnt
from them. They were great builders of cities, and the bricks
inscribed with the names of their kings remain as records of
their great temples. Written copies of their law exist so
advanced as to deal with the property of married women and
providing for the daily fine of a half measure of corn levied
on the master who killed or ill-treated his slaves. Their
astrology, which has made the names of Chaldea and Babylon
famous ever since, led them to make those regular observations
of the heavenly bodies which gave rise to the science of
astronomy. It is to this race that we owe not only our
division of time, but the invention of the sun-dial and the
week of seven days dedicated in succession to the sun, the
moon, and the five planets, an arrangement which is still
maintained, the names of our days being merely translations
of the Chaldean ones.
The cultivation of the land was an imperative duty not
only to man himself or to his master but to the State and
religion, for it produced the revenue of the State and the
wealth of the temples and provided their offerings. Thus
there grew up in Babylon at a very early period — certainly
before 2800 B.C. — a most elaborate and perfect fiscal or revenue
control by which the wealth of the country could be estimated
to the most minute extent. These returns were supplied by
the temples, the temple being the treasury and revenue office
of the district. But as a means to these returns an accurate
survey and census of the country was necessary, and, aston-
ishing as it may seem, this was perfected at a very early
period, for by 2500 B.C. it was in a most finished condition.
Not only were the estates carefully measured but the
The Genesis of Geography 71
boundaries were marked and recorded, so that it is not
surprising that the land surveyor was an important official.
The name he bore was Gan-gid-da, the field measurer,
literally the man who measures with a cord. The interesting
evidence of this inscription is confirmed by the discovery of
a most interesting series of plans of estates, certainly the oldest
examples in the world (3800 B.C.). Unfortunately, these
tablets were much broken when discovered at Tello.
But the monuments still remaining of Indian architecture
considered with a view towards obtaining a knowledge of the
people are not less important than those on the banks of the
River Nile are for a similar purpose connected with the
Egyptians. The natives of the Peninsula of India
were not only more early civilised but had made
greater progress in civilisation than any other people ;
indeed, they were reckoned by the ancient heathen writers
to be among those races of men called Autochthones,
or aborigines, whom they considered natives of the soil whose
origin could not be traced, and that the wisdom of the East
mentioned by inspired writers is to be understood as descrip-
tive of their extraordinary progress in science and arts.
But wherever there are found elaborate arts, abstract
knowledge, complex institutions, these are the results of
gradual development from an earlier, simpler and ruder state
of life, for no stage of civilisation comes into existence
spontaneously, but is developed out of the stage before it.
Human life may be divided into three stages : The lowest or
savage state, when man subsists on wild plants and animals,
neither tilling the soil nor domesticating creatures for his
food, his implements being of wood, stone, and bone. Rising
into the second or barbaric stage mankind takes to agriculture,
settled village and town life is established with immense
results in the improvement of arts, knowledge, manners, and
customs. Emerging into the third stage, that of civilised
life, the art of writing begins, which by recording history,
law, knowledge and religion for the service of ages
to come, binds together the past and the future in an unbroken
chain of intellectual and moral progress.
It is generally admitted by geologists that mankind
appeared on the earth in the Tertiary period, when the distri-
bution of land and sea and the climates of the earth were not
72 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
as now, the peninsula of India not being connected with the
mainland of continental Asia, all Central and Southern India
being separated from the great walls and foothills of the
Himalayan Mountains by a shallow sea represented at the
present day by the basins of the Indus and Ganges, the Plains
of India, and the Sunderbunds. iVU Central and Southern
India was probably then joined to -Ceylon and spread east-
wards across the Bay of Bengal to Burmah and the Malay
Peninsula. Westwards Central and Southern India stretched
across the Indian Ocean to Madagascar and East Africa,
while Western Africa was united with Brazil, then perhaps
separated by a narrow sea from the Andes of South America.
It has been surmised that mankind came into existence
somewhere in Southern Asia, either in India or Malaysia,
or possibly in the land now submerged beneath the surface
of the Bay of Bengal which united these regions. Later the
Tablelands of Central Asia and the great range of the
Himalayas underwent considerable elevation, and with them
rose the land now represented by the Plains of India. In
these regions the warmth and luxuriant vegetation favoured
man's life with least need of civilised arts, and successive
waves of population may have spread over cooler climates,
the white race of the temperate zone being formed the last
because it was least able to bear extreme heat or live without
the appliances of culture although gifted with those powers
of knowing and ruling which gave it the sway over the world.
The primitive village must have been the parent of the
oldest form of the later city, and was invariably built round
a centre, the site of the original market place and temple,
such as the Acropolis of Athens and the Capitol of Rome. In
seeking for the centre round which the village was built
unmistakable evidence is found as to the country whence it
originated, for it is in India that the village of the aboriginal
tribes is invariably arranged, so that the Sarna, or sacred
grove (in which the trees of the primaeval forests are still left
standing as the home of the local gods) is the central point
of the village. Thus is explained the reverence for the tree,
the parent tree of life of all the early races of India, the palm
tree of the Babylonians, the sycamore or fig mulberry tree
of Egypt, the fig tree of the Hebrews, the olive tree of Greece,
the pine of the northern Finns (which has become the Christ-
The Genesis of Geography 73
mas tree of Germany), and the oak tree of Britain. It is the
Sarna which also explains the sanctity of the groves attached
to the temples and dedicated to the local gods of all countries
of Southern Asia and Europe.
Remains of villages of the Neolithic Age are found
everywhere throughout Europe west of Greece, proving
conclusively that the people living in them had reached a
fairly advanced stage of civilisation, growing cereals, millets,
and flax, owning sheep, cattle, and goats, besides cultivating
fruit trees. There being no evidence whatever in the history
of European village communities of any sudden break
denoting a change in organisation, it is more than probable
that these villages were all founded on the same system of
communistic property in land, which is still the distinguishing
land tenure in all countries of Asia and in Europ>e east of the
Lippe and of Westphalia. Therefore it is certain that the
dwellers in the pile villages in Switzerland and in North Italy
held their lands on tenure similar to those found in the pile
villages of the Naga and river races of Assam and Burmah.
But wherever these are found so also is found the village
religion based on tree worship, so that the first villages must
have been founded and organised by a forest people — the
Mongoloid dolichocephalic Australoid tribes of South-East
Asia and South India. It could not possibly have originated
in the treeless lands of Northern and Central Asia, the seats
of the best known ancient empires, so that the rule of these
must necessarily mark a later stage in human progress, for
they owed their prosperity to maritime trade. They acknow-
ledged this and the foreign origin of their gods by carrying
them in ships called arks in all religious processions. Besides,
it is perfectly impossible that the Indian forest aborigines
could have learned how to organise their villages from the
forest and hunting races of Europe, for until the capacities of
India as a wealth-producing country had been developed by
its own agriculturists there was nothing to tempt the northern
races to leave their own lands and cross the mountains and
deserts which intervened. Considering the fact that the
Semitic races form a wedge between the white and yellow races,
it is clear that the Indian village system was brought into
Europe before the Semitic languages were formed and the
people speaking them had become a dominant confederacy.
74 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
It is also impossible that the exact identity between the
village communities of India and Europe could ever have
existed unless they had a common origin, so that the logical
sequence is : Agriculture was first systematically practised in
South Asia by a people which made the village, not the family,
its national unit, it being a rule that the parents should
never belong to the same village and the children should be
brought up, without the intervention of the father, by their
mothers and maternal uncles, being regarded solely as the
children of the village in which they were born, ruled over
by the mothers and maternal uncles. It was this system of
government which they took with them into Europe, where
they became the Amazonian races of Asia Minor and Greece,
and thus the ancestors on the maternal side of the dolicho-
cephalic Basques and the dark-skinned races who were the
agriculturists of the later Stone (Neolithic) Age.
But the cranial capacity of these Basques corresponds with
that of the yellow race — the great gardening and farming
race of Asia who migrated from the Xanthus or Yellow River,
settling on the banks of the River Jumna, and thus becoming
the first river valley colonisers, who introduced into agriculture
the fruit trees found in the Neolithic villages, besides being
the first growers of barley and the rearers of sheep. The
intermarriage of the matriarchal races with these yellow-
skinned agriculturists produced a maritime and agricultural
people who must have developed in India the early system of
navigation which they had probably first learned in the
Equatorial Islands, for the distinction in nautical efficiency
was attained in the great island world of the Pacific Ocean
and in the neighbouring lands of India long before the spread
of Mediterranean civilisation. Saihng vessels and out-rigger
boats of native design and construction characterise the whole
sea-washed area of Indo-Malaysian civilisation from Malacca
to the outermost isles of the Pacific.
And so it was these people who, like the Stone men of
Europe, made use of the timber growing in the inland forests
on the river banks and on the hills of the Malabar coast to
build boats and vessels in which they could navigate the river
reaches and make their way along the coast discovering the
great commercial advantages possessed by the valleys of the
Tapto and Nerbudda, making at the mouths of these rivers the
The Genesis of Geography 75
settlements which grew into the great exporting habours of
Surparaka (Surat) and Baragyza (Broach), and it was from
the extreme western point of the Indian Peninsula that they
started on the coasting voyages which led them along the
shore of the bay which has since that time become the delta
of the Indus, and it was from Patala, the modern Hyderabad,
the port which they founded on the Indus, that they made
a fresh starting point for their voyages, which ultimately led
them to the Persian Gulf and the Euphratean countries, where
they founded the worship of the earth tree goddess. But as
Patala (Hyderabad) is now 115 miles from the sea the days
when it stood on the shore must be many thousand years ago
(for allowing the rate of alluvial increase at 66 feet yearly these
115 miles must have taken more than 9,000 years to accu-
mulate).
Thus the union of this eastern round-headed yellow race
with the long-headed agriculturists of the Indian forest tribes
formed the great trading race, the Sumerians, the primitive
rulers of the Euphratean Delta. It does not follow, however,
that a people once settled never stirred from its adopted
country; emigrants there always were and always will be, and
navigable rivers are nature-made paths into wholly new
countries, so that it can obviously be assumed that it was by
way of the Euphrates Valley that the Indian village system
found its way into Europe, and the custom arose of property
descending in the female line among the Cretans, lonians,
Athenians, Etruscans, Egyptians, and many other Asiatic
peoples.
The route by which these brachycephalic races entered
Europe is shown by the prevalence of the brachycephalic type
of skull among the Slavs and the Rumanians, and their wide
diffusion is proved by the predominance of the brachycephalic
type of round graves throughout the Bronze Age in Europe
and by the legends universally prevalent which connect the
knowledge of metals with a race of dwarfs who became the
elves of the popular fairy tales. But it was in Asia Minor
that they intermarried with the fire worshippers of Phrygia,
the discoverers of mining, metallurgy, handicrafts, the
pioneers of scientific research, and the first organisers of a
ritual of religious festivals held at fixed periods of the year.
They were the great builders of the Stone Age, and descending
76 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
into the Euphratean Valleys built the cities of Eridu and
also the dykes and dams necessary for irrigation.
It was this union which broke up the national organisation
of the matriarchal tribes, especially the rule of the mothers and
maternal uncles, instituting personal marriages with the father
the head of the household, the family the unit of the race, and
the mountain its centre, their offspring being the Iberian race,
the founder of the Hebrew race. They built the huts with
the pole in the centre, and their remains found in places so
v^idely separated from each other as the caves of Wales and
Yorkshire and the Neolithic villages of Switzerland and Italy
prove that they kept horses, short-horned oxen, horned sheep,
goats, and pigs, and grew wheat, barley, millets, peas, flax,
fruit trees and vines from stocks which must first have been
grown in Southern Europe. They were the first spinners,
weavers and makers of pottery, introducing corn into Europe,
and represented in British ethnology by the Silurian tribes,
the Silures of South Wales; the proof in support of this
evidence being the traces found of the old terraced civilisation
that marked the husbandry of the early Iberian races. It is
at this period of the world's history that the earliest writing is
found.
Some slight idea of the mode of life in that prirriitive age
may be gained from the earliest writing on granite, for as man
is alone a tool-making animal and thereby .elevates himself
above the brute creation, so also he possesses another faculty
which distinguishes him from even the highest forms of
animal life, for whatever arguments may be advanced for the
descent of man from the ape family there is one great barrier
as yet unbroken, the fact that man is the only animal that can
draw or be taught to draw, the genesis of the literary and
pictorial arts.
Migrating further north the Iberians allied with the
shepherd races of the Caucasus, whose home was on the
Central Plain of Cappadocia, the north part of the Euphrates
Valley and the valleys of the rivers that flow from it, the
nursery of civilised man, where the southern matriarchal races
amalgamated and formed the first confederacy. But the
evidence proving the order in which this series of primaeval
historical changes succeeded one another proves also that they
were produced by the alliance of originally alien tribes. This
The Genesis of Geography 77
conclusion is confirmed by the cerebral differences and marks
of fusion shown by the skulls and skeletons found in the
tombs of the Neolithic and Bronze Ages and also by the
evidence of linguistic changes. The mythology of the Fish
God throws a remarkable light on the enterprise and migra-
tions of this first great race, for just as in geological strata the
fossils and the order of superposition tell of the ancient
climates and order of succession of the living races inhabiting
the globe, so in language and myths is found proof of the
formation of successive strata of human thought.
This myth is not confined to Asia and Europe, to the
Scandinavians and Finns, but is also found in North America
and Mexico. The North American Indians say that they
were brought from North Asia by a man fish, and it is
impossible to doubt that people migrated from there, some
of them passing through China and Japan and some perhaps
by direct voyages, because of the coincidences between Hindu,
Chinese, Japanese and American mythology. The practical
contact of East and West at the northern extremity of the
two continents would render the crossing, if there were one
in ancient times, a comparatively easy matter for even
primitive navigation. To this day there is a constant inter-
communication between the natives of North-East Siberia and
the Indians on the Northern Pacific coast of America.
Moreover, the distinctly Mongolian character of the American
Indians is noticeable, the Asiatic type becoming perceptibly
more marked in a northerly direction ; the natives of Peru
even wear the discarded pigtail. More curious still is the
strange sympathy which appears to exist between these natives
and the Chinese and Japanese immigrants, so unwelcome
elsewhere, which suggests some latent racial affinity. As
regards the ancient Mexican and Peruvian civilisations, strong
resemblances exist in their customs and relics with those
of China, striking similarities being found in the patterns
used for decoration, and in Tharapace, between Peru and
Chili, there are even huge vertical lines of hieroglyphics like
Chinese writing. The agricultural basis of society in early
Peru had its counterpart in China. Most important is the
presence of the cotton plant in America, for it is indigenous
to India and was first used for weaving purposes in India
and China, whence it was brought to America by the immi-
78 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
grating race and after the establishment of maritime commerce
in the Indian and Pacific Oceans.
This fish myth could only have emanated from
maritime people accustomed to long voyages, which
led them to believe that the whole earth was bounded
by the sea, and in an age when the traders were the
ruling class, the dominant interest maritime commerce
between India, China, and the islands of the Malay Archi-
pelago on one side, and Syria, Egypt, and North Africa on
the other, with its centre in the Persian Gulf. It could only
have been in an age of universal peace, and the ancient
inscriptions at Lugash, written in the oldest Akkadian form
of cuneiform script, give lists of the imports into the
Euphratean Delta, timber and stones forming the most im-
portant part of the ships' cargoes. The countries where
goods were received were Magana, the Sinaitic Peninsula,
Southern Arabia, Dilmun, the modern Bahrein Islands.
Those from the west, which must have come by sea from the
Red Sea, the Gulf of Suez, the Sinaitic Peninsula, were cedar
trees and stone used for the building of temples. Imports
from the north were copper and tin, showing that they belong
to the Bronze Age, and they must have come down the
Euphrates from the slopes of the Caucasus in Georgia, for it
is only there and on the northern slopes of the Himalayas
that tin had yet been worked. It was these people passing
through Asia Minor and Greece who founded the Druid
Religion in Britain. They were known as the Cymri, who
succeeded the Gaelic Celts, and were the builders of Stone-
henge. The whole series of the incidents of the life and rule
of Arthur, who was, according to one myth, cast up as a
baby by the sea waves, and who is thus identified with the
fish-god, are shown by the retirement of his Queen Guinevere
to Almesbury on the death of Arthur to belong to the sacred
series of stories of the Stonehenge temple, as Almesbury is
only a mile and a half from Stonehenge.
With the advent of the Semitics a great expansion took
place, for they were born traders and certainly brought an
industry with them, for the triumph of the weaver's art
originated among pastoral people who, having copied it from
the building of a bird's nest, developed it in working up the
wool and hair of their sheep, goats, and camels. They spread
the culture and civilisation of their adopted country as well as
The Genesis of Geography 79
the cuneiform writing until by the Fifteenth Century before
Christ it had become the script of trade and diplomacy of
Western Asia — indeed, the preservation and expansion of
Babylonian learning was entirely the work of the Semitic race.
For commerce is in itself an historical movement under-
lying colonisation, causing and stimulating great movements
of peoples, traversing the land to reach its destination, but
taking account of physical features only as they affect
transportation, dealing with systems of routes, surmounting
natural barriers which block the advance of other forms of
historical movement; every staple place and trading station
becoming a centre of geographical information and giving
an impulse to expansion by widening the geographical
horizon.
It is especially interesting to the student of civilisation to
notice that the travelling merchant had in early times another
business hardly less important than conveying ivory and
incense and fine linen from where they were plentiful to
where they were scarce. He was the bringer of foreign
knowledge and the explorer of distant regions in days when
nations were more enclosed within their own borders or w'ent
across them only as enemies to ravage and destroy. The
traders were doing much to turn the everlasting jealousy and
strife into peaceful and profitable intercourse. From being
emigrants and traders, the Semitics, by taking under their
protection the whole maritime and land traffic of South- West
Asia, became rulers of the countries of the Indian Ocean and
Mediterranean Sea, the original immigrants receding into
the background, while the cities, which were all stages along
the trade routes and rivers which traversed the country and
were the motive powers which formed these kingdoms, became
the centres from which the country was governed. In India
the trading cities of Multan or Mallitana, ruhng the commerce
of the Indus and the five rivers of the Punjaub, Kashi or
Benares on the Jumna, Barragzya, Broach, Surat, and
Dwaraka (Hyderabad), were all situated on the trade
routes of the west, but none of them, excepting Benares,
ever attained the commanding position held by Babylon and
Nineveh in Babylonia and Assyria. The greatness of both
these last two cities was built on trade, their position making
them successively the emporium of the East and the West,
8o Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
and their common fate was to be conquered. The commerce
of these early kingdoms was chiefly carried on overland by
caravans, the only means adapted to the wide open plains,
the insecure state of society, and the various difficulties and
dangers which attended the lengthened journeys across the
Continent. The merchants engaged in the trade of these
parts met at certain points for the interchange of their wares,
and thus the goods changed hands several times before
reaching their destination.
It could not be by accident that commerce was born on the
great river systems, for they are systems of communication
and forerunners of roads, always tending to be centres of
population. Offering advantages, they have always attracted
settlement, fertile alluvial soil, an adjacent water supply,
command of a natural highway for intercourse with neigh-
bours, and access to markets. Babylon, founded by the
Nimrod of Scripture, covered a great space on both sides of
the Euphrates, and it owed its prosperity to its excellent
position as a caravanserai, being placed in the highway of the
primitive land trade east and west. Food produce in abun-
dance at scarcely any cost of labour was ready for traders in
exchange for Chinese silks, Indian gems, and spices,
Bactrian gold and gold dust, and Western silver and wine.
At home textile manufactures of wool, linen and cotton
were carried to great perfection. Sidonese, as some remark-
ably fine and beautifully dyed cotton fabrics were called, were
so costly as to be restricted to royal use. Brilliant tapestries,
upon which the zoology of India was embroidered, were
coveted by princes for the choicest hangings of their palaces
and harems, and it was from them that the West received its
first notions of Indian natural history. Carpets with a pile
and coverlets from Babylonian looms were treasures more
precious than gold. Borsippa is mentioned as famous for the
finest linefi and cotton fabrics, but manufactures generally
were carried on inside the capital. The production of valuable
articles of luxury also employed the Babylonians, as their
parching climate rendered the use of cooling perfumed waters
universal. They were expert in the art of engraving stones
for seals, and they cut the gems of India for signet rings and
jewellery, the curious fashion prevailing of carrying a walking
stick of fine wood elaborately carved with devices of fruit or
The Genesis of Geography 8i
flowers, serving instead of costly jewels to indicate rank and
fashion. At Tylos, one of the Bahrein Islands, superior
cotton was cultivated; teak oak was felled, and handsome
sticks streaked and spotted like the skins of the tiger and
leopard were cut; the banks produced pearls superior in
hardness and beauty to those of Ceylon. Muscat and Ormuz
shared in this commerce. Between these cities and India an
active commerce sprang up. The Golden City itself stood on
both banks of the Euphrates near the modern Hillah. Its
site was enormous, and it had two walls, and at the lowest
computation had an area of loo square miles. The height
of the walls was no less remarkable, being 337^ feet, nearly
the height of the dome of St. Paul's, and their thickness was
85 feet. The city was entered by a hundred gates of brass
and protected by 250 towers, and it has been computed that
more bricks were used in the walls and towers of Babylon
than in the Great Wall of China, 1,200 miles long. Bricks,
burnt and unburnt, and cemented with bitumen, of which
springs are still in activity, formed the building material.
The laws of Babylon, especially the code of Khammurabi,
are the oldest in the world, being at least a thousand years
before the Mosaic, and became the law of Western Asia
generally. In the commercial laws the greatest exactitude
was required with regard to transactions, accounts must be
carefully kept and vouchers or sealed receipts taken for every-
thing. The dangerous state of the highways which the traders
had to traverse is shown by the clauses relating to loss by
robbery, while the regulations for shipping are such as would
be expected from a people who had a large carrying trade over
the rivers and canals of the Tigris-Euphrates Valley.
The Hebrews found these laws in force when they entered
Canaan as well as the civilisation, and doubtless they adopted
them, as their earliest codes are those of a settled people.
The connection between the Israelites and Babylonians became
still greater through Phoenician influence in the reign of
Solomon, the merchant prince, whose passion for building,
and the scale on which he indulged it, remind one of the
Babylonian monarchs. The nation, however, reached the
climax of its greatness in his reign, for nothing is more
remarkable in the history of this people than the immense
and sudden development of a widely extended commerce which
Sz Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
kindled the imagination of the people, but which brought them
so few real advantages and vanished almost as soon as it had
been established.
Yet though this special traffic vanished, being almost ex-
clusively connected with luxuries and the court, it gave the
earliest strong impulse to those commercial tendencies which
totally altered the national characteristics and changed the
people from an agricultural into a mercantile race. The
Phoenicians and Babylonians became their models, and
Jerusalem being situated centrally with regard to these king-
doms it speedily became a noted emporium of trade. But it is
certain that had it not been for their noted habitual industry,
perseverance, adroitness and knowledge of business which the
nation possessed they would never have been carried into
captivity, for neither Assyria nor Babylon required husband-
men, although they evidently required merchants, men of
science, of letters, and artisans, because they employed some of
the captives in such positions of trust and command. But
last, and most important of all, they required the Royal Road
— the most important caravan route in the ancient world and
the most important geographically and historically in the
modern world ; the possessor of it had the key to the East
and West, a not unimportant matter. What cycles of
civilisation has it not survived — the Israelites treading the
weary path to captivity, the Assyrians and Babylonians con-
tending for supremacy, until the whole of the Semitic race is
overcome by the Aryans, better known as the Medes and
Persians.
What a fascination the Royal Road had for the Greeks,
who invented the science of geography ; the earliest description
of the world in classical literature is in the poems of Homer.
In fact, the expeditions to the East were as important to them
as the exploration of Central Africa to the British in the
Ninteenth Century.
In the light of Babylonian learning the views of their
philosophers concerning the earth were revised. It was not
a planet but a fixed central body, around which the celestial
bodies revolved. Heaven was a large sphere, being compared
to the shell of an egg, while the yolk represented the earth
enclosed in it. Thales supposed the earth to float as a cork
in water. Anaximander believed it to be of cylindrical form
The Genesis of Geography 83
suspended in mid-air, and surrounded by water, air, and fire,
while Xenophanes supposed it to be firmly rooted in space.
Whether there were more worlds than one, and how and when
they would be destroyed, were questions discussed quite as
frequently in ancient as in modern times. The true view of
the spherical form of the earth originated with Pythagoras,
although its exact form was not known.
It is a well-known fact that war is one of the chief means
of promoting geographical knowledge, and the Persian wars
gave a prodigious stimulus to the knowledge of the Greeks.
For one thing, they were impressed by the excellence of the
Persian roads, and as a consequence they adopted the boun-
dary marks of the Babylonians — the originals of our present
mile-stones.
The conquests of Alexander the Great, who trod the Royal
Road to Mesopotamia, were purely geographical, his victories
depending solely on the overcoming of climatic differences and
geographical distance. It is related of him that on his
death-bed he caused his admiral, Nearchus, to sit by his side
and console him by narrating his adventures when sailing
from the Indus to the Persian Gulf. The Conqueror had
viewed with astonishment the ebbing and flowing of the tides;
ships had been built for the exploration of the Caspian Sea,
for it was thought that like the Black Sea it might be part
of a great ocean such as Nearchus had discovered the Persian
Gulf and Red Sea to be.
His greatest work was accomplishing the union of the East
and the West, and originating the most important era in geo-
graphy by the introduction of maps, the first actual record of a
map occurring at this time when Aristagoras, tyrant of Miletus,
asked aid of Cleomenes, King of Sparta, against Persia,
communicating his ideas by means of a map engraven on a
tablet of brass or copper, upon which was inscribed every
known part of the habitable world, the seas, and the rivers,
and to this he pointed as he spoke of the several countries
between the Ionian Sea and Susa. Practically it was a map
of the Royal Road.
But the most remarkable result of the Persian wars was
that it accustomed men's minds to travelling, hitherto regarded
as material for lies. The Platonic laws forbade it until the
age of 40 or 50 years, that men's travels might be more useful
S4 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
and instructive to them at so mature an age. Yet there were
exceptions. Herodotus was widely travelled and understood
the importance of a knowledge of the geography of a country
and its bearings on the history of its people. He considered
the whole of the earth then known as one single continent,
regarding Europe, Asia and Africa as nothing more than
divisions of it. He could not believe that the earth was of
globular form, thinking it ridiculous to hear men talk of the
circumference of the earth, pretending without the smallest
reason or probability that the ocean encompasses the earth,
that it is round as if mechanically formed, and that Asia is
equal to Europe. Diogenes, Zeno and Aristotle were also
great travellers, but the majority of people hardly looked
beyond their own country, unlike an educated Roman, who
loved travel, and thus there was a greater knowledge of the
world in the Roman period than in the mediaeval. Looking
for Great Britain on the early Ptolemy maps on the extremity
of the Roman Empire, but for the fact that the cartographer
lost his sense of direction somehow when he crossed the
Scottish border, not realising he was going straight on, but
thinking he had turned to the right, the map is extremely
accurate, unlike the mediaeval maps that were perfectly useless
for people finding their way about the world ; and yet it was not
that people were not travelling. A great many more travelled
over Europe in the Middle Ages than in the period of the
Roman Empire, knowing more about Central Europe than
Ptolemy did. Yet they produced maps that have no relation
to facts. The only explanation is that in those ages the
traveller merely thought about his next night's lodging,
passing from one monastery to another and not troubling
himself about the relations of one part of the country to
another, whereas the Roman geographer thought of the world
as a whole, he thought of it imperially, knowing Britain or
Spain as a country and one with which his Empire had to
deal, thus troubling himself to get acquainted with the general
shape of it, so that from him we get maps which have some
relation to facts.
Cosmas was a native of Alexandria and a traveller in the
Red Sea and the ocean beyond, who, thus fortified in geo-
graphical study, became a monk and wrote his "Christian
Topography" about the middle of the Sixth Century in
The Genesis of Geography 85
opposition to the pre-Christian theories. Under his pen the
inhabited earth became a flat rectangular oblong, surrounded
by oceans. At the north is a conical mountain round which
the sun — which is 40 miles in diameter — revolves, passing
about the summit in slimmer, so that it is hidden from the
earth for a shorter time daily than in the winter, when it
passes about the base.
Under the Rorq^n Empire the excellent roads, the fair
inns, and the organised system of posting for officials made
travelling quite as safe and almost as rapid as it was at any
time till within the last 50 years. All the cities of the Empire
were thus connected wth each other and the capital.
History is said to be a solution of problems. Humanity
wonders at the decay of the ancient empires and questions
whether our own will last. The answer is that the history of
mankind is subject to laws, the same causes produce the same
results, tyranny produces revolution, and revolution anarchy,
and anarchy tyranny all the world over. The rise of one
class is followed by the fall of another ; the privileges of the
people extend as the necessities of the monarch multiply. The
seeds sown by' one generation are reaped by future ones.
Civilisation dependent upon the bounty of the earth cannot
be as lasting as that depending upon the energy of man. The
ancient empires of Babylon, Assyria, Egypt, Mexico and
Peru were founded on the fertility of the soil; in European
civilisation climate has been the most powerful influence and
has caused the more successful labour.
Hence it is in the march of progress that priority is un-
questionably due to the most fertile parts of Asia and Africa.
But although their civilisation is the earliest it was very far
indeed from being the best or most permanent, because the
only progress which is really effective depends not upon the
bounty of the earth but upon the energy of man. Thus it is
that the civilisation of Europe has shown a capacity of devel-
opment unknown to those originated by soil. For the powers
of nature are limited and stationary ; the powers of mankind,
as far as experience and analogy are a guide, are unlimited.
All the ancient empires were situated in hot climates where
food was cheap and consequently wages were low, therefore
the condition of the labouring classes was depressed— the
upper classes being very rich and the labouring classes very
86 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
f>oor, nay, miserably so, those by whose labour the wealth
was created receiving the smallest possible share of it, pinched
by the most galling poverty, remaining in a state of stupid
debasement, broken by incessant misfortunes, crouching
before their superiors in abject submission, and only fit to be
slaves themselves or to be led to battle to make slaves of
others. There is no instance on record of the corhmon people
having escaped this fate in any tropic^ country in which
wealth has been extensively accumulated. Among nations
subjected to these conditions the people have counted for
nothing, having no voice in the management of the State, no
control over the wealth their own industry created ; their only
business has been to labour, their only duty to obey, and
thus has been generated among them those habits of tame and
servile submission by which, as history tells us, they have
always been characterised. Their annals furnish no instance
of their having rebelled against their rulers, no war of classes,
no popular insurrections, not even one popular conspiracy.
There certainly have been many changes, but all from above
and not, from below.
The Egyptians had an ancient proverb. " Man has a back
and only obeys when it is beaten." It certainly was the
application of it that built the pyramids, dug out canals, and
erected temples. The mere appearance of those huge and
costly structures, so. stupendous and yet so useless, is a proof
of the state of the nation that built them, for to raise them
there must have been tyranny on the part of the rulers and
slavery on the p)art of the people. Np wealth, however great,
no expenditure, however lavish, could possibly have met the
expense which would have been incurred if the workers had
received for their labour a fair and honest reward. But social
conditions were disregarded. If a member of the industrial
classes changed his employment or was known to pay attention
to political matters he was severely punished, and under no
conditions was the possession of land allowed to an agricul-
tural labourer, to a mechanic, or indeed to anyone except the
king, the clergy, and the army. The reckless prodigality
with which the upper classes squandered away the lives and
the labour of the people is appalling.
Whatever happens to nations their names survive the
catastrophes which overwhelmed them, for names are like the
The Genesis of Geography 87
heather on the hills and the wild flowers of the wilderness ;
wars may trample them down but they cannot be extirpated.
The rivers, too, still murmur the names of the people who
dwelt on their banks, and foremost among them are those of
the ancient empires, teaching us out of the wisdom of ages
that though there be no royal road to learning there is one to
national prosperity, for they founded their greatness on the
geographical instinct of the East.
88 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
TWENTY-NINTH ANNUAL MEETING OF THE
SOCIETY, 1914.
The 29th Annual Meeting of the Society was held, by kind
permission, in the Lord Mayor's Parlour, Town Hall, Man-
chester, on Friday, May 8th, 1914, at 3.30 p.m.
Mr. Harry Nuttall, M.P., F.R.G.S., President of the Society,
presided.
The following members and friends attended : — Mr. F.
Zimmern, F.R.G.S., the Rt. Rev. Bishop Welldon, D.D.,
Miss Law, Mrs. Potts, Colonel H. T. Crook, D.L., V.D.,
Messrs. A. Chapman (Eccles Co-operative Society), B. Elliott,
J. J. Gleave, J. W. Goodwin, Theodore Gregory, J.P., F.C.A.,
Wm. Harper, W. B. Leech, D. A. Little, J. W. O'Leary, T.
W. F. Parkinson, M.Sc, F.G.S., J. Howard Reed, F.R.G.S.,
Harry Sowerbutts, A.R.C.Sc, T. W. Sowerbutts, F.S.A.A.,
W. J. Tyne, Joel Wainwright, J.P., A. Walker, S. W.
Williams, L. Young, and others.
Apologies were read from : — Professor W. Boyd Dawkins,
J.P., F.R.S., Messrs. E. W. Mellor, J.P., F.R.G,S„ and Hans
Renold.
The Minutes of the Twenty-eighth Annual Meeting, held
on May 6th, 1913, were taken as read, a full Report appearing
in the Journal, Vol. xxix, page 57.
The following Annual Report was submitted by the
Secretary, who made explanatory references to the principal
matters dealt with in the Report.
Mr. D. A. Little, Honorary Treasurer, in submitting the
financial statement, which follows the Report, mentioned that
the amount of arrears was only thirteen guineas, whereas ten
years ago it was ;^54 19s., and going still further back to
1894, £^13 5s- Thus it would be seen that the financial
interests of the Society were receiving close attention. The
arrears were now less than 2\ per cent, of the income from
subscriptions and were, he believed, the lowest on record.
Mr. Little concluded by reading the following letter which
had just been received: —
6 May, 1914.
Dear Mr. Sowerbutts.
I am sorry that, after all these years, we have not
more support from a large city like ours (more or less in
Annual Meeting 89
touch with the whole world). We must continue to live in
hopes.
Herewith I have the pleasure to hand over to the Man-
chester Geographical Society the ten shares (par value
;^ioo) which I hold in the Building Company. Every little
helps.
I am,
Yours sincerely,
(Signed) George Thomas.
EEPOET OF THE COUNCIL
roR THE Year ending December 31st, 1913.
The Council liave the pleasure to report that the work of the
Society has been carried on successfully during the year.
The weekly meetings held during the winter months have
been more largely attended than in any previous year, and the
Council desire to express their thanks to all those who have given
valuable help.
The interesting and instructive character of the lectures
delivered will be seen from the following list : —
" Old Castles of England and Wales." Mr J. E. Phythian.
" Studies in the Commercial Geography of Lancashire." Dr. A.
Wilmore, F.G.S.
" Geography of East Yorkshire." Mr. T. Sheppard, F.G.S.
"Liibeck." Mr. W. Eller.
" The Rhine, from Basel to the vSea." Mr. J. A. Osbom.
** The Swiss Rhine, a scientific study of Scenery." Mr. J. A.
Osbom.
" Budapest and the Great Hungarian Plain." Mr. W. H.
Shrubsole, F.G.S.
" Among the Carpathians." Mr. W. H. Shrubsole, F.G.S.
" Highways and Byways in Dalmatia, Hercegovina, Bosnia, and
Servia." Mr. G. Waterhouse, F.R.G.S.
" Journey in the Balkans and Turkey." Mr. C. H. Bellamy,
F.R.G.S.
** Japan, its beauties in Nature and Art." Mr. J. Hilditch,
M.R.A.S.
" Visit to the Holy Land and Northern Egypt." Mr. T. W.
Brownell.
" The Gambia River and Protectorate." Rev. T. F. Nicholas,
M.A.
" Life in San Salvador do Congo." Dr. M. Gamble.
" Dr. Livingstone's Explorations." vSir Harry H. Johnston,
G.C.M.G., K.C.B., F.R.G.S.
go Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
"Rhodesia." ^Mr. G. de H. Larpent.
•* East Africa." Mr. John Ainsworth, C.M.G., F.R.G.S.
'* Climbing in the Canadian Rockies." Prof. H. B. Dixon, F.R.S.
" Visit to New Zealand." Mrs. Lees, F.R.G.S.
" Native Life and Customs in Southern Seas." Mr. Oliver
Bainbridge.
** Spitsbergen : Past and Present." Dr. W. S. Bruce.
" Lost in the Polar Regions." Captain K. Mikkelsen.
** Romance of the North- West Passage." Mr. G. H. Warren.
" Captain Scott's Antarctic Expedition." Commander E. R. G.
Evans, R.N., C.B.
" Glaciers." Mr. J. A. Carter, B.A.
" Education." Sir Harry H. Johnston, G.C.M.G., K.C.B.,
F.R.G.S.
These addresses, with the exception of four, were delivered in
our own Hall; two being given in the Houldsworth Hall, one in
the Albert Hall, and one in the Free Trade Hall.
The lecture given in the Free Trade Hall on October 31st
by Commander Evans was very successful, and the Council are
pleased that this representative of the British Antarctic Expedi-
tion had such a magnificent reception when he described the
work done, with special reference to the journey of Captain
Scott and his companions to the South Pole and their sad fate
on the return journey.
The Council thank the Yice-Chairman, Mr. E. W. Mellor,
J. P., F.E.Gr.S., for the use of his powerful electric lantern for
the lectures in the Houldsworth Hall and the Free Trade Hall.
His valuable help is highly appreciated.
The Centenary of the birth of Dr. David Livingstone has been
celebrated during the year by two gatherings, at both of which
Sir Harry H. Johnston took a prominent part. At the first,
held in the Albert Hall, he delivered a lecture on " Dr. David
Livingstone's Explorations and their Results " ; at the second, a
Banquet held in the Midland Hotel, Sir Harry Johnston was
the principal guest, and gave an address on " Education." The
Banquet was a largely attended and successful gathering.
The Journal for the whole of 1912 has been issued during the
year in half-yearly parts.
Valuable additions to the Library and Map Collection have
been made during the year, full particulars of which are given
in the Journal.
The services so freely given by the Victorians in lecturing
and in acting as Stewards at the Free Trade Hall and other
meetings are greatly esteemed.
Annual Meeting 91
The loss by death of the members, whose names follow, is
greatly deplored : —
Mrs. Laycock.
Mrs. Oram.
Mr. F. Burton, J.P.
Mr. J. Donnell, J.P.
Mr. G. A. Harrop.
Mr. W. Haworth, J.P.
Mr. Alderman W. Healey, J.P.
Mr. J. Lanyon, J.P.
Mr. J. Tetlow Lewis,* J.P.
Mr. S. Oppenheim, J.P.
Mr. E. H. Eeynolds.
Mr. C. H. Scott, J.P.
Mr. Ph. Segner.
Mr. I. C. Waterhouse.
Mr. E. H. Watt.
Mr. S. Oppenheim was a Vice-president, member of the
Executive Committee, and had previously for many years acted
as Honorary Treasurer. Messrs. F. Burton, Wm. Healey,
S. Oppenheim, and I. C. Waterhouse were Original members of
the Society.
The balance Sheet for the year with the Eeport of the
Honorary Auditor is appended.
It will be seen that there is a small deficiency on the Eevenue
Account for the year.
The financial position of the Society has been improved
partly by the generosity of the late Mr. S. Oppenheim in
bequeathing ten shares (£10 each) in the Building Company to
the Society, and also by the kind help of the seven members
who paid Life Compositions and thus enabled the Society to
acquire the 25 shares of the late Mr. C. H. Scott.
In consequence of part of the Building being unlet the
Society has received no dividend from these shares during the
year.
The number of members on December 31, 1913, was 708,
being a net increase of 20 during the year.
Further additions to the membership are urgently needed to
advance the work of the Society, and especially to enable the
library and map collection to be improved. Card Index Cases,
Map drawers and cupboards, and Glass Exhibition Cases for the
Museum are especially required. Donations for these objects
will be cordially welcomed.
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94 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
The President, in moving that the Annual Report and
Balance Sheet be adopted, referred first to the increase of 20
in the number of members, making the total 708. He said
that their aim was to reach a membership of 1,000, and he
appealed to the representative members of the Society to help
in achieving that object. If they had more members they
would have more money and could carry out to a still greater
extent the work they had undertaken. Another matter he
referred to was the resignation, which they had received with
great regret, of Mr. J. Howard Reed, F.R.G.S., as one of the
Honorary Secretaries. Mr. Reed had felt himself obliged to
take this step because his business engagements now took
him out of Manchester so much that he could not attend to
the work of the position which he had held with such distinc-
tion for almost twenty years. The services of Mr. Reed had
been very great, and they all knew how active he had been in
the Victorian section especially. He had also represented the
Society at the Annual Meetings of the British Association.
For all his labours the Society was very much indebted to
him, and although they regretted his resignation as one of
the Honorary Secretaries, they were glad to know that he
would continue to render the Society as much assistance as
he could.
Speaking on the subject of " Geographical Progress," the
President observed that during the past year there had been
considerable evidence that the scientific exploration of the
world and the commercial development of its resources had
proceeded with greatly increased activity and energy. We
had also seen great changes in the South of Europe. Turkey
had lost nearly all her territory on this side of the Bosphorous,
and this was preceded by great political changes in Morocco
and Tripoli. Happily the danger of other powers of Europe
being drawn into these difficulties and troubles had passed
away, and we were left to the peaceful occupation of making
new maps of that part of the world. Railways were being
constructed in parts of the world where they were very much
needed, notably on the East Coast of Africa, and grants in
their aid had recently been made by both England and
Germany. Further, previously to that, the British Govern-
ment gave assistance towards the development of cotton-
growing in the Sudan. Mr. Nuttall said that he referred
specially to these commercial developments because the Man-
chester Geographical Society was primarily founded for the
Annual Meeting- 95.
study of Geography in its connection with trade. At the
same time scientific geography was naturally studied concur-
rently. It was the scientific man and the courageous explorer
who preceded the trader.
The exploitation of the world was going on very rapidly.
Industry was increasing and new communications between
various parts of the world were continually being made. The
result of all these developments would, he believed, given fair
crops upon which prosperity depended more largely than
upon anything else, be a great protection against the long
depressions of trade we had experienced in past times. After
referring briefly to the greater interest now given to geogra-
phical studies, as compared with twenty-nine years ago, when
the Society was founded, Mr. Nuttall reverted to the rapidity
with which exploration was being carried on. The record of
the year 191 3, he said, was very long and varied, and one
could only touch upon a few examples for the purpose of
giving an idea of the never-ceasing activity and energy of
man.
The region of the mighty Himalayas, a vast and ever-
attractive territory stretching 1,300 or 1,400 miles across India,
north-west to south-east, and which appealed to the imagina-
tion more forcibly, he thought, than any other part of the
globe, had been the object of various important expeditions.
The more important, perhaps, was that of Captain F. C.
Bailey, who was exploring unknown parts of the Brahma-
putra and its passage through the Himalayas. Another
expedition was in preparation by Dr. Fillipi, a well-known
Italian mountaineer, on the north-west borders of India, and
it had the support of the Indian Government. The pro-
gramme of research included geology, meteorology, atmo-
spheric physics, geodesy and topography. There was a
further expedition in the same region, also under the auspices
of the Indian Government, by Sir Aurel Stein, who was now
engaged in a region of Central Asia for the purpose of
geographical and archaeological research. He started from
Kashmere last Autumn by new and difficult routes and he
would pursue his investigations over a period of three years.
Northern Arabia had been largely explored by Captain
Leachman, Mesopotamia by the Austrian, Professor Musil.
This region was one of very great possibilities. There had
been various schemes for using the Euphrates to make the
land productive of grain and other crops, thus not only adding
to the wealth of the world but also to its beauty.
96 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
West Africa was still being explored. The interior of
Mozambique had been explored by a British Syndicate for
the study of its mineral resources. Northern Canada and
South America (more particularly Brazil, where ex-President
Roosevelt had been on an adventurous journey) were other
regions of energies and enterprise of explorers. Further, *
three expeditions were engaged in crossing Greenland in
1912— 1913.
Although every point, from the North Pole to the South
Pole, had been reached, there were still vast regions remain-
ing to be explored and developed. For instance, there was
Siberia, of which we knew really little, with its five million
square miles and only six millions of a population, extending
from the boundaries of Europe right across Asia for 3,000
miles. In this vast land there were, he believed, great mineral
resources and great wheat-growing possibilities undeveloped.
Again it had been estimated that if all the wheat-growing
lands of Canada could be brought into cultivation immediately
(which, of course, was not possible) Canada could supply the
whole world with wheat. Thus, when we thought of Siberia
and of Canada we could see that there were yet a great many
resources in the world for our use.
Then we had the sad record of Captain Scott, of the
scientific investigations of whose expedition we had yet to
see a large account. Moreover, Dr. Mawson, who had just
returned from the Antarctic, had done a very important work.
Already we had one concrete result of his expedition, we knew
that he had explored and definitely mapped, for the first time,
no fewer than a thousand miles of the coast of Antarctica.
There was a prospect of still another expedition, perhaps as
remarkable as any, by Sir Ernest Shackleton. He was a man
of experience, courage, strength and extraordinary versatility,
and we looked forward with every confidence to his successful
accomplishment of the task he had set himself. Another
prominent explorer was Captain Amundsen who, with his
usual resolution and energy, v/as preparing for an expedition
next year to cross the North Pole in a similar manner to that
attempted by Dr. Nansen. At the same time Captain
Amundsen would -engage very largely in scieritific investiga-
tions.
Concluding, Mr. Nuttall said that he had always held that
a knowledge of geography was the foundation of all know-
ledge and the right starting point. It was the first thing a
Annual Meeting 97
child began to learn, finding out first the geography of the
room in which it was born and then of the house, afterwards
of the outside world. In times gone by people regarded
geography as merely something to do with maps. Now it
was recognised that geography embraced everything relating
to man and the products and natural resources of this won-
derful world. In short, it embraced science, romance and
utility.
Mr. F. Zimmern, F.R.G.S., in seconding the resolution
spoke of the report as highly satisfactory. So large had the
attendances been at the weekly meetings that they might soon
have to consider whether to restrict admission to members
only or to enlarge the Hall again. The Victorians had
continued their good work. The membership of the Society
had reached a very satisfactory figure, but they had not yet
attained their ambition. Therefore he appealed for more
support. With their Journal, weekly lectures, use of the
Library and Map collection, membership for one guinea a
year ofTered the best value in Manchester. For public utility's
sake and for the sake of science itself many more people might
become members of the Society.
The Rt. Rev. Bishop Welldon, D.D., in supporting the
resolution, said that it was a great pleasure to him once more
to show his interest in the Geographical Society. He hoped
he might claim that while he was an educationist, he was not
altogether dead to the importance of geographical study.
With the vain gloriousness of an old headmaster he liked to
reflect that Sir Ernest Shackleton was an old scholar of
Dulwich College, of which he (Bishop Welldon) was once a
master.
The Dean, continuing, remarked that he was afraid the
days of geographical renown were jDassing away, that few
lands remained to be conquered. He observed that it had
been stated that ex-President Roosevelt had discovered a new
river a thousand miles in length. There was no city which
could surpass Manchester in its necessary attachment to the
progress of geography. When the Bishop of Uganda
preached in the Cathedral not long ago, a member of his own
congregation in Uganda was waiting for him in the vestry
after the service. He hoped the Society would do still better
work in the future than even it had done in the past, and he
believed that it was not impossible for it to get a thousand
members.
In putting the resolution, which was carried unanimously,
G
98 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
Mr. Nuttall said that Sir Ernest Shackleton would highly
appreciate any help towards the expenses of his expedition
from those able and willing to give, though he was not
making any public appeal for the balance still required.
The secretary announced that the retiring Officers and
Council had been nominated, with the addition of Messrs. P.
K. Glazebrook, M.P., and George Thomas, J.P., to the Vice-
Presidents, of Mr. J. A. Osborn to the Council, and the with-
drawal of Mr. J. Howard Reed, F.R.G.S., as an Honorary
Secretary.
Mr. William Harper, in moving the resolution that " the
Officers and Council, as nominated, be elected," expressed on
behalf of the members thanks to the retiring Officers and
Council for their services during the year, making special
reference to the Executive Committee. Mr. A. Chapman
seconded the resolution and specially mentioned the services of
the Victorians in their lecturing work. The resolution was
passed unanimously. (See List with Title-page.)
Colonel H. T. Crook, D.L., V.D., gave expression
to the indebtedness of the Society to Mr. Gregory
for his valuable services as Honorary Auditor to the
Society for the twenty-nine years of its existence,
and moved the following resolution: — "That the best
thanks of the Society be given to Mr. Theodore Gregory,
J.P., F.C.A., for his services as Honorary Auditor, and that
he be re-elected." Mr. T. W. Sowerbutts, F.S.A.A., seconded
the resolution, which was carried unanimously.
Mr. Joel Wainwright, J. P., who was within three weeks of
his 83rd birthday, gave expression to the regret of those
present that the Lord Mayor (Alderman McCabe, J.P.) was
unable to be present, and moved : — '* That the best thanks of
this Meeting be tendered the Lord Mayor for the use of his
Parlour, and to the President for presiding over the Meeting
and for the Address which he has delivered."
Mr. J. Howard Reed, F.R.G.S., seconded the resolution,
which was passed unanimously, in the name of all present
thanked the President for his very interesting address,
and then personally thanked Mr. Nuttall for his kind reference
to the twenty years of service which he (Mr. Reed) had
willingly given, and would have continued had circumstances
permitted. Mr. Reed intimated his intention to continue his
support as Vice-President, and to be willing to do all in his
power to forward the interests of the Society.
Proceedings of the Society 99
procccMnge of tbe Society?.*
January ist to June 30th, 1914.
The 950th Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, January
6th, 1914, at 7.30 p.m.
In the Chair, Mr. F. Zimmem, F.R.G.S.
The Minutes of the Meetings held on December i6th and 23rd were
taken as read.
The Chairman announced the election of the following members :
Ordinary : Messrs. S. P. Liebman, G. P. Cookson, Herbert Levinstein
and Harry Herd ; Associate : Mrs. Hamilton, Miss Evelyn Harris and
Miss M. B. Nash.
Mr. W. Herbert Garrison, F.R.G.S., gave a Lecture on " New-
foundland, our Oldest Colony." The paper was illustrated with a
fine collection of lantern views of the Island, mostly hand-painted.
The Chairman moved and it was unanimously resolved that the
hearty thanks of the Meeting be given to the lecturer for his very
interesting and informing address and for the fine illustrations
shown.
The 951st Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, January
13th, 1914, at 7.30 p.m. In the Chair, Mr. F. S. Oppenheim, M.A.
The Minutes of the Meeting held on January 6th were taken as
read.
Mr. W. Barnes Steveni gave a lecture on " The Romance and
Tragedy of the Volga and its Towns." The address was illustrated
with 100 Lantern views.
At the conclusion of the lecture Mr. Steveni sang a Russian song,
Mr. J. Hindle, L.R.A.M., having kindly volunteered to play the
accompaniment, and afterwards half a dozen Russian songs were
given on the Pathephone, which was kindly lent by Mr. D. Fraser
Watson, Manchester Agent of Messrs. Pathe Freres.
Mr. George Ginger moved, Mr. R. A. Staniforth seconded and it
was unanimously resolved that the thanks of the Meeting be given
to the Lecturer for his interesting account of the Volga and for the
lantern and pathephone illustrations.
The 952nd Meeting of the Society was held in the Houldsworth
Hall on Tuesday, January 20th, 1914, at 7.30 p.m. In the Chair, Mr.
F. Zimmern, F.R.G.S.
The Chairman announced the election of the following members :
Ordinary : Miss Ada Abson, Messrs. F. A. Lauder, J. Wm. Lewis, H.
F. Parkinson and Mark Winder; Associate : Mrs. Gumbrell, Miss M.
A. Brown and Rev. J. G. Maude.
* The Meetings are held in the Geographical Hall, unless other-
wise stated.
100 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
Mr. E. W. Mellor, J.P., F.R.G.S., delivered a Lecture entitled :
" In the Home of the Rajput." He first gave a short account of the
Geography and History of Rajputana and then dealt with his personal
impressions of the country and its people, illustrating his remarks
with lantern views which included some of the most beautiful pictures
of Indian architecture and sceneiy that have been made public,
especially those taken by colour photography, also with cinemato-
graph views, which were extremely interesting records of everyday
Indian native life. All the films and slides were taken by the Lec-
turer, with the exception of a few slides taken by Mr. G. R. Mellor,
and were shown by means of the Lecturer's powerful lantern.
Colonel H. T. Crook, J. P., V.D., in moving a resolution of thanks
to Mr. Mellor for the very interesting lecture so superbly illustrated
which he had delivered, said that Mr. Mellor had surpassed all his
previous lectures both in the interest of the lecture and in the beauty
of the illustrations, and the cinematograph films shown gave an
example of the proper use of the cinematograph.
The Chairman, in seconding the Resolution, which was passed
with acclamation, referred to the valuable services of the Vice-
Chairman in giving this Lecture and in arranging for the Houlds-
worth Hall for this and the following lecture.
The 953rd Meeting of the Society was held in the Houldsworth
Hall on Tuesday, January 27th, 1914, at 7.30 p.m. In the Chair, the
President,' Mr. Harry Nuttall, M.P., F.R.G.S.
The Chairman mentioned the loss by death of a member, Mr.
Salis Simon, Swedish Consul, and a resolution of sympathy with Mrs.
Simon and family was passed unanimously.
Owing to the sudden illness of Mr. P. K. Glazebrook, M.P., his
lecture on " Somaliland " had to be postponed, and Mr. T. E. Green,
F.R.G.S., gave a lecture on " In the Zuider Zee." The address was
illustrated with a large number of beautiful coloured slides splendidly
shown by the powerful lantern of the Vice-Chairman.
Mr. Mellor moved and it was unanimously resolved that the thanks
of the Meeting be given to Mr. Green for the beautiful slides and
interesting account which he gave of his journey. Mr. Green, after
acknowledging th^ vote of thanks, moved that Mr. Mellor be thanked
for his valuable services with his splendid lantern, which was the
best that the lecturer had ever seen, and for inviting the members
and friends to the Hall ; the motion was carried with acclamation.
The 954th Meeting of the Soci'ety took the form of a Social Gather-
ing, and was held on Saturday, January 31st, 1914.
From 6.30 p.m. to 7 p.m. the members and friends were received
by the President (Mr. Harry Nuttall, M. P., F.R.G.S.) and Mrs.
Nuttall. -On the conclusion of the Reception, Colonel H. T. Crook,
J.P., V.D., gave a short address on " Recent Changes in pur National
Proceedings of the Society loi
Maps," illustrating his remarks with maps and diagrams shown both
from lantern slides and from the original maps by the Aphengescope.
A Concert arranged by the Victorians occupied the remainder of
the evening, and the following artistes assisted : Madame Alice Lamb,
Madame Marsh, Mr. G. R. Swaine and Mr. J. Hindle. There was an
interval at 8.15 p.m. for conversation, refreshments (kindly provided
by the Ladies' Committee) and smoking.
At the conclusion, Mr. Harper moved, Mr. J. Stephenson Reid
seconded, and it was unanimously resolved that a hearty vote of
thanks be accorded to Mr. and Mrs. Nuttall, Colonel Crook, Madame
Alice Lamb, Madame Marsh, Messrs. G. R. Swaine and J. Hindle,
and to the Ladies* Committee.
The 955th Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, February
3rd, 1914, at 7.30 p.m. In the Chair, Mr. F. Zimmern, F.R.G.S.
The Minutes of the Meetings held on January 13th, 20th, 27th,
and 31st were taken as read.
The election of the following members was announced : Ordinary :
Messrs. C. Dean, W. T. Draper, W. Elliot, J. Watson and D. Fraser
Watson; Associate : Miss Atkin, Miss A. Fosbrooke and Miss Paine.
The Chairman mentioned the loss by death of Mr. James Leigh, a
member of the Society for fourteen years. It was resolved that an
expression of regret and sympathy be conveyed to his family.
Professor C. F. Lehmann — Haupt, Ph.D., LL.D., gave a lecture
entitled : "Armenia, in olden times and nowadays."
The address was illustrated with lantern views, mostly from photo-
graphs taken by the lecturer during his explorations.
On the motion of the Chairman it was unanimously resolved that
hearty thanks be given to the lecturer for his interesting and instruc-
tive address and for the illustrations shown.
The 956th Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, February
loth, 1914, at 7.30 p.m. In the Chair, Mr. John Hancock.
Mr. E. G. Prasatham Cotelingam gave a lecture on ** British
Burma : the golden land of boundless possibilities." The address
was illustrated with over one hundred lantern views.
On the motion of the Chairmaii a hearty vote of thanks was passed
to Mr. Cotelingam for his intensely interesting lecture.
The 957th Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, February
17th, 1914, at 7.30 p.m. In the Chair, Mr. F. Zimmern, F.R.G.S.
The Minutes of the Meeting held on February loth were taken as
read.
The election of Mr. W. F. Holmes as an ordinary member was
announced,
Mrs. Edward Melland gave an interesting account of her ** Experi-
ences among Maoris and mountains of New Zealand." Mrs. Melland
has spent most of her life in New Zealand, and the story of her travels
102 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
in various parts of the country, with the incidents of life and moun-
taineering, was both interesting and instructive. The illustrations
shown added to the charm of the lecture, (see p. 27).
The Chairman moved and it was unanimously resolved that the
thanks of the meeting be tendered to Mrs. Melland for the interesting
and graphic account of her experiences so splendidly illustrated.
The 958th Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, February
24th, 1914, at 7.30 p.m. In the Chair, Mr. F. Zimmern, F.R.G.S.
The Chairman mentioned the death of Mr. Hy. Kirkpatrick, J. P.,
a member for 27 years and donor of five shares (;C5o) in the Building
Company. It was resolved that the sympathy of his fellow-members
with his relatives be conveyed to them.
Mr. Thomas M. Ainscough, M.Com., F.R.G.S., who has lived in
China for six years, gave a lecture on ** The Marches of Chinese
Tibet," through which country he passed on his way from China to
India, and illustrated his address with a number of orignal lantern
slides (see p. i).
On the motion of Mr. Herbert Whitworth it was unanimously
resolved that the hearty thanks of the Meeting be given to Mr.
Ainscough for his very interesting and instructive address and for
the fine views shown
The 959th Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, March 3rd,
1914, at 7.30 p.m. In the Chair Mr. F. S. Oppenheim, M.A.
The Minutes of the Meetings held on February 17th and 24th were
taken as read.
The election of Mr. Edward Melland as an ordinary member was
announced.
The death of Mr. J. H. Abbott was mentioned, and it was resolved
that the sympathy of his fellow-members be conveyed to his relatives.
Mr. F. E. Tillemont-Thomason, C.E., F.Ph.S., F.R.S.G.S., gave a
lecture on " Recent Great Earthquakes." After briefly describing
the Messina shock, the lecturer referred in most touching terms to
the hazardous nature ,of the work undertaken by those engaged in
rescuing the wounded and the persons buried beneath the debris.
After the chief shock, thousands of buildings are left in a dangerous
condition, and any of the hundreds of minor succeeding shocks which
occur for from two to six weeks after, at frequent intervals daily,
may at any moment send a mass of damaged masonry without warn-
ing down upon the heads of the rescuers. Every man engaged in this
work did it with the knowledge that at any moment he might be
added to the roll of victims These men worked without reward,
without hope of glory, not out of a sense of duty since they were all
volunteers, but were actuated solely by a sense of the huge necessity
of their fellows, their only motive an intense pity.
The descriptions of the Kingston quake and the destruction of
Valparaiso were exceptionally interesting, while the many beautiful
Proceedings of the Society 103
slides fully depicted the extent and horror of each calamity. The
chief interest, however, centred about the San Francisco earthquake,
since the lecturer was an eye-witness of that terrible holocaust. The
views of San Francisco in ruins were the finest earthquake slides ever
shown, indeed the lecturer's collection is said to be unique. The
whole presented a panorama of ruin such as can hardly be imagined,
and his descriptions of actual happenings thrilled while they horrified
the audience.
During the course of the lecture several points of scientific interest
were introduced, notably the lecturer's theory of the cause and nature
of " the twist " during a major shock, it being at the moment of the
twist that the buildings come tumbling down as if they were built
of packs of cards. The lecturer, being an expert civil engineer, was
able to give a graphic account of the method of building those steel
and concrete constructions known as sky-scrapers, a type of building
which in both San Francisco and Valparaiso withstood the effects of
the quake and of the fire.
A hearty vote of thanks was proposed to the lecturer by Mr. R. A.
Staniforth, who was present in San Francisco exactly three weeks
after the shock and who corroborated as far as he could all that the
lecturer had said. The motion was seconded by Mr. T. W. Sower-
butts, F.S.A.A., and passed unanimously.
The 960th Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, March
loth, 1914, at 7.30 p.m. In the Chair, Colonel H. T. Crook, J.P., V.D.
The Minutes of the Meeting held on March 3rd were taken as read.
The Chairman announced that Mr. Wm. B. Leech had presented a
further 18 volumes on " West Africa," in continuation of the magni-
ficent gift in 1912 of 136 volumes on North and West Africa.
Mr. M. Philips Price, F.R.G.S., gave a lecture on a ** Journey
through Turkish Armenia and Persian Khurdistan." He first gave a
short account of the geography and history of the country and then
described his own experiences on his journey in 191 2, illustrating his
address with many good slides (see p. 45).
On the motion of the Chairman it was resolved that a hearty vote
of thanks be passed to Mr. Price for his very interesting address, and
for the fine lantern views shown.
The 961st Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, March 17th,
1914, at 7.30 p.m. In the Chair, Mr. J. L. Paton, M.A.
The Minutes of the Meeting held on March loth were taken as read.
The election of the Misses E. M. and D. E. Fletcher as Ordinary
Members was announced.
Dr. A. Wilmore, F.G.vS., gave a lecture on "A Geographer's
Holiday Study of the Rhine and the Rhineland." The lecture was
illustrated with many fine slides.
104 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
The Chairman moved and it was unanimously resolved that the
hearty thanks of the Meeting be given to Dr. Wilmore for his very
interesting and informing lecture, so well illustrated.
The 962nd Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, March
24th, 1914, at 7.30 p.m. In the Chair, Mr. J. A. Osbom.
The Minutes of the Meeting held on March 17th were taken as
read.
Mr. H. L. Joseland, M.A., gave a description of a " Few Places in
Southern Sweden." He first gave a brief account of the history and
geography of the country and then, with the aid of a large number
of lantern slides, described the places which he himself had visited.
On the motion of the Chairman a hearty vote of thanks was given
to Mr. Joseland for his interesting address.
The 963rd Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, March 31st,
1914, at 7.30 p.m. In the Chair, Mr. J. Stephenson Reid.
The Minutes of the Meeting held on March 24th were taken as read.
Mr. John Hancock gave a lecture on **A Holiday in the Indian
Empire," illustrated with lantern views from photographs taken by
his son during the journey.
On the motion of the Chairman a hearty vote of thanks was passed
to the lecturer for his interesting description of the places visited and
for the fine illustrations shown.
The 964th Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, April 7th,
1914, at 7.30 p.m. In the Chair, Mr. T. W. F. Parkinson, M.Sc,
F.G.S.
The Minutes of the Meeting held on March 31st were taken as read.
Mr. G. R. Swaine, F.R.Met.Soc, gave a lecture on "The Influences
of Geographical Environment," and illustrated his remarks with a
large number of special lantern views.
On the motion of the Chairman a hearty vote of thanks was passed
to the lecturer for his instructive address.
Cl)e Journal
OF THE
mancDester 6eoflrapl)ical Societp.
THE HOME OF THE RAJPUTS.
By E. W. Mellor, J.P., F.R.G.S.
(Addressed to the Society in the Houldsworth Hall on
Tuesday, January 20th, 1914.)
*' Who, and what, are the Rajputs?" It may be answered
that in the vast peninsula stretching from the Himalayas to
Ceylon there are many different tribes and races — mountain
tribes and races of the plains — peoples of different languages
and of different religions, peoples of widely differing charac-
teristics. That peninsula and those peoples are known to us
by the all-embracing names of India and Indians.
The great bulk of the Indian population, about two-thirds
of the whole, are Hindus; and the Hindus again may be
subdivided into innumerable clans. One of the oldest, if not
the oldest, of these clans, or races, are the Rajputs.
The origin of this race is lost in the dark mists of remote
antiquity.
The great god of the Hindus, the impersonal being which
pervades everything, is Brahma, the creator. He has two
other manifestations, viz., " Vishnu " the preserver, and
*' Shiva" the destroyer and reproducer. In addition, there
are numerous other subsidiary deities.
Now Brahma, as the creator, is generally represented with
four heads and four arms. The priests, or Brahmans, assert
that they, the Brahmans, issued from the heads of Brahma,
that the Rajputs came from his arms, the Vaisyas from his
thighs, and the Sudras from his feet.
And here you have the origin of the Indian caste system.
Caste was originally a distinction between priest, soldier,
artisan and menial; and the priests insisted on the rules of
caste as a means of securing their own special supremacy.
Vol. XXX. Parts III. and IV., 1914.
io6 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
In the code of Manu, which is believed to date from several
centuries before the Christian era, the Hindus are divided
into four castes, viz., first, the Brahmans, or priests; second,
the Rajputs, or warriors ; third, the Vaisyas, or agriculturalists
and traders; and fourth, the Sudras, or the conquered tribes,
which were become serfs.
That ancient code also prescribes conduct and ceremonial
rules for these four castes, represented, as we have seen, by
the heads, the arms, the thighs and the feet of Brahma the
creator. Recent research supports the ancient tradition in
that the language of the Rajputs is proved to be derived from
the most anci^nt Indian roots.
The Rajput, although he was swallowed up in the wave of
conquest by the Mogul emperors in the i6th century, main-
tained his individuality, and early in the i8th century regained
his independence. "Rajput" is a name which signifies
literally *'of the royal stock." A Rajput, therefore has the
bluest of blue Hindu blood flowing in his veins. The Rajputs
form the fighting, land-owning and ruling caste. They are
fine, brave men, and retain the feudal instinct strongly
developed. Pride of blood is their chief characteristic, and
they are most punctilious on all points of etiquette.
No race in India can boast of finer feats of arms or brighter
deeds of chivalry, and they form one of the main recruiting
fields for the Indian army of to-day. They consider any
occupation, other than that of arms, derogatory to their
dignity. As cultivators they are lazy and indifferent, and
they prefer the care of cattle and herds to the business of
agriculture. As they look upon all manual labour as
humiliating, none but the poorest class of Rajput will handle
the plough.
These characteristics may naturally have been a dominant
factor in causing the Rajputs to settle down in the sandy and
desert-like plains of the province called Rajputana, where
they have ample scope for hunting and for polo and the
minimum possible of land cultivation.
Be that as it may, the province is called Rajputana because
it is politically possessed by the Rajputs, who are here the
dominant race. Here in Rajputana are to be found the
oldest Hindu Ruling Houses of India, each governing its
own native state, with a British political agent in residence.
There are some eighteen native states in Rajputana. Three
The Home of the Rajputs 107
of the most important, which we visited, are named after their
capital cities, and are : Udaipur, governed by a Maharana ;
Jaipur, governed by a Maharajah ; and Jodhpur, also governed
by a Maharajah.
The total area of Rajputana is about 127,541 square miles,
-and in the centre is the small British province of *Ajmir-
Merwara.
Perhaps the most striking physical feature of Rajputana
is the Aravalli range of mountains, which intersects the
province from end to end in a line from south-west to north-
east. At the south-west end of the range is Mount Abu,
where is situated the residence of the Governor General's
agent, and on which stand some remarkable temples. The
north-eastern end of the Aravalli range may be said to
terminate in the district of Jaipur, although a series of broken
ridges continue in the direction of Delhi. About three-fifths
of Rajputana lie north-west of the range, leaving two-fifths
•on the east and south.
The two chief rivers of Rajputana are the Luni and the
Chambal. The Luni flows from near Ajmir in a westerly
direction for 200 miles to the Rann of Cutch. The Chambal
is the largest river in Rajputana and flows a course of some
500 miles in a north-easterly direction until it joins the Jumna,
which flows into the Ganges. The great rivers, the Sutlej
and the Indus, are outside the boundaries of Rajputana.
There are no natural fresh water lakes in Rajputana, but
there are several important artificial lakes, all of which have
been constructed with the object of storing water.
The largest of the Rajput States is Jodhpur. Its capital,
also called Jodhpur, was built by the Maharajah Jodha in
1459, and it has been the seat of government of this State
^ver since.
The fort of Jodhpur stands prominently on a rocky
eminence some 400 feet above the city, which it dominates.
Access to the fort is gained by well made, modern, zig-zag
roads. The rock is scarped on every side, and the fort on its
summit may be described as one--third palace and two-thirds
citadel. The area of the citadel is roughly 500 yards by 200,
and here are soldiers, arms and artillery.
The palace is very solidly built. It dates from stormy
fighting times, as it was a Maharajah of Jodhpur who
^commanded the armies of the Mogul emperor Shah Jehan,
io8 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
the builder of the world-famous Taj Mahal, against the forces
of that emperor's rebellious son, Aurangzeb, in the 17th
century.
From the high elevation of the fort there is a fine bird's
eye view of Jodhpur. It is a large city of about 60,000
inhabitants, and is a typical oriental city in that the houses
are all flat-roofed with no chimneys. On the left of the view
is seen a large pool of water. This is the work of recent
Maharajahs. Formerly there was great scarcity of water
here, and the women had to walk to Mandor, five miles away,
to get their supplies. On the right is a large modern market
with a handsome clock tower in the centre. It is called the
Sardar Market.
The main streets of Jodhpur, in addition to the bazaars,
contain numerous fine houses, the residences of the nobles
and thakurs, many of whom are very wealthy. The streets
are narrow and are crowded wath the townspeople passing to
and fro. All water for domestic purposes has to be carried
from wells. Such a thing as water laid on to the houses, and
to be had by the turning on of a tap, is unknown here.
Carrying the brass water-jars, or chattis, on the head, and
often for long distances, gives the woman a very erect and
graceful carriage. The old grain market is very much older
than the Sardar market, and is rather cramped for space.
The tram rails in some of the streets are used for the con-
veyance of town's refuse away from the city.
A journey of some 235 miles brings us to Udaipur, the
capital of the native State of that name. Nestling, as it does,
between mountains of the Aravalli range, and situated, as it
is, on the shore of the beautiful Pichola lake, Udaipur may
justly be called an Indian Venice; and the comparison is
enhanced by the lovely water palaces erected on islands in the
lake.
The most northerly of these water palaces is known as the
Jagniwas Palace, erected in 1740. Inside the walls are
charming gardens in which tall trees are growing. It is quite
a long row on the lake from the starting point to the Jagniwas
Palace, but it enables one to appreciate the length of water
front which Udaipur possesses. On the way the Palace of
the Maharana comes into view. It is quadrangular in shape
and rises about 100 feet above the water level. It is built of
granite and marble and is altogether an imposing pile, but
The Home of the Rajputs 109
it rather suggests a fortress than a palace. The Zenana, or
ladies' quarter, is splendid inside, but externally looks more
like a prison than the residence of royal ladies, the intention
evidently being to keep them quite safe.
Rowing away from the Jagniwas Palace we pass up the
lake until we come to the main water entrance of the city, a
large triple water gate through which much traffic passes.
The white stone, of which the gate is built, becomes rather
dazzling in the brilliant afternoon sunshine.
This water gate is always a busy scene. There is not only
the regular traffic, but there is also a constant stream of
women coming with their empty chattis, or water-jars, and
returning with them full of water for domestic use, as in
Jodhpur. These chattis are of brass, and the women
frequently carry two full chattis on their heads.
We landed, and entering the city made our way straight
on to the roof of the Maharana's Palace, from which exalted
position a splendid view is obtained. There is a fine view
over the lake in a westerly direction. How beautifully situated
this old Rajput city is ! In the foreground is one of the
Maharana's barges, indeed, the only boats permitted on the
lake are those belonging to the Maharana, but if proper
application is made he graciously allows visitors the use of a
boat. Opposite is the mansion and garden of a Rajput noble.
On the right a long flight of steps leads up to a Hindu temple
with its white pyramidal tower. Beyond these, other houses
and gardens, all overshadowed by the spur of the Aravalli
mountains, which rise up in the background. The mountains
and valleys afford cover for much game, wild pigs abound,
and pig-sticking is a favourite sport.
Turning from the west to the north we get a bird's eye
view of Udaipur. This city was founded in 1568 by the
Maharana Udai Singh, and was named after him. An
attempt was made to murder Udai Singh when he was a
baby, but he was saved by the devotion of his nurse, who
substituted her own child, and that baby Udai Singh lived to
be Maharana and to found Udaipur, a large city with a
population of upwards of 33,000. In the middle distance is
the large and famous Juggernath temple, with its heavy
looking pyramidal tower. Descending to visit that temple,
we left the palace precincts by a fine, triple gateway known
as the Tripulia, and built in 1725.
no Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
Entrance to the temple from the street is gained by a broad
handsome flight of stone steps, up and down which
worshippers are passing during the whole of the day. At
the head of the steps there is placed on each side a huge
carved stone elephant. Passing through the gateway at the
top of the steps we stand before the porch of the temple.
*' Juggernath," or Jagannatha, signifies "Lord of the
World," and is one of the names of Vishnu, the preserver,
who is one of the manifestations of Brahma, the creator, who
pervades everything. In this temple, then, the Hindus
worship the creator in his attribute of sovereign of the world.
The pillars of this temple show well the ancient Indian bracket
capital, the round arch was unknown, and the capitals are
so many brackets on which are placed the broad flat beams
and architraves.
I, an unbeliever, was not, of course, allowed to ascend a
higher flight of steps and enter the dark interior where the
Juggernath idol sits enshrined. Only those who are recog-
nised by Hindu religious standards may do that. To us it
is a heathen temple, but nevertheless it is an imposing edifice.
The noble flight of steps leading into the splendid portico, the
sitting elephants at each corner, the profusion of mural carving
with its endless figures, compel astonishment and admiration.
Fergusson's "History of Indian Architecture" tells us
that this Juggernath temple dates from the nth century, i.e.,
from our Norman times. It is a good example of the Indo-
Aryan style of architecture, "as every part is carved with
great precision and delicacy, and as the whole is quite perfect
at the present day there are few temples of its class which
give a better idea of the style than this one." At the far end,
the west end, is the tower, the whole of which, from the ground
up to the top, is one mass of remarkable and elaborate carving
in bold relief, quite as astonishing as the rest of the temple.
Udaipur is surrounded by a lofty bastioned wall, left from
the days of its older fortification. Some half-dozen gates
provide entrance to and egress from the city. The water
gate is on the west side of the city ; on the opposite, the east
and landward side, is the Surajpol, a name which means
** gate of the sun," so named because it faces the rising sun.
Just through the Surajpol a drinking fountain and
water trough has been erected to the memory of the late Sir
Curzon Wyllie, who was a very active and very humane
IC
E. W.M. i.
Udaipur — Flight of Steps, forming the approach to the
Juggernath Temple.
J. W. M. S.
Udaipur — Entrance to the Juggernath Temple.
The Home of the Rajputs in
Government officer in this part of India, and who was cruelly
assassinated a few years ago.
The present Maharana carries the virtue of kindness to
animals almost to an absurd extent in one particular. He
gives food to the wild pigs of the mountains and jungles
ostensibly to divert those animals from devastating the crops
of the people. At the Odi Khas, a sort of hunting lodge at
the southern end of the Pichola lake, every evening food is
put out, and the wild creatures come from all directions to
take it. We went to see this remarkable sight. The wild
pigs with their long legs and long snouts are strange looking
beasts. The men threw down small Indian corn, and some-
times two pigs would fight for a coveted handful. The corn
attracts not only the pigs but also wild pigeons and wild
peacocks from the distant trees and mountains.
A short row in our boats takes us from the pigs to the
Jagniwas Palace again, this time approached from the south ;
before it was from the north. Inside the walls is the
delightful garden. This water palace is one of Udaipur's
most beautiful gems, covering the whole of the island on
which it is placed and rising sheer from the water. Very
calm and peaceful it looks, appearing to float on the surface
of the lake, and surrounded by mountains.
The mountains are the home of the Sambur, which is an
Asiatic variety of deer, of large size. He is a larger animal
than our own more familiar red deer. Very beautiful these
animals looked, and quite in keeping with their surroundings
in Udaipur. These Sambur are as a rule to be found in
low lying pastures and they can swim well. They are some-
what bold in character and can be rather vicious.
Every native Rajput capital has its Mahasati, or royal
place of cremation, where the bodies of the Rajahs and their
nearest relatives, with their wives, are burned, for until com-
paratively recently suttee was performed, i.e., the living wife
was burned with her dead husband. Of all the Rajput Maha-
satis, the one at Udaipur is the most magnificent and the most
picturesque. The royal cenotaphs stand under the shade of lofty
trees, on the boughs of which monkeys disport themselves.
Each cenotaph is crowned with a dome of some degree of
architectural beauty. After cremation the royal ashes are cast
into the Ganges, that river so sacred to the devout Hindu, and
a cenotaph erected over the spot where stood the funeral pyre.
112 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
Cenotaph literally means "an empty tomb." I am inclined
to think that the native name, '* Chhatri," has a more beautiful
significance. "Chhatri" literally means "an umbrella."
An umbrella, a cover, a canopy, a pavilion, erected with great
reverence over the spot made sacred by the funeral pyre. A
cenotaph thus means much more than " an empty tomb," and
the " Chhatris " in Udaipur, which date from the year 1580,
were regarded as sacred and were made as beautiful as possible.
It must be remembered that not only is the reigning house
of Udaipur the oldest and purest in point of blood and family
tree of all the great Indian houses, but also claims descent
from the god " Rama," one of the incarnations of Vishnu,
" the Preserver," and thus from the sun itself. The Maharana
of Udaipur, therefore, is accounted as one sacred, and is
generally represented with an aureole round his head.
A journey of 84 miles brings us to Ajmir, the adminis-
trative headquarters of the important British province of
Ajmir-Merwara, an isolated province of 27,000 square miles,
surrounded on all sides by independent Rajput States.
Ajmir is a large busy city of 86,000 inhabitants, an
important railway junction, and is considered by many people
to be the key of Rajputana. Arriving from the south, as we
do in coming from Udaipur, we pass the Mayo College, which
stands in a park of some 2,000 acres. The principal entrance
is at the west front. This college is for the education of the
young Rajput princes and thakurs. It is built of white marble
and was commenced when Lord Mayo was Viceroy. Lord
Mayo was assassinated in 1872 when visiting the convict
settlement in the Andaman Islands. This college was named
after him, and a statue of Lord Mayo stands prominently
before the main entrance. About 200 boys, between the ages
of 8 and 21, receive education at this college.
A favourite promenade at Ajmir is on the Bund, which is
the broad embankment retaining an artificial lake, the Ana
Sagar, constructed by the Rajah Ana in the nth century.
A number of pavilions were erected here on the Bund by
the Emperor Shah Jehan, the builder of the famous Taj Mahal
at Agra. For a long time these pavilions on the Bund were
the only public buildings in Ajmir. They were restored and
put in good order by Lord Curzon when he w^as Viceroy.
One of the finest specimens of early Indian Mohammedan
architecture is to be found here — the Arhai-din-ka Jhompra
The Home of the Rajputs 113
Mosque, which means Hterally '' The house of two and a half
days." Seven hundred years ago, in the year 1236, the
Mohammedan King Altamsh conquered Ajmir and slew its
Rajah. He then converted the fine Jain temple of Ajmir
into a mussulman mosque, and thanks, so they say, to super-
natural aid he accomplished the work in 2^ days, hence the
name. Tall, slender columns covered with exquisite carving
are a feature of Jain architecture. (See E.W.M. 6.)
Fergusson, in his architectural work, expresses the opinion
that nothing can excel the taste with which the Khufic and
Tughra inscriptions are interwoven with the more purely
architectural decorations and the constructive lines of tlie
design.
Another journey of 84 miles brings us to the largest and
busiest capital city of all the Rajput States, viz., Jaipur, the
capital of the State of Jaipur. The cities we have visited range
in point of population thus: Udaipur, with 33,000; Jodhpur,
with 59,000 ; Ajmir, with 86,000 ; and now we arrive at Jaipur,
with a population of 137,000.
The railway station is about i| miles from the town.
Outside the station a number of *'ekkas," the cabs of the
country, are always waiting to take passengers into the town.
An ekka is a sort of box on two wheels, on which the passenger
sits cross-legged; when a native lady is the passenger the
curtains are, of course, drawn tight, as she must not be seen,
but even then toes or a slippered foot are sometimes seen
sticking out beneath the curtain.
The whole of the city of Jaipur is enclosed by a crenellated
masonry wall, 20 feet high by 9 feet thick, with seven gate-
ways. We enter by the Sauganer gate on the south side of
the city. This gate, like all other buildings in Jaipur, is
painted or washed a pink rose colour, on which are painted
a variety of designs, giving it a quaint and remarkable effect.
The city was founded in 1728 by the Maharajah Jai Singh II,
hence the name Jaipur. It is a bustling busy town.
Jaipur, being a centre of native manufactures, is important
commercially, and has large banks and trading establishments.
The town is remarkable for the width of its streets, the main
thoroughfares are iii feet wide, and the sides are veritably
continuous bazaars.
The hills surrounding Jaipur were at some remote period
broken up, revealing deposits of alum, cobalt, copper, and
114 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
nickel ore, which are used in making the famous enamels of
this district; garnets are also found, and eventually used to
make brooches, bracelets, necklaces, and so forth.
I had the privilege of visiting the Jaipur State Prison and
saw some of the prisoners at work. The principal industries
carried on are : Paper making by men : the paper is used for
the State account books, etc. ; winding hanks for weaving by
women ; carpet-making by men. They prepare the warp,
weave in hand-looms, and make a very broad carpet. We
saw prisoners making a carpet 29 feet wide for the Rajah's
new guest house ; kneading and making Chupatties (cakes or
bread). The chupatties are properly weighed so that each
prisoner shall receive his just allowance.
In the public garden at Jaipur there stands the " Albert
Hall," one of the finest modern buildings in India. The late
King Edward VII laid the foundation stone of this building
in 1876 when he was Prince of Wales. To Sir S. S. Jacob,
K.C.I.E., is due the credit of designing and building this
magnificent hall. From one of the beautiful open courts a
door leads into a splendid museum, containing a very complete
collection of modern works of art and industry, and also of
antiquities, from every part of India. It is a collection so
excellent that it has been called an Oriental South Kensington.
The large Durbar Hall, the audience or levee hall of the
building, had been used for an examination the day before we
were there, and we saw the tables and chairs as arranged for
the students.
The w^alls are decorated with mural paintings, while up
above, so as to form a frieze, are a series of panel portraits of
succeeding Maharajahs in chronological order. Two very
interesting panels are portraits of the present Maharajah and
of his father, the late Maharajah.
Major-General His Highness Maharajah Dhiraj Sawai Sir
Madho Singh, G.C.S.I., G.C.I.E., is head of the Kachhwaha
clan of Rajputs. Both he and his father have been public-
spirited princes, preferring that the revenues should be
expended for the benefit of their people at large, rather than
upon the extreme extravagance of splendour of their prede-
cessors. The Albert Hall, a college, a library and a school
of art are all witnesses of the enterprise and enlightenment
of these princes, thanks to which Jaipur is one of the most
civilized and prosperous of all the cities of India.
The Home of the Rajputs 115
The only portion of the Maharajah's Palace visible from
the street is called Hawal Mahal, or Hall of Winds. Here
reside in strict purdah the ladies of the Zenana. The facade
has been described by Sir Edwin Arnold as "a vision of
daring and dainty loveliness, storey after storey of rosy
masonry and delicate overhanging balconies, soaring tier after
tier of fanciful architecture in pyramidal form, a very moun-
tain of airy beauty." Sir Edwin's description is, perhaps^
rather high-flown, especially as much of it is stucco and not
solid masonry, but at all events it well illustrates the rosy pink
colour of all the houses and buildings here and from which
Jaipur has sometimes been called " the pink city." One
writer, I think Rudyard Kipling, has compared it to the
ornamentation on a bride cake.
Adjoining the palace is an open courtyard, in which is the
famous Jantra, or astronomical observatory. It was con-
structed during the years 17 18 — 1734 by the princely
astronomer Jai Singh. It contains enormous dials, azimuth
masonry, altitude pillars, astrolabe and other huge instru-
ments, built of massive masonry smoothed with plaster.
There is a gigantic gnomon, 90 feet high, placed between
two graduated quadrants, which is simply an exaggerated sun
dial. The gnomon's shadow touches the west quadrant at
six a.m., gradually descends this at the rate of 13 feet per
hour until noon, and finally ascends the east quadrant. This
remarkable observatory was the scientific hobby of that Rajput
prince of 200 years ago.
The gardens behind the palace slope down to a shallow
lake, locally known as the " Alligator Tank." Some un-
pleasant looking pieces of raw bullock are tied to a rope and
dragged through the water. Presently an alligator's snout
emerges from the water, the big mouth gapes, and the cruel
jaws snap upon the flesh with a grip so firm that the alligator
may be pulled along by the rope. If the alligators are
lethargic or asleep numerous tortoises swim up and bite pieces
off the meat. Kites and crows swoop down and peck at the
loathsome looking flesh as it is dragged to the surface.
Five miles out of the modern city of Jaipur is the ancient
capital of this State, Amber, now a ruined and deserted city.
But the Rajah's palace at Amber, although not inhabited, is
far from being in ruin. On the contrary, it is a fine pile of
buildings of the later period of Indo-Mahommedan art. Its
ii6 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
situation is picturesque, being built along the slopes of a lofty
hill, a powerful fortress crowning the summit.
A lake lies below the palace, and the latter can only be
approached by steep narrow pathways, which pass round the
head of the lake, making it a hot and laborious walk up. But
if permission is asked in the proper way the Maharajah
graciously places one of his elephants at your disposal. It is
astonishing how docile these huge powerful beasts are in the
hands of the mahout sitting at the back of the elephant's head ;
beast and man seem to know and understand each other.
We approached one of the gateways leading into Amber
and noticed the great carved stone elephants flanking the
doorway at the top of the flight of steps. It seemed strange
that such a beautiful piece of ornamental architecture should
be part of a ruined and deserted city. Having mounted the
steps we turned sharp round and looked back through the gate
by which we had just entered. From this higher elevation
we realized that Amber is shut in a rocky gorge, being in a
hollow surrounded by mountains, and was therefore at the
mercy of whatever force held those mountains. This, after
the fighting times of the Mogul Emperors, may have been one
of the factors which led to Amber being deserted for the
modern Jaipur.
By the principal entrance to the palace is a temple to the
terrible goddess. Kali, the destroyer. In order to propitiate
that goddess a goat is sacrificed each morning before her
altar. The goat replaces the human victim whose life, it is
said, was taken each morning, before the days of British rule,
at the altar of this goddess.
All traces of the morning sacrifice were removed when we
passed the spot in order to reach the smaller audience hall of
the Amber Palace. This hall occupies the south side of the
great courtyard or quadrangle. Double rows of columns
support a massive entablature, and it is good Rajput work.
At right angles, and at the eastern side of the great
courtyard, is the larger audience hall of the palace at Amber.
Here bygone Maharajahs had audience in Durbar with their
nobles and leaders, decked out in the splendour of Oriental
magnificence, and anxious deliberations must have been held
here when the Mogul emperors were over-running India. At
such times this courtyard was filled with fighting men and
retainers.
The Home of the Rajputs 117
Across on the west side of the courtyard is the entrance to
the more private part of the palace. Immediately over the
door is a wonderfully wrought stone grille, through which
the ladies of the Rajah's Zenana could look down upon the
gay scene of princes, nobles and soldiers meeting in Durbar
below, without being seen themselves. The larger haxagonal
openings are filled with stone tracery so fine and so delicate
as to be almost invisible against the blue sky beyond. This
doorway has been pronounced one of the finest portals in the
world, and Sir Edwin Arnold describes it as ''a matchless
portico such as might, provide the door to Paradise." The
door itself is of brass, magnificently ribbed and moulded. It
is called the " Hathi," or "elephant" door, because of the
figure of " Ganesh," the '* elephant god," over the doorway.
In this part of the palace is the " Jai Mandir," or " Hall
of Victory." The walls contain panels of alabaster, some of
which are inlaid with flowers, and arabesques in various
colours, other panels are adorned with flowers in alto-relievo.
The ceiling is described, as glittering with the mirrored and
spangled work for which Jaipur art is renowned. It does
seem surprising that so splendid a palace should have fallen
into desuetude.
From the north-east corner of the palace we get a view of
the deserted city of Amber. Here are clustered together the
ruined temples and houses of what was once a large and
prosperous city. I have already alluded to one of the possible
causes which may have led to the ancient Amber being
deserted for the modern Jaipur. Suffice it to say that no
human being dwells in Amber now, except it be some fakir
or Hindu ascetic and a handful of villagers. A writer has
said that " there is nothing stranger in all India's past than
the desertion by some monarch, for reasons now lost in
obscurity or only guessed at, of his splendid palace and well-
built capital, taking not only his court, but the entire
population with him."
A journey of some 290 miles brings us to Mount Abu, a
sacred mountain of Rajputana because of the old temples
placed upon it. The last part of the journey is an uphill
climb of 18 miles from the railway station in the plain country
down below. There is a little town at Mount Abu making a
hill station to which Europeans from the plains below are
ii8 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
glad to come in the hot season. Luggage and all supplies
have to be carried up in bullock wagons.
A writer describes Mount Abu as standing out of the
great plain of Rajputana like a huge island of granite, finely
wooded to the summit, the topmost point being 5,650 feet
above the sea. It is at the south-west end of and part of the
Aravalli range already referred to.
A bridle path which we traversed in Jinrickshas led to the
further group of temples, the Achilgar group, distant from
the little town of Mount Abu about five miles. At the foot of
the Achilgar Hill, almost concealed by the foliage, is an
ancient Hindu temple. It is a steep and rugged climb up
the hill, and the higher we go the more steep the path becomes.
About half-way up we pass a gateway with its ancient fort.
No doubt it was placed here at some period to protect the
temple above and the surrounding buildings from marauders.
At one time it must have been strong, and it seems strange to
find this fort on the hillside. A further steep climb from the
fort brings us into the temple enclosure, but there is still a
flight of steps to ascend before the door of the sanctuary is
reached.
On either side were the Dwarpals, or guardians, carved
-and painted, and looking like a pair of toy soldiers. At the
top of the steps on each side of the entrance to the sanctuary
is a huge bas-relief carving of an elephant. An elephant
typifies sovereignty and power, and these elephants are
allegorical, having a number of subsidiary trunks branching
from their main trunks.
The door of the sanctuary was closed against us, but
though not permitted to enter there we were allowed to enter
the large court of the temple. This court is surrounded by
what looked li"ke cloisters, but really they are a series of cells
each containing an image. Over each image is erected a
sikhara, or pyramidal tower, and each cell becomes a temple
in miniature.
The Jain religion is somewhat akin to the Buddhist.
Mahavira, the founder of Jainism, was born about 600 B.C.
He adopted a spiritual career. Eventually he was recognised
as divine and was acknowledged to be a "Jina," i.e., a
** spiritual conqueror," from which the Jain sect was derived.
It seems to be one of the strong beliefs of the Jains that the
** Jinas," or saints, are honoured and worshipped by multi-
The Home of the Rajputs 119
plying the number of their images, and that each image should
be provided with a separate abode, hence the series of shrines,
or miniature temples.
We descend the Achilgar hill more rapidly than we climbed
up, and soon find ourselves at the entrance to the old Hindu
temple which we saw nestling under the trees before we
breasted the hill. The delicate stone carving on the pillar
and round the door is very beautiful, but an unbeliever like
myself could not pass through this door, for there the image
of the god sits enshrined, all in darkness, except for such
light as passes through the doorway. At the back of the
temple, and within the temple enclosure, is a large opven space.
In that open space are a number of large shrines, from many
of which the images, if they ever existed at all, have been
removed. But the images do remain in the smaller cells or
shrines. They represent Hindu divinities in various mani-
festations, or in various incidents of Hindu mythological
history. This temple, being some 21 miles from the railway
station, is too remote and too difficult of access to be visited
by many tourists, but to the Hindu it is a holy and an ancient
place to which the devout make a pilgrimage.
We saw a Jogi, sitting on his heels, at the outer entrance
to this temple, singing away to his heart's content, and
accompanying himself on his " saringee," or Indian one-
stringed violin. A Jogi is a Hindu devotee, or holy man,
just as a Fakir is a Mahommedan. The Jogi is a pilgrim
travelling on foot, and the faithful give him alms in return
for his sacred songs.
At the side of this Hindu Temple at Achilgar is a sacred
tank or pond, on one bank of which is a marble image of
Pramar, a mythological king or hero, bow and arrow in hand.
Before him are three buffaloes rather larger than life-size.
This group commemorates the legend that Pramar shot with
one arrow three buffaloes at once. If you go up to the
buffaloes you will find a hole drilled through the middle of
each in such a manner that a straight rod would skewer all
three.
Situated on a small plateau, high up on Mount Abu, is
another group of Jain temples, the famous Dilwarra temples,
of great antiquity and in excellent preservation. They date
from the eleventh century, the period of our Norman kings.
How romantically placed are these Dilwarra temples ! High
120 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
on this mountain, surrounded by shady trees, one of them a
fig tree 900 years old, as old as the temple which it adjoins.
The Vimala Sah Temple is the oldest of the Dilwarra
temples, and is entirely of white marble mellowed by the hand
of time. The eye is bewildered by the wealthy profusion of
wonderful and delicate carving. Vimala, who built this
temple, was minister or governor in the year 1031. Though
so old, it is one of the most complete examples of a Jain
temple to be found in India.
The most sacred object here, as in other temples, is the
shrine where in the darkness sits a cross-legged image of the
Jina, or Tirthankar, the apotheosized saint to whom this temple
is dedicated, viz., Rishabbanath, or Adinath, the first of the
24 Tirthankars, whose sign is a bull.
Before the shrine is a portico consisting of 48 pillars which
are one mass of beautiful and elaborate carving. The pillars
finish with the usual bracket capital of the east. Upon this
an upper dwarf column is placed, and on these columns rest
the great beams, or architraves, which support the dome. As
the bearing is long, the weight is relieved, at least in appear-
ance, by the curious angular strut of white marble, which,
springing from the lower capital, seems to support the middle
of the beam.
The interior of the dome consists of concentric circles of
pendants, the pendants increasing in size as they approach
the centre. Around the outer circle are sixteen four-armed
female figures called Vidyadevis, goddesses of knowledge.
Evidently time and cost were little considered when the roof
was carved from the marble all those hundreds of years ago.
The second of these Dilwarra temples is dedicated to
Neminath, the 22nd Tirthankar. This temple is of 200 years
later date than Vimala's temple, and is usually ascribed to
two brothers named Tejapala and Vastupala. The inscrip-
tions, however, only mention Tejapala. In plan this temple
resembles its older neighbour very closely. It measures some
155 feet by 92 feet, a little larger than Vimala's temple, but the
dome is slightly less in diameter, though very similar in
elaboration and beauty of design. The white marble pillars in
Tejapala 's temple are somewhat taller and have more variety
of design than those of the older temple. The massiveness
of the pillars is relieved by the almost bewildering amount of
ornamentation and carving. The figure carving is represen-
'' i/H^,
W.M. i.
Dilwarra — Interior of Dome, Temple of Vimala Sah.
E. W. M. i.
Pilwarra — Interior of Temple of Tejapala and Vastupala,
The Home of the Rajputs 121
tative of Jain mythology. Beyond the pillars are a few of the
cells which surround the temple, like those we saw at Achilgar,
and in which are enshrined the images of the Tirthankars, or
Jinas, worshipped there.
There are no quarries of white marble in this part of
Rajputana, therefore, to quote a writer, " the labour in
transporting it across the plains, and dragging up to the top of
this steep mountain, must have been an undertaking worthy
of ancient Egypt."
In this corner of India there is another large and inter-
esting colony of Jain temples, perched on the Girnar
Mountain in Kathiawar, which we visited.
Leaving Rajputana by the south-west corner, and passing
through the State of Baroda into the Kathiawar Province, we
reached the Uparkot, an ancient fort above the city of
Junagadh.
A steep roadway cut through the solid rock leads through
three gateways, one within the other, up into the Uparkot.
An inscription on the rampart is dated 1450. This threefold
gateway is, then, nearly 500 years old. This Uparkot was the
citadel of the Hindu princes of that period, but the rule of
those old Hindu princes was swept away by the tide of
Mahommedan conquest under the Mogul emperors, if not
prior to that. Evidence of the conquest is given by a
Mahommedan Mosque constructed from \he materials of a
Hindu temple which previously stood on the same spwDt by
the Sultan Mahmud Bigara about the year 1472. The mosque
itself is now much ruined, the dome being entirely gone.
Close to that mosque, so close as to be almost underneath
it, a large cave has been excavated in the rock. In the inner
chamber of the cave we recognized familiar work in some of
the pillars. I wa§ informed that a number of Jains took
refuge in this cave from their enemies, and that this is Jain
work which we saw. On the other hand, some writers assert
that this is Buddhist work, and that this cave was part of a
Buddhist monastery. Colour is certainly lent to the latter
statement by the fact that a little time prior to the Christian
era the lieutenants of the great Buddhist King Asoka were
quartered in the Uparkot above this cave. But against this
is the general fact that the Buddhists are mostly on the
eastern side of India, Bengal, Darjeeling, Kashmir, whereas
the Jains are in all parts of the Bombay Presidency on the
122 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
west side of India, particularly in trading centres like
Junagadh. Fergusson, an authority on Indian architecture,
says " that there is no trace of distinctively Buddhist sym-
bolism here, and that these pillars were probably of Jain
origin."
We left the Uparkot and passed through the city of
Junagadh, a bustling place of 35,000 inhabitants, capital ot
the State, and residence of the Nawab. Facing his town
house is a fine semi-circular range of shops, with a central
archway and clock tower, which is called the Mahabat Circle.
It was named after the Nawab Mahabat Khan. The wife of
the British resident described it as the Regent Circus of
Junagadh.
From Junagadh we made the ascent of the Girnar Moun-
tain ; this is not only a holy place of Jainism, but also one of
the most remarkable mountains in India. It rises to 3,666
feet above sea level.
The pathway up the mountain becomes so steep that the
rock is cut into steps every few yards, and in making the
ascent 4,000 of these steps have to be climbed. The usual
plan is to be carried in a " dholi," which is a seat, or tray,
about 18 inches square, slung from two poles, and carried by
four men. The path frequently passes along the edge of the
precipice, and is so narrow that the dholi almost grazes the
scarp, which in some places rises hundreds of feet above the
path.
When we had reached the summit we saw, six hundred feet
below, on a broad ledge of rock, sixteen Jain temples clustered
together. I called them a colony previously, and I think with
reason, because Jainism is a monastic organisation. Fergus-
son says that "the grouping together of these temples into
-what may be called * cities of temples ' is a peculiarity which
the Jains practised to a greater extent than the followers of
any other religion in India."
The nearest large temple, a triple one, was built by the
brothers Tejapala and Vestupala, according to the inscriptions,
in the year 1230. These two brothers built, you will remember,
the later of the two temples which we saw at Dilwarra. Far
away down in the valley, nearly 3,000 feet below, is the city
•of Junagadh.
As we descended we noticed that devout Jains had placed
a small temple wherever they could get a foothold, and each
E. W. M. 6.
Ajmir — The Arhai-din-ka-jhompra.
E. W. M.
Apes and Pilgrims before a Jain Temple on the Girnar Mountain.
The Home of the Rajputs 123
temple had its sikhara, the soHd looking pyramidal tower
erected over the shrine. When we had come down the 600
feet we arrived at the broad ledge or shelf of rock where stand
the colony of temples which we saw from above. We first
noticed an old temple whose carved walls reminded us of the
Juggernath temple at Udaipur. The larger temples are placed
close together. One large temple which we saw was dedicated
to Parasnath, the 23rd Tirthankar. We recognised in this, as
in the others, the general arrangement of a Jain temple,
pillared portico, dome and sikhara over the shrine.
The Jains worship 24 Tirthankars, or Jinas, who are saints
who have overcome all human desires and have attained
Nirvana.
The largest temple on the Girnar Mountain is dedicated to
Neminath, the 22nd Tirthankar, whose sign is a conch shell.
The temple stands in a large courtyard measuring 195 feet by
130 feet. 1275 is the date given by an inscription as a date
of restoration, so this temple was restored more than 600 years
ago !
Around the courtyard are arranged some 70 cells, with a
covered and enclosed passage in front of them. Each cell
contains a cross-legged sitting figure of one of the Tirthankars.
The 70 cells round this temple are covered with low dome-like
roofs, almost suggesting a series of mushrooms. The roof
over the central dome is quadrangular, and is worked into an
extended series of miniature domes, finished in a kind of screw
point, which I am inclined to believe, though I have not
discovered confirmation of the idea, represent a conch shell,
the sign of Neminath the Jina worshipped here. At the
corners, where the ridge tiles would come, are seated wild
boars, apes, etc.
When a Jain temple falls into disrepair, it is believed that
he who will restore it propitiates heaven. The way that such
repair is generally done is that the outside is covered with a
thick coating of chunam, filling up and hiding detail, and
leaving only the form. They are then fond of applying
several coats of whitewash. The effect in the brilliant Indian
sunshine is rather dazzling to the eye.
Standing in the courtyard of the temple, the only bit ot
colour is the doorway into the shrine on the south side. The
colouring is crude, but is a reliei to the eye after the glare of
the white. The doors stood open, but the moment my camera
124 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
appeared they were closed. Neminath is not to be profaned
like that. Within these doors is a large black image of
Neminath, the 22nd Tirthankar, decked with massive gold
ornaments and jewels. But are there no people up here?
Yes, there are a few priests and caretakers. But are there any
worshippers ? Yes, some bands of pilgrims toil up the
mountain to worship at these, to them, most holy shrines.
Worship over, they mingle with the denizens of the rock,
among whom are many monkeys.
Like the Buddhists, the Jains believe in transmigration of
souls, therefore they do not injure any dumb animal lest they
should be hurting a fellow-?creature, perchance a relative,
descended after death intO' a lower form of life. Hence the
monkeys are fearless of successive bands of pilgrims. They
are the long tailed grey ape, which seems quite a common
variety in this part of India. It is a curious sight to see them
swinging themselves by their long prehensile tails from
pinnacle to dome, from dome to capital, and from capital to
tower of these old temples, which cost so much in time,
treasure and human labour to erect here, and of which, when
pilgrims and guardians are away, these apes are the only
inhabitants. One is .tempted to moralise on the vanity of all
things human.
But their religion was no vain thing to the thousands of
devoted pilgrims who, having toiled up this mountain, having
prostrated themselves before and made their offerings at the
numerous shrines of these temples, until so exhausted that they
could scarcely stand, in a frenzy of religious fervour, threw
themselves from the cliff into space, for the cliff here is
precipitous for hundreds of feet, in the belief that they would
thus attain to Nirvana.
The temple of Kumarapala is the last, the furthest, temple
on this ledge of rock ; beyond is space !
Nearly 3,000 feet below us is the plain country, with life^
humanity, civilisation and the work-a-day world.
It calls us back to work, and to life's duties.
So, farewell Jains ! farewell Rajputs ! farewell India !
Belgium : The Battle Ground of Europe 125
BELGIUM : THE BATTLEGROUND OF EUROPE.
By Dr. Albert Wilmore, F.G.S.
{Addressed to the Society in the Geographical Hall on Tues-
day, October 20th, 1914. Report revised by the Lecturer
on October nth, 1915.)
Belgium is an epitome of North-Western Europe; its four
chief structural divisions summarise, in a comparatively small
area, all the European regional types north of the Alpine
forelands.
To understand the structure of Belgium we must, as
always, go to the underlying geology, for the different types
of land relief, with all their diversity of human interest, are
primarily determined by the character of the rocks and their
mode of occurrence. We may therefore give to the obvious
geographical divisions geological names so far as these will
help us to understand surface structure with all the varied
interests of man dependent thereon. Proceeding from south
to north the different regions are as follows: —
(a) The Slaty Ardennes. This plateau block of moorlands
is part of the Variscan-Armorican system of Middle Europe.
It has the general characters, with its own special features, of
the broad low mountains which stretch across the Continent
from the Sudetic and Riesen Mountains overlooking the
Russian platform to the rugged mountains of Brittany ending
in finger-like peninsulas and sunken rias against the Atlantic.
The Ardennes is built of Older Palaeozoic and Devonian
strata, with east and west synclines of carboniferous, giving
to it the beautiful scenery of Dinant, the famous grottoes of
Hann, and the Derbyshire-like gorges of Comblan-au-Pont.
This great plateau is, of course, thinly peopled, and is a land
of woods, of moorlands given over to sheep-rearing, and of
beautiful deep-cut valleys such as the famous gorge of the
Meuse from Givet to Namur. One of the most interesting
valleys in Europe is that of the Ourthe, from the limestone
region of Comblan to the Cambrian Massif at Stavelot and
126 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
SIMPLIFIED REGIONAL GEOLOGICAL MAP
OF BELGIUM.
(Showing the Four Chief Structural Divisions.)
Scale : i inch =zz about 50 tniles.
EXPLANATORY TABLES.
Present State Boundary — . — . — . — . — . — . — .
Geologicai. Divisions.
Recent Rocks Dotted.
Mesozoic and Cainozoic Strata Horizontal broken lines.
Coalfield Crossed lines.
Palaeozoic Rocks (mainly Ardennes Plateau) Inclined broken lines.
Towns.
A Antwerp.
B Brussels.
Bg Bruges.
C
D
G
H
h
Charleroi.
Dinant.
Ghent.
Huy.
Lou vain.
Lg Liege.
LI
M
N
O
T
V
Y
Lille.
Mons.
Namur.
Ostend.
Tournai.
Valenciennes.
Ypres.
Belgium : The Battle Ground of Europe 127
Trois Fonts. The edge of this Palaeozoic massif is rich in
ores, as is the case with so many of the Armorican and
Variscan fragments of Europe. The wool of the moorlands,
the excellent, soft water of a region which catches a fair
amount of rain, the iron and zinc ores of the plateau's rim,
and the coal close at hand, have given to Belgium the indus-
trial prosperity of the next region to be briefly mentioned.
(b) The Carboniferous Basin of the Sambre-Meuse. This
comparatively narrow strip stretches continuously across from
North-Eastern France to Aix-la-Chapelle, in front of the slaty
Ardennes. The general structure is that of a syncline of
underlying carboniferous limestone with a coal basin in the
middle. The coal is missing from the middle part of the strip
between Namur and Huy, but there is the compensation of
the magnificent scenery of the dolomitic carboniferous lime-
stone which makes that part of the Meuse Valley one of the
beauty spots of Europe. The western part of the narrow
coal belt stretches from Valenciennes and Lille in France,
across by Mons and Charleroi, and here is one of the great
industrial regions of Europe. It was not simply strategy in
the narrow sense that made the Germans seize this part of the
country; it was to obtain possession of coal and iron, and ai
the bye-products of coal, that mean fuel and explosives. It
was a continuation of that German policy of 1871 that deter-
mined the taking of the parts of Lorraine which are rich in
coal and in iron ore. To the Germans this is largely a
commercial war, as has been abundantly shown by the
pronouncement of their financial magnates, as well as by thpir
method of conducting the war.
The eastern part of the carboniferous basin has its centre in
Li^ge, and here are some of the largest iron works in the world.
The great foundries of Seraing give, in normal times, employ-
ment to some 12,000 workmen. The woollen mills of Verviers
are in the south-eastern corner of this region, and received their
early impetus from the excellent wool of the Hohe Venn and
Famenne parts of the Ardennes. The zinc industry of Huy,
the iron of Liege and the woollen of Verviers are excellent
examples of industrial inertia ; very little of the iron ore is
now obtained locally, most of the zinc ore is imported, and
the wool of the Ardennes is now quite insufficient to supply the
mills of that part of Belgium. The excellent canals, the river
Meuse, and a State railway system act as carriers from the
ports to the busy industrial region.
128 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
This Sambre-Meuse trough, on the edge of the highlands,
has become one of the highways of Europe, and the great
Continental expresses utilise it in normal times. This has
been the route through which many an army has passed from
the Teutonic plains across the Rhine to the Gallic lands
beyond the edge of the Ardennes. The German army of
invasion of 19 14, with all its horrible record of crime, was not
the first army that had fought its way along past Li^ge, Huy
and Namur, or in the contrary direction ; but it is doubtful if
history can furnish anything like a parallel to the cold-blooded
*' triumph " of the Germans, or to the foul record associated
with their occupation of the towns on that historic route.
(c) The Mesozoic terrains, north of the industrial carboni-
ferous belt, remind one of the Mesozoic lands of the
Southern Midlands of England, together with the Tertiary
lands of London and Winchester. Brussels is situated some-
what like Winchester. These lands of newer rocks drain
northward to the Lys-Scheldt system ; and the Scheldt,
Dender, Senne and Dyle may be regarded as a parallel series
draining towards the east and west stretch of the Lys. Ghent
and Antwerp are the keys of this region from the north, with
Lille (in France), Tournai, Brussels and Lou vain in the
middle. It is along this dry land of moderate elevation that
armies have more frequently marched, and it is here that so
often the destinies of Europe have been thrashed out. From
the time of the Roman Conquest, through the Dark Ages and
the days of the Carolingian Empire, and then through the
long mediaeval period this land has bristled with battlefields.
In modern times now for the third time have European
aggressors marched their armies against those powers that
have stood for the rights of lesser nations. Britain has stood
against the European aggressor on each occasion, twice
helping to bring him to his knees. For the result of this third
modern war against aggrandisement we must wait, quietly
confident in the power of right, determined that all that Britain
can do shall be done in the cause of the most elementary
justice.
The battlefields of 1692 to 1709 are here: Steinkerke,
Ramillies, Fontenoy, Malplaquet. Here are the first and last
battles of the great war of 1793 — 1815 : Jemappes, Ligny,
Quatre Bras and Waterloo. And here are Mons and Loos —
places which will not detract from the history of British
valour in the field.
Belgium : The Battle Ground of Europe 129
(d) The fourth region is the low land of Flanders, stretching
from the edge of the low chalk hills of Cape Gris Nez to the
marsh lands of the Rhine. This is wonderfully fertile and
infertile by turns; fertile where clay and river silt form the
sub-soil, as in the rich lands near Ypres; infertile by com-
parison on the sandy lands of the Campine, where the
population is comparatively scanty. In this land of recent
strata are situated some of the famous cities of mediaevalism ;
cities where problems of municipal self-government were first
worked out; cities which fought for their rights against
crusading counts and feudal barons. These famous cities were
the world's pioneers in many of the arts of working in metal,
in leather, and were the first to institute a great trade in
woollen and linen goods. Bruges, Ghent and Ypres, among
many others, are honoured names in all that stands for human
progress.
Modern Belgium is the latest attempt at a '* middle-
kingdom " between the Teuton and the Celt of Gaul. The
Treaty of Verdun in 843 divided up the great empire of
Charlemagne into three parts. The western part has grown
into France, the eastern part has become Germany. The
middle part is the debated land of history. Lotharingia was
essentially a mistake, because it transgressed all elementary
geographical conditions of stability. In the later Middle
Ages Burgundy for a time seemed likely to renew the existence
of the Middle Kingdom, but the strength of French nationality
on the one side and the intrigues of German barons and
princes under the empire on the other, proved too much, and
part of the Middle Kingdom passed to France and part in the
long run to Spain and then to Austria. The diplomatists of
1814 — 1815 evidently believed in the efficacy of buffer States,
and reconstituted a sort of Middle Kingdom of the north;
but we in more modern times shall need to look more carefully
at the geographical conditions (w^hich are seldom anything
like simple). The existence of a buffer State presupposes the
honourable regard of treaties by the great powers on each
side; take away this and the existence of such a State becomes
a positive danger to the honourable and scrupulous power.
This introduces questions of great importance which are not
within the province of a geographical lecture like the present.
130 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
BELGIUM, THE LAND OF ART : ITS ECONOMIC
AND POLITICAL HISTORY.
. ,'. i
By Arnold Williams, A.C.A.
(Addressed to the Society in the Geographical Hall on
Tuesday, December i^th, 1914.)
Lord Macaulay in his essay on Oliver Goldsmith says : '' He-
was a great, perhaps an unequalled, master of the arts of
selection and condensation." The writer of this paper has
followed in his steps, selecting and condensing from some ten
or twelve volumes,^ and especially wishes to acknowledge his
indebtedness to Dr. A. S. Rappoport and Mr. Wm. Elliot
Griffis, whose instructive books are mentioned below.
It is hardly possible to find another land with such a
history and such a wealth of art treasures as Belgium.
The men and women of this country have told us their
history in a most attractive way by pen, canvas, sculpture,
metal work, and carving, in town hall, belfry, church and
guild-^house.
We shall glance at the story of Belgium through its varied
existence — savage, Roman, Frankish, feudal, crusading,
mediaeval, Renaissance, and modern. It is almost correct to
say that until 1830 Belgium was as a house of bondage and
yet was the possessor of many liberties.
How wonderful it is that a people of two distinct stocks,
Celtic and Teutonic, and in turn under the yoke of Rome,
Germany, France, Spain, Austria, French Revolutionaries,
Napoleon and Holland, should at last win unity, freedom and
sovereignty. For activity and energy, for the propagation of
I. The following is a list of the volumes : — " Leopold the Second :
King of the Belgians," Dr. A. S. Rappoport. "Belgium," William
ElHot Griffis. " The Story of Belgium," Carlyle Smythe. " The Rise
of the Dutch Republic " (3 vols.), J. L. Motley. ** Belgium " (Encyclo-
paedia Britannica), Rev. G. Edmundson. " Hansa Towns," Helen
Zimmern. " A Short History of the Netherlands," Alexander Young-
" Revolutionary Europe," Morse Stephens. ** Modern Europe," Alison.
Phillips.
Belgium : Its Economic and Political History 131
social ideas and for progress, Belgium stands foremost among
nations, and now to all her good qualities we have to add one
more — that of bravery.
Geographically and ethnically Belgium is interesting.
The two races, Flemings and Walloons, are wholly dis-
similar, speaking different languages, and having different
religious and political views.
They differ as do the rocky Ardennes, the valleys of
Brabant and the plain of Flanders.
These differences have not, however, prevented the Belgian
nation from displaying a unity in striking divergence from
other phases of her life.
Every chord of human nature is touched by the outrage
committed upon this gallant nation, and gratitude without
measure is felt for those who sacrificed themselves willingly
and did not count the cost.
No sadder story has ever been written in the pages of
history.
No crime has ever equalled this crime, and, though peace
will come, punishment must be exacted. Time will heal many
wounds, but the stain of Belgium can never be wiped out from
the soul of Germany.
It is hard to say which is the more indebted to the other,
Great Britain or Belgium. When we think of their close
connection we feel that the war will only serve to strengthen
it, and while Germany will be known for her work of destruc-
tion, Great Britain will be loved for her work of reconstruction.
It is Great Britain who must make that work of reconstruction
possible by her moral and material support.
Belgium has laid down her life for us. Let us see that she
rises again.
New cities may rise on the ashes of the old towns, and time
may change many things, but nothing can ever obliterate
from the minds of his people or their descendants the memory
of the Hero-King who knew how "to fight the Barbarians
for the liberty of Belgium."
" L' Union fait la Force." Such was the national motto
of the Belgians after their separation from Holland.
Their inability to understand their own motto has been
their besetting sin.
132 Journal 6f the Manchiester Geographical Society
The Englishman has never had to repel a foreign invasion
or endure an alien rule. Probably that is why he has always
been an imperialist rather than a patriot.
Neither Fleming nor Frenchman makes a good colonist.
He is always too anxious to return home.
Of half a million Belgians living out of Belgium over
460,000 are in France, and those who live in France could not
be distinguished from the natives except by experts, so alike
are they in habits and appearance.
C^SAR TO Charlemagne.
Belgian history can be traced back to the time of Caesar.
The '"Belgas or Belgians" were found by him, in 57 B.C.,
occupying the territory between the Marne and the Seine, the
North Sea and the Rhine.
Caesar considered them the bravest of all the Gauls.
Though not yet decided whether the Belgians were of a
German or Gallic origin, it is admitted by the majority of
authorities that some of the tribes were of a Celtic, others of
a German, and that both Germans and Gauls were identical
in a common Cimric origin.
Caesar subdued Gaul in eight campaigns, Belgian territory
becoming a Roman province, but it was Augustus who
endeavoured to Romanise it. He was not successful ; for
whilst the Roman influence penetrated into Lower Germany
(along the Rhine to Cologne) and the Celtic tongue made room
for the Latin language, Belgium proper resisted the invasion
of Roman civilisation and kept to its own language, manners,
customs, and ancient traditions. These were of a rude and
vigorous nature, entirely opposed to the soft and enervating
ways of the Roman civilisation. Christianity gained sway in
the Roman Empire in the 3rd century, penetrated into Lower
Germany, and a bishopric was formed at Cologne. It did
not spread to Belgium, however, till the 4th century, at about
the time of the dissolution of the Roman Empire, when the
Franks, availing themselves of this dissolution, invaded
Belgium, establishing a new rule and fresh civilisation.
The Franks were Belgian and German warriors who refused
to submit to the Roman rule, and were divided into Salian, or
Salic, and Ripuarian Franks.
Commencing with King Clodion in 431, Belgium was
■^^
LV-^V
A. W. 1.
The Area South of a line drawn from the centre of the West
of the Iberian Peninsula to the East Coast of the Adriatic
Sea, and also the Balkan Peninsula with the Coasts of Asia
Minor was shown in Blue (63 B.C.). The Remainder of the
Shaded Part was Red (14a.d.). Belgium, Black in all four
Maps.
/ -y^^.;.'-''^
A. W. t.
Belgium : Its Economic and Political History 133
divided and re-united under various Merovingian kings, but
was finally united under Clotaire.
This king is interesting because his two sons, Sigebert and
Chilperic, were married to Brunhilda and Fredegonde, famous
in folk-lore. The Merovingian kingdom fell as a result of
misrule and discord, and the powers of government were
usurped by the steward of the royal possessions known as the
major domus, mayor of the palace. There were four Prankish
kingdoms, each with its own mayor. Pepin, of Heristal,
one of the most famous of them, succeeded in uniting these
mayoralties and making them hereditary in his own family.
His descendants took the title of Dukes of Franconia, until
at last one of them dethroned his imbecile master and founded
a new monarchy.
It is interesting and significant to learn that Europe was
saved by Pepin and his son, Charles Martel, from the invasion
of the Moslems.
Pepin the Short was proclaimed king in 752, and on his
death one of his sons, Charles (known in history as Charle-
magne), became king.
Charlemagne.
Belgium claims that Charlemagne was born in Li^ge^
though this is not certain. There is a statue of him in the
Place d'Avroy. He is famous for his campaigns; and one of
the most important events in his reign was his coronation as
Roman Emperor by Pope Leo III in the year 800.
Thus the grandson of the mayor of Li^ge, Pepin of Heristal,
became Roman Emperor, a title retained by Western Teutonic
rulers until 1806, when it was abolished by Napoleon I.
Charlemagne paid especial attention to his native land, and
by his remarkable organisation made Belgium the centre of
Carolingian rule.
Belgium felt the influences of the civilisations of the two
rising nationalities, French and German.
The Carolingian Empire, however, fell to pieces soon after
Charlemagne's death.
Charlemagne lived in an age of constant warfare. The
new Europe was rising on the ruins of the old Roman Empire.
It was due to Charlemagne's energy (he conducted 53
military expeditions), that Christianity and civilisation were
hot trampled out by the Teutons, Norsemen and Mussulmans..
134 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
Belgium prospered in his time, and Charlemagne is
honoured because he took measures which ultimately led to
Belgium's place in the world.
Beginning with Tournai, the great cities of Belgium,
Bruges, Brussels, Ghent, Courtrai, Ypres, Li^ge and Mons,
took their places on the map.
After Charlemagne's death the vast empire passed to Louis
le Debonnaire. He was not equal to the task of keeping it
together, and divided it among his three sons, Lothaire, Pepin
and Louis, who concluded the treaty of Verdun in 843, by
which Gaul (France) became one brother's share ; Lorraine,
containing the entire Belgium of to-day and extending from
the North Sea to the Jura, Lothaire's portion ; and Germany
fell to the lot of the third brother.
For ten centuries or more Lothaire's portion has been a
iDone of contention between its mighty neighbours.
The Treaty of Verdun in 843 marks the beginning of the
evolution of modern nations and languages as we know them
to-day in the countries of Western Europe.
The close connection between Belgium and England began
when the second Count of Flanders married Elstres, daughter
of Alfred the Great.
It is interesting to trace the English forms of the names for
the men of Southern and Northern Belgium. The ''g" of
Latin countries is identical with *' w " in the north, and Gaul
and Wales are practically the same word. The ancestors of
the English and modern Germans spoke of the Gauls and
Romans as " Waelas " or "strangers," and oon meant
^'one." A Walloon means then a "strange one," or a
^' foreign man."
Flanders is developed from the root word ' * to flee, ' ' and
means the " Land of the Refugees." We also have a familiar
instance in the word " Fleming," which was originally pro-
nounced with the "e" long — "Fleming." In old English
law a man who fled from justice was called a " Flemen."
Feudalism.
Under Feudalism we usually understand the institutions,
both public and private, that regulated mediaeval Europe, and
it was at this time that it developed.
Europe had, since the death of Charlemagne, suffered
terribly from the invasions of Normans, Magyars, and
Belgium : Its Economic and Political History 135
Saracens; and through the weakness of the kings, defence
against the invaders fell upon the nobles. In this way the
power of these lords was gradually developed, and feudalism
strengthened. In course of time the nobles received their
fiefs as hereditary estates, became very powerful, and only
recognised the superior authority of the king in theory.
In Belgium they were called Dukes or Counts, and
Brabant, Flanders, Hainaut, Holland and Luxembourg came
under their sway. Flanders, in particular, became very
powerful and was able to protect herself against her mighty
neighbour, France. Baldwin of the Iron Arm, Count of
Flanders, is remembered for his fight against the Normans.
Eventually Flanders fell to the Ducal house of Burgundy.
The municipalities of Flanders led Europe in its struggle
for self-government, and it has been well said '' that at an early
era in the Low Countries the loom and the shuttles were, in
potency, greater than the steel blade and battle axe, for it was
industry that steadily won the battle of civic freedom, and the
wealth gained through diligence and skill purchased or com-
pelled chartered privileges which in time became popular
rights.*'
There are two names in the story of Belgian liberty which
loom aloft like the belfry of Bruges — Cassel, for victory in
arms, and Grammont, for the victory of civil rights. The
latter is a spot to which we all, as lovers of human progress,
should wend our way. Let us consider it for a moment. In
the year 1068 the estate of Baron Gerard was purchased by
Count Baldwin VI for the Flemings. He laid it out as a town,
and granted the people a charter of civil rights.
This charter marks the commencement of protection for
the workers of Belgium, and is, so far as is known, the oldest
document of the kind in Europe. It is dated 137 years before
the Magna Charta, written in Latin, and 185 years before the
Middleburg Charta, which is in plain Dutch ; and is the
foundation stone of order and protection to industry in Belgic
land.
Flemish Cities in the Middle Ages.
The prosperity of Ypres, Ghent and Bruges is accounted
for, not solely by their manufactures, but also because of their
nearness to the greatest of the European trade routes, overland
and by water, converging at Champagne (France).
136 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
These lines of traffic, traversed by horses and wagons^
stretched from the Bosphorus and from Russia through
Germany, over the old Roman roads into France. By the
water routes of the Mediterranean via Venice, Genoa and
Marseilles, goods were brought to the great French fairs. So
long as these fairs flourished and riches were made, cathedrals
were erected of unparalleled splendour and since unmatched.
Here was evidence of an economic revolution indicating that
the centre of wealth and energy had been transferred from
Egypt and Constantinople to the far West of Europe.
The rise of Champagne followed upon the decay of Con-
stantinople. In both France and the Low Countries the riches
gained by commerce were evidenced in the beauty and glory
of Christian cathedrals or fine specimens of civic architecture.
Even religion adopted material forms. Every municipality
must possess saints' relics, a fragment of the true cross, or
some drops of blood of the Crucified.
As early as A. D. 1200 the old economic system based on
the caravan marches across Central Asia was displaced by
ocean routes — the compass having been brought by sea-going
Arabs from China.
Bruges made mighty strides in comrriercial prosperity, and
it outstripped both Venice and Genoa. Bruges, Hamburg,
Liibeck and Cologne were the four chief factories of the
Hanseatic League. Italian bankers had their headquarters at
Bruges, which became the financial centre of North-Western
Europe. Damme, the seaport of Bruges, was crowded with
ships; but to-day the visitor wonders where the sea is, and
the dam and dikes are memories.
So long as the tidal river Zwyn kept its vigour, and its
waters flowed clear, prosperity and Bruges were synonyms.
When, however, the channel of the Zwyn became choked and
the bed filled up, Bruges lost direct contact with the life-giving
ocean, and the splendour of the city faded.
The Van Arteveldes.
The Flemish municipalities were the wonder of Europe.
When London had less than 50,000 people there were in
Ghent 250,000, in Ypres 200,000, and in Bruges and Courtrai
each 100,000 inhabitants. Cloth making was the leading
industry and a sure and sufficient supply of raw material was
indispensable. On England's moorlands browsed the flocks
A. W. S.
A.]]. >,.
Belgium : Its Economic and Political History 137
which supplied the looms of Flanders; and the English were
willing sellers. As early as 1040 Bruges was the wool market
of Europe. The Hundred Years' War between England and
France (1338 — 1453), influenced greatly both the economic
and political history of Belgium.
When one views to-day the fine statue of Jacques van
Artevelde in Ghent, knowing that it was unveiled by King
Leopold in the modern days of constitutional monarchy, he
recalls also the days when the people ruled and the communes
were at their meridian.
Born in 1285, Van Artevelde was made ruward or president
of Flanders, and led his people in their revolt against Count
Louis. He saw that the municipal idea was not broad enough,
for the cities emphasised local interests and created rivalry
which often and easily became enmity. He desired to unite
his people into one commonwealth, and made an alliance with
Edward III of England — completed (after three years' dis-
cussion) at Brussels in 1339. When Edward returned to get
the permission of Parliament to this Treaty, he left his queen
in Ghent, and there John of Gaunt was born.
Van Artevelde, one of the greatest statesmen of the Europe
of his time, perished before a mob in 1345. His ideas were
broad but misunderstood : he showed the way into nationality,
but the people would not take it : he loosed passions which he
could not control and to which he himself fell a victim.
The House of Burgundy. The Netherlands.
In 1384 Philip, Duke of Burgundy, became Count of
Flanders through marriage with the daughter of Louis le
Male. He entered Bruges and was acknowledged Count of the
land.
The Dukes of Burgundy, by marriage, inheritance,
acquisition and treaties, had succeeded in uniting the Belgian
provinces under their sceptre, under the name of the Low
Countries or the Netherlands and had become mighty rivals
of the Kings of France.
The Dukes endeavoured to found a strong kingdom able
to hold its own against France and the empire, its powerful
neighbours.
Common commercial interests between the provinces
greatly facilitated such endeavours.
138 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
On the one hand the rulers were intent upon safeguarding
the national independence, whilst on the other they struggled
against the democratic spirit of the flourishing communes.
Philip of Burgundy (named the Bold) had cleverly obtained
the principalities of Brabant and Limburg.
He died in 1405, and his son — by Princess Margaret le
Male — John the Fearless, was practically master of all the
Netherlands. John was murdered at Montersau, and was
succeeded by his son, Philip the Good (1419 — 1467). The
murder of John by the French Dauphin's party completed the
estrangement which already existed between France and the
House of Burgundy.
Philip therefore turned towards England, which was at
that time waging war with France for the possession of the
throne.
Philip concluded the Treaty of Troyes in 14 19 — depriving
the French Dauphin of his rights — the French throne going
to the King of England.
Philip the Good's third wife was Isabella of Portugal. The
marriage was celebrated with great pomp and solemnity at
Bruges; and on this occasion Philip founded the famous Order
of the Golden Fleece — equal in importance to the Order of the
Garter in England. Bruges, being the centre of the wool
trade, doubtless suggested the name of the Golden Fleece.
Philip had asserted his authority with much vigour, and
♦discontent was latent : several cities being angry at having
lost many of their privileges. The hostility was especially
strong in Li^ge, and towards the end of Philip's reign the
•city revolted.
Charles the Bold waged war against the Swiss and
Lotharingia, and fell on the battlefield of Nancy in 1477. His
•death gravely compromised the existence of the dynasty of
Burgundy.
The towns and communes of the Netherlands now began to
assert the rights and privileges of which they had been
•deprived by the two Dukes of Burgundy.
Mary of Burgundy, daughter of Charles the Bold, convened
the States to meet at Ghent, and had to face representatives
who were anxious to recover their ancient privileges. She
was compelled to grant a Charter (February nth, 1477)
granting all such privileges. Then she was recognised and
took the oath in Ghent Cathedral. The princess was young
Belgium : Its Economic and Political History 139
(19) and inexperienced, and the citizens of Flanders, Hainaut,
Brabant, Holland and Liege had their way.
She married eventually the Archduke, afterwards Emperor,
Maximilian ; and subsequently lost her Burgundian posses-
sions to France, whilst the Netherlands fell after her death 10
the House of Habsburg.
The Rule of the Habsburgs in Belgium.
Maximilian was unpopular, and after the death of the
Duchess of Burgundy in 1482 the civic authorities looked
askance at the rule of the Habsburgs and decided to uphold
their ancient rights. Gradually, however, the rule of the
Austrian Dynasty in the Netherlands was firmly established.
Maximilian's grandson, the famous Emperor Charles V,
increased the Burgundian lands by adding several other pro-
vinces, making 17 in all, which he was anxious to unite into
one State. He obtained the decision of the Diet of Augsburg
that they should constitute the Burgundian circle, and the
Pragmatic Sanction decreed that they should never be
separated.
Charles hoped that the 17 provinces would constitute an
independent State which would be able to cope with its mighty
neighbours, France, the German Empire, and England.
The Spanish domination was unable, however, to stamp
out Protestantism, which had made its entry into the Nether-
lands. The Habsburg rulers punished heretics severely, taxed
the citizens heavily, and the Spanish soldiers treated them
brutally. Numerous wars had greatly reduced the population
of the Netherlands, the nobility had been ruined, and
commerce and industry were declining. The prosperity of the
Netherlands was threatened.
Protestantism had made its entry into the Netherlands, but
although the Emperor had granted certain concessions to the
Protestants in Germany, he was immovable as far as those in
the Low Countries were concerned, and the great struggle of
the Netherlands for freedom of faith began. Numbers of
martyrs, ancestors of the Belgian heroes of to-day, fell on the
beautiful fields of Flanders.
Charles V. announced that the adherents of the new faith
of Protestantism would be punished by fire and sword, but in
spite of this the new doctrines spread rapidly.
Iri 1555 Charles abdicated, for reasons of health, and the
140 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
Netherlands fell to his son, Philip II. The new monarch was
the most powerful ruler in Europe. In addition to Spain, he
had inherited the Netherlands, Naples, Sicily, Milan, and
great possessions in the New World.
Philip hated the Belgians and their country, and was
ignorant of their language; he strengthened the Inquisition,
and the country was covered with spies. Philip appointed
Margaret, Duchess of Parma, his half sister, Governor of the
Netherlands, and sent Spanish garrisons to occupy the cities.
The cruel persecution of the Protestants brought about the
Revolution which had been latent for some time, and heroic
indeed did the ancestors of the brave defenders of Li^ge prove
themselves in their fight against the common foe.
The Revolt of the Netherlands.
The struggle now commenced which was to last for 30
years, William of Orange forming a league of 17 of the
provinces to drive the Spaniards out of the country.
The Inquisition only made the people cling to Protes-
tantism and hate the king : and even the nobility, who were
mostly Catholics, rose with William and Count Egmont at
their head. Riot and violence, the attacking of churches and
breaking of holy images, enraged Philip II, who decided to
increase the persecution. He sent the brave but cruel Duke
of Alva to be Regent of the Netherlands in place of Margaret^
whom he recalled.
The struggle of the 17 provinces went on until Alva's
successor, Alexander of Parma, son of Margaret, succeeded in
creating discord among them, and a separation took place.
The ten southern provinces remained under the Spanish King,
being more inclined to Catholicism, but the seven northern
ones formed into a confederation known as the Utrecht Union
(1579), the foundation of the Dutch Republic.
Belgium from 1579 to 181 5.
Philip now made Belgium an independent State for his
daughter Isabelle and her husband, Albert of Austria, but as
there was no issue it once more returned to Spain, and had ^o
share in her misfortunes.
In her wars against France and the Dutch RepubHc, Spain
was generally unlucky, and peace was usually concluded ac
the expense of Belgium. Artois and Thionville were ceded 'a
Belgium : Its Economic and Political History 141
France, and in 1668, by the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, Tournai,
Lille, Charleroi, Courtrai and Oudenarde were also ceded,
until by the treaties of Utrecht and Rastadt in 17 13 and 17 14,
Belgium was handed over to Austria.
During the wars of the Austrian succession Belgium was
taken by France, but was restored to Austria by the treaty of
A'ix-la-'Chapelle in 1748.
Charles of Lotharingia was Regent, and he and Maria
Theresa, Empress of Austria, who founded the Academy of
Science, did their utmost for Belgium, and an era of peace
and prosperity now began.
Joseph II succeeded his mother, Maria Theresa, in 1780,
and he endeavoured to enforce certain reforms. The people,
however, saw in these reforms an attack upon their privileges.
The University of Louvain gave the signal, and the famous
lawyer. Van der Noop, became the head of the discontented
inhabitants.
With the breaking out of the French Revolution and the
storming of the Bastille, the imagination of the Belgians was
fired, and they rebelled, forcing the Austrian garrison at
Brussels to capitulate.
The independence of the United States of Belgium was
proclaimed in 1790, Luxembourg remaining under Austrian
rule.
The Democratic Revolutionary Party and the aristocratic
majority, however, could not agree, and it once again became
part of Austria, but only for a short time.
After the battle of Jemappes in 1792 the French became
masters, and in 1794 the victory of Fleurus put an end to
Austrian rule in Belgium.
By the Treaties of Campo Formio (1797) and Lun^ville
(1801) Belgium became part of France and was governed as
one of her possessions, also sharing her varied experience.
Napoleon met his Waterloo, however, and the Congress of
Vienna decided that Belgium and Holland should be united
under William of Orange. In September, 181 5, William I,
King of the Netherlands, took his oath at Brussels, and
promised to be faithful to the Constitution which had been
drawn up the previous month.
The union was an unhappy one; everything — language,
customs, and religion — being against the fusion of the Dutch
and Belgians.
142 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
The Revolution of 1830.
The revolution of 1830 brought with it the independence of
Belgium. It was impossible for Holland and Belgium to
become one nation. Holland was Protestant and commercial,
whilst Belgium was Catholic, agricultural and industrial.
In the Government the opposition consisted of two parties,
Liberal and Ultramontane, and when they united in 1828 they
nearly obtained a majority.
An insurrection followed the imprisonment of de Potter,
one of the leaders of the opposition, for an article which
appeared in the '' Courrier des Pays Bas." This was
subdued, but the July revolution of 1830 broke out in France,
and numerous emissaries came to Brussels to fan once more
the revolutionary spirit.
The independence of Belgium was proclaimed by a
provisional government, and a congress was convened at
Brussels on October 4th.
The Powers meeting in London made a proposal that
hostilities between Holland and Belgium should end. This,
happily, came to pass, and Belgium became an independent
State. It was decided to have an hereditary monarchy. No
member of the House of Orange-Nassau was ever to be elected.
The English Foreign Office looked with disfavour on the
suggestion of a union of France and Belgium, and would not
allow it. As a result no French prince was eligible for election
as king.
Following on the proposal made by the English Govern-
ment that Prince Leopold of Saxe Coburg should be king, on
4th June, 183 1, the Belgian National Congress elected him
King of the Belgians amid great excitement in the city of
Brussels.
Prince Leopold had married in 18 16 Charlotte Augusta,
only daughter of the Prince of Wales. She had died,
however, in 1817. On July i6th he left England, and on the
2 1 St he entered Brussels and took the oath to observe the
Constitution.
The new king's military experience in the wars of 1814 and
1815 now stood him in good stead.
He was able to meet the opening of hostilities with Holland
with confidence, and was the means of saving Belgium,
assisted by France, who sent an army to Namur and Mons.
Within seven days of the combined armies of Belgium and
Belgium : Its Economic and Political History 143:
France facing the Dutch, August 20th, 1831, not a Dutch
soldier remained in Belgium.
It was not until 1838 that King William recognised the
independence of Belgium.
Belgium was declared neutral by the Treaty of London,
which was signed by the representatives of Great Britain,
Austria, Russia, and Prussia.
In return for being allowed to retain one portion of
Luxembourg she had to give up part of Limburg, and she had
to pay 8,400,000 florins as her share of the debts.
King Leopold I.
As his second wife King Leopold I took Princess Marie
Louise of Orleans, eldest daughter of King Louis Philippe
of France.
On April 9th, 1835, the Duke of Brabant, afterwards
Leopold II, was born.
It was largely due to the constitutional rule of Leopold I
that Belgium passed pveacefully through the Revolutionary
period of 1848. He had gained the confidence of his people,
and the nation became united to defend their common interests.
Leopold displayed his prudent statesmanship by entering
into friendly relations with Napoleon III on his assuming the
position of Emperor. He did not forget, however, the policy
of Napoleon I, and took measures for the defence of his
country should that all conquering policy once more reign
supreme.
He asked Queen Victoria and the English Court to recog-
nise the new Emperor, and thus gaining favour with Napoleon
III prevailed on him to acknowledge the incorporation of the
French provinces in the Belgian Kingdom.
Leopold I died on December loth, 1865. In his 35 years^
prosperous reign he had founded a State and made it pnDSsible
for the people to be independent.
Leopold 1 1.
The work of Leopold I was continued by his son, the Duke
of Brabant, who now became Leopold 11.
It is to Leopold II that Belgium owes its commercial and
industrial prosperity.
Belgium has one of the cheapest railway systems in the
144 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
world — thanks to Leopold's efforts and business methods ; and
the Congo is an outlet for the industry of the Belgian people.
All attempts on the part of Napoleon III and Bismarck to
annex Belgian territory were frustrated by Leopold. He also
stood faithfully by the duties imposed on his country by her
pledge of neutrality when the Franco-German war broke out
in 1870.
The way in which Belgium stood the trial won her the
esteem and goodwill of other nations.
It was due to Leopold that the Belgian people were able to
colonise in the Congo State.
It was also due to him that the country was well defended,
for he believed that Belgian neutrality should be an armed
one even to the point of sacrifice.
The old forts of Namur and Li6ge were reconstructed and
fresh ones made on the Meuse, as well as at Antwerp. Leopold
believed that " wars have become crushing — those whom they
surprise are absolutely lost."
He also created forts at Antwerp and Zeebrugge. If his
father had consolidated Belgian independence, Leopold II had
furthered Belgian national prosperity.
TRcvicvo.
"The Surface of the Earth; Elementary Physical and Economic
Geography." By Herbert Pickles, B.A., B.Sc. Cambridge :
University Press. 2/-.
This is a really well-arranged book and should serve as a valuable
text-book for young students. The fact that the knowledge acquired
by the pupils is so frequently used to further enquiry is in itself a
good proof that the author is familiar with the type of students for
whom he writes. The illustrations are well chosen and fairly well
produced, and the diagrams are such as can be profitably used by any
class. Perhaps a better illustration of fossiliferous limestone might
have been chosen (page 25), and the value of this illustration is much
less than that on page 38. The section on page 48 is not the best the
author could have produced. Figs, 26 and 27 could easily have been
combined and would then have been more easily compared with a map
of England and Wales.
In the hands of a good teacher the book should be of real service,
for such a book has long been needed. The author and the publishers
are to be complimented on such a neat production. T.W.F.P.
Geography : Its Field, its Fascination, and its Future 145
GEOGRAPHY : ITS FIELD, ITS FASCINATION, AND
ITS FUTURE,
With Special Reference to South Africa.
By J. HuTCHEON, M.A., F.R.S.G.S.
(Taken as read at the Meeting of the Society held in the
Geographical Hall on Tuesday, October 19th, 1915.)
Of recent years, in educational circles, perhaps no subject has
been more frequently discussed than geography. Some have
condemned it without a hearing, probably because their ideas
of the subject were based entirely on the mechanical, dry-as-
dust teaching of which they were the victims some ten or
twenty years ago. Certainly it is by no means easy to state
the exact limitations of the science, and it may therefore be
profitable to glance here at the development of the subject
from early times in order to understand more clearly the
modern significance of the term.
The science is almost as old as man, for, as soon as he
found that his immediate environment could not supply all
his needs, geography began. The inhabitants of the Nile
and Euphrates basins used it in apportioning their fertile
land, and at a much later period some Greek philosophers
began to turn their attention to such questions as the size and
shape of the earth, while others wrote descriptions of various
lands and their inhabitants. In the 6th century B.C. the first
map of the world was compiled, and Herodotus about a
century later gave the world the first treatise on descriptive
geography. As new regions came under the sway of the
southern empires, descriptive geographical literature increased
and it was at a much later date that the scientific treatment
of the subject began, when, from being a mere collection of
unrelated facts, names, and figures, geography became a
systematic science tracing through phenomena distributed
over the surface of the earth the gradual evolution from cause
to effect.
The geographer's first task is to explore the earth, sea and
air and to cartographically express the result of his investi-
146 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
gation. He has then to trace the connection between the
land forms and subterranean and climatic forces. He has to
explain how the distribution of vegetable life is dependent
upon the soil and atmospheric conditions, and how animal life
receives its substance from the vegetable world. His investi-
gations then lead him to the conclusions that the distribution
of man is directly influenced by the presence or absence of
certain animals, plants, or minerals. The combination of all
these {i.e.f land forms, climatic conditions, vegetation, etc.)
brings about the development of characteristics, in races,
religions and government, the rise of industries, the gravita-
tion towards city centres, the foundation of states and the
establishment of commerce.
This sketch gives an indication of the comprehensiveness
of the science, and it has accordingly been well called '' the
gateways of the physical sciences," '' the key to history," and
"' the basis of commerce," but the main effect of geography,
is to demonstrate man's relation to his environment and his
reaction on that environment.
The geographer's field of action is the surface of our globe^
and by that term is meant such parts of the atmosphere,
lithosphere, and hydrosphere as have been investigated. He
borrows from the results obtained, by the geologist, the
meteorologist, the anthropologist and others, and shows how
the distributions of their phenomena are inter-related. In
his science, as in all others, there are three stages, namely,
the collecting, the classifying and the explanatory. The first
deals with the gathering of as large a number of independent
facts as possible, the second with the arranging of these, and
the third with the determination of the laws regulating them.
It must therefore be apparent that few subjects can profess
to train more effectively the powers of observation, compari-
son, explanation, and imagination. The educational value
of the subject is very great, whether it be considered from the
points of view of utility, culture, or discipline.
Perhaps a rapid review of the development of geographical
education in other countries would be of interest to some.
The truest indication of what value is placed upon a subject
is the degree of recognition it receives from the universities.
At Paris, more than a hundred years ago, the first profes-
sorship of geography was established. Now France can
boast of nearly fifty university teachers of the subject, and she
Geography : Its Field, its Fascination, and its Future 147
has produced some of the world's greatest exponents of the
science. Forty years ago geography was taught at only two
of the German universities; at present there are close upon
three score professors and lecturers. Similar progress has
been made in Austria, Switzerland, Italy, Denmark, and the
Netherlands. At Oxford the first readership in geography
was established in 1887, and at Cambridge the study of the
science began the following year. The practical branches of
the subject have attained so high a standard in England, that
students are attracted from all parts of the world, for, by the
sustained efforts of several pioneers, staunchly supported by
the Royal Geographical Society, the school of Geography at
Oxford and the department at Cambridge can compare
favourably with any elsewhere.
In what relation does Geography stand to the other
sciences? She has been called the mother of science, the
handmaid of history, the child of geology, etc., and to attempt
to account for such appellations is by no means an uninterest-
ing task.
Although Geography builds with the bricks supplied by
the geologist, the meteorologist, and the anthropologist, it
does not follow that in order to be a geographer one must be
an expert in all these branches of science any more than the
doctor, who uses the results of geographical inquiry in order
to find a suitable climate for his invahds, could be called a
geographer. The trend of the teaching of the subject will
depend on the particular bent of the teacher ; if he be mathe-
matical, then the astronomical and cartographical phases of
the science will interest him; if geological, then the physical;
if biological or anthropological, then the more human.
The basis of all geographical knowledge is exploration ;
and the history of this branch of the subject, with its numerous
examples of heroism and self-sacrifice, is fascinating beyond
measure.
With the surveyor's aid are then prepared the maps,
which are the foundations of all the later work of the
geographer. Unfortunately, no convenient method for repre-
senting the curved surface of the earth and retaining correctly
both shape and proportion has yet been discovered. The
lack of good maps and the ignorance of cartography shown
on several occasions by administrators and commanders has
cost much in blood and gold, and in recent wars Britain has
148 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
been led to realize the inadvisability of lighting without the
guidance of reliable maps. Military Geography is at last
coming into its own. Nor in peace can their importance be
over-estimated, for ability to interpret maps properly is
absolutely indispensable to the satisfactory settlement of
boundaries. In new countries, such as this, there is ample
scope and great necessity for surveyors, hence their ''numerical
strength " and the high standard of excellence attained. The
fine workmanship must in no small degree be attributed to
the impetus given to the art by the great patron of Science,
the late Sir David Gill, whose achievements in Geodesy won
him world-wide renown. Here a passing reference may be
made to Astronomy, which also pays its quota towards the
elucidation of the questions regarding the seasons, latitude
and longitude. The field work necessary in the making and
testing of maps has, probably owing to its practical nature,
a great charm for most students of the subject.
To state the line of demarcation between geography and
geology is very difficult. The same material is used by both
but the point of view is different, for geology studies the
earth's crust in order to find out its past history, while
geography looks upon the present state of development of
the various land forms, considers their future condition, treats
the whole as the home of plant, animal, and man, and notes
the influence of configuration, etc., on him and his reaction
on nature. Another of its problems deals with the distribu-
tions of minerals and soils and their influence in the economic
development of the regions concerned. Probably one of the
geographer's greatest pleasures is to trace the relation between
geological structure and scenery. The prevailing types in
South Africa are too familiar to require more than a passing
notice : — the Table Mountain Sandstone with its harsh jagged
outlines, e.g.^ the Hex River Mountains; the Malmesbury
Beds and the Granite with their smooth round contours, e.g,^
Signal Hill, " and the intrusive sheets of dolerite intersecting
the less durable and slightly dipping strata of shales and
sandstones forming the Karroo system, and presenting an
outline alternately flat and sharp, with Krantzes on the top,
and forming terraces at lower levels in the body of the moun-
tains, e.g., the Nieuwveld Range." A resum6 of a most
interesting lecture on the subject by Prof. A. Young will be
found in the " Geographical Teacher " of autumn 1906.
Geography : Its Field, its Fascination, and its Future 14^
In order to solve climatic problems geography appeals to
the physicist and the meteorologist. With their assistance
he binds the earth with isotherms, he divides the world into
high and low air pressure belts, he points out the regions of
heavy rainfall, and indicates the deserts.
He now passes from the inorganic to the organic world,
and the botanist leads the way. He recognises that the
various combinations of soil and climate lead to the different
arrangements of belts of vegetation, horizontally and verti-
cally, and he concludes that in all probability plants from one
region may thrive in similar habitats elsewhere.
As the vegetable kingdom is, generally speaking, the
bread and butter of the lower animal kingdom, the geographer
tears a page from the Zoologist's note-book, dealing with the
distribution of animal life. This leads to the great economic
question of domestication of animals, an important branch of
agricultural geography, by no means lacking in interest.
Geography is the stage on which the tragedies- and
comedies of History are enacted. This is illustrated in the
case of South Africa where the great geographical factor,
which has dominated its historical and commercial develop-
ment, is the vast central plateau approachable with any degree
of ease, only from the south. An arid desert forbids influx
from the west, and from the east it is almost equally well
barred by a tremendous mountain range. Besides, the fine
climate of the S.W. corner of the Cape Colony offered great
attractions to the early colonists, and hence most of them
desired settlement there. This eventually led to trekking,
and the great northern hinterland with a climate tempered
by altitude became the home of thousands of pioneering
farmers. This northern migration was greatly accelerated
by the construction of railways, and the study of railway
development in South Africa, its dependence upon configura-
tion, and its effects upon economic history is a most fascina-
ting occupation.
Anthropology shows that the influence of environment on
man varies in inverse proportion to his mental development.
The savage is practically a slave to his environment, while
the modern man has all but conquered nature. The tendency
in anthropo-geography is to make sweeping statements before
sufficient data have been collected. For instance, although it
appears to be a general rule that nigrescence is intensified on
150 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
approaching the equator, physiologists have not yet been able
to explain why, nor to account for the distribution of the red
race throughout America. Some direct effects on man's
physique may easily be traced. In isolated regions where
food is scarce, or lacks variety, animal stature is low. Such
conditions prevail in Shetland, and the result may be seen
in the breed of ponies peculiar to these islands. A similar
type of stunted horse is being evolved in the Falkland Isles.
On comparing the Bushmen of the barren Kalahari Desert
with the Hottentots of the richer grass lands the same prin-
ciple is found to prevail. Again, where geographic conditions
necessitate the constant engagement in any particular form
of exercise, e.g., paddling, the people concerned develop
tremendous chests and arms while their legs are abnormally
skinny. This is exemplified in the Barotse of the Upper
Zambesi. Of course with a change of occupation in time
these peculiarities disappear.
Environment reflects itself also in architecture, for the
height or basement-area of building varies according to the.
value of the land ; houses are made to resist heat or cold
ac(^ording to the climate ; the stone employed in most cases
depends on the nature of the neighbouring rocks; and the
ornamentation is regulated by the weathering agents.
Even on religious beliefs environment has left its mark,
for the hell of the Eskimos is a region of darkness and intense
cold, while that of the Jew is a place of eternal fire. It must
therefore be evident that the combination of all the direct and
indirect forces of environment must have a considerable
influence in moulding character.
The study of geography through place-names has also
roused considerable interest. A few examples will indicate
how some local geographical peculiarities are embodied in
names. Near Beaufort West there is a district known as
" Ghoup." This is the Bushman-Hottentot word meaning
what is absolutely no good for anything, for it was applied
to the parts of an animal which could not possibly be eaten —
even by Bushmen. From the point of view of production the
place is very appropriately named. Then near Knysna is
" Tse-tsi Kama," with its " much-much-water " and its dense
forests, " Umzimvubu " (home of hippopotamus), and
" Ngqeleni " (at the place of cold). '' Baviaan's River " and
" Zeekoe " require no comment.
The geographical work of the future can only be indicated
Geography : Its Field, its Fascination, and its Future 151
not only because the field is so large but also because in
accordance with the prevailing principle of evolution new
conditions are constantly arising, and in consequence new
geographical problems are ever asserting themselves. For
instance, the future of the ostrich feather industry, which has
assumed such an alarming aspect in the recent months, is a
question of no mean geographical significance. As " terra
incognita " is now almost non-existent the work of the
explorer becomes every year more limited, but there is still
need for him in South America and in isolated regions else-
where. Meanwhile, however, the eyes of the world are fixed
on the vast continent of the South Antarctic. Perhaps
Shackleton's next great expedition will throw light on the
bewitching problems of palaso-geography, perhaps this lone
land will prove a storehouse of mineral wealth, perhaps it will
provide the Australian meteorologist with the key to under-
Standing his climatic conditions.
In cartography, maps showing every possible type of
geographical distribution will be available. The great inter-
national map which has been in preparation for several years
will make possible the universal use of several symbols and
modes of spelling. There is scope for cartographical repre-
sentation of the distribution of soils and of the actual and
potential productivity of the various agricultural districts.
Hydrographical surveys, especially in countries such as this,
where water is wealth, should be easily '' available for all
interested." Maps showing the present and past distribution
of forests and rainfall, of drained land and malaria, certainly
ought to receive the serious consideration of all patriotic
citizens. Even statistics might gain a little attention if
presented in map or graphic form.
The geologist may help by indicating the presence of
valuable or useful minerals, by telling the probable develop-
ment of land forms on account of erosion or deposition, and
may lead through the avenues of palaeontology to the worlds
of the past.
The hydrographer will suggest improved means of distri-
buting water, and in conjunction with the agriculturist will
indicate how to receive the maximum of production from the
minimum of outlay. All such considerations help to answer
the geographer's queries.
Recent marine catastrophes, even in the most familiar
152 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
highways of the seas, have revealed the fact that on every hand
lurk sources of danger which demand the further attention
of the oceangrapher.
Although the meteorologist cannot alter the courses of
cyclones he may be able to suggest new means of modifying
local climatic conditions in order to make possible the more
complete Europeanisation of tropical lands with their almost
unlimited productive potentialities. In this part of the globe,
the burning question of the day seems to be " Is South Africa
drying up ? " The meteorologist may even find a means of
kiUing the dreaded ''dust-devil."
The preparation, distribution, and intelligent interpretation
of meteorological charts are absolutely necessary for
thoroughly successful farming, and safe fishing. The bearing
of meteorology on aviation is evident, and before long the
latter may demand serious consideration from the geographers
of commerce.
Botanists, zoologists, and anthropologists, after more
comprehensive observation and exhaustive investigation, in
which innumerable indirect causes will not fail to receive
consideration, may discover laws regarding man's distribu-
tion and racial characteristics which will stand the test of
universal application.
History must continue to pursue the familiar paths laid
out by Geography.
The questions regarding a topographical nomenclature
for general adoption, tropical diseases with their distribution,
and their relation to animal distribution, the world's decreas-
ing coal supply, the latent power of oil, water, tides and sun,
and the alteration of the great trade routes giving rise to such
local questions as shipping accommodation, storage, etc.,
must all receive attention, from the geographer of to-morrow.
The establishment of an Imperial Geographical Informa-
tion Bureau, which would collect and distribute information
regarding all matters geographical, would prove a tremendous
boon to the man in the street, the traveller, the colonist, the
soldier, and the administrator. In a small way, much useful
work of this kind can be done in schools.
With reference to the future of geographical education in
South Africa, it is evident that if any profitable meteorolo-
gical, field, or research work is to be accomplished at the
higher centres of learning, the instruction in schools must be
Geography : Its Field, its Fascination, and its Future 153;
sound and extensive, and hence it is meet that every endeavour
should be made to raise the status of a subject of such
importance to men both collectively and individually, and
which, most are agreed, has not received due consideration
in the past.
'* Physical Geography." By P. Lake, M.A. Cambridge : University
Press. 7/6.
The opening sentence of Mr. Lake's preface is, indeed, only toa
true. Of late years we have been overloaded with a rapid succession
of books on elementary physical geography, of which it may be truly
said that the majority " had no proper reason for existing," since
they only repeated in slightly different terms what others had said
before them. Apart from special studies of separate branches of the
subject, there were, until lately, barely half a dozen manuals to which
a teacher could have recourse for further information than the elemen-
tary text-books gave ; and of these three were of Transatlantic origin,,
so that the examples given had to be paralleled by others nearer
home. There was, therefore, abundant room for such a manual as
Mr. Lake has given us.
It is not light reading. Readers of the author's earlier works will
know that he does not multiply words without necessity ; but, though
the style is condensed, it is never obscure. Rather the contrary, the
descriptions of the various phenomena are models of clear and concise
exposition, and the illustrations are excellently chosen to suit the text.
They are also admirably printed, and not blurred, as is sometimes the-
case, so badly as to be almost illegible.
Where so much is good, it is difficult to single out particular
passages for praise or censure. But the chapters on the distribution of
temperature in the atmosphere, and that on the tides— a subject which
beginners appear to find peculiarly difficult to understand — will com-
mend themselves to teachers as affording valuable help in their studies
and lessons. Both subjects are often very superficially treated.
On page 312 we notice that the author gives the I.aacher See as a
type of a crater lake. Now it is held by some competent German
geologists that it is not a crater lake at all, but one formed by a
subsidence due to the activity of the surrounding volcanoes ; and, after
spending three weeks in the Eifel, chiefly in studying the Maark and
other volcanic phenomena, the writer is inclined to ap-ree with them.
It would be better to give the Pulvermaar, near Gillenfeld, or the
Ulmener Maar, west of Manderscheid, both of which are indisputablj^
crater lakes, as examples of this interesting lake forma<-ion. It is to-
be feared, though, that the latter, the larger of the two. will be drained
154 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
before many years are passed by the brook that now runs from it and
is cutting down its bed somewhat rapidly.
In conclusion we would cordially recommend this book to students,
especially to those whose means to purchase books and shelf space to
contain them are limited. J.A.O.
" Elementary Studies in Geography and History." By H. J.
Mackinder, M.P., Reader in Geography in the University of
London. ,«, t
(i) The Teaching of Geography and History, i/-.
(2) Our Island History, 2/-, or in parts 1/3 each.
(3) The Modem British State, 1/9.
London : Geo. Philip and Son.
For a scholarly and singularly lucid review of these books the reader
cannot do better than refer to Mr. P. M. Roxby's article in the
autumn number of the Geographical Teacher, in which is quoted the
following extract, as indicative of Mr. Mackinder's theme : —
" There are some six roads to be traversed . . . before we begin
our first book on geography at the age of eight or nine years. The
first and the second of our roads, starting directly out of the freest
and youngest play, are the twin roads of drawing and modelling.
The third and fourth roads are comprised in what is known as
nature study. The third follows the flow and the ebb of animal
and vegetable life throughout the year, and the fourth follows the
circulation of water from sea to sky and back to sea. The fifth is
the romantic road of tales from the Wonderbook, tales of distant
lands and 'once upon a time.' The sixth road goes with the sun
in his apparent path from dawn to dusk and beyond : it leads to
the conclusion that the earth is a body hung in space.
" Our six roads end on the globe : they have been aimed there
from the beginning. The children will exercise upon it the six
faculties which they have won. They will (i) drawn their own
maps from the continents shown upon it. They will (2) mould
from the maps so drawn, and pour in water around to represent
the ocean. With their fingers tracing little circulations on the
globe, they will picture (4) the mists rising from the ocean, and
descending on the continents in rain, and will see the (3) annual
crops growing in the moisture and the sunshine. Where the land
is rainless they will learn to recognise the Sahara of their (5)
Wonderland, with its sandstorms and camels. Where the land is
drenched in Central Africa they will imagine dark forests and
pygmies. Finally, (6) the sunshine from a lamp will divide the
day from the night, and the continents on our globe will rotate
successively into the day."
One can but regret that there should be a need for such a book
as the first-named, but, in the present state of things, seeing that the
teacher is as a rule imperfectly trained to deal with the subjects as
they are expected to be taught in these days, and has little oppor-
. MM ' Reviews I55
tunity of further study on the necessary lines (and certainly no means
as a rule of travel), we can but welcome the book as an almost
essential vade mecum for the teacher.
In the second book named, the great aim in view is to bring the
pupil to a realisation of the dependence of the present on the past,
and in this aim the author is eminently successful.
In the third book, Citizenship is the theme, and the method of
treatment is strikingly novel and can hardly fail of its purpose to
train its young readers up to be worthy Britishers. C.H.C.
** Industrial and Commercial Geography." By Prof. J. Russell
Smith. London : Constable & Co. 902 pages. 15/- net.
The author aims to interpret the earth in terms of its usefulness to
humanity and deals with human activities as affected by the earth,
rather than with part3 of the earth as they affect human activities.
In the first part of the book we have a discussion of industries,
in preference to the usual regional treatment, and the author justifies
his method by insisting that it appeals more to reason and is more
easily assimilated by the reader. We agree with him too that such
a procedure will give a sound knowledge of the trade activities of
each country without sacrificing the knowledge of the industries
themselves
In the second part there is a description of world-commerce, with
a detailed treatment of Ports, Trade Routes, etc., and we would
especially commend for careful study the excellent chapters on Trade
Routes. They contain material which can only have been got
together with much labour and the method of presentation is
admirable.
We believe the book to be an evidence of a coming change in the
outlook of geography students and we commend it with every confi-
dence to those in search of inspiration for their work. C.H.C.
" Hannibal Once More." By Douglas W. Freshfield, M.A., F.R.G.S.
With three maps and five illustrations. London : E. Arnold.
5/--
This intensely interesting study of the most probable route taken
by Hannibal's Army across the Western Alps is a continuation and
culmination of Mr. Freshfield 's papers in the Geographical and Alpine
journals.
In proposing the route from the Durance River by the Col de Vars
and the Col de I'Argentiere to the Italian plain, he finds great support
in a passage from the writings of Marcus Terentius Varro, a Roman
general and great author, where a list of five passes is given,
presumably arranged in geographical order, as the first named is the
156 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
one nearest the sea, and the fifth is the most northerly one, the
Little St. Bernard. The second (called Hannibal's Pass by Varro)
thus being the second from the coast, or the Vars-Argentiere Route.
Mr. Freshfield first treats of the classical texts of Polybius and
Livy, and discusses the views taken of these texts by various writers.
He then shows how the Vars-Argentiere route answers the require-
ments, and finally criticises other proposed routes, more especially
the route over the Col du Clapier, advocated by Commandant Colin
and other French military writers, and by Professor Spenser Wilkin-
son in this country, pointing out how far and where they fail to agree
with the narratives of Polybius and Livy.
The value of the book is greatly enhanced by the good orographical
maps of the two routes specially considered and of the Western Alps
as a whole. H. S.
" The Teaching of Geography." By B. C. Wallis, B.Sc. Cambridge r
University Press. 3/6.
This is an interesting book, and the author has given his ideas and
the result of his experience in a very lucid way. Whether all teachers
will accept his ideal is doubtful, for every teacher thinks his own
method, at least, a good method. It should also be remembered that
methods adopted successfully by one teacher may prove an utter failure
in another and yet equally capable teacher.
The author has however grasped the difficulties and knows that
conditions vary in every school and in every locality. Physical geo-
graphy (land forms) is far harder to teach in the plains of East
Yorkshire than among the hills of West Yorkshire, but the book will
be a help to the teacher who is not so favourably placed as he might
desire. In this book such a teacher will find his " ideals," and the
author is to be congratulated on a work in which every teacher of
geography will find something of value.
In many schools it is impossible to have a separate room, and in
many more the staff is too small to employ a specialist for the subject.
Perhaps it would be well for our Universities and Training Colleges
to follow the advice given in Chapter XIX. Chapter XXI should be
studied both by teachers in elementary and in secondary schools.
Chapter XXII is also valuable and shows that the author has not
overlooked the fact that other subjects form part of the school course.
The book should be in every school and should be a real aid to
teachers who frequently find difficulty in correlating and grouping the
various subjects. T.W.F.P.
Proceedings of the Society 157
proceebin99 of tbe Societi?**
July ist to December 31st, 1914.
The 965th Meeting of the Society was held in the Houldsworth
Hall on Wednesday, October 7th, 1914, at 7-30 p.m.
In the Chair Mr. Harry Nuttall, M.P., F.R.G.S., and later Colonel
H. T. Crook, D.L., V.D.
The Rev. T. T. Norgate, F.R.G.S., gave a lecture on "The
Theatre of the War," illustrated with many lantern views.
Colonel Crook moved^ Mr. J. Stephenson Reid seconded and it was
unanimously resolved that the hearty thanks of the Meeting be
tendered to the Lecturer for his interesting address, and to the
Vice-chairman, Mr. E. W'. Mellor, J.P., F.R.G.S., for the loan .of
his powerful lantern, with which the slides were so well shown.
The lecture was in aid of the Belgian Relief Fund, and the balance
of £18 17s. lod. was handed to Mr. L. A. Galle, Belgian Consul, on
behalf of the fund.
The 966th Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, October
13th, 1914, at 7-30 p.m.
Mr. T. W. Sowerbutts, F-S-A.A., in the Chair. ■
The Minutes of the Meetings held on April 7th and October 7th,
1914, were taken as read.
The election of the following members was announced : — Ordinary :
Miss Ashton, Miss Ruth Bennett, Messrs. W. Appleby, E. H. L.
Dickson, T. Gaythorpe, C. V. Haerem, T. Hilton, J. R. Morland,
J. E. T. Richardson, T. F. Robinson, O. M. Row, H. Tattersall, and
T. Wood, and the Summerville College ; Associate : Miss Kate Chorley
and Miss A. Jackson.
The Chairman mentioned that, by direction of the Council, letters
of condolence had been sent to the relatives of Messrs. G. I. Blake,
J. G. Groves, D.L., S. Massey, and T. Newbigging, who had died
during the summer.
The Chairman reminded the Members that Thursday, October 15th,
would be the 30th anniversary of the formation of the Society. The
Council had proposed that a banquet should be held to celebrate the
event, and the President of the Royal Geographical Society had
accepted an invitation, but under the altered circumstances due to
the war it had been decided not to go on with this proposal.
Miss Kate Qualtrough, F.R.G.S., gave a lecture on ** The Genesis
of Geography," and illustrated her paper with lantern views of maps,
plans and places of historic interest (see p. 68).
The Chairman on behalf of the Meeting thanked the Lecturer for
her very instructive address so appropriately illustrated.
*The Meetings are held in the Geographical Hall, unless otherwise
stated.
158 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
The 967th Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, October
20th, 1914, at 7-30 p.m.,
In the ChairJ(^dbn^^H;>Tl:lCl(iok;?©tii.»;;17JDU^•C.
The Minutes of the Meeting held on October 13th were taken as
read.
The Chairman mentioned that the death of Mr. Joseph Lunn took
place on October 15th, and it was resolved that the sympathy of the
members present be conveyed to his -relatives in their bereavement.
Mr. Albert Wilmore, 'D.Sc, F.G.S., gave a lecture on ** Belgium,
the Battleground of Europe," and illustrated his remarks with lantern
slides, mainly original (see p. 125).
On the motion of the Chairman it was resolved that the hearty
thanks of the Meeting be tendered to Dr Wilmore for his very
interesting and instructive address.
N.B.— As some fifty members and friends were crowded out of the
above Meeting, Dr. Wilmore kindly repeated his lecture on "Belgium"
on Friday, November 20th, when Mr. T. W. F. Parkinson, M.Sc,
F.G.S., presided. A collection for the Belgian Refugees' Fund was
taken at the close of the lecture, and £s 2s. gd. was received and
handed over to Councillor Will Melland on behalf of the fund.
The 968th Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, October
27th, 1914, at 7-30 p.m.
Mr. E. W. Mellor, J.P., F.R.G.S., in the Chair.
The Minutes of the Meeting held on October 20th were taken as
read.
The Chairman announced the election of Mr. J. Buckley as an
Ordinary Member, and Mademoiselle F. Dewez as an Associate, and
mentioned the death of Mr. K. Radcliffe, one of the oldest members,
to whose relatives a letter of condolence had been sent by direction of
the Executive Committee.
Mrs. H. L. Lees, F.R.G.S., A.R.CI., gave an account of her
" Journey round the World, with special reference to the Far East,"
and illustrated her description with lantern views froin her own
photographs.
Mr. F. Zimmem, F.R.G.S., moved, the Chairman seconded and it
was unanimously resolved that a hearty vote of thanks be given to
Mrs. Lees for her very interesting lecture so well illustrated.
N.B. — As some twenty members and a large number of " City
News " readers and others were unable to gain admission to Mrs.
Lees' lecture on October 27th, Mrs. Lees kindly arranged to again
describe her journey round the world in the Geographical Hall on
Friday, November 27th, 1914. All the 300 tickets issued were applied
for in two days after the announcement of the lecture in the " City
News," so Mrs. Lees arranged to repeat her lecture for the third
time in the Midland Hall on December 3rd from 3 to 5 p.m. A
collection realising £4 2s. 7d. was made on November 27th, and this,
with the balance left after paying expenses at the Midland Hall,
amounted to >Cio, which Mrs. Lees devoted to the local Relief Fund.
Proceedings of the Society 159
The 969th Meeting- of the Society was held on Tuesday, November
3rd, 1914, at 7-30 p.m.
In the Chair Mr. Harry Nuttall, M.P., F.R.G.S.
The Minutes of the Meeting held on October 27th were taken as
read.
Mr. Charles Sutton gave a lecture on ** A Journey to the Rhine and
the Black Forest," illustrating his remarks with original lantern views
made from his own photographs.
On the motion of Mr. E. W. Mellor, J.P., F.R.G.S., seconded by the
Chairman, it was unanimously resolved that the hearty thanks of the
Meeting be tendered to Mr. Sutton lor the interesting account which
he had given of his journey and for the fine lantern views with which
it was illustrated.
The 970th Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, November
loth, 1914, at 7-30 p.m.
In the Chair Mr. D. A. Little.
The Minutes of the Meeting held on November 3rd were taken as
read.
The election of the following members was announced : —
Ordinary: Madam Adnett, Miss Greene, Rev. J. G. Maude, Messrs.
A. Brown, F. Clay, R. M. Downie, J. Gregory, and W. H. Hewerdine;
Associate : Miss Ewbank, Miss M. J. Smith, and Mr. R. W. Nuttall.
Mr. Gilbert Waterhouse, M.A., F.R.G.S., gave a lecture on "Tramps
in Tyrol," describing two journeys in unfrequented parts of the
country and illustrating his remarks with original lantern views.
On the motion of Mr. J. Hancock, seconded by Mr. E- Rftssell
Evans, a hearty vote of thanks was passed to Mr. Waterhouse for the
interesting description of his journeys and for the illustrations shown.
The 971st Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, November
17th, 1914, at 7-30 p.m.
In the Chair Mr. J. Stephenson Reid.
The Minutes of the Meeting held on November loth were taken
as read.
The Chairman referred to the death of an honorary member of the
Society, the Right Hon. Field Marshal Earl Roberts, and asked the
members to pass a resolution of sympathy by standing for a moment
in silence.
Mr. W. H. Shrubsole, F.G.S., gave a lecture on "America's
Wonderland, the Yellowstone Park." The address was illustrated with
coloured lantern views.
On the motion of Mr. F. Zimmern, F.R.G.vS., seconded by the
Chairman, it was unanimously resolved that the hearty thanks of
those present be given to the lecturer for his interesting lecture so
well illustrated.
The 972nd Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, November
24th, 1914, at 7-30 p.m.
In the Chair Mr. D. A. Little.
t6o Journal of the Manchester Geog^raphical Society
The Minutes of the Meeting held on November 17th were taken as
read.
The election of Rev. W. H. Leak, Rev. Wm. Nicholls, Alderman
J. R. Ragdale, J. P., and Mr. Harry Staniforth as Ordinary Members
was announced.
The Chairman mentioned the loss by death of Messrs. G. H. Bell
and Gustav Reiss, and the members gave expression to their sym-
pathy with the relatives of the deceased members by rising silently.
Mr. George Ginger gave a lecture on " Sunny Sicily," illustrating
his remarks with a large number of lantern views.
On the motion of the Chairman a hearty vote of thanks was passed
to Mr. Ginger for his very interesting and instructive account of his
visits to Sicily, so well illustrated.
The 973rd Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, December
ist, 1914, at 7-30 p.m.
In the Chair Mr. E. W. Mellor, J.P., F.R.G.S-
The Minutes of the Meeting held on November 24th were taken as
read.
The Chairman announced the election of Mr. J. Higgins as an
Ordinary Member and Mr. H. Somerset, Junr., as an Associate
Member.
Mr. Samuel Wells, F.R.G.S., gave a lecture on " Where Three
Empires Meet — Poland," and illustrated his address with a large
number of good lantern views.
Colonel H. T. Crook, D.L-, moved, the Chairman seconded and it
was unanimously resolved that a hearty vote of thanks be given to
Mr. Wells for his interesting address and for the lantern slides with
which it was illustrated.
The 974th Meeting of the Society was held in the Free Trade Hall
on Wednesday, December 2nd, 1914, at 7-30 p.m.
Mr. Harry Nuttall, M.P., F.R.G.S., presided, and was accompanied
on the platform by Mr. Hilaire Belloc, the Rt. Hon. the Lord Mayor
(Alderman McCabe), Mr. L- A. Galle, Belgian Consul, and the
following members of the Council of the Society : The Rt. Rev. Bishop
Welldon, D.D., Colonel H. T. Crook, D.L., Professor W. Boyd
Dawkins, J.P., F.R.S., Messrs. J. McFarlane, M.A., M.Com., F.R.G.S.,
George Thomas, J.P., D. A. Little, and Egbert vSteinthal, Miss L. E.
Walter, H.M.I., B.Sc, Messrs. J. E. Balmer, F.R.G.S., C. A. Clarke,
J. Howard Hall, T. W. F. Parkinson, M.Sc, F.G.S., J. Stephenson
Reid, T. W. Sowerbutts, F.S.A.A., and Harry Sowerbutts, A.R.C.Sc.
The President, with some introductory remarks, introduced Mr.
Hilaire Belloc, who delivered a lecture on " The Strategy of the War,*'
illustrating his remarks with diagrams and maps shown by the electric
lantern of the Vice-Chairman.
The Rt. Hon. the Lord Mayor moved, Mr. L. A. Galle seconded,
and the President supported a hearty vote of thanks to Mr. Belloc for
his very interesting and instructive lecture, and it was passed unani-
mously.
Proceedings of the Society i6i
The lecture was in aid of the Belgian Relief Fund, and the
gratifying amount of ;^5o 17s. 5d. was left after paying expenses.
This was handed over to Mr. L. A. Galle, Belgian Consul, on behalf
of the fund.
A report of the lecture is here given : —
SOME POINTS IN STRATEGY.
Mr. Hilaire Belloc lectured to a large audience at the Free Trade
Hall, Manchester, last night, on the strategy of the war in the west
of Europe. The lecture had been arranged by the Manchester
Geographical Society, and Mr. Harry Nuttall, M.P., presided. Mr.
Nuttall said, introducing the lecturer, that he hoped that after this
cataclysm was over the nations, including the United States of
America, would come together to agree to reduce armaments and to
keep the peace.
Mr. Belloc discussed first the general aspects of the war and
secondly the strategic elements of what has happened in France and
Belgium. This war, he said, was the largest business upon which
any nation had ever been engaged. Upon what happened as the
result of this war " which is yet undecided remember " will turn
the future of Europe, to a degree that was not generally realised.
This business was more important than the Reformation, more
important than the discovery of America, more important than the
discovery of printing. If they did not take great care, the civilisa-
tion that men now knew would cease ; however much care men
took, the Europe that would emerge from the war would be a Europe
very different from what they had known. War, for example, had
always a democratic effect. Did they think that after this war the
same industrial conditions would continue ? Whoever thought that
was singularly illusioned ; was living in a fool's paradise, "and
God knows," he said, " the Press has done everything it can to
make you live in a fool's paradise. During the passage of the
Belgian plain by the Germans the papers were full of German
defeats ; and how often has the Press told you that this or that
attack upon the Allied lines was the final German attack ? It is
the business of a man always to expect the worst."
The Question of Numbers.
Mr. Belloc laid down two principles — the first that victory
consists in the disarming of the adversary by whatever method ; the
second that, other things being equal, victory is decided by numbers
— in the decisive time and place. In respect of this matter of
numbers he defined three periods of the war— the first the period of
enormous Austrian-German superiority lasting to the middle of
September ; the second, the period of great increase in the Russian
numbers and some increase in the strength of Germany ; the third
(which is not yet come, but will come about the end of December)
when Russia will be fully mobilised, and there will be no further
increments of force except young men coming in a year or two before
their time. In the first stage Germany had an advantage over
France of 126 to 39, and it was her task to beat France quickly by
force of this superiority, then leaving a garrison to hold down France
i62 Journal of the Man,chester Geographical Society
while she turned to meet Russia. By a narrow squeak, Mr. Belloc
said, that effort failed, and he proceeded to show how it failed. To
do this he had to explain the Napoleonic doctrine of " the co-
ordinated detached reserve " and ** the open strategic square," a
formula which consists of the disposition of an inferior force before
a superior attacking force in the form of a square with open sides,
the square being presented lozenge-wise to the enemy, with the force
holding one corner—" the operative corner " — disposed directly in
the path of the enemy, the business of the operative corner being
to retreat, holding the enemy engaged, to a point at which the other
three corners of the force are thrown at the one or other wing of the
enemy to defeat it before the other wing can come up.
British and the Retreat from Mons.
The great military question of years, Mr. Belloc said, had been
whether a conscript army could be trusted to carry out the function
of "the operative corner" without breaking. The Germans had
argued that it could not. It was upon this doctrine that the French
relied. " After this war," he said, "there will certainly be a great
deal of recrimination and a great deal of boasting. It will always
be worth while for the British to remember that during that famous
retreat from Mons the exterior comer was composed of the British
professional contingent, and on the extreme corner of that, taking
all the worst work, was General Smith-Dorrien." In accordance
with this doctrine, Mr. Belloc said, a second (eastern) corner force of
the lozenge was disposed about the Belfort gap ; a third, General
Joffre, keeping his own counsel, hid in Paris; the fourth was in
Normandy and Picardy. It was the discovery of the reserve force
in Paris that caused Von Kluck to change his plans, and that
brought about — after the vain march across the French front and
the effort to break through on the east— the German retreat. For
the skill with which that retreat was carried out Mr. Belloc had a
great deal of praise; and he pointed out also the two great mis-
calculations that entered into the French plan, the first, that Namur
could hold, whereas it fell; the second that the Germans would
bring at the most eight army corps to the attack, whereas they
brought fourteen.
The Attempt on Cai^ais.
The most remarkable thing in the operations, in Mr. Belloc *s
opinion, was the German attempt on Calais along the sea shore. It
should have been made, he thought, on purely strategic considera-
tions, from Arras to Boulogne; and he could only explain the
present nature of the attempt by supposing it to be due to political
interference. "Rumour says," he concluded, "that that attack along
the shore is being begun again. It would be rash to say that the
task is impossible, but it is certainly immensely difficult. I was
there ten days ago, and though, of course, I can no more judge of
the matter than any other civilian, yet one can construct an opinion
from observing how soldiers speak and judge, and judging from
what soldiers then were saying and judging, that line cannot be
broken through."
Proceedings of the Society 163
Mr! Belloc was thanked for his lecture in a resolution that was
proposed by the Lord Mayor and seconded by the Belgian Consul.
The Lord Mayor said that many people in Manchester were going
on as if nothing was happening. Some people would not be dis-
turbed if a shell fell in tlieirneighbb'ur's' backyard; so long' as it did
not affect their own. There w^s an asto^nishing amount of inertia in
the town. {Manchester Guardian.)
The 975th Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, December
8th, 1914, at 7-30 p.m.
In the Chair Mr. George Ginger.
The Minutes of the Meetings- hjeld on December ist and 2nd were
taken as read.
Mr, W. H. Ward gave a lecture entitled "To and Over the
Simplon," descriptive of a journey from Lausanne, round the North-
Eastern Shore of Lake Geneva, up the Rhone Valley, and over the
Simplon Pass. The address was illustrated with a large number of
lantern views.
On the motion of the Chairman a hearty vote of thanks was passed
to the lecturer for his interesting and instructive account of his
journey, so well illustrated.
The 976th Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, December
15th, 1914, at 7-30 p.m.
In the Chair Mr. E. W. Mellor, J.P., F.R.G.S.
The Minutes of the Meeting held on December 8th were taken as
read.
The election of Messrs. F. W. Goodwin and I. Zellweger as
Ordinary Members and Mr. E. Lightowler as an Associate Member
was announced.
The Chairman drew the attention of the members present to Rule
26, which provides that each ordinary member has the privilege of
introducing one friend, and intimated that it would be necessary in
the future to adhere to this rule.
Mr. Arnold Williams gave a lecture on " Belgium, the Land of
Art : its Economic and Political History," and illustrated his remarks
with many lantern views (see p. 130).
The Chairman on behalf of the Meeting offered hearty thanks to
the Lecturer for his instructive address and for the illustrations shown.
The 977th Meeting of the Society was held on Friday, December
i8th, 1914, at 7-0 p.m., and took the form of a lecture to the children
of the members.
Mr. Wm. H. Ward presided.
Mr. Charles Sutton gave a lecture on " Manchester to the High-
lands of Scotland by Road." The address was a description of a
motor-car journey to the North of Scotland and back, and was
illustrated with a large number of lantern views, mostly original,
concluding with some natural colour photographs.
One of the girls in the audience moved, and a boy seconded a
hearty vote of thanks to Mr. Sutton for his interesting lecture and for
the slides shown, and it was carried by acclamation.
i64 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
li0t Of fl>ap0, 16001x6, 3ournal0, etc,
ACQUIRED BY THE SOCIETY
FROM JANUARY 1st TO DECEMBER 31st, 1914.
flDap0*
EUROPE.
Cheshire. Sheet XVIII. N.W. (Altrincham). Scale six inches to 1 mile.
Southampton : Ordnance Survey Office, 1911.
Ordnance Survey Map, Lancashire. Manchester Sheets CIV. 6. 19, CIV. 6. 20,
CIV. 6. 24, CIV. 6. 25. Scale 1/500. Southampton : Ordnance Survey
Office, 1901-02-03.
Liverpool Bay, surveyed by Lieut. Lord, R.N., 1846. London : Hydrographic
Office of the Admiralty, 1850. *Manchester Chamber of Commerce.
Carte des Voies de Communication de Londres aux pays Balkaniques et a Suez.
Scale 1/5,000,000. *Manchester Chamber of Commerce.
Map of the Seat of War in North Sea, Belgium and Eastern France. Scale
18 miles to the inch. London : G. W. Bacon and Co., 1914.
Bartholomew's Reduced Survey Map of North-Eastern France, Belgium and
the Rhine. Scale 16 miles to an inch. Edinburgh : John Bartholomew
and Co., 1914. (Price 2/- net.) *The Publishers.
Belgium and the North-East of France. Scale 6 miles to 1 inch. Geographical
Section, General Staff No. 2517. London : War Office, 1912. *The
Director of Military Operations.
War Map of Central Europe, containing on one sheet, General Map showing
European Frontiers (Scale 86 miles to 1 inch) and Special large Scale
Map showing Frontier regions between France, Germany, Belgium and
Holland. Fortified cities specially marked. Scale 31 miles to 1 inch.
Edinburgh : John Bartholomew and Co., 1914. (Price 1/-.) *The Pub-
lishers.
General Map showing European Frontiers, 1914. Fortified Cities specially
coloured. Scale 31 miles to 1 inch. Edinburgh : John Bartholomew and
Co., 1914. (Price 1/-.) *The Publishers.
Norway. Landgeneralkart over Norge i 1/250,000. Blad XXVI, Vega.
Kristiania : Norges Geografiske Opmaaling, 1914. *Norges Geografiske
Opmaaling.
Norway. Kart over Nordre Trondhjems Amt. Blad II. Maalestok 1/200,000.
Kristiania : Norges Geografiske Opmaaling, 1913. *Norges Geografiske
Opmaaling.
Norway. Topografisk kart over kongeriget Norge. L 7, Andoya ; L 8.
Kvaef jord ; M 12, Riddoalge ; W 7, Karasjok ; 31 A, Espedalen. Maalestok
1/100,000. Kristiania : Norges Geografiske Opmaaling, 1914. *Norges
Geografiske Opmaaling.
List of Maps 165
Norway. Katalog over Norske Sjokarter den 1 Januar, 1914. Kristiania,
1914. *Norges Geografiske Opmaaling.
Norway. Den Norske Kyst. 217, Romsdalsf jordene ; 227, Fra Beiaren og
Saltfjorden til Bodo og Folia. Scale 1/100,000. Kristiania : Norges
Geografiske Opmaaling, 1914. *Norges Geografiske Opmaaling.
Norway. Den Norske Kyst. Sheets 68, Fra Steigen til Tranoy ; 79, Fra
Harstad og Kvaefjord til Risoysund og Senjen. Scale 1/50,000. Kris-
tiania : Norges Geografiske Opmaaling, 1914. *Norges Geografiske
Opmaaling.
Atlas ofver Finland, 1910. Sallskapet for Findlands Geografi. One Vol, Maps
and Two Vols., Text. Helsingfors, 1910. *Mr. George Thomas, J.P.
Map of the Balkan States. Showing Frontiers in accordance with the Treaties
and Agreements of 1913-14. Scale 1/750,000. London : Royal Geogra-
phical Society, 1914. *The Royal Geographical Society.
Port of Leixoes. New Harbour (Oporto, Portugal). Hydrographical Chart
published by the Daily Paper "0 Commercio do Porto." Scale 1/2,500.
Porto : Emilio Biel and Ca., 1892. *Manchester Chamber of Commerce.
ASIA.
Map of the Made Roads on the Continental portion (Scindh excepted) of the
Bombay Presidency. Scale 35 miles to an inch. London : Charles Knight
and Co., 1846. *Manchester Chamber of Commerce.
Die Kiau-Tshau Bucht, Ost-Shantung. Scale 1/750,000. Berlin: Dietrich
Reimer, 1876. *Manchester Chamber of Commerce.
AFRICA.
Mapa del Sahara Espanol y Regiones Inmediates, por Enrique d'Almonte.
Scale 1/1,000,000. (4 Sheets.) Madrid : Real Sociedad Geografica, 1914.
*The Society.
Mapa de Marruecos al sur del Rio Tensift, por D. Eduardo Alvarez Ardanuy,
en escala de 1/500,000. (Inset : Fifteen Plans of chief towns, etc.)
Madrid : Real Sociedad Geografica, Boletin, Tomo LVI, Trimestre 4, 1914.
*The Society.
Cote Occidentale d'Afrique de St. Louis au Cap des Palmes. Senegambie and
Fouta Dialon. Scale 1/2,750,000. Marseille: A. Rougier, 1887. ♦Man-
chester Chamber of Commerce.
Colony of Lagos. Map showing the general course and direction of the Lagos
Government Railway and the position of the Stations, etc. Scale 4 miles
to an inch. *Manchester Chamber of Commerce.
Lagos Harbour, by A. Nagel, B.Sc, under the direction of Sir John Goode.
Scale 1/9,675. (1892.) ^Manchester Chamber of Commerce.
Africa. 1/250,000. Cape of Good Hope and Orange Free State. Sheets :
South H 34 K, Prieska; L, Douglas; M, Kamies Berg; South H 35 A,
Kimberley. G.S., G.S. No. 1764. London : War Office, 1914. *The
Director of Military Operations.
Africa. 1/125,000. South Africa. Sheets: South G 35 P— 1, Welverdiend ;
P— 2, Krugersdorp ; Q— 3, Heidelberg ; South H 35 C— 4, Winburg ; I— 1,
Bloemfontein ; J — 1, Ladybrand. G.S., G.S., No. 2230. London: War
Oflfice, 1914. *The Director of Military Operations.
l66 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
Africa. 1/125,000. Orange Free State— Vrede District. Two Sheets. G.S.,
G.S. No. 2392. London : War Office, 1914. *The Director of Military
Operations.
Africa. 1/250,000. East Africa Protectorate. Sheets : North A 36 R, Sekerr;
North A 37 S, Baringo; South A 37 V and W, Mackinnon Road and
Malindi; South B 37 D, Mortibasa. G.S., G.S. No. 1764. London : War
Office, 1914. *The Director of Military Operations.
Ibea. Being the Territories of the Imperial British East Africa Company, by
E. G. Ravenstein. Scale 1/500,000, or 8 miles to 1 inch. *Manchester
Chamber of Commerce.
AMERICA.
Canada. Department of Militia and Defence. Topographic Map. Scale
1/63,360, or 1 inch to 1 mile. Sheets 52, Parkhill ; 54, Woodstock. G.S.,
G.S. No. 2197. London : War Office, 1914. *The Director of Military
Operations.
Panoramic View of the Yosemite National Park, California. Scale 1/187,500.
Prepared by John H. Renshawe from topographic Sheet of U.S. Geolo-
gical Survey. Washington : U.S. Geological Survey. *The Director of
the Survey.
Chart showing the Cotton-p reducing districts of Mexico and the location of
Cotton Factories. *The Manchester Chamber of Commerce.
Hipsometric Card of the Argentine Republic. Scale 1/16,000,000. *Man-
chester Chamber of Commerce.
ATLASES, PHOTOGRAPHS, ETC.
A List of Geographical Atlases in the Library of Congress, with Bibliographical
Notes. Compiled under the direction of Philip Lee Phillips, Chief,
Division of Maps and Charts. Vol. III. Washington : Library of Con-
gress, 1914. *The Library of Congress.
Stanford's Geological Atlas of Great Britain and Ireland. With Plates of
Characteristic Fossils. Preceded by descriptions of the Geological struc-
ture of Great Britain and Ireland and their Counties ; of the Channel
Islands; and of the Features observable along the principal Lines of
Railway. By Horace B. Woodward, F.R.S., F.G.S. Third Edition.
London : Edward Stanford, Ltd., 1914. *The Publisher.
Calendario Atlante de Agostini, 1914. Con notiziario redatto da L. F. De
Magistris. Anno XI, Serie II, Vol. I. Novaro : Institute Geografico de
Agostini, 1914. *The Publishers.
166 Lantern Slides illustrative of the All-Canada Tour of the Members of the
Fifth Congress of the Chambers of Commerce of the Empire. *The
President, Manchester Chamber of Commerce.
ADDITION^ TO THE MUSEUM.
Russian Samovar. *Mr. George Thomas, J. P.
Two Idols (of wood) from the Oshogbo District of Southern Nigeria. (Typical
of native art over a large portion of, the West Coast of Africa.) *Mr.
Alan Tatham.
List ot Books 167
GENERAL.
Text Book of Topographical and Geographical Surveying, by Col. C. F. Close,
C.M.G., R.E., revised by Captain E. W. Cox, R.E. Second Edition.
London : Harrison and Sons, 1913 *The Authors.
The Teaching of Geography and History : A Study in Method. Being a
Practical Companion to the * ' Elementary Studies in Geography and
History" by H. J. Mackinder, M.A., M.P. London : George Philip and
Son, Ltd., 1914. (Two Copies.) (Price 1/- net.) *The Publishers.
Our Island History : An Elementary Study in History, by H. J. Mackinder,
M.A. Sketch Maps and Illustrations. (Part 2 of " Elementary Studies
in Geography and History.") London : George Philip and Son, Ltd.,
1914. (Two Copies.) (Price 2/-.) *The Publishers.
The Modern British State : An Introduction to the Study of Civics by H. J.
Mackinder, M.P. (Part 6 of " Elementary Studies in Geography and
History.") London : George Philip and Son, Ltd., 1914. Two Copies.
(Price 1/6.) *The Publishers.
Environment : A Natural Geography, by G. R. Swaine, F.R.Met.S. Maps
and Illustrations. London : Ralph, Holland and Co. *The Author per
the Publishers.
The Change in the Climate and its cause. Giving the date of the Last Ice
Age based on a recent Astronomical Discovery and Geological Discovery,
by Major R. A. Marriott, D.S.O. Diagrams. London : E. Marlborough
and Co., 1914. (Price 1/6.) *The Publishers.
The Nature and Origin of Fiords, by J. W. Gregory, F.R.S., D.Sc. Diagrams
and Illustrations. London : John Murray, 1913. *Miss Kate Qualtrough,
F.R.G.S.
The Geographical Teacher. The Organ of the Geographical Association. 1914,
Nos. 38, 39, 40. *Mr. H. Sowerbutts.
Report of the Conference of Educational Associations, held at the University
of London, January, 1914.
The Traveller's Gazette. Illustrated. Vol. LXIV, Nos. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8.
London : Thos. Cook and Son, 1913. *The Publishers.
An Almanack for the Year of Our Lord, 1914, by Joseph Whitaker, F.S.A.
London, 1914.
The International Whitaker. A Statistical, Historical, Geographical and
Commercial Handbook. London : J. Whitaker and Sons, 1914.
The World Almanac and Encyclopaedia, 1914. New York : The Press Pub-
lishing Co., 1914. *Mr. George Thomas, J. P.
The Co-operative Wholesale Societies, Limited, Annual, 1914. *Mr. G. H.
Warren.
Industrial Progress Abroad, by George Thomas. Abstract of Proceedings of
the Scientific and Mechanical Society, Manchester, 1870. Reprint, 1914.
*Mr. George Thomas, J. P.
The Incorporated Accountants' Year Book, 1914-15. *The Council of the
Society of Incorporated Accountants and Auditors.
i68 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
BEITISH ISLES.
History of the Town and Borough of Devonport, sometime Plymouth Dock,
by R. N. Worth. Plymouth : W. Brendon and Son, 1870. *Mr. Egbert
Stein thai.
Hertfordshire Maps : A Descriptive Catalogue of the Maps of the County,
1579 — 1900, by Herbert George Fordham. Maps. From the " Transac-
tions of the Hertfordshire Natural History Society." Three Parts in 4
Vols. Hertford. *Hertfordshire Natural History Society and Field Club.
Knutsford, its Traditions and History : with Reminiscences, Anecdotes, and
Notices of the Neighbourhood, by Henry Green, A.M. Macclesfield :
Swinnerton and Brown, 1859. *Mr. George Thomas, J. P.
The Pictorial Record of the Royal Jubilee Exhibition, by Walter Tomlinson,
with special articles by Thomas W. Harris, Charles Estcourt, F.C.S.,
F.I.C., and Joseph Nodal. Edited by John H. Nodal. Illustrated.
Manchester : J. E. Cornish, 1888. *Mr. George Thomas, J. P.
The Official Handbook of Manchester and Salford and Surrounding District,
1914.
The Manchester and Salford Official Red Book, 1914. Manchester : Littlebury
Bros., 1914.
Report and Proceedings of the Manchester Field Naturalists' and Archaeo-
logists' Society for the year 1913. *Mr. Wm. H. Ward.
Ilkley : Ancient and Modern, by the Rev. Robert Collyer, D.D., and J.
Horsfall Turner. Map and Illustrations. Otley : Wm. Walker and Sons,
1885. *Mr. George Thomas, J. P.
EUROPE.
Den Norske Lods utgit av Norges Geografiske Opmaaling. 5te Hefte. Fra
Bergen til Floro. 6te Hefte. Fra Floro til Aalesund. Omarbeidet, 1914.
Kristiania : Norges Geografiske Opmaaling, 1914. *Norges Geografiske
Opmaaling.
Svenska Turistforeningens Arsskrift, 1914. Illustrated. Stockholm, 1914.
*Svenska Turistforeningen (The Swedish Touring Club).
Svenska Folket. The Swedish People, their Customs and Manners in Pictures
and Legends, by J. W. Wallander and Onkel Adam. Stockholm : Albert
Bonnier (1884). *Mr. George Thomas, J. P.
Through Finland to St. Petersburg, by A, MacCallum Scott, M.P. Map and
Illustrations. London : Grant Richards, Ltd., 1913.* Mr. George Thomas,
J.P.
Letters from Russia, in 1875, by E. J. Reed, C.B., M.P. London: John
Murray, 1876. *Mr. George Thomas, J.P.
Castilian Days, by the Honble. John Hay. Illustrated. London : William
Heinemann, 1903. *Mr. George Thomas, J.P.
Hannibal Once More, by Douglas W. Freshfield, M.A., F.R.G.S. Maps and
Illustrations. London : Edward Arnold, 1914. (Price 5/- net.) *The
Publisher.
Indicateur Officiel Guide General de la Corse. Illustre Compagnies de Naviga-
tion, Chem'n=; de Fer, Ti'ainsports sur Routes par Automobiles, etc.
Cartes, Plans, etc. Paris : Clavel, 1914. *The Publisher.
List of Books 169
Attraverso I'ltalia (Album containing 31 Parts). Raccolta di oltre 2,000
Fotografie di Vedute, Tesori Artistici, Tipi popolari. Testo de Prof.
Ottone Brentari. Proprietario dell' Edizione Italiana il Touring Club
Italiano. Milano. *Mr. George Thomas, J. P.
The Adventures of Telemachus, the Son of Ulysses. With the Adventures
of Aristonous. Written by the Archbishop of Cambray. Done from the
new French Edition, by Mr. Ozell. Map. Two Vols. London : E. Curll
and others. 1715. *Mr. George Thomas, J.P.
Letters on Turkey : An Account of the Religious, Political, Social and Com-
mercial Condition of the Ottoman Empire ; the Reformed Institutions,
Army, Navy, etc. Translated from the French of M. A. Ubicini by Lady
Easthope. Two Vols. London : John Murray, 1856. *Mr. George
Thomas, J.P.
The British Chamber of Commerce of Turkey and the Balkan States. Year
Book and Annual Report for the year 1913. Quarterly Trade Journal,
Nos. 25, March; 26, June; 27, September. *Mr. George Thomas, J.P.
ASIA.
Extinct Civilizations of the East, by Robert E. Anderson, M.A., F.A.S.
Maps, etc. London : Hodder and Stoughton. *Miss Kate Qualtrough,
F.R.G.S.
Our Ride Through Asia Minor, by Mrs. Scott- Stevenson. ^Map. London :
Chapman and Hall, 1881. *Mr. George Thomas, J.P.
The Golden Horn ; and Sketches in Asia ]\Iinor, Egypt, Syria, and the
Hauraan, by Charles James Monk, jSI.A. Illustration. Two Vols.
London : Richard Bentley, 1851. *Mr. George Thomas, J.P.
Palestine Exploration Fund. Quarterly Statements, 1914, Annual Report,
1913.
Eighth Report on Plague Investigations in India. Issued by the Advisory
Committee appointed by the Secretary of State for India, the Royal
Society and the Lister Institute. London : The Journal of Hygiene.
Plague Supplement III, 1914. *The Chairman of the Advisory Committee.
North West Frontier Province Gazetteer : B Parts. Bannu, Kurram, Pesha-
war, Dera Ismail Khan, Hazara and Kohat Districts. *H.M. Secretary
of State for India.
Punjab District Gazetteers, Vol. V — A, Delhi District; XX — A, Amritsar
District; XV— B, Ludihana District and Maler Kotla State; XXII— B,
Chamba State; XXVI— B, Gujranwala District; XXX— B, Mianwali Dis-
trict ; XXXI— B, Lyallpur District. *H.M. Secretary of State for India.
Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency. 3 Vols. XVI, Na'sik and Surga'na;
XVIII, Poona and Bhor ; XIX, Sa'ta'ra, Phaltan and Aundh ; XX, Shola'-
pur and Akalkot ; XXIII, Bija'pur, Jath and Dafla'pur. *H.M. Secretary
of State for India.
Central Provinces District Gazetteers. B Vols : Akola, Amraoti, Bilaspur,
Buldana, Drug, Narsinghpur, Raipur, Saugor, and Seoni. *H.M. Secre-
tary of State for India.
Bengal District Gazetteer. A Volume : 24 — Parganas. B Vols. : Backer-
gunge, Bankura, Burdwan, Chittagong, Chittagong Hill Tracts, Dacca,
170 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
Hooghly, Jessore, Malda, Mymensingh, Nadia, Noakhali, Pabna, E-angpur,
Tippera. *H.M. Secretary of State for India.
Burma Gazetteer. Insein District. Vol. A. *H.M. Secretary of State for
India.
Census Tables, Nos. 39, Northern Shan States ; 40, Southern Shan States ; 41,
Pakokku Hill Tracts; 42, Chin Hills. *H.M. Secretary of State for India.
Antonio de Andrade, S.J., viajante no Himalaia e no Tibete (1624 — 1630) por
C. Wessels. Traduzido do Original holandes por A. E. Con9alves Viana.
Lisboa : Sociedade de Geographia de Lisboa. *Sociedade de Geographia
de Lisboa.
AFRICA.
Narrative of a Ten Years' Residence in Tripoli in Africa : from the Original
Correspondence in the possession of the family of the late Richard Tully,
the British Consul. Comprising authentic Memoirs' and Anecdotes of the
Reigning Bashaw, his family, and other persons of distinction, also an
account of the Domestic Manners of the Moors, Arabs, and Turks. Illus-
trations. Second Edition. London : Henry Colburn, 1817. *Mr. William
B. Leech.
The Country of the Moors : A Journey from Tripoli in Barbary to the City
of Kairwan, by Edward Rae, F.R.G.S. Map and Illustrations. London :
John Murray, 1877. *Mr. William B. Leech.
Narrative of a Residence in Algiers ; comprising a Geographical and Historical
Account of the Regency ; Biographical Sketches of the Dey and his Minis-
ters ; and Observations on the relations of the Barbary States with the
Christian Powers, by Signor Pananti. With Notes by Edward Blaquiere.
Map, Plan, and Illustration. London : Henry Colburn and Richard
Bentley, 1830. *Mr. William B. Leech.
The Scourge of Christendom. Annals of British Relations with Algiers prior
to the French Conquest, by Lieut. -Colonel R. L. Play fair, H.M. Consul
at Algiers. Plans and Illustrations. London : Smith, Elder and Co.,
1884. *Mr. William B. Leech.
Journal of a Tour in Marocco and the Great Atlas, by Joseph Dalton Hooker,
K.C.S.I., C.B., etc., and John Ball, M.R.I.A., etc. With an appendix
including a sketch of the Geology of Marocco by George Maw, F.L.S.,
F.G.S. Illustrated. London : Macmillan and Co., 1878. *Mr. William
B. Leech.
Our Mission to the Court of Marocco in 1880, under Sir John Drummond Hay,
K.C.B., by Captain Philip Durham Trotter. Map and Illustrations.
Edinburgh : David Douglas, 1881. *Mr. William B. Leech.
Among the Moors : Sketches of Oriental Life, by G. Montbard. Illustrations.
London : Sampson Low, Marston, and Co., 1894. *Mr. William B. Leech.
Loss of the American Brig " Commerce," wrecked on the Western Coast of
Africa, in the month of August, 1815. With an account of Tombuctoo,
and of the hitherto undiscovered great City of Wassanah, by James Riley,
late Master and Supercargo, tondon : John Murray, 1817. *Mr. William
B. Leech.
Narrative of Thirty-four Years* Slaivery and Travels in Africa, by P. J.
Dumont. Collected from the account given by himself by J, S. Quesne.
List of Books 171
Portrait. London : Sir Richard Phillips and Co., 1819. *Mr. William
B. Leech,
Travels in the Interior of Africa, to the Sources of the Senegal and Gambia ;
performed by command of the French Government in the year 1818 by
G. Mollien. Edited by T. E. Bowdich. Map and Illustrations. London :
Henry Colburn and Co., 1820. *Mr. William B. Leech.
West African Sketches : Compiled from the reports of Sir G. P. Collier, Sir
Charles MacCarthy and other Official Sources. London : L. B. Seeley and
Son, 1824. *Mr. William B. Leech.
Travels in Western Africa, in the years 1818, 1819, 1820, and 1821, from the
River Gambia, through Woolli, Bondoo, Galam, Kasson, Kaarta, and
Foolidoo, to the River Niger, by Major William Gray and the late Staff
Surgeon Dochard. Map and Illustrations. London : John Murray, 1825.
*Mr. William B. Leech.
Records of a Voyage to the Western Coast of Africa, in His Majesty's Ship
"Dryad," and of the service on that station for the suppression of the
Slave Trade in the years 1830, 1831, and 1832, by Peter Leonard, Surgeon,
R.N. Edinburgh : William Tait, 1833. *Mr. William B. Leech.
Seven Years' Service on the Slave Coast of Western Africa, by Sir Henry
Huntley. In two Vols. Vol. II. is chiefly "Journal of an Ex-Governor;
or. Twelve Months on the Gambia." London : Thomas Cautley Newley,
1850. *Mr. William B. Leech.
African Memoranda : Relative to an attempt to establish a British Settlement
on the Island of Bulama, on the Western Coast of Africa, in the year
1792. With a brief notice of the Neighbouring Tribes, Soil, Productions,
etc., and some observations on the facility of Colonizing that part of
Africa, with a view to Cultivation and the Introduction of Letters and
Religion to its Inhabitants : but more particularly as the means of
gradually abolishing African Slavery, by Captain Philip Beaver, R.N.
Map. London : C. and R. Baldwin, 1805. *Mr. William B. Leech.
Sierra Leone Messenger. Illustrated, 1914, Nos, 85 — 88. *The Rev. Canon
F. C. Smith, M.A., F.R.G.S.
Akim-Foo : The History of a Failure, by Major W. F. Butler, C.B., F.R.G.S.
Map and Illustrations. London : Sampson Low, Marston, Low and
Searle, 1875. *Mr. William B. Leech.
A Pilgrimage to my Motherland. An account of a Journey among the Egbas
and Yorubas of Central Africa in 1859 — 60, by Robert Campbell. Map
and Portrait. London : W. J. Johnson, 1861. *Mr, William B. Leech.
AMERICA.
The Secret of the Pacific. A discussion of the Origin of the Early Civilisations
of America, the Toltecs, Aztecs, Mayas, Incas, and their predecessors ;
and of the possibilities of Asiatic influence thereon, by C. Reginald Enoch,
F.R.G.S. Maps and Illustrations. London : T. Fisher Unwin, 1912.
*Miss Kate Qualtrough, F.R.G.S.
Fossil Forests of the Yellowstone National Park, by F. H. Knowlton, of the
U.S. Geological Survey. Map and Illustrations. Washington : Depart-
ment of the Interior, 1914. *The Secretary of the Department.
Mount Rainier and its Glaciers, by F. E. Matthes, of the U.S. Geological
172 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
Survey. Map and Illustrations. Washington : Department of the
Interior, 1914. *The Secretary of the Department.
Origin of the Scenic Features of the Glacier National Park, by M. E.
Campbell, of the U.S. Geological Survey. Map and Illustrations.
Washington : Department of the Interior, 1914. *The Secretary of the
Department.
Glaciers of Glacier National Park, by W. C. Alden, of the U.S. Geological
Survey. Maps and Illustrations. Washington : Department of the
Interior, 1914. *The Secretary of the Department.
Wanderings in South America, etc. (1812), by Charles Waterton. With
Review by Sydney Smith, 1826. Illustrated. London : Thomas Nelson
and Sons, 1903. *Mr. George Thomas, J. P.
Elementos para el estudio de la Demografia de la Provincia de Buenos Aires
por Carlos P. Salas, Director de la Direccion General de Estadistica. La
Plata, 1913. *The Author.
OCEANIA.
The Great Australian Artesian Basin and the Source of its Water, by E. F.
Pittman, A.R.S.M. Maps and Illustrations. (Prepared for the British
Association Meeting, 1914.) Sydney : Department of Mines, Geological
Survey of New South Wales, 1914. *The Publishers.
How Australia took German New Guinea. An illustrated record of the
Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force, by F. S. Burnell.
Sydney : W. C. Penfold and Co., 1914. *Mr. T. Fewster Wilkinson.
POLAR REGIONS.
The South Pole. An account of the Norwegian Antarctic Expedition in the
" Fram," 1910—1912, by Roald Amundsen. Translated from the Norwe-
gian by A. G. Chater. Maps and Illustrations. Two Vols. London :
John Murray, 1912. *Mr. George Thomas, J. P.
"Out of the Jaws of Death." In the Home of the Blizzard, by Douglas
Mawson. Map and Illustrations. London : " Strand Magazine," Aug.
and Sept., 1914. *Mr. H. Sowerbutts, A.R.C.Sc.
List of Exchanges 173
%\et of Correeponbing Soctetiee, etc*
oeycbangea).
NOTE. — Exchanges with Societies marked " S." have been suspended from
August 1st, 1914.
BRITISH.
Belfast. Natural History and Philosophical Society. (Nothing received.)
Birmingham. Natural History and Philosophical Society. Annual Report,
1913.
Cardiff. Naturalists' Society. Report and Transactions. Vol. XLVI; 1913.
Croydon. Natural History and Scientific Society. Proceedings and Transac-
tions, 1913—1914.
Edinburgh. The Royal Scottish Geographical Society. The Scottish Geo-
graphical Magazine, 1914, Vol, XXX, Nos. 1-12 and Index.
Glasgow. Geological Society. Transactions. Vol. XV, Part I, 1912-13.
Glasgow. Royal Philosophical Society. Proceedings. Vol. XLV, 1913-14.
Hertford. Hertfordshire Natural History Society and Field Club. Transac-
tions. Vol. XV, Parts 2, 3. (See also list of maps.)
Hull. Yorkshire Naturalists' Union. (Nothing received.)
Leeds. Geological Association. Transactions. Part XVII, 1911-12 and 1912-
1913.
Leeds. Yorkshire Geological Society. Proceedings. Vol. XIX, Part I, 1914.
Leicester. Literary and Philosophical Society. Transactions and Annual
Report. Vol. XVIII, 1914. Inaugural Address of the President, October
5th, 1914 : — "Wheat — and its relation to the Present Crisis."
Liverpool. Geographical Society. Transactions and Twenty-second Annual
Report for the year 1913.
London. The Anti-Slavery Reporter and Aborigines' Friend. 1914, Series V,
Vol. Ill, No. 4; Vol. IV, Nos. 1, 2, 3.
London. British Association for the Advancement of Science. Report of the
Eighty-third Meeting, Birmingham, 1913. Report of the Corresponding
Societies' Committee and of the Conference of Delegates held in Birming-
ham, 1913.
London. Colliery Guardian, 1914, Nos. 2766—2817.
London. The Colonial Journal. Vol. VII, 3, 4 ; VIII, 1, 2.
London. The Royal Colonial Institute Journal. "United Empire." Vol. V,
Nos. 1-12. Year Book, 1914.
London, Emigrants' Information Office. Combined circulars on Canada,
Australia and New Zealand, and South Africa. 1914, Quarterly.
London. Royal Geographical Society. The Geographical Journal, 1914, Jan.
to Dec. Year Book and Record.
London. Imperial Institute. Bulletin. Vol. XII, Nos. 1-4.
London. India Office. (See List of Books.)
174 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
London. Koyal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Bulletin, 1914, Nos. 1-10 and
Appendices I — IV.
London. Royal Society of Literature. Transactions. Vol. XXXIII, Part I.
Report and List of Fellows, 1914.
London. The Near East, 1914, Nos. 139—190.
London. War Office. Geographical Section, General Staff. (See List of
Maps.)
London. War Office. Catalogue of Maps. Accessions. 1st January to 30th
June, 1914.
London. War Office Library. Accessions, 1914, January to December.
Catalogue of the War Office Library, Part III (Subject Index). Second
Annual Supplement, 1913.
Manchester. The British Cotton Growing Association. Publications. Nos. 47,
51, 55, 56, 57.
Manchester. Literary and Philosophical Society. Memoirs and Proceedings.
Vol. 58, Parts I, II.
Manchester. Museum. The University Museum Handbooks. (Nothing
received.)
Manchester. The University. (Nothing received.)
Manchester. The Textile Recorder, 1914, January to December.
Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Tyneside Geographical Society. (Nothing received.)
Newcastle-upon-Tyne. North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical
Engineers. Transactions. Vol. LXIV, 3-8 ; LXV, 1, 2. Annual Report,
1913—1914.
Oxford. Clarendon Press. (See List of Books.)
Penzance. Royal Geological Society of Cornwall. (Nothing received.)
Rochdale. Literary and Scientific Society. Thirty-Sixth Annual Report for
the year 1914.
Salford. Museum, Libraries and Parks Committee. Sixty-Sixth Report,
1913-14.
York. Yorkshire Philosophical Society. Annual Report for 1913.
MISSIONARY.
"S." Freiburg im Breisgau. Die Katholischen Missionen, 1914, January to
August.
London. Baptist Missionary Society. The Herald, 1914, January to Dec.
London. The British and Foreign Bible Society. 110th Annual Report, 1914.
"In the Vulgar Tongue." A Popular Illustrated Report, 1913—1914.
"The Bible in the World," 1914, January to December. Manchester and
Salford Auxiliary, Annual Report, 1913.
London. Church Missionary Society for Africa and the East. Report of
Proceedings, 115th year, 1913-14.
London. Church Missionary Review, 1914, January to December.
London. Colonial and Continental Church Society. Greater Britain Mes-
senger, 1914, January to December.
London. The London Missionary Society. 119th Report, 1913-14,
London. Illustrated Catholic Missions, 1914, January to April.
London. Society for Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts. Report
of the year 1913.
List of Exchanges 175
London. Universities' Mission to Central Africa. " Central Africa." 1914,
January to December.
London. The United Methodist Church. "Missionary Echo." 1914, Jan.
to December.
"S." Mangalore. Basel-German Evangelical Mission in South- Western India,
Report for the year 1913.
COLONIAL.
Adelaide. Royal Geographical Society of Australasia; South Australian
Branch. (Nothing received.)
Brisbane. Royal Geographical Society of Australasia. Queensland Branch.
Queensland Geographical Journal. (Nothing received.)
Brisbane. Queensland Museum. Memoirs. (Nothing received.)
Brisbane. Department of Mines. Queensland Geological Survey- Puljlica-
tions, Nos. 238, 239.
Bulawayo. Rhodesia Scientific Association. Proceedings. Vol. XIII (con-
taining papers read from July 1913, to May 1914).
Cape Town. Royal Society of South Africa. Transactions. Vol. IV, Parts
1, 2.
Georgetown. The Royal Agricultural and Commercial Society of British
Guiana. The Journal. "Timehri." (Nothing received.)
Halifax. Nova Scotian Institute of Science. Proceedings and Transactions,
(Nothing received.)
Melbourne. Royal Geographical Society of Australasia (Victorian Branch).
Victorian Geographical Journal. Vol. XXX, 1913 ; XXXI, Part I, 1914.
Melbourne. Department of Agriculture of Victoria (per the favour of the
Agent General). Journal. Vol. XII, Parts 1-12.
Melbourne. Victorian Statistical Department. Year Book, 1913-14.
Perth, Western Australia Geological Survey (per favour of the Agent
General). Bulletins, Nos. 48, 49, 51-54.
Port Moresby. Papua. Annual Report for the year. (Nothing received,)
Quebec. Societe de Geographic. Bulletin. Vol. VIII, Nos. 1, 2, 4, 5, 6;
1914.
Sydney. New South Wales. Department of Mines. Annual Report for the
year 1913.
Toronto. Canadian Institute Transactions. (Nothing received.)
Victoria, B.C. Minister of Mines. Province of British Columbia. Annual
Report, 1913. British Columbia Bureau of Mines. Bulletin. No. 1,
1914. Preliminary Review and Estimate of Mineral Production, 1913.
Wellington, New Zealand. Department of Lands and Survey. (Nothing
received.)
FOREIGN.
Alger. Societe de Geographic d'Alger et de L'Afrique du Nord. Bulletin.
Trimestre 4, 1913; 1. 1914. (Part 3, 1913 not received.)
Ann Arbor. The Michigan Academy of Science. University of Michigan.
Fifteenth Report, 1912-13.
" S." Antwerp. Societe Royale de Geographic d'Anvers. Bulletin.
Baltimore. Johns Hopkins University. Studies in Historical and Political
Science. Series XXXI, Nos. 3, 4; XXXII, Nos. 1, 2, 3 Circulars, 1913^
Nos. 7-10; 1914, Nos. 1-10.
176 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
Baltimore. Maryland Geological Survey. (Nothing received.)
Barcelona. Sociedad de Geografia Comercial. Publicaciones. (Nothing re-
received.)
*' S." Belgrade. Societe Serbe de Geographic. Bulletin.
Berkeley. University of California. Publications in American Archaeology
and Ethnology. Vol. X, No. 6 ; XI, 2. Publications in Geography.
Vol. I, Nos. 3-7.
" S." Berlin. Gesellschaft fiir Erdkunde. Zeitschrift. 1914, Nos. 1-6.
" S." Berlin. Deutsche Kolonialzeitung. 1914, Nos. 1-30.
Bern. Geographische Gesellschaft. (Nothing received.)
Bordeaux. Societe de Geographic Commerciale. Revue. 1914, January to
June.
"S." Bremen. Deutsche Geographische Blatter. Band XXXVII, Heft 1, 2.
"S." Brussels. Congo Beige. Bulletin Official. 1914, Nos. 1—11.
" S." Brussels. Societe Boyale Beige de Geographic. Bulletin. 1914, No. 1.
*' S." Brussels. Le Mouvement Geographique. 1914, Nos. 1 — 31.
"S." Brussels. Institut Colonial International.
"S." Brussels. Societe Beige d'Etudes Coloniales. Bulletin. 1914, Nos.
1—6.
*' S." Brussels. Commission Polaire Internationale.
"S." Budapest. Hungarian Geographical Society. Bulletin. Vol. XLII,
Parts 3, 4, 5.
Buenos Aires. Instituto Geografico Argentino. Boletin. (Nothing received.)
Buenos Aires. Museo Nacional de Historia Natural de Buenos Aires. Anales.
Tomo XXV.
Buenos Aires. Monthly Bulletin of Municipal Statistics. 1914, Nos. 1 — 12.
Year Book of the City of Buenos Aires. Year XXIII ; 1913.
Buenos Aires. Ministerio de Agricultura. Boletin. (Nothing received.)
Cairo. Societe Khediviale de Geographic. Bulletin. (Nothing received.)
Cambridge. Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology,
Harvard University. Memoirs. (Nothing received.)
*' S," Cassel. Gesellschaft fiir Erd-und Volkerkunde.
Christiania. Norges Geografiske Opmaaling. (See List of Maps.)
Copenhagen. Geografisk Tidskrift udgivet af Bestyrelsen for det Kongelige
Danske Geografiske Selskab. Bind XXII, Hefte V— VIII.
*'S." Darmstadt. Verein fur Erdkunde. Notizblatt, Folge IV, Heft 34.
Dijon. Societe Bourguignonne de Geographic et d'Histoire. Memoires.
(Nothing received.)
"S." Douai. Union Geographique du Nord de la France. Bulletin. 1914,
1, 2.
" S." Dresden. Verein fiir Erdkunde. Mitteilungen. Band II, Heft 9.
Dunkerque. Societe de Geographic. Bulletin. No. 40.
Firenze (Florence). Revista Geografica Italiana e BoUettino della Societa di
Studi Geografici e Coloniali. Annata XXI, Eases. 1 — 10.
**S." Frankfurt. Verein fiir Geographic und Statistik.
Geneva. " Le Globe," Organe de la Societe de Geographic. Bulletin.
Tome LIII, Nos. 1, 2.
Geneva. Societe des Anciens Eleves de I'Ecole Superieure de Commerce.
Bulletin. Nos. 101—104.
** S." Giessen. Geographische Mitteilungen aus Hessen.
List of Exchanges I77
*' S." Greifswald. Geographische Gesellschaft zu Greif swald. Jahresbericht
XIV, 1913—1914.
" S." Halle. Sachsisch-Thiiringischen Vereins f iir Erdkunde.
" S." Halle. Kaiserliche Leopoldinisch-Carolinische Deutsche Akademie
der Naturforscher. Leopoldina.
*'S." Hamburg. Geographische Gesellschaft. Mitteilungen. Band XXVIII.
"S." Hamburg. Hauptstation fiir Erdbebenforschung. Professor Dr. R.
Schiitt.
^*S." Hannover. Geographische Gesellschaft.
Havre. Societe de Geographic Commerciale. Bulletin. 1913, Trimestres 3,
4; 1914, 1.
Havre. Societe Geologique de Normandie. Bulletin. (Nothing received.)
Helsingfors. Societe de Geographie de Finlande. Fennia 34, 37.
Helsingfors. Meddelanden af Geografiska Foreningen. Velenskagliga.
(Nothing received.)
Irkutsk. Imperial Russian Geographical Society. East Siberian Section.
Journal, Vol. XLIII, 1914.
""S." Jena. Geographische Gesellschaft. Mitteilungen.
Kazan. Naturalists' Society of the Imperial University. Journal. Vol.
XLIV, Nos. 5, 6; XLV, 1-6,- XL VI, 1-6. Report, 1911-12, 1912-13.
" S." Konigsberg. Physikalisch = okonomischen Gesellschaft.
La Paz. Sociedad Geografica de La Paz. (Nothing received.)
La Paz. Republica de Bolivia. Direccion General de Estadistica y Estudios
Geograficos. Boletin. Ano IX, No. 87.
La Plata. Direccion General de Estadistica de la Provincia de Buenos Aires.
Boletin Mensual. Ano XIV, Nos. 150—155.
La Plata. Museo de La Plata. Revista. (Nothing received.)
" S." Leipzic. Gesellschaft fiir Erdkunde. Wissenschaftliche Veroffent-
lichungen. Band VIII. (See also List of Books.)
""S." Lille. Societe de Geographie. Bulletin. 1914, January to April.
Lima. Sociedad Geografica. Boletin. 1913, Tomo XXIX, Nos. 1-4.
Lima. Cuerpo de Ingenieres de Minas del Peru. Boletin. No. 80.
Lisbon. Sociedade de Geographia de Lisboa. Boletim. 1913, Nos. 10 — 12;
1914, Nos. 1—12.
" S." Liibeck. Geographische Gesellschaft und Naturhistorische Museum.
Mitteilungen. (Nothing received.)
"S." Lwowie (Lemberg). Towarzystwo Ludozonaweze Kwartalnik Etno-
grafiezny . ' ' Lud . ' '
Madison. Wisconsin Academy of Science, Arts and Letters. Transactions.
Vol. XVII, Part I, Nos. 1-6 ; II, Nos. 1-6.
Madison. Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey. Bulletin. Nos.
XXXIII, XLI.
Madrid. Real Sociedad Geografica. Boletin. Tomo LVI, Trims. 1-4. Revista.
Tomo XI, 1—12. (See also List of Maps.)
Madrid. Ayuntamiento de Madrid. Boletin, Nos. 888—939.
Marseille. Societe de Geographie. Bulletin. Tome XXXVII, Nos. 1-4.
^' S." Metz. Verein fiir Erdkunde. Jahresbericht.
Mexico. Sociedad Mexicana de Geografia y Estadistica. Boletin. Tomo VI,
Nos. 11, 12; VII, 1-4.
178 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
Mexico. Sociedad Cientifica "Antonio Alzate." Memorias y Eevista. Tomo
XXXII, 9—10; XXXIII, 9—10.
Milan. L'Esplorazione Commerciale. Anno XXIX, Fascs. 1 — 12.
Missoula. University of Montana. Bulletin. (Nothing received.)
Montevideo. Museo de Historia Natural. (Nothing received.)
Montevideo. Anuario Estadistico de la Republica Oriental del Uruguay.
Afios 1909—1910, Tomo I, II.
Montpellier. Societe Languedocienne de Geographie. Bulletin. Tome
XXXVII, 1, 2.
Moscow. Geographical Section of the Imperial Society of Natural Science of
the University. (Nothing received.)
"S." Munich. Geographischen Gesellschaft in Miinchen. Mitteilungen.
Band IX, Hefte 1, 2.
Nancy. Societe de Geographie de L'Est. Bulletin. 1914, Trim. 1.
Nantes. Societe de Geographie Commerciale. Bulletin. 1914, Trim. 1.
Naples. Societa Africana d'ltalia. Bollettino. Anno XXXII, Fascs. 11 — 12 ;
XXXIII, 1, 2.
Neuchatel. Societe Neuchateloise de Geographie. Bulletin. Tome XXIII,
1914.
New Haven. Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences. Transactions.
Vol. 18, pp. 291—345, April, 1914.
New York. American Geographical Society. Bulletin. Vol. XLVI, Nos.
1 — 12 and Index.
New York. American |kluseum of Natural History. Bulletin. Vol. XXIX,
Index ; XXXII, 1913 ; XXXIII, 1914. Memoirs, New Series, Vol. I, Part
V. Forty-Fifth Annual Report for 1913.
New York. Public Library. Astor Lennox and Tilden Foundations. Bul-
letin. 1914, January — December.
No vara. Istituto Geografico de Agostini. (See List of Maps.)
" S." Niirnberg. Naturhistorische Gesellschaft.
Odessa. Club Alpin de Crime et du Caucase. Bulletin. 1914, Nos. 1-4.
Omsk. Imperial Russian Geographical Society. West Siberian Branch.
(Nothing received.)
Oran. Societe de Geographie et d'Archeologie. Bulletin. Tome XXXIV,
Fascs. 138, 139.
Para. Museu Goeldi. Boletim. Vol. VIII, 1911-12.
Paris. Societe de Geographie. La Geographie. 1914, January to June.
Paris. Societe de Geographie Commerciale. Bulletin. 1914, January to
December.
Paris. Societe de Speleologie. Bulletin and Memoires. Spelunca. Tome
IX, Nos. 72, 73.
Paris. Societe de Topographie de France. Bulletin Bimestriel. 1914, Nos. 1, 2.
Paris, Comite de L'Afrique Fran§aise et Comite du Maroc. Bulletin.
1914, Nos. 1 — 12. Renseignements Coloniaux. 1914, No. 1 — 12.
Petrograd. Imperial Russian Geographical Society. (Nothing received.)
Philadelphia. American Philosophical Society. Proceedings. Vol. LIII, Nos.
213, 214, 215.
Philadelphia. The Commercial Museum. Annual Report for the year 1913.
"Commercial America." 1914, January to December.
List of Exchanges 17^
Philadelphia. Geographical Society of Philadelphia. Bulletin. 1914, Nos. 1-4.
Philadelphia. University of Pennsylvania. The Museum Journal. Vol. V,
Nos. 1-4.
" S." Prague. Societe de Geographie tcheque a Prague. (Nothing received.)
Kochefort. Societe de Geographie. Bulletin. 1914, No. 1.
Eolla, Mo. Missouri Bureau of Geology and Mines. Biennial Keport of the
State Geologist to the 47th General Assembly. Publications. Vol. XII,
Second Series.
Roma. Reale Societa Geografica. Bollettino. 1914, Nos. 1 — 12.
Roma. Direzione Generale della Statistica e del Lavoro. Censimento della
Populazione del Regno d'ltalia al 10 Giugno, 1911. Vols. 1 and 2.
Annuario Statistico Italiano. Seconda Serie, Vol. Ill, Anno 1913.
Roma. Commissariato dell' Emigrazione. Bollettino. 1914, Nos. 1 — 13.
Roma. Cosmos. Del Profr. Guido Cora. Serie II ; Vol. XIII, No. VI.
Rome. International Institute of Agriculture. Monthly Bulletin of Agricul-
tural Intelligence and Plant Diseases. 1914, Nos. 1 — 12.
Rouen. Societe Normande de Geographie. Bulletin. 1913, Trims. 1, 2.
San Francisco. Geographical Society of the Pacific. (Nothing received.)
San Francisco. Southern Pacific Railway (per the favour of Mr. Rud Falck,
Liverpool). " Sunset " — The Pacific Monthly. 1914, January to July.
San Jose. Museo Nacional. Boletin de Fomento, organo del Ministerio de
Fomento, Ano IV, Nos. 1-4.
St. Louis, Mo. Washington University Studies. Vol. I, Part I, No. 2.
St, Nazaire. Societe de Geographie Commerciale. (Nothing received.)
San Salvador. Direccion General de Estadistica. (Nothing received.)
"S." Santiago de Chile. Deutschen Wissenschaftlichen Vereins.
Shanghai. Chinese Maritime Customs. Gazette. Statistical Series. Nos. 3
and 4. Returns of Trade and Trade Reports. 1913, Parts I, II, Vols. 1-5,
III, Vols. 1, 2. Index to Annual Trade Reports, 1903-07, 1908-12.
Shanghai. Ministry of Communications. Directorate General of Posts. II.
Public Series : No. 2. Report on the Working of the Chinese Post Ofiice
for 1913.
"S." Stettin. Gesellschaft fiir V6lker-u-Erdkunde. (Nothing received.)
Stockholm. Svenska Sallskapet for Antropologi och Geografi. " Ymer," 1914,
Haft 1-4.
" S." Strassburg. Gesellschaft fiir Erdkunde und Kolonialwesen. Mitteil-
ungen. (Nothing received.)
"S." Stuttgart. Wiirttembergische Vereins fiir Handelsgeographie. (Nothing
received.)
Tokyo. Geographical Society. Journal of Geography. Vol. XXV, Nos. 295 —
300, July to December, 1913.
Toulouse. Societe de Geographie. Bulletin. 1914, No. 1.
Tours. Societe de Geographie. Revue. 1914, No, 1.
Upsala. University of Upsala. Geological Institution. Bulletin. Vol. XII.
Urbana. Illinois State Geological Survey. Bulletins, Nos. 21, 22. Mono-
graph, No. 1. Illinois Miners' and Mechanics' Institutes Bulletin. Nos.
1, 2. Illinois Coal Mining Investigations, Co-operative Agreement. Bul-
letin 2.
** S." Vienna. K.K. Geographischen Gesellschaft. Mitteilungen. Band
57, Nos. 1-7.
i8o Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
"S." Vienna. Verein der Geographen an der K.K. Universitat in Wien.
(Nothing received.)
"S." Vienna. K.K. Naturhistorische Hof museum. Annalen. Band XXVII,
No. 4.
Washington, Conn. Association of American Geographers. Annals. Vol.
Ill, 1913.
Washington, D.C. National Geographic Society. National Geographic
Magazine. 1914, Vol. XXV, Nos. 1-6; XXVI, 1-6.
Washington, D.C. Department of Commerce, United States Coast and
Geodetic Survey. Annual Eeport for the year ended June 30, 1914.
Results of Observations made at the Magnetic Observatories at Sitka,
Alaska, 1911 and 1912 ; Vieques, Porto Rico, 1911 and 1912 ; near Tucson,
Arizona, 1911 and 1912. " Terrestrial Magnetism," Special Publications,
Nos. 15, 20. " Hypsometry," Special Publications, Nos. 18, 22. " Geo-
"desy," Special Publication, No. 19.
Washington, D.C. United States Department of the Interior. General Infor-
mation regarding Crater Lake, Glacier, Mesa Verde, Mount Rainier,
Sequoia and General Grant, Yellowstone, and Yosemite National Parks;
Season of 1914. (See also List of Books.)
Washington, D.C. U.S. Geological Survey. Annual Report for the year
ended June 30, 1914.
Washington, D.C. U.S. Geological Survey. Monograph. (None received.)
Washington, D.C. U.S. Geological Survey. Mineral Resources for the year
1912, Parts 1 and 2 ; 1913, Part 1, Nos. 1—26 ; Part 2, Nos. 1—35.
Washington, D.C. U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin. Nos. 540—543, 545—
564, 567, 570—572, 574—580 Parts A— P.
Washington, D.C. U.S. Geological Survey. Professional Papers. Nos. 81 —
84, 85 a — e, 86—88.
Washington, D.C. U.S. Geological Survey. Water Supply Papers. Nos.
309, 312, 321—331, 333—339, 340 a— j, 341, 343, 344, 345 a— i, 346—350.
Washington, D.C. U.S. National Museum. Report for the year ending June
30, 1913.
Washington, D.C. U.S. Geographic Board. Correct Orthography of Geo-
graphic Names, revised to January, 1911. Decisions, 1910 — 1912, 1912 —
1913, 1913—1914.
Washington, D.C. U.S. Department of Agriculture. Bulletin, No. 66.
Farmers' Bulletins, Nos. 564—602, 604, 606, 608, 611, 615—639. Report
of the Chief of the Weather Bureau, 1912—1913.
Washington, D.C. U.S. War Department. Annual Reports, 1913, Vols,
I--IV.
Washington, D.C, U,S. Bureau of Education. Report of the Commissioner
for the year ending June 30, 1913. Vols. 1 and 2.
Washington, D.C. Library of Congress. Report for the year ending June 30,
1914, A List of Geographical Atlases in the Library of Congress, with
Biographical Notes. Vol. III.
Washington, D.C. Pan American Union. Bulletin. 1914, January to Dec.
Washington, D.C. Carnegie Institution. Department of Terrestrial Mag-
netism. Annual Report of the Director for the year 1914.
Zurich, Geographisch-Ethnographischen Gesellschaft in Zurich. Jahres-
bericht. (Nothing received.)
List of Members
i8r
Xiet Of fIDembers.
DECEMBER, 31st, 1914.
Note. — H signifies Honorary, C — Corresponding, L — Life, A — Associate,
* Affiliated Societies. All others are Ordinary Members.
Abbott, F. S., F.C.A.
Abson, Miss Ada
Adam, Sir Frank Forbes, CLE.
Adnett, Madame M.
LAinsworth, John, C.M.G., F.R.G.S.
(Kisumu)
Aldred, John C, A.C.A.
Alexander, W. T., J. P.
nAmundsen, Captain Roald
Appleby, Wm.
Armitage, G. F., J.P. (His Worship
the Mayor of Altrincham)
Armstrong, F.
Arning, A. W.
Arnold, W. A.
Aron, L.
Ascoli, W. S., F.R.G.S.
Ashton, Miss B.
AAshworth, Mrs. Ada
AAshworth, Miss D.
Ashworth, Francis, J.P.
AAshworth, Miss M. B.
AAshworth, S.
Ashworth, Wm., F.C.A.
Ashworth, W. E.
AAtkin, Miss
Atkinson, George, F.R.G.S.
Bacon, W. C.
Baerlein, H. A.
ABagnall, John H,
Bailey, W. D.
LBalmer, J. E., F.R.G.S.
LBalmforth, Alfred
Bardsley, G. W.
Barlow, Edwin
Barlow, John R., J.P.
Barningham, Mrs. James
Barningham, Thomas, J.P.
Baron, J. W., C.C.
Baronian, Z. S. Iplicjian
Bax, Wm. Robert
ABaxandall, Miss C.
ABayley, Mrs. C. H.
ABeck, H. S.
Beer, Walter
Behrens, Councillor Sir Charles, J.P.
Behrens, Gustav, J.P.
cBellamy, C. H., F.R.G.S., Tourcoing
ABellamy, Reginald C, A.C.A.
Bennett, Miss Ruth
Bentley, John Howard, F.R.G.S.
Berry, G.F.
Berry, R. H.
Berry, W. H., Free Public Library,.
Oldham.
ABickerton, Richard
Billinge, J. H.
Bishop, J, K.
Blaikie, W. V.
ABlanchoud, Miss
Blass, A.
Bles, Marcus S., J.P.
Bock, Richard
LBoddington, Henry, J.P.
HBodio, Senator Luigi, Rome
ABolivar, Mrs. A. de
HBonaparte, S. A. Prince Roland, Paris
HBond, Rt. Hon. Sir R., K.C.M.G.,
Newfoundland
HBotha, Rt. Hon. Louis, Pretoria
Bowen, E.
Bradley, N., J.P.
Bradshaw, Wm.
Bramwell, Samuel.
cBrice, A. Montefiore
Brier, Charles
LBrierley, James, M.A., F.R.G.S.
Briggs, Henry
Briggs, Herbert
Broadhurst, E. Tootal, D.L., J.P.
ABrobson, Miss M.
LBrooks, Mrs. S. H.
LBrooks, S. H., J.P., F.R.G.S.
i82 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
Broome, Henry
Brown, Alfred
Brown, A. E. Buchanan
LBrown, James, J. P.
ABrown, Miss M. A.
Brownell, Thos. W.
Brumm, Charles, J. P.
Bryant, James
cBryce, J, Annan, M.P.
Buckley, J.
Buckley, W. S.
Burgess, Alfred, A.C.A.
LBurgon, Anthony
Burke, Thomas
*Burnley Literary and Scientific Club
Burstall, Miss S. A., M.A.
Butterworth, Walter, J. P.
Bythell, J. K., J.P.
Bythell, W. J. S., B.A., M.D.
Byrne, Miss T. G.
Calvert, D. R.
Campbell, Richardson
ACardwell, J. J.
Carr, Arthur
Carson, Isaac Pitman
xCarver, W. Oswald
Chadwick, J. J.
Champ, F.
AChamock, Mrs E.
Cheetham, Rt. Hon. J. F., J.P.
AChorley, Miss K.
Chorlton, Isaac
Chorlton, James
Clapham, Col. W. W.
Clapham, Thomas, F.R.G.S.
Clarke, Charles A.
Clay, Frederick
ACockshaw, Miss E.
cColbeck", Rev. A.
LColley, T. H. Davies
ACollinge, Miss A.
Collmann, C.
cColquhoun, A. R., F.R.G.S., M.I.C.E.
Colt, W. H.
Cooke, J. Herbert
Cookson, G. P.
Coop, Thos.
xCooper, Mrs. A. H.
aCox, C. H., B.Sc, L.C.P.
Cox, Dr. Frederic
Crawford, W. L.
Crewdson, Alfred
Crompton, Mrs.
Crompton, Thos. A.
Crook, Col. H. T., D.L., V.D.^
M.Inst. C.E.
Crosland, Leo
ACrosthwaite, Robert, M.A., B.Sc.
Crowther, Miss E.
ADaves, Miss A.
David, Henry E.
ADavies, Charles J.
Dawkins, Prof. W. Boyd, J. P., M.A.,
F.R.S.
HDeakin, Hon. Alfred, Australia
Deakin, G. G. D.
Deakin, Thos. S.
Dean, Charley
Dean, J.
Dean, J. N.
Dehn, Gustav
Dennis, Cammack, J.P.
LDerby, Rt. Hon. Earl, G.C.V.O.
ADewez, Mdlle. F.
Dickson, E. H. L.
Dixon, H. C.
Donner, Sir Edward, Bart.
Downie, R. M.
LDoxey, Alex. S.
Draper, Walter T.
Duckworth, Charles
Duckworth, Alderman Sir James,
J.P., F.R.G.S.
Dugdill, John
Dunkerley, Frank B.
Dyckhoff, C.
Earnshaw, John A.
Eason, Edward A.
*Eccles Prov. Ind. Co-op. Soc, Ltd.
Eckhard, Gustav, J.P,
Edleston, C. V. M.
LEdwards, T. A., F.R.G.S.
Egerton of Tatton, Rt. Hon. Lord
Ellinger, George
Ellinger, Martin
List of Members
183
Elliot, W.
England, A.
LErmen, Charles
Evans, E. Roose
Evans, E. Russell
Evans, J. H.
Evans, L. C.
AEwbank, Miss
Fairhurst, Thomas
€Fedotoff, A., Moscow
Ferguson, Wm.
Fern, George
<:Fisher, Rev. A. B., F.R.G.S.
Fletcher, Miss D. E.
Fletcher, Miss E. M.
Fletcher, R.
Flinn, W. Leonard
Follows, F. W.
Forsyth, Henry
AFosbrooke, Miss Agnes
Franc, Henry
Frank, Ernest
Frankenburg, Alderman I., J. P.
HFreshfield, Douglas W., F.R.G.S.
Frischmann, A.
FuUerton, Miss E.
Galle, L. A., Belgian Consul
Gamble, J.
AGarner, Miss P. M.
AGarner, Charles T. I.
Garnett, Mrs. Charles
Garnett, Charles
Gaythorpe, Thomas
Geiler, Hermann
Gibbons, Fred C.
xGinger, George
Glazebrook, Philip K., M.P.
Gleave, Joseph James
Glossop, J. P. B.
Godbert, Councillor Chas. W.
Oodlee, Francis
Goodbehere, Frederick G.
Goodwin, F. W.
Goodwin, J. W.
Gordon, T. Hodgetts, C.C., B A.
Green, H., M.A.
Green, Walter
Greene, Miss Kate
Greenhow, J. H., Vice-Consul for
Norway
AGreenough, Richard, Leigh
Greg, Lieut.-Col. Ernest W., V.D.,
C.C, F.R.G.S.
Gregory, Joseph
Gregory, Theodore, F.C.A., J. P.
Grey, Dr. Edgar
LGriffiths, Albert, D.Sc.
Griffiths, Alderman John
Griffiths, Horatio
Grime, A.
AGroves, Miss M.
Groves, Charles V.
LGroves, W. G,
Guest, R.
Guggenheim, A.
AGumbrell, Mrs.
Giiterbock, Alfred
Giiterbock, Richard
Guthrie, Mrs. S. F.
Hacking, Nicholas H., J. P.
Haerem, C. V.
Hahlo, Charles
Hail wood. Councillor Anthony, J. P.
Hailwood, R. Emmett
AHalksworth, Miss M.
AHall, Miss Hilda
LHall, Mrs. J. Howard
LHall, J. Howard
Hall, Robert, J. P.
Hallworth, Joseph
Halsall, Frank, F.C.A., J.P.
A Hamilton, Mrs.
AHamilton, Miss Joyce
Hammond, G. S.
Hamp, E. H.
Hancock, J.
AHandcock, H. C.
Hanemann, A.
cHanlon, Rt. Rev. Henry, Bishop of
Teos, and Vicar Apostolic of the
Upper Nile
Hardcastle, G. L.
AHarden, Miss C.
Hardy, H. Waters
LHargreaves, George
i84 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
AHarper, William
Harrap, Thomas
AHarris, Miss E. M.
AHarris, Miss Evelyn
Harrop, James
LHassall, Alderman Thomas, J. P.
Hawkins, William
Haworth, Alfred, J.P.
Haworth, G. C, J.P.
Heap, Alderman, W. T., J.P.
Heighway, Mrs.
Heighway, George
Helm, John
cHerbertson, Professor A. J., M.A.,
Ph.D.
Herd, Harry
Hertz, F. M.
Hesketh, W. R.
Hewerdine, W. H.
AHewit, R. P., J.P.
Heycock, A. H.
LHeys, John, J.P.
Heywood, Abel, J.P.
Hiersemann, K. W., Leipzig
Higginbottom, Walter
Higgins, J.
Higham, J. Sharp, M.P.
Hilditch, John, M.R.A.S., M.J.S.
Hilton, Thomas
Hindle, James, L.R.A.M.
Hinrichsen, S.
Hockin, C. Owen
Hodgson, Jas. T.
Hodgson, William
AHolden, Henry
AHollingworth, Edgar W.
Holmes, W. Francis
LHolt, Arthur
Hopkinson, Sir A., K.C.
Hopkinson, Edward, D.Sc.
Horsfall, T. C.
Houghton, John
Houldsworth, Sir W. H., Bart.
Hoyle, E.
cHoyle, W. E., M.A.
Hudson, James H., M.A.
Hughes, Joseph David
Hulme, C. J.
Hutton, D. W.
LHutton, J, Arthur
Hyde, Thomas
lUingworth, Charles
Irving, R. J,
Ajackson, Miss A,
Jackson, Fred J.
Hjameson, Rt. Hon, Sir L. S., C.B.
Janovski, R.
Janus, H.
Jefferson, Alfred Hy.
Jenkins, Alderman T. H., J.P.
Johnson, Mrs. A. T.
Johnson, E., J.P.
Johnson, James
Johnson, Lionel M.
LJohnson, Wm. Morton, F.R.G.S.
cJohnston, Sir H. H., G.C.M.G.,
K.C.B., F.R.G.S.
Johnstone, Charles Andrew
Jones, R. Lomas
Jones, Wm., J.P., Eccles
Jones, Wm., Didsbury
Jordan, Bernard
Kalisch, Max
Kalisch, Moritz
Kalisch, Richard, F.R.G.S.
cKeiffer, F., Moscow
Keith-Roach, Edward
AKelley, H. F.
Kelley, J. Macpherson
HKeltie, J. Scott, LL.D., F.R.G.S.
Kessler, Philip W.
AKewley, Miss Jane
Keymer, Sidney L., F.R.G.S.
AKiesling, A. E.
Kinch, W. S., C.C.
Knowles, Peter
Knudsen, A., Consul for Denmark
Kolp, Ernest
Kukla, Charles
Kullmann, Herbert C.
cLabbe, Paul, Paris
ALancaster, James, J.P.
Langdon, E. H.
Larmuth, Dr.
List of Members
185
Lauder, Francis A.
HLaurier, Rt. Hon. Sir W., G.C.M.G.
ALaw, Miss Annie E., L.L.A.
Lawson, R. G.
Lea, John
Leah, S. P.
Leak, Rev. W. H.
ALedward, H. Davenport
Leech, Miss
cLeech, Wm. Booth
Leemann, E.
Lees, Mrs. H. L., F.R.G.S., A.R.C.L
Lees, Walter
*Leigh Literary Society
Leite, J. Pinto, Vice Consul for
Portugal
Lemon, Miss Ada
LLemos, Professor Angel Ma Diaz
Levinstein, Herbert
Levinstein, Ivan
Lewis, John Wm.
ALightowler, Mrs. E.
ALightowler, E.
Little, David Ainsworth
Littler, Henry Landon
Lomas, J. A.
Longden, A. W.
Lord, Charles
ALowe, Miss M. E.
Lowe, Wm.
Macara, Sir C. W., Bart., J.P.
cMcDermott, Rev. P. A., C.S.Sp.
HMacdonald, Major-Gen. Sir J. R. L.,
R.E.
McDougall, Charles
McDougall, Robert
McFarlane, H. H.
McFarlane, John, M.A., M.Com.,
F.R.G.S.
M'Grath, W. A.
HMacGregor, H. E. Sir Wm., M.D.,
K.C.M.G.
McPherson, Alexander
Makin, E., junr.
*Manchester Corporation, Free Libra-
ries Committee
Mandleberg, G. C, J.P.
Mandleberg, S. L., J.P.
AMarkham, Mrs. M.
cMarrs, F. W., M.A., Bombay
LMarsden, James, J.P.
Martin, Horace C, F.R.G.S.
Martin, Thomas
Marx, Charles
Massey, Harold F.
Massey, L. F.
LMather, Loris Emerson, F.R.G.S.
Mather, Rt. Hon. Sir William, J.P.
Maude, Rev. J. G.
May, Wm.
AMaybury, J. H.
AMaybury, W. H.
Medlyn, Wm. John
Melland, Edward
Melland, Councillor Will
LMellor, E. W., J.P., F.R.G.S.
LMellor, Geoffrey Robert
Middleton, T. C, J.P.
Midwood, T. C.
Miller, Paul C.
Miller, T.
Millers, R. Townley
Milligan, Sir Wm., M.D.
Mills, Albert
HMoor, Rt. Hon. F. R., Natal
Moore, A. E.
AMoore, Miss Isabel
Morehouse, James T.
Morland, J. R.
Morreau, M.
Morris, A. C.
Mort, Miss G. E.
Moxon, Thomas Bouchier
Murton, T. P., London
HNansen, Dr. F., G.C.V.O.
Nanson, Miss W.
ANash, Miss M. R.
Nathan, Fred P.
LNeil, Alexander
Neild, F. E., F.C.A.
Neild, Jesse
Newton, Geo. D.
Nichol, Wm.
Nicholls, Rev. Wm.
Nichols, Geo. Wm.
Nicholson, Joseph
i86 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
Nightingale, Thos. H.
ANoar, H.
Norbury, Thos.
LNuttall, Harry, M.P., F.R.G.S.
Nuttall, Mrs. Harry
ANuttall, E. Wilson
cOederlin, F.
Ogden, A.
Oldham, Edwin, J.P.
Oldham, H. Yule, M.A., F.R.G.S.
Cambridge
O'Leary, J. W.
cO'Neill, H. E., F.R.G.S.
Openshaw, Miss E. N.
Oppenheim, F. S., M.A,
Ormrod, Miss B.
Osborn, John A.
Ost, Emil
APaine, Miss
Parkinson, H. F.
Parkinson, J. B.
Parkinson, T. W. F., M.Sc, F.G.S.
Peace, Alfred
APearson, Miss E.
Pearson, J. A.
nPeary, Rear-Admiral R. E.
Peters, Miss S. Kate
APeters, Ralph
Philips, Miss
Phythian, J. Ernest
Pickstone, E.
Pidd, Arthur J.
APidd, Leslie S.
APidd, Mrs. Eli
APidd, Miss Maggie
Pigott, A. W.
Pilcher, Colonel Jesse, V.D.
Pilkington, Charles, J.P.
LPilkington, Edward, J.P.
Pilkington, Lawrence, J.P.
cPingstone, G, A.
Pingstone, H. C.
APotts. Mrs.
APrescott, Mrs.
APrescott Miss E. M.
Prestwich, R. H.
Proctor, Mrs.
AProctor, Miss
Pro vis, Frank M.
Prusmann, Robert Henry
Putz, F. R.
Qualtrough, Miss Kate
Quine, Dr. R. H., L.R.C.P., etc.
Raby, C. R.
Ragdale, J. R., C.A., J.P.
Ramsay, P. J., J.P.
ARawlinson, Miss Maud
Reade, Charles E.
Ree, Alfred, Ph.D.
Reed, J. Howard, F.R.G.S.
Reekie, W. Maxwell
R«id, James Stephenson
LReiss, Alec
Renold, Hans
Renshaw, James
.\Renshaw, Miss L. W.
AReynolds, Mrs. R. H.
Rhodes, Edward
Richardson, J. E. T.
Richmond, Wm., J. P.
Rigby, Wm.
Riley, R. J.
Robertshaw, James
Robertson, W. J.
Robinow, W.
Robinson, T. Fletcher
Robinson, W. H.
Robson, J. Walter, J.P.
Rogerson, James
Rothband, H. L.
Rotherham of Broughton, the Right
Hon, Lord
Rothwell, Alderman W. T., J.P.
Row, 0. M., M.I.M.E.
Royse, Councillor Sir S. W., J.P.
Russell, A. C.
Russell, C. E. B.
Ruttenau, Wm.
Saalfeld, A.
Salford, the Rt. Rev. the Bishop of
*Salford Corporation Free Libraries
Committee
Samson, Oscar
List of Members
187
Schofield, Edwin, J.P.
Scholfield, Councillor A. Y.
Schiitt, Professor Dr. R., Hamburg
Scott, C. Archibald
Scott, C. P., J.P.
Scott, J. E. P.
Scott, W.
Segalla, Emil
Sever, John
HShackleton, Sir E. H., C.V.O.,
F.R.G.S.
Shann, Alderman Sir T. T., J.P.
Shaw, A. E.
AShaw, Miss A. E.
Shaw, Matthew
Sheppard, E. F.
Shipman, Mrs. W. M.
Shorrocks, Henry
Sidebotham, John Jas,
Siegler, H.
Simmons, C. L.
Simon, Alfred
Simon, Louis
Simpson, Alfred, J.P.
Simpson, C. J.
ASimpson, Miss F.
Sivewright, Wm.
LSmith, Rev. Canon F. C, M.A.,
F.R.G.S.
ASmith, Miss E.
Smith, James, Oldham
Smith, J., Moss Side
Smith, J. H. H., J.P.
ASmith, Miss M. J.
Smith, R, Heaton
ASmith, Mrs. R, Heaton
Smith, Mrs. Samuel
Smith, Sidney
Smith, T. M.
Somerset, Henry
ASomerset, Henry, Junr.
Southam, T. Frank, M.D., F.R.G.S.
ASouthem, John E.
nSowerbutts, Mrs. Eli
ASowerbutts, Harry, A.R.C.Sc,
Sowerbutts, T. W., F.S.A.A.
Speakman, Walter
ASpencer, Miss M. R.
ASpencer, S.
Spencer, Wm.
Sprott, W. J., M.D., M.R.C.S.
Stadelbauer, H.
Staniforth, Harry
Staniforth, R. A.
LSteinthal, Egbert
Stephens, Alderman Sir W., J.P.
Sternberg, S.
Stevenson, Frederick
Stevenson, John
AStevenson, Miss W.
A Stewart, Robert
Stoker, R. B., F.R.G.S.
LStonehewer, Walter.
Stordy, Mrs.
Storey, Henry E.
AStott, Miss
Stowell, Hugh
Stubbs, Wm. T.
ASummerville College, The Principal
Susmann, Councillor E. F. M., J.P.
Sussum, Geo. H.
Sutton, Charles
Swaine, Geo. Raymond
Swallow, Miss Eunice
HSwallow, Rev. R., M.D.
SwaUow, R. W., B.Sc.
LSykes, Arthur H., D.L., J.P.
Symonds, The Rev. Canon
Tatham, Mrs. N.
Tattersall, Herbert W.
ATatton, Lees W.
ATaylor, Albert
Taylor, Miss A. I.
Taylor, C.
Taylor, Frederick
Taylor, John Tyson
ATaylor, Miss M.
ATaylor, Miss Ruth
Taylor, Walter
Taylor, William
Tejeria, Antonio Maria, Spanish
Consul
Terry, Henry
Thewlis, Councillor J. Herbert, J.P.
Thomas, E. H., F.C.I.L
LThomas, George, J.P.
Thomson, A. E.
i88 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
cThomson, J. P., LL.D., Brisbane
Thomson, R
Thomson, Wm., F.RS. (Ed.)
Thorpe, Walter
Tout, Prof. T. F., M.A.
LTrafford, Sir Humphrey F. de, Bart.
Tuke, Rev. R M.
LTuUoch, Angus A. G.
Turner, Mrs. S. A.
ATydeman, B. R.
ATyldesley Higher Education Commit-
tee
Tyne, W. J.
Vallance, A. C.
Vaudrey, Sir W. H., J.P.
Viehoff, Miss F.
nWainwright, Joel, J.P.
Wainwright, Thomas Foster, J.P.
Walkden, Arthur
Walker, George
Walker, G. H.
Walker, J. Alan
Walker, John
Walker, Sam
AWallace, Miss M. W.
LWallace, Reginald W.
Walmsley, R.
Walter, Miss L. Edna, B.Sc, H.M.I.
Warburton, Miss L. M.
HWard, Sir A. W., M.A., Litt.D.
HWard, Rt. Hon. Sir J. G., K.C.M.G.,
New Zealand
LWard, Wm. H.
Ward, Ziba Armitage
AWardle, Miss
cWardrop, Capt. A. Tucker, F.RG.S.
AWarren, Geo, H.
A Warrington, Miss M.
Waterhouse, Gilbert, F.RG.S.
AWatson, Col. Sir C. M., K.C.M.G.,
RE.
Watson, D, Eraser
Watson, Joseph
AWebster, John
Welding, Miss
Welldon, 'Rt. Rev. Bishop, D.D.,
Dean of Manchester
Welsh, W;
Welter, H. (Bibliotheque Nationale
Section des Cartes, Paris)
Whalley, Joseph, F.RG.S.
Whitby, W. H.
Whitehouse, E. C.
LWhittaker, Mrs. A. H.
AWhittaker, Miss F.
Whitworth, Herbert
Wihl, G.
Wilde, Miss
Wilde, J. J.
Wilkinson, T. F.
Wilkinson, Wm.
Willcock, Thomas
nWillcocks, Major-General Sir James,
K.C.M.G., D.S.O.
Williams, James
Williams, S. W.
Williamson, R. T., M.D., F.R.G.S.
Williamson, William Henry
Wilmore, Albert,' D.Sc, F.G.S.
Winder, Mark
AWinstanley, T. G.
Wood, A. W.
Wood, George Hervey
LWood, George W. Rayner, J.P.
Wood, Henry
Wood, Thomas
Woodhouse, J. H., F.RI.B.A.
Woodruff, Herbert
Woods, W. D
Woolf, Miss M. A.
Woolfenden, Miss Alice H.
Woolfenden, Joseph
Woolfenden, R. S. H.
Woolley, George Stephen
LWoolley, Hermann, F.R.G.S.
Worthington, S. Barton
LWrathmell, T.
Wright, Reginald
Young, Harold
Young, Leonard
Young, Robert
Zabem, T. von
Zellweger, I.
Zimmem, Fritz, F.R.G.S.
Zimmem, N. H,
Zimmem, W. H.
Rules 189
IRulee.
I. OBJECT AND WORK.
The object of the Manchester Geographical Society is to promote the study
of all branches of Geographical Science, especially in its relations to commerce
and civilisation.
The work of the Society shall be : —
1. To further in every way the pursuit of the science; as, by the study of
official and scientific documents, by communications with learned, industrial
and commercial societies, by correspondence with consuls, men of science,
explorers, missionaries, and travellers, and by the encouragement of the
teaching of geography in schools and colleges.
2. To hold meetings at which papers shall be read, or lectures delivered by
members or others.
3. To examine the possibility of opening new markets to commerce and to
collect information as to the number, character, needs, natural products and
resources of such populations as have not yet been brought into relation with
British commerce and industry.
4. To promote and encourage, in such way as may be found expedient,
either alone or in conjunction with other Societies, the exploration of the less
known regions of the earth.
5. To inquire into all questions relating to British and Foreign colonisation
and emigration.
6. To publish a Journal of the proceedings of the Society, with a summary
of geographical information.
7. To form a collection of maps, charts, geographical works of reference,
and specimens of raw materials and commercial products.
8. The Society shall not enter into any financial transactions beyond those
necessarily attached to its declared object, and shall not make any dividend,
gift, division, or bonus in money unto or between any of its members.
II. ORGANISATION.
9. The Society shall consist of ordinary, associate, corresponding, and
honorary members.
10. A Council shall be chosen annually from the ordinary members to con-
duct the affairs of the Society. It shall consist of a President, four or more
Vice-Presidents, a Treasurer, two or more Honorary Secretaries (including a
Secretary for Foreign Correspondence), and twenty -one Councillors.
11. There shall be three Trustees elected by the Society, who shall hold
office until death, disability, insolvency or resignation. They shall be members
of the Council by virtue of their office.
12. Any vacancy occurring in the Council during the current year may be
filled up by the Council.
III. ELECTION OF MEMBERS.
13. Every candidate for admission into the Society as an ordinary or an
associate member must be proposed by a member. The proposal shall be read
out at the next Ordinary Meeting of the members, and any objection shall be
forwarded in writing to the Secretary within seven days.
14. The election of members is entrusted to the Council. The names of
those elected shall be announced from the chair at the next Ordinary Meeting
after the election.
15. The Secretary shall within three days forward to every newly-elected
member notice of his election, a copy of the Rules of the Society, and a card
igo Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
announcing the days on which the Ordinary Meetings will be held during the
session. But the election of an ordinary or associate member shall not be com-
plete, nor shall he be permitted to enjoy the privileges of a member, until he
shall have paid his first year's subscription. Unless such a payment be made
within three calendar months from the date of election the election shall be
void.
16. The Council shall have power to elect honorary and corresponding
members.
17. Women shall be eligible as members and officers of the Society.
IV. PAYMENTS.
18. An ordinary member shall pay an annual subscription of £1. Is., or he
may compound by one payment of £10. 10s. An associate member shall pay
an annual subscription of 10s. 6d. The Society's year shall begin on the first
day of January.
19. Members shall not be entitled to vote or to enjoy any other privilege of
the Society so long as their payment shall continue in arrear, but associate
members shall not vote nor shall they take any part in the government of the
Society.
20. The first annual payment of a member elected in November or December
shall cover his subscription to the 31st of December in the year following.
21. On th€ first day of January in each year there shall be put up in the
rooms of the Society a complete list of the members with the amount of their
subscription due, and as the amounts are paid the fact shall be marked on the
list.
22. Notice shall be sent to every member whose subscription shall not have
been paid by the first of February, and if the arrears are not discharged by
the first of July the Council may remove the member from the list of members.
Any member, whose subscription is in arrear for two years shall not be entitled
to receive the Journal of the Society.
V. MEETINGS.
23. The meetings of the Society shall be of three kinds — Ordinary, Annual,
and Special.
24. In all meetings a majority of those present shall decide on all questions,
the President or Chairman having a casting vote in addition to his own.
ORDINARY MEETINGS.
25. The Ordinary Meetings of the Society shall be held once a month, from
the month of October to the month of May, or oftener, if judged expedient by
the Council.
26. All members whose subscriptions are not in arrear shall have a right to
be present. All ordinary members shall have the privilege of introducing one
visitor.
27. The order of the proceedings shall be as follows : —
(a) The minutes of the last meeting to be read and if correctly recorded
they shall be signed by the Chairman.
(b) Presents, whether of money, books, maps, charts, instruments or
specimens, made to the Society to be announced.
(c) The election of new members to be declared and the names of
candidates to be read.
(d) Papers and communications to be read and discussed.
28. At these meetings nothing relating to the rules or management shall be
brought forward, but the minute book of the Council shall be on the table at
each meeting for the inspection of any member, and extracts therefrom may,
Rules 191
with the consent of the chairman, be read to the meeting on the requisition of
any member.
23. On occasions of exceptional interest the Council may make provision for
a larger admission of visitors.
ANNUAL MEETINGS.
30. The Annual Meeting of the members shall be held at such time and
place as the Council may determine.
31. Fourteen days' Notice of such meeting shall be sent to every member
within the United Kingdom who has given his address to the Secretary, and
notice of the meeting shall be advertised in such newspapers as the Council
may direct.
32. The object of this meeting shall be to receive the Annual Report of the
Council and the Treasurer's Balance Sheet, to hear the President's address, to
elect the Council and officers for the ensuing year, and to transact any other
business.
33. Any two ordinary members may nominate candidates for the Council or
for office not later than one week prior to the day of election, and the names
of candidates so nominated shall be at once put up in the rooms of the Society.
The election of the Council and officers shall be by ballot
SPECIAL GENERAL MEETINGS.
34. The Council may call a Special General Meeting of the Society when-
ever they shall consider it necessary, and they shall do so if required by 20
ordinary members.
35. A week's notice of the time and object of every Special Meeting shall
be sent to all members. No other business shall be entertained than that of
which notice has been thus given.
36. Twenty ordinary members shall form a quorum.
VI. COUNCIL AND OFFICERS.
THE COUNCIL.
37. The government of the Society shall be entrusted to the Council, sub-
ject to the rules of the Society.
38. The Council shall annually elect a Chairman and Vice- Chairman.
39. The President or the Chairman, or any three members of the Council,
may at any time call a meeting thereof, to which every member of the Council
shall be summoned.
40. Seven shall form a quorum.
41. In order to secure the most efficient study and treatment of the various
subjects which constitute the chief work of the Society, the Council may
appoint Committees for special purposes. These Committees, with the appro-
bation of the Council, may associate with themselves any persons — whether
members of the Society or not — from whom they may desire to obtain special
assistance or information. The Committees shall report to the Council the
results of their proceedings.
42. The President, Chairman, Vice-Chairman of the Council, and the
Honorary Secretaries, shall, by virtue of their offices, be members of all Com-
mittees appointed by the Council.
PRESIDENT AND VICE-PRESIDENTS.
43. The President, is, by virtue of his office, the chairman of all the
meetings of the Society. In the absence of the President, one of the Vice-
Presidents may preside.
CHAIRMAN OF THE COUNCIL.
44. It is the duty of the Chairman of the Council to see that the rules are
192 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
properly observed, to call for reports and accounts from Committees and
Officers, and to summon, when necessary, special meetings of the Council and
of Committees.
TREASTTREE.
45. The Treasurer has the charge of all accounts ; he shall pay all accounts
due by the Society after they have been examined and approved by the
Council.
46. He shall see that all moneys due to the Society are collected, and shall
have power, with the approval of the Council, to appoint a Collector. All
moneys received shall be immediately paid to the bankers of the Society.
47. The bank passbook and the book of accounts shall be laid upon the
table at every ordinary meeting of the Council.
48. The accounts shall be audited annually by two members, who shall be
elected at an ordinary meeting at least one month before the Annual Meeting.
SECRETARIES.
49. The duties of the Honorary Secretaries shall be : —
(a) To conduct the correspondence of the Society and of the Council.
(b) To attend the meetings of the members and of the Council, and
minute their proceedings.
(c) At the ordinary meetings, to announce gifts presented to the Society
since their last meeting; to read the names of all new members and
of candidates for admission, and the papers communicated to the
Society, which have been directed by the Council to be read.
(d) To have immediate superintendence of all persons employed, to make
arrangements for the meetings of the Society, and to take charge of
all maps, books, furniture and other effects.
50. It shall be the more especial duty of one of the Honorary Secretaries to
conduct, as may be directed by the Council, correspondence with Foreign
Societies, and with persons resident abroad.
51. In addition to the Honorary Secretaries, there shall be a paid Secretary
appointed by the Council, whose duties shall be to assist the Honorary Secre-
taries, to issue the notices of the Council and of the Society, and to act under
the instructions of the Council.
The foregoing Eules, as now amended, were approved and adopted at a
meeting of the members of the Society, of which due notice had been given to
the members, held in the Town Hall, Manchester, Wednesday, October 3rd,
1894. (Signed) GEOEGE, President.
S. ALFRED STEINTHAL, Chairman
F ZIMMERN, Honorary Secretary.
JAS. D. WILDE, M.A., Honorary Secretary.
ELI SOWERBUTTS, Secretary.
[Copy.]
It is hereby certified that this Society is entitled to the benefit of the Act 6
and 7 Vict., Cap. 36, intituled " An Act to exempt from County, Borough,
Parochial, and other Local Rates, Lands and Buildings, occupied by Scientific
or Literary Societies." Seal of Registry of
Friendly Societies.
•piis 15th day of January, 1895, E. W. B.
THE
JOURNAL
OF THE
MANCHESTER GEOGRAPHICAL
SOCIETY
VOL. XXXI.
PUBLISHED FOR THE
MANCHESTER GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY
BY
SHERRATT & HUGHES
LONDON AND MANCHESTER
1915
COUNCIL
MANCHESTER
THE
AND OFFICERS
OF THE
GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY
FOR I915.
patron.
HIS MAJESTY THE KING.
president.
Mr. HAREY NUTTALL. M.P., F.R.G.S.
IDiccsprcsiDcnts
The Right Hon. the Earl of Derby,
G.C.V.O.
The Right Hon. Earl Egerton of
Tatton.
The Right Hon, Lord Rotherham of
Broughton.
The Right Rev. the Bishop of Salford.
The Right Rev. Bishop Welldon,
D.D., Dean of Manchester.
The Right Hon. the Lord Mayor of
Manchester.
His Worship the Mayor of Salford.
The Right Hon. Sir William Mather.
The Rt. Hon. J. F. Chbetham.
Sir W. H. Houldsworth, Bart.
Sir C. W. Macara, Bart.
Sir Humphrey F. de Trafford, Bart.
Alderman Sir J. Duckworth, J. P.,
F.R.G.S.
Colonel H. T. Crook, J. P., V.D.
Professor W. Boyd Dawkins, J. P.,
F.R.S.
Major P. K. Glazebrook, M.P.
Colonel E, W. Greg, J.P., C.C, F.R.G.S.
Mr. J. G. Groves, D.L., J. P.
Mr. J. S. Hicham, M.P.
Mr. John McFarlane, M.A., M.Coin.,
F.R.G.S.
Mr. E. W. Mellor, J.P., F.R.G.S.,
Vice-chairman of the Council.
Mr. J. Howard Reed, F.R.G.S.
Mr. C. P. Scott, J. P.
Mr. George Thomas, J. P.
Mr. Hermann Woolley, F.R.G.S.
Mr. F. ZiMMEHN, F.R.G.S., Chair man
of the Council.
Mr.
Mr.
Q:ru6tec85.
Mr. H. NtTTTALL, M.P., F.R.G.S. Mr. Sidney L. Keymer, F.R.G.S.
Mr. E. W. Mellor, J.P., F.R.G.S.
Ibonorarg a;rcasurer. Ibouoraig Secretary.
Mr. David A. Little. | Mr. Egbert Steinthal.
Ibonorare Secretary (Dfctoriaus).
Mr. C. A. CiARKE.
Counctl.
Mr. T. C. Middleton, J. P.
Mr. F. S. Oppenheim, M.A.
Mr. J. A. OsBORN.
Mr. T. W. F. Parkinson, M.Sc,
F.G.S.
Mr. Alfred Reb, Ph.D.
Mr. J. Stephenson Reid.
Mr. Wm. Robinow.
Mr. J. Walter Robson, J. P.
Mr. T. W. Sowerbutts, F.S.A.A.
Miss L. Edna Walter, B.Sc, H.M.I.
W.
J.
Miss S
Mr. C.
Mr.
Mr.
S. Ascoli. F.R.G.S.
E. Balmer, F.R.G.S.
A. BURSTALL, M.A.
A. Clarke,
c. collmann.
George Ginger.
Mr. J. Howard Hall.
Mr. Alderman T. Hassall, J. P.
Mr Richard Kay, F.R.G.S.
Mr. H. C. Martin, F.R.G.S.
Mr. L. Emerson Mather, F.R.G.S
Ibonorarg BuDitor.
Mr. Theodore Gregory, J. P., F.C.A.
Secretary.
£Ukey S0WIRBXTTT8, As80c.IL0.Sc.
CONTENTS.
A
PAGE
Abeokuta, present condition 3
Accessions to Library, List of 101
Accounts, 1914 79
Administration of Nigeria 13
Africa — Nigeria 1
Agaba, of Awka — Ibo devil 11
Agwobasimi, Chief of Benin 8
Alps of Japan 23
America, South, Venezuela 16
Annual Meeting, 1915 75
Army, British, in Flanders 93
Asaba, Nigeria 11
Ascent of Northern Japanese Alps 24
Asia, Ceylon, Glimpses of 36
Asia, Japanese Alps, Northern .... 23
Atlases added to Library 102
Auditor, Election of Hon S7
B
Balance Sheet, 1914 79
Bandarawela 50
Barnard, A. Sedgwick, M.I.M.E. —
Ceylon 36, 98
Basha, or native country 'bus 25
Benin, History and Present Con-
dition 7
Berwick, J. D.— The North of
Ireland 96
Books added to Library 104
Botanical Gardens at Peradeniya... 46
Breaking the Ordeal at Useri 9
British Army in Flanders 93
British Association, Manchester
Meeting 1915. Delegate's Report 71
British Corresponding Societies ... 109
Burkitt, Rev. J. H. — Belgium :
Before the War and Since 95
C
Calabar 12
Cameroon Mountains 12
Ceylon — A. Sedgwick Barnard,
M.LM.E 36
Climate of Ceylon 37
Coal Fields in Nigeria 2
Colombo Harbour 38
Colonial Corresponding Societies ... Ill
Command of the Sea 19
Copland-Crawford, W. E. B.,
F.R.G.S.— Nigeria 1
PAGE
Corresponding Societies, List of ... 109
Council, Report of, for 1914 75
Cross River, Transport on the 12
D
Deaths of Members announced...
88, 89, 90, 91, 95
Deaths of Members in 1914 78
Delegate's Report, British Associa-
tion Meeting 71
" Descriptive Handbook to the
Relief Model of Wales" 51
Diyatalawa, Ceylon 50
E
Education in Nigeria 10
Education in Venezuela 17
Edwards, T. A., F.RG.S.— Progress
in South Africa under the
Union 91
Effect of Geographical Features on
the War at Sea— T. Whyman 19
Egba Country, History and
Development of 3
Election of Members, 88, 89, 94,
95, 96, 98, 99
Election of Officers and Council ... 86
EUer, Wm.— The Channel Islands 91
Eller, Wm.— The Panama Canal... 99
Elliott, Rev. W. H., F.R.G.S.—
Bothaland 97
Eni Ordeal, at Useri, Nigeria 9
Exchanges, list of 109
Exchanges suspended 109
Exhibition, First Niger Industrial,
at Onitsha 10
Explorations in the Japanese Alps
—Rev. W. Weston, M.A.,
F.R.G.S 23
F
Flanders, British Army in 93
Fliim, W. Leonard — Persia : Past
and Present 100
Food in Venezuela 17
Football in Nigeria 14
Forcados, Port, Ni^r River 6
Foreign Corresponding Societies ... 112
Fox, Rev. A. W., M.A.— Life and
Character in County Galway... 89
French Enclaves on the Niger 6
VI
CONTENTS
G
PAGE
Gardens, Royal Botanical, at
Peradeniya 46
Gbadebo, the Alake of Abeokuta... 3
Geographical Features and War at
Sea 19
Geographical Progress — Address by
President 83
Geographical Research, Importance
of— Major H. G. Lyons, D.Sc. 52
Geographical Section, B.A.A.S. ... 52
Geographical Societies, Work of ... 70
Geography at the Universities ... 53
Ginger, George — Journeys in the
Mediterranean 89
Glimpses of Cevlon — ^A. Sedgwick
Baraard, MJ.M.E. 36
Godbert, Councillor C. W.— A Chat
about Russia 92
Gramophone in Nigeria 5
Gregory, T., J.P., F.C.A. Election
as Hon. Auditor 87
H
Harcourt, Port, Nigeria 2
Hilditch, John, M.RA.S.— Ancient
Arts of China 91
History of the Society 98
Hodaka-yama, ascent of 32
Hospitals in Nigeria 3
I
Ibadan 4
Importance of Geographical Re-
search 53
J
Japanese Alps, Explorations in ... 23
Jekris, of Southern Nigeria 6
K
Kandy 45
Kano 5
Karuizawa, Hill Station in Japan... 25
L
Lagos, improvements of the Port... 2
Lantern Slides added to the Library 116
Libraiy additions 101
List of Accessions, 1915 101
List of Members 117
Lord Mayor of Manchester,
R.emarks at Annual Meeting ... 81
Lyons, Major H. G, D.Sc, F.R.S.,
F.R.G.S.— The Importance of
Geographical Research 52
M
McCabe, Alderman, Lord Mayor,
at Annual Meeting 81
Mahomedans of Lagos and the
War with Turkey 5
Maps added to Library 101
PAGE
Mathematical Geography and Re-
search 56
Meeting, Annual, 1915 75
Meetings, Reports of 88
Mellor, E. W., J.P., F.R.G.S.—
Remarks at Annual Meeting... 81
Mellor, E. W., J.P., F.R.GS.—
Southern India — Some Dra vidian
Landmarks 92
Members, Deaths of, in 1914 78
Members, List of 117
Members, New, Elected, see
Election of Members.
Missionary Corresponding Societies 110
Mountains of Japan 24
Muishi Natives 14
N
Nakabusa (Hot Springs) 29
Nigeria — W. E. B. Copland-
Crawford, F.R.GS 1
Northern Japanese Alps, Explora-
tions in 23
Northern Provinces of Nigeria ... 1
Nuttall, Harry, M.P., F.R.GS.—
Geographical Progress in 1914 83
Nuttall, Harry, M.P., F.R.G.S.—
History of the Society 98
0
Oldham. H. Yule, M.A.— Round
the World in War Time 88
Olumo Rock, Abeokuta 4
Omachi, Japan 26
Onitsha Industrial Missipn 10
Ordeal Trials in Nigeria 9
0 Renge (the Great Lotus Peak),
Ascent of 24
Osborn, J. A. — The Sea and the
Shore 88
Otenjo-dake, ascent of 28
P
Peradeniya Botanical Gardens 46
Percival, F.Q., B.Sc, F.G.S.—
Venezuela 16, 96
Physical Geography and Research 63
Pilkington, Christopher — British
Army in Flanders and France 92
President's Address at Annual
Meeting 83
Proceedings of the Society 88
R
Railways of Ceylon 39, 44
Railways in Nigeria 2
Railways in Venezuela 16
Report for Year 1914 75
Report of Delegate to J5ritish
Association 71
Research, Importance of Geo-
graphical 52
Revenue Account 79
CONTENTS
Til
PAGE
Review 74
Roada in Venezuela , 16
Rubber in Ceylon 49
Rules of the Society 125
S
Sea War and Geographical Features 19
Shaw, James, F.R.P.S. — Dolomite
Tyrol 90
Shaw, James F.R.P.S.— Three
Picturesque Cities of Italy ... 99
Sinhalese People 41
Society, Accounts, 1914 79
Society, Annual Meeting, 1915 75
Society, Annual Report for 1914 ... 75
Society, List of Members of the ... 117
Society, Meetings of 88
Society, Rules of the 125
Society, the 1,000th Meeting 98
Solf, Dr., in West Africa 13
Southern Provinces of Nigeria ... 1
Sowerbutts, Harry, see Delegate to
British Association.
T
Tamils in Ceylon 42
Tea Estates of Ceylon 48
"The, NoTth-West and North-East
Pmsagca, 1576-1611'' 74
The One Thousandth jNIeeting of
the Society 98
Trees of Ceylon 46
Trials by Ordeal in Nigeria 9
Tyrol— James Shaw, F.R.P.S 90
U
PAGE
Universities and Geography 53
V
Vegetation of Ceylon 48
Venezuela — F. G. Percival, B.Sc,
F.G.S 16
W
Walter, Miss L. Edna, B.Sc,
H.M.I.— The Fascination of
Holland 95
War at Sea and Geographical
Features 19
Ward, W. H.— The Italian and
French Rivieras 94
War with Turkey and Mahomedans
of Lagos 6
Waterhouse, G., M.A., F.R.G.S.—
Visit to North America 89
Welldon, Rt. Rev. Bishop, Remarks
at Annual Meeting 82
Wells, Samuel, F.R.G.S.— Across
Europe by Water 89
Weston, Rev. Walter, M.A.,
F.R.G.S— Explorations in the
Japanese Alps 23, 97
Whyman, T. — Geographical Features
and War at Sea 19, 96
Whyman, Thomas — Life in the
'Navy 100
Y
Yakedake, the highest active
volcano in Japan 34
Ypres, Life in, during the War ... 94
MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
Africa — page
Nigeria, " Agaba," of Awka 12
Nigeria, Agara of Ute and his Wives 12
Nigeria, Agwobasimi, Chief of Benin City .....Frontispiece
Nigeria, Bronze Heads made in Benin City 8
Nigeria, Bronze Plaque made in Benin City 8
Nigeria, Gbadebo, the Alake of Abeokuta Frontispiece
Nigeria, Harry Lauder entertains the Natives on a Gramophone 4
Asia —
Ceylon, A Tree Fern at Hatton 44
Ceylon, Cocoa Palms on the South-West Shore 40
Ceylon, Coolie Children at Bandarawela 48
Ceylon, "Grass-clad Humps and Hill-sides" of Bandarawela 44
Ceylon, " Poochies " — Butterflies, etc 48
Ceylon, The Beach at Moimt Lavinia 40
Japan, Map of the Northern Japanese Alps 34
Japan, Hodaka-yama, fi*om Yari-ga-take 28
Japan, Snow Ravine on East of Shiro-uma-dake 24
Japan, Yare-dake and Norikura, from Yari-ga-take 30
Japan, Yari-ga-take, from the East 26
^*^ THE WRITERS OF THE PAPERS ARE ALONE RESPONSIBLE FOR THEIR
OPINIONS. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED,
B m
OS O
cd S3
be
bo
CDe Journal
OF THE
mancDester 6eoarapDical Socielp.
^ ^ ^
^'NIGERIA.'*
By W. E. B. Copland-Crawford, F.R.G.S.
(Commissioner, Nigeria.)
(Addressed to the Society in the Geographical Hall on
Tuesday, January i8th, 1916.)
Nigeria is a country full of present wealth, and, I believe, of
future possibilities, a country that I have had the pleasure
of seeing develop — during my nineteen years of official
connection with it — from comparatively small beginnings, to
be, as it is to-day, the greatest of all your tropical possessions
with the solitary exception of India.
By route of the Canaries, Sierra Leone, the British Gold
Coast, the late German Togoland, and the French Dahomey —
we reach Lagos, the present administrative capital of Nigeria,
in about 16 days.
Nigeria is bounded on the north by the French hinterland
of Dahomey and the French Sudan, on the west by French
Dahomey, on the east by what until recently was German
Cameroons and Lake Chad, and on the south by the Bight of
Benin.
Nigeria, for administrative purposes, is divided into two
main divisions, the Northern Provinces and the Southern
Provinces, of which the northern group coincides with the
former Protectorate of Northern Nigeria, and the southern
group with the former Protectorate of Southern Nigeria.
The native population is roughly 17 millions (or 2 millions
more than all former German Colonies combined), and the
European population is roughly 2,500.
The area of Nigeria is some 336,000 square miles— an
area greater than the combined areas of Germany, Switzer-
land, Belgium, Bulgaria, Montenegro, Denmark and Serbia.
The revenue, which in 1904 was one million sterling, in
Vol. XXXI. Parts I.— IV., 1915.
2 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
1913 was three millions — trebled within 10 years ! — while
trade during the same period has proportionally increased.
Until recently the port of Lagos was accessible only for
vessels of small draught — owing to a dangerous Bar : a sea
breakwater is, however, now nearing completion. The
western mole will be 6,000 feet, and the eastern 8,500. This
will enable Liners of deep draught to cross the Bar and enter
the Lagos Lagoon. In June, 1914, I entered Lagos on a
vessel drawing, so far as my memory serves, about 18 feet.
From Lagos the railway runs to Kano in the Northern
Provinces, a distance of 712 miles. There is also a branch
line of approximately 100 miles from the neighbourhood of
Zaria to Bauchi which serves the adjacent tin mines; and
another branch line of approximately 100 miles from Minna
(near Zungeru) to Baro, an important station on the River
Niger.
In 1 91 3 over 1,150,000 passengers were carried by this
railway, the gross earnings being on an average ;^59,500 per
month. During the first seven months of 1914 (before the
war) the gross earnings on an average per month amounted
to ;^72,500. The effect of the railway in developing trade
has of course been enormous. An eastern railway has now
been started from Port Harcourt at the head of the Bonny
Estuary to the coal fields at Udi — 150 miles distant. It is
hoped that it will eventually be extended to Kaduna (the
proposed future administrative capital of Nigeria) — to form
a junction with the main line from Lagos to Kano. In
addition to the coal fields this railway will tap an enormously
rich palm produce country. The gauge of both railways is
three and a half feet.
The chief industry of Nigeria is agriculture, and crops
consist of cocoa, cotton, maize, plantains, ground-nuts, yams,
cassava and tobacco. The principal natural products exported
are palm oil and kernels, rubber, mahogany, tin ore, maize,
hides and skins. In 1913 some 1,130,000 hides and skins
were exported, valued at ;^ 197,200 — and this trade will
probably increase, as we shall tap an increased portion of the
trade that previously went via Kano and Chad to Tripoli.
In 1913, 5,530 tons of tin ore were exported. The value
of the palm oil and palm kernels export, which in 1907
amounted to nearly 3 millions sterling, in 1913 amounted to
nearly 5 millions ! Considerably over a quarter of a million
Nigeria 3
tons of palm kernels is exported annually from West Africa,
worth from four to five millions sterling, the bulk of which
has hitherto gone to Germany through Hamburg. We have
now an excellent opportunity of capturing a considerable
amount of that German trade.
With regard to the Coal fields at Udi, some 600 tons of
excellent coal were stacked by the end of the first half year
of 1 91 5, and it is estimated that from five to ten thousand
tons will be stacked by the time the railway arrives there very
shortly. As £s 5s. a ton was being asked for coal when I
left Nigeria three months ago, these Udi coal fields will
obviously prove of enormous local benefit.
Abeokuta, the populous chief town of the Egba country,
is reached by rail soon after leaving Lagos.
Electric light and an excellent water supply have recently
been obtained by means of the River Ogun.
New corn mills have recently been erected here, and it is
interesting to note that the first corn mills at Abeokuta were
presented by the late Prince Consort to that place so far back
as 1849.
The Egba country until recently was a largely indepen.
dent self-governed country — the British Resident acting as
friendly Adviser to the Alake and Council, and being
President of the Alake's Financial Advisory Board. Certain
modifications in the Administration have recently been
accepted by the Native ruling Authorities, which have the
effect of bringing Egbaland more directly in touch with the
British Administration.
Gbadebo, the Alake of Abeokuta (see Fig. i), an extremely
friendly and enlightened Native Ruler, visited England some
years ago and was received by King Edward. At the out-
break of war the Alake and people contributed ;^500 to the
Princess Mary Fund, and offered their services for the defence
of Lagos against the Germans.
The quarries from which the Lagos breakwater was
constructed are at Abeokuta, and an excellent granite is
obtained from them.
I laid down a cricket ground at Abeokuta in the Residency
grounds when last there, and the local Native team used to
give us a good game.
One of the best hospitals in Nigeria has been erected here
by Father Coquard, the Reverend gentleman in charge of
4 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
the Roman Catholic Missions. It proved of great service
during a recent outbreak of yellow fever. The Protestant
Missions are also strongly represented in Egbaland, and
amongst other duties are carrying on a useful educational
work.
The Olumo rock is the venerated rock of the Egba people^
So far back as 1856 it was graphically described by Miss
Tucker of the Yoruba Missions : —
''In the south-western part of the Kingdom of Yoruba,
amid hills and rocks of primitive formation, there stands
near the eastern margin of the River Ogun a huge porphy-
ritic rock called ' Olumo,' or ' the hiding place,' from the
concealment it used to afford to a band of robbers. The
summit is composed of large rounded masses of stone, and
at one spot the intervening space forms a kind of deep but
low cavern capable of giving shelter to a considerable
number of persons. It was deserted by these robbers some
short time before the year 1825, and in that year became
the refuge of a few poor people who had fled from the
merciless hands of the slave hunters and knew not where
else they could be so secure. ,
" The party who first took possession of the cavern was
soon joined by others who, like themselves, had been
driven from their homes and friends, often in want of food
and obliged to subsist on the leaves of the pepper plant,
wild roots or any animals that came within their reach.
'* The different parties settled themselves down in small,
but separate communities, each under its own laws, each
with its own Chief and Judge and war Captain, and with its
own Council House, and each giving to this new found
home the name of the town or village from which it had
been driven. To the whole they gave the name of
'Abeokuta,' or ' understone.'
'* Fresh parties continued to join them till the remnant
of 130 towns had found refuge in Abeokuta, and the spot
in which 30 years ago a robbers' cave was the only
habitation now in 1853 numbers 80,000 as its population."
From Abeokuta the next important place is Ibadan.
Ibadan has the distinction of being perhaps the most populous
town in British West Africa. The Alafin of Oyo near here
is the recognised head of Yorubaland : the Oni of Ife the-
^K^p^^y^^^H
iHiHBHEHl^BS^M^HBKj^ir^ll^^^^ ^^MMj^^^^iit.^
I-
Fig. 3. Nigeria. Harry Lauder entertains the natives on a
Gramophone.
Nigeria 5
Spiritual head. The head chief of Ibadan is called the Bale.
I happened to be at Ibadan when the then Bale died. The
Alafin of Oyo took part in the appointment of his successor. .
Important cotton producing areas are in this neighbour-
hood, the Moor plantation and ginnery being established here ;
and cotton has been grown both in the Northern and Southern
Provinces of Nigeria from time immemorial in connection
with the cotton spinning industry. During seven years prior
to 1913, the exports of cotton lint have increased from 36,000
cwt., valued at ;£'97,ooo, to 56,000 cwt., valued at ;^ 160,000.
The native looms (see Vol. xxiii, page 133) are perhaps not
quite equal yet to your Manchester looms, though doubtless
they may some day surpass them !
The effect of a Harry Lauder laughing song given on
the gramophone is seen in the reproduction of a photograph
taken at Ibadan (see Fig. 3). I have found the gramophone
most useful when visiting newer parts of the country. The
fame of the gramophone precedes you ! It is your avant
coureur. There is no need to arrange for meetings, they are
there waiting for you — or possibly for the gramophone. Its
influence is great — equal to a company of soldiers !
We next visit Kano, which has been described as the
Manchester of West Africa. Whether the description be
a correct one or not, it is I believe a fact, that Kano for
long supplied cotton goods to a considerable portion of the
Sudan. Caravans have for long traded between Tripoli and
Kano — and it is interesting to note that Tripoli Arabs living
at Kano sent a most loyal address on the outbreak of war to
the Governor-General, Sir Frederick Lugard. In fact all the
Mahomedan population, as well as our other Native Races,
scorned with contempt the German intrigues so assiduously
and unscrupulously attempted.
In addition to contributions in men and kind the Emir of
Sokoto contributed to the war funds ;^7,539, the Emir of
Kano ;^6,542, the Shehu of Bornu ;£'4,ooo, the Emir of Bida
^£"2,190, and so on, accompanied by letters of the utmost
loyalty to the British Government.
The Mahomedan community of Lagos wrote : —
" We have the honour to say that we are nearly
maddened with surprise at the unjust and ungrateful
attitude taken up by the Turkish Government against
6 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
Great Britain, who has ever been the one friend and helper
of the Turkish Government ....
" We do say solemnly, consciously and without
hesitation, that our loyalty to His Majesty King George V,.
is as firm as a rock, and that there is nothing that can
interfere with our loyalty and goodwill tow^ards the British
Crown.'*
The Port of Forcados is situated at the main mouth of the
Niger. This river, rising in the Sierra Leone hinterland and
flowing some 2,600 miles, enters the Bight of Benin at Forca-
dos. The surrounding land is low lying mangrove swamp and
considerable building up has been required in order to render
the various stations habitable. I remember years ago cutting
the first bush where the Forcados government and trading
stations now stand. There was no telegraphic cable at that
time at Forcados, and I endeavoured to secure communica-
tion with Lagos by a system of carrier pigeons. One of the
present sites at Forcados is known as " Pigeon " beach.
By our Treaty with France some years ago she is entitled
to two enclaves on the Niger for commercial purposes, the
one at Bajibo in the Northern, and the other I selected for the
Government at Forcados in the Southern Provinces.
The Ijos and Jekris are the principal Native Races around
here; the former live principally by fishing, the latter are
excellent traders. The Jekris are to be found principally in
the Warn, Benin River and Sapele districts. The Jekri chiefs
have always proven themselves loyal and industrious.
Manchester cloths are largely in demand in these parts-
for wearing apparel, and they have much improved in quality
within recent years. I remember the time when King
Edward's head and shoulders figured largely on these cloths,,
which were widely worn by the Natives. The King was
generally depicted with a bright vermilion face, gamboge
hair and impossible blue eyes ! I trust it is no disparagement
to Manchester to say that the colours toned down in the
washing.
At one time the Sobos were the principal oil producers in
these parts, the Jekris acting as middlemen between the
producer and the European firms. The Sobos having now
gained confidence bring the major portion of their palm oil
to the firms.
Some of the Creeks around Benin River and Sapele are
Nigeria 7
extremely beautiful, with deep and clear water. They are a
great centre for the mahogany trade. In the year 1913 no
fewer than 18,214 logs, valued by the Customs roughly at
;;^ 1 00,000, were shipped from near here.
Benin, called by the natives Ibini or Bini, was discovered
in 1485 by the Portuguese navigator, Joao Alfonso de Aveiro,
who on his return to Europe took back an Envoy or Ambas-
sador from the King, as a result of whose visit missionary
Fathers were sent to endeavour to Christianise the inhabitants,
but apparently with small success. They were followed by
merchants and others of their countrymen, who obtained a
strong footing in the country, many traces of which exist at
the present day. The first English adventurers visited Benin
in 1553. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, and
during a considerable part of the eighteenth, Benin was a
powerful and important kingdom, probably the most exten-
sive and powerful that ever existed in Western Africa. For
some years prior to 1897 Benin City had been closed to
Europeans, and I believe only three were able to visit it and
they saw but little of the place.
In January 1897, ^ peaceful Government Mission
endeavoured to get to Benin City with a view to stopping the
terrible cruelties which were perpetrated there and opening
the country to trade. Of the nine Europeans on the mission
seven, including my brother Major Copland-Crawford, were
massacred, together with a number of Native carriers who
were carrying up presents for Overami, the King or Oba of
Benin.
An expedition was immediately organised and left
England within five days of the receipt of the news of
the massacre. I went out with that expedition and then
had my first experience of Nigeria. The troops captured the
City but found a terrible condition of things within it. A
Report at the time states : —
'' The ghastly condition of the City overcame men who
had never flinched from fighting or privation. Benin, in
fact, was a mere charnel-house, literally reeking with human
blood. Mutilated bodies, detached heads and skulls lay
everywhere, crucified victims swung on the trees, and pits
and wells were choked with dying as well as dead. Three
Natives, who had accompanied the unfortunate expedition,
8 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
were found in a half dead condition. These poor wretches
had evidently been condemned to a lingering death of
starvation amid the decaying bodies of their comrades.'*
Benin city was captured and Overami deported to Calabar.
Here he died quite recently, and his son Agwobasimi is now
paramount Chief at Benin (see Fig. 2). This picture of
Agwobasimi I took in 1897 when he was handed over to me
by the Royal Niger Company.
Benin bronze work was evidently introduced by the
Portuguese centuries ago. (See Figs. 4 and 5.)
Six years after the massacre, having just returned from
Benin City, I am reported to have stated as follows : —
*' When on my tour of inspection through Benin City
and Territories I was much impressed by the contrast of
Benin City of to-day as compared with the Benin City of
six years ago. Then the country groaned under the most
cruel system of barbarism and oppression that the world
has probably ever known. Human sacrifices were of
common occurrence and no man's life was safe, and no
property was secure. Crucifixion was a favourite form of
human sacrifice, and the ex-King of Benin told me in 1897,
when he had just been taken prisoner, that he had always
been in the habit of sacrificing his people in the event of
rain or dry weather being required.
** Human sacrifices and fetish outrages are, of course,
to-day a thing of the past, and human life is as safe and
property is as secure in Benin City as they are in any town
in England.
** I attended Court, with the Chiefs sitting and assisting
in cases as Assessors, and found them cordially co-operating
with the British Officials in every movement conducive to
the welfare of their people. These, it must be remembered,
are the Chiefs who were ready, six years ago, to massacre
the ' White man ' rather than receive him as a friend in the
City.
** I inspected the Government schools there — schools
largely supported by the Chiefs, and was much struck by
the aptitude shown by the young native children. From
examinations I made, I consider that their work would
compare favourably with that of any children of the same
Fi<;-. 4. Nigeria- Jiroiize i'laquc made in
B^nin City.
Fi^. 5. Nigeria. Bronze Heads made in Benin Cit^-
Nigeria 9^
age in this country. The Natives appeared to me to be
contented and prosperous, and they had not the crushed
and hopeless appearance which I had noticed in earlier
years.
'' The trade in Benin City is good, and now that pro-
tection for property is assured it will probably improve,
especially if light railways are established for the transport
of produce. Excellent government buildings have been
erected with bricks made in the locality.
" On every hand there was evidence of the advantages
which had accrued from six years of British rule, and one
saw with satisfaction how order,, security and liberty had
been evolved from savagery and oppression."
I will now describe one of those trials by ordeal that used
to be so prevalent in Nigeria before British rule became firmly
established. This particular ordeal is known as the Eni ordeal
at a place called Useri, inland from Asseh on the Niger.
The ordeal was undergone in the following way : Persons
sus{>ected of witchcraft or of using poison to cause death or
disease were taken to the shore of Useri Lake during high
water and embarked in canoes holding from six to ten persons
each. They were paddled to the middle of the lake and told
to jump into the water, which they did. The lake was full of
crocodiles, and the people around the lake fired guns into the
air — a sort of lunclieon gong for the crocodiles — and the
canoes were paddled to shore. Those reaching shore after
the ordeal were deemed innocent and were decorated by the
head chief Oluwa with feathers and cloth and chalk.
As this ordeal was a fruitful source of loss of human life
I decided to stop it. I visited Useri, being the first White man
there, and had a long interview with Oluwa. He insisted it
was the Ju Ju, or the prevailing Spirits of the lake, that killed
the people, and that they only died if they were guilty of witch-
craft. Oluwa had a small son with him, and I suggested
that he should go with me to the lake and cast his son into
the water under the usual conditions, as, being innocent, he
would escape. He replied with a smile that he thought he
would rather not ! After several visits I induced Oluwa to
break the ordeal on condition I brought all the Chiefs from
surrounding countries so that they might warn their people
not to go to the ordeal. This I did, and the ordeal was finally
broken.
lo Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
I obtained a subsidy for Oluwa from the British Govern-
ment, and made him Vice-President of a Native Court estab-
lished at his town.
Oguta Lal^e, inland from the lower Niger, is a trading
station of some importance. Extremely small canoes are here
used by the natives, one of which I have presented to the
Liverpool Museum.
Disraeli once said : *' The Youth of a nation are the
trustees of posterity "; and the Government and the various
Missions are alive to educational requirements. In the
Southern Provinces of Nigeria at the close of 1913 there were
fifty-four government schools, eighty assisted schools, and
some 400 private schools, representing 52,000 scholars. Not
only are the children taught " book " education, but also
crafts and industries. At Onitsha there was an excellent
Industrial Mission school, the pupils of which largely
furnished the various government stations on the lower Niger.
The Government believe not merely in the education that
makes scholars, but also in the education that tends to the
formation of character, and tends to make useful members
of society and good and loyal subjects of the King.
I remember examining some children on Empire Day at
Calabar and the statements in two of the essays were
interesting. One child wrote that Empire Day and the
British Empire were discovered by Lord Meath, and that
prior to that time he had earned his living in cutting down
trees ! Another child in a patriotic vein wrote : " The British
Flag is the best Flag. Should anyone tread on the Flag he
must be killed '*— and by w^ay of making sure of the job
added *' likewise executed '* !
We do not contend that by education alone we can
eradicate all the pernicious habits and customs of centuries,
but we do contend that in affording education to the native
child we are giving him an opportunity of starting fair on
the battle of life, and are laying the foundation stone upon
which a more civilized and enlightened superstructure may
ultimately be raised.
Onitsha, on the left bank of the Niger, is an important
government and trading station. Some years ago I held the
first Niger Industrial Exhibition there. The exhibition was
attended by the various Native Races in large numbers, and
prizes were given for every conceivable object from calves to
Nigeria i»i
wood-carving and from turkeys to tobacco. We also held
athletic sports, the native wrestling matches proving exceed-
ingly popular. I remember when the fireworks went off
some of the natives hastily picked up their scanty belongings
and bolted homeward.
A representation of the famous Ibo devil "Agaba," of
Awka (see Fig. 6) was brought in to me at Onitsha on that
occasion, tied up to show that his power had been broken.
This Awka ordeal was a somewhat similar one to that at
Useri. The Natives charged with witchcraft and using poison
were taken down a long passage into a cave where a terrible
noise was produced by means of beating pots and pans.
The alleged evil doers were brought before the figure
"Agaba," while a man speaking into an earthen pot so
disguised his voice that it was taken to be a Divine utterance
pronouncing the fate of the victims. In the case of guilt the
victim was knocked down senseless into a pit, dragged off and
killed. The ordeal, unlike that at Useri, was performed in
private, and not infrequently those supposed to have been'
killed in the ordeal were secretly taken away and sold into,
slavery in the interior.
Native blacksmiths carry on important work at Awka and
elsewhere in the neighbourhood, and as they are great
travellers very useful information regarding other parts of
the country was in earlier days obtainable from them.
Asaba is on the right bank of the Niger nearly opposite
Onitsha. Here were the old judicial headquarters of the then
Royal Niger Company. Lignite is obtainable near Asaba,
specimens were sent to the Imperial Institute for analysis,
and the reports were favourable. It would to a large extent
have superseded tlie use of wood for river craft, but now that
good coal is obtainable from Udi, inland from Onitsha, the
lignite Avill be of little present use.
Medical Missions are well established around Asaba and
Onitsha. The political advantages derivable from medical
labours are far reaching.
I remember a Native rising in 1904 in the Asaba hinter-
land. Government Courts and Mission Stations were
destroyed and friendly Chiefs and natives killed, and troops
were required to restore order and protect the friendly and
peaceably disposed natives.
One day when we wanted to change our camp a doctor
12 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
volunteered to ride down and inspect another site. He
returned some time later and the next day we moved camp.
I was somewhat surprised to meet with no opposition and
then the reason transpired. It appeared that the bush had
been full of armed nativ^es as the doctor rode along, who were
quite prepared to fire, but one of them recognised him as the
" Medicine Man *' who some years before had successfully
• operated on their Chief for cataract. Not a shot was fired,
and the natives explained that they could not shoot one who
had, miraculously as it seemed to them, restored sight to their
Chief ! I have always considered that an interesting instance
of the political advantages to be derived from medical
agencies; and it would also appear to dissipate the very
erroneous misimpression that gratitude is a quality unknown
to the Native nature.
I have not visited Lake Chad, but several views of Lake
Chad were taken some xears ago by my late friend Captain
Boyd Alexander, a familiar name in geographical circles.
^(See Vol. xxiv, p. 145, of the Journal of the Manchester
Geographical Society.) I understand that Lake Chad is
somewhat disappointing, being shallow and to some extent
>a magnified swamp.
Calabar, on the eastern borders of Nigeria, was formerly
the old headquarters of the old Niger Coast Protectorate, and
in still earlier days of the Oil Rivers Protectorate. It adjoins
the late German Cameroons where Nigerian troops have been
successfully operating against the Germans. The Cameroon
mountains, 13,000 feet high, are clearly discernible from
Calabar.
Calabar is situated on fairly high ground, but from here
to the sea mangrove swamps abound. Above Calabar the
main stream is the Cross River, and as one proceeds up it the
land gradually rises. The hills around Oban are of con-
siderable height.
Transport on the Cross River is difficult in the dry season
(our winter season), and stern wheelers of small draught,
similar to those used on the Nile, are used. Sandbanks
largely abound. The rivers at certain seasons of the year
rise very rapidly. I have known the Aboine River, near
JVbakaliki, rise over twenty feet in as many hours.
Lead is found in the neighbourhood of Abakaliki.
Ogoja is the principal government station of the Province
Fiii. o. Nigeria. "A^aba " of Awka.
Fig. 7. Nigeria. Agara of Ute, a Minshi native Chief and
bis Wives.
Nigeria is-
up the Cross River that bears its name. It abuts upon the
Cameroons, and during the war, columns have successfully
operated against the enemy from Idah, on the Cross River,
and from Obudu and the Northern Provinces.
Since the declaration of war, German trade has been swept
from the seas, thanks in a large degree to our. magnificent
Navy. Germany has lost all her Colonies with the exception
of East Africa, and that she will presumably soon lose.
Hamburg, to which before the war so much West African
trade found its way, is now like a city of the dead, so much
so that Dr. Solf, the German Colonial Secretary of State,
when recently visiting there was quite unable to make the
dead bones live ! He spoke in regard to what would happen
when Germany regained her Colonies, an event that some
consider may be advantageously relegated to the Greek
Kalends !
I photographed Dr. Solf a few months before the war when
I met him in West Africa. I remember he was good enough
to express the hope that he might see me in Berlin, a hope
that I trust may be speedily realised. To-day Dr. Solf
occupies the somewhat trying and anomalous office of a
Colonial Secretary without Colonies.
Our Government has made it a point to try and administer
Nigeria as far as possible on Native lines, and with a due
regard to the sentiment and traditions of the people. With
this object we have established what we call " Native Courts.'*
Upon these Courts native Chiefs sit, representing the various
localities within the jurisdiction of the court. The Govern-
ment officer assists with his advice when required.
The benefits derived from this system of courts are
reciprocal. On the one hand, the chiefs and people become
familiar with our views upon what we know as justice and
fair play between litigants; on the other hand, the Govern-
ment officer has the inestimable advantage of becoming
acquainted with native law and custom as existing in the
various localities.
It is the Government object to try and rule the country
through the medium of the Chiefs, and to make them realise
as far as possible that the advent of Government does not
mean the weakening of the authority of the Chief over his
14 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
people, but rather the strengthening and consolidation of his
influence. One cannot rule primitive Races on purely British
legal lines. Great allowance must be made for local native
sentiment and tradition.
I remember trying a case years ago, inland from the Niger.
where the '* White man's " views were unknown. Nine men
had killed their mothers with a poison, known as the
'' Sasswood " poison, which was derived from the bark of a
tree, pounded up and administered in water.
There had been a smallpox epidemic in the locality, and
the mothers feared that if all their sons died off there would
be no one left to administer to them the last rites and
ceremonies according to native custom. The mothers
obtained the poison and insisted on the sons administering it.
This they did, with the result that the mothers died.
A hideous crime according to the purely British aspect !
A filial duty from the native point of view !
I remember a hostile demonstration on the part of the
natives who were averse to my taking the offenders away.
I settled the trouble by kicking a football amongst them upon
which they bolted into the bush, but returning shortly they
enjoyed a game of football, several hundreds taking part,
though not under Cup tie regulations !
After the football I took the men away. They were duly
tried, found guilty of murder, sentenced — and reprieved. To
have carried out the death sentence demanded by English
law would have been in itself a crime, for the offenders knew
no better.
I took those men back to their country and was met by a
great crowd of women waving boughs of trees who escorted
me into the village. I, of course, explained that poisoning
mothers must cease; but I cite this case to show the futility
of trying to prematurely govern primitive native Races
according to the strict letter of English law and English
sentiment; and one of the great advantages of these Native
Courts is that one acquires an insight into native law and
custom.
The Munshi people are a fine race to the east and north
of Nigeria. The men have a special weakness for a fight;
and the women for beads (see Fig. 7). The Munshis fight
largely with poisoned arrows, the poison being obtained from
the Strephanthus plant and other sources. The Munshis are
Nigeria 15
industrious and good agriculturists, and now that Government
can insure protection for life and property they are beginning
to trade.
I shall be glad if anything I may have said or shown
this evening may induce my audience to view with a
sympathetic eye Nigerian affairs.
The task that lies before us in that country is a responsible
and interesting one. To open up and develop the country
in the interests of humanity and to the advantage of every
class of the community, European and Native alike. To weld
these various Races into one united whole, loyal, prosperous,
-and contented under British rule ; and upon the firm and sure
foundations of justice and liberty, to build up an Empire
worthy of a great Imperial Race.
i6 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
VENEZUELA.
By F. G. Percival, B.Sc, F.G.S.
(Addressed to the Society in the Geographical Hall or^
Tuesday, October 19th, 191 5.)
Venezuela is assuredly a land with a future, — but how far
ahead that future is one hesitates to guess. The rapidity with
which other South American republics have developed may
be equalled by that of Venezuela when she gets thoroughly in
touch commercially with more stable states. At present the
country is badly handicapped by its lack of communications,
and by its somewhat turbulent history, but there are signs
already that this unstable phase is nearing its end.
The railways are few in number, and the difficulties in
their construction are very great. The coast range that inter-
venes between Caracas and the sea makes the journey by the
La Guaira to Caracas railway extremely interesting, and at
times, perhaps thrilling to the stranger, but it reduces the
possible load per train tremendously, and increases the cost of
carriage proportionately. The route from Caracas by Valencia
to Puerto Cabello is similarly striking — at one point the
incline is so steep as to necessitate a rack-rail.
The roads, away from the larger towns, are the merest
tracks, and the smaller rivers, liable to sudden floods, are not
much used. To go a journey of any distance it is usually
most convenient to go to the coast and take a vessel. Strings
of donkeys carry much of the traffic.
The writer was a member of a party that traversed some
of the lesser known parts of Venezuela in 19 10. La Guaira,
where the visitor usually makes his first acquaintance of the
country, is the port of Caracas, and is built on a steep- hill-
side, facing the sea. It has a wide reputation for its heat, yet
Macuto, a few miles east along the coast, has cooling breezes
that make it the Brighton of Venezuela. There is a break in
the hills behind Macuto which probably explains the difference
between its temperature and that of La Guaira. Caracas, the
capital, has a pleasant cooler climate owing to its altitude,,
Venezuela 17
and is much like a southern European city. It has rather
narrow streets, in which its electric trams look rather
dangerous, but the lowness of most of the houses makes the
narrowness of the streets less noticeable.
It is not till one gets well away from the capital, however,
that one realises how undeveloped the country really is. The
smaller towns and villages are built of single-storied houses,
often with mud-plastered walls, and thatched with palm leaves.
As one rides through such a small town one may hear the
droning of many voices in unison, and see the schoolmistress
sitting at the door of the room that serves as a school, rocking
her child to sleep while the class reads. The three R's are
taught, with needlework in addition for the girls. The
Government was awake, however, to the necessity for a more
systematised scheme of education and improvements were
promised. Caracas has a university, but the facilities else-
where are not very great.
The people, whether of pure Spanish or mixed descent,
have a natural courtesy and hospitality that is charming, and
place their best at the disposal of the traveller, though as they
often live in a very happy-go-lucky manner, one must be
prepared to live at times on a rough monotonous diet,
sweetened mainly by the cordiality with which it is offered. In
many places wheaten bread is not obtainable. Maize cakes, —
often very coarsely ground and insipid, — are used instead, or
sometimes only millet-seed cakes are available, with fowl,
goat-flesh or pork. The coffee is always excellent. Cocoa is
grown, but is rarely drunk in the villages, and milk is often
difficult to obtain. Where goat farming is carried on, as in*
the district round Coro, delicious goat-milk and cheese can be
had. On the sugar farms one may have the inevitable fowl,
with yams, boiled bananas (the unsweet varieties), and thin
sheets of dry cassava cake, with crude brown candied sugar
C' papelon ") as a sweet. Fruits can be grown with little
trouble, but only in a few rare oases can one be so fortunate as.
to get such dainties. Life is easy and comfortable in the-
villages for those whose tastes are simple. The exertion of
planting fruits is not thought worth while. For a similar
reason one may find it difficult to get labour. The men are
extremely independent, and proud of their Republic and their
freedom. If they feel inclined to work they will do so for
fairly low wages, but if they don't want to work no reasonable
i8 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
offer will tempt them. Why should it? They have no fear
of starvation. Old age does not mean the workhouse. Would
they be any happier with a system Hke ours?
But as a result the country is undeveloped. They are
waiting for foreign capital to come and organise things,
bringing the mixed blessings of modern industrialism, in
order to get their stores of copper and petroleum. Their other
minerals will be exploited in turn. Their animal and
vegetable products, — cattle, goatskins, sugar, coffee, cocoa,
and tobacco will become more and more important, but the
country is waiting and depending too much upon foreign
capital. British companies are dealing with their cattle and
petroleum, amongst other things, but during the next few
years European capital will be needed in Europe. It is
to Venezuela's interest to encourage her people to develop the
national resources themselves without waiting for foreign
capitalists to take the initiative.
Geographical Features and War at Sea 19
THE EFFECT OF GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES ON
TFIE WAR AT SEA.
By T. Whyman.
^Secretary of the Port of Manchester Branch of the Navy
League.)
•(Addressed to the Society in the Geographical Hall on
Tuesday, November 2nd, 191 5.)
War, both on sea and land, is an art and not a science ; its
rules are not invariable rules, and its definitions have not the
same precision as a mathematical formula. With the
endeavour, as far as possible, to avoid technical terms, there
^re two that cannot be avoided, and so must be defined. The
first is " Command of the Sea." Where one nation is capable
as a general thing of using the sea passages for transit, and at
the same time of denying them to an enemy, that nation
possesses " Command of the Sea." That command may be
absolute, as in the present case of the Pacific, where the enemy
has not afloat a single war ship ; or it may be conditional, as
in the North Sea, where the enemy has a fleet capable of
interfering if it chooses to attempt to do so.
The other phrase is '' Fleet in Being." Where the
enemy's fleet is still intact it exercises influence on the war
in three ways, even although it may never leave port. First,
it compels our fleet to keep watch over it in superior force,
because, since the enemy can choose his own moment for
attack, and at that moment some of our ships might be away
coaling, it is necessary to have at least five ships to watch
four. Secondly, this watch exposes us to various risks and a
certain degree of toil, hardship and expense. Thirdly, as long
as the German Fleet remains undefeated we can not send
our Fleet into the Baltic and leave it behind us unguarded.
Having thus cleared the ground the war at sea can be
considered as a whole. The problems before the Admiralty
are the same in this war as in every sea war, right back to the
time when Rome and Carthage were fighting for the mastery
of the Mediterranean. The old rule still holds good, that the
.essential thing is to seek out the enemy's fleet and destroy it.
The various objects for which a navy exists ; to protect our
20 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
own trade overseas ; to prevent that of the enemy ; to prevent
him invading us, and to invade him if necessary; all these are
secured at once (and can only be secured) by either destroying-
the enemy's fleet, or by preventing it from putting to sea.
England has been greatly helped in this war by her
position, lying straight across the routes by which Germany
might seek access to the open sea. From Dover we control
the narrow straits; the North Sea is just large enough to be
convenient, and just small enough to be well in touch in every
part, with the Admiralty at Whitehall. We owe a great debt
of gratitude to Signor Marconi for his invention of wireless,
and its invaluable assistance to us in our watch.
We are all in the habit of speaking of ports controlling
sea passages, but, as a matter of fact, a fortified port without
warships in it is very much like a railway station without any
trains, and controls nothing except the area under the
immediate range of its own guns. We have had an illustra-
tion of this in the case of Tsing-Tau which the Germans
boasted before the war ''controlled the Yellow Sea." We
saw when war broke out how this fortified port was besieged
and taken at leisure, as all fortified ports have been taken when
command of the sea is lost, by an attack from the landward
side.
The only campaign in this war that has spread at all
spaciously has been the hunt for Admiral Von Spee in the
Pacific. It had probably been Von Spec's intention to pick
up the hundred thousand German reservists at Buenos Ayres
and bring them across the Atlantic to assist the defence of
German South West Africa ; and so we see that the conquest
of Bothaland was made possible by a victory won off the
coast of South America.
Allied with and helping to complicate this campaign has
been the hunt for the Emden. War against our trade at sea
has been tried many times, and has always failed. It was
always defeated by the same method. The commerce
destroyer at sea must get supplies from somewhere, and the
best method to defeat him is to stop his supplies. In this
way, as source after source of supply was stopped, the Emden
was driven to try to break the net that the wireless telegraph
was weaving round her, and was caught and destroyed in the
act.
All- the other campaigns have been more local and more
Geographical Features and War at Sea 21
affected by local conditions. Without saying much about the
Dardanelles it may be noted that although the results so far
have been below our expectations, yet they have drawn a
German army into an adventure among the Balkan mountains
at a time when Germany needs every man on her Eastern and
Western Fronts.
In the Adriatic, Italy has a particularly weak spot in the
fact that her main line of railway runs along the coast. On
the 23rd May, the opening day of the war with Italy, the
Austrian Fleet raided this railway and succeeded in breaking
it in several places. It was a brilliant operation, all carried
out in two hours; but the Austrians have not been able to
repeat it.
In the Eastern Mediterranean the escape of the Goeben
in August, 1914, was the beginning of many sorrows for us
in Lancashire, but there was a reason and a compensation.
The position taken by our Fleet was chosen to intercept her
if she endeavoured to interfere with transport operations,
between Algiers and Marseilles. The 19th French Army
Corps was in line in the North of France on that disastrous
day when Namur fell, and if it had not been there Verdun
would certainly have fallen and probably Paris. The Goeben
at Constantinople was a very small set-off against the 19th
Army Corps safe in France.
During eight months of the submarine war against our
commerce, and with a total of thirty-one thousand, three
hundred and eighty-five entries and departures of ships from
our ports, of that number we have lost 98. The price Ger-
many has paid for that certainly not magnificent result has
been great in boats, and still greater in her trained men, the
loss of whom she must sorely feel in the future.
But behind all the other activities of the other ships of the
Fleet is the Battle Fleet ready for action ; although none of its
ships has yet fired a gun in anger, it is the knowledge that
they are there and ready that keeps the Germans in port.
There have been some raids, and the raiders have been
severely punished. There may be raids in the future, but
raiding will be as risky as going into a lion's cage on a foggy
day and hoping to escape notice.
In the Baltic, where the German trade with Sweden is
being dealt with by our submarines, we are showing Von
Tirpitz that a war against commerce can be carried on both
22 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
humanely and efficiently ; our submarines have sunk 20 ships
within ten days, and the Germans are learning that the new
. departure in warfare that they had invented is a sword with
two edges. In the Baltic we have a very good example of
disputed command. The Russian cruiser squadron is being
most ably handled, and the German losses in this type of ship
have been so heavy that they are forced either to risk their
big battle ships for work for which they are unsuitable, or to
let the Russians do as they please in the Baltic.
Finally, the North German coast is defended not so much
by the forts of Heligoland, as by its shoals and sandbanks.
In the Kiel Canal the German navy is lying in wait, and some
day we believe that it will come out. That fleet has been
built on Borrowed money at a cost of ;^300,ooo,ooo, and the
Prussian mind, nothing if not commercial, will want a
dividend on that investment. As the public feels the pressure
of our sea power more and more, a clamour is sure to arise
for the fleet to go out and do something. There have been
signs already of the influence at work. It has happened, over
and over again, in the course of history. Sooner or later the
insistent demand that they shall see something for their
money will send the German Fleet out to fight.
We must be under no delusion about one thing. When
they come they will come to do everything that science and
cunning and a diabolical hatred can suggest, and they
will be hampered by no considerations of humanity or fair
play. We must be prepared to face heavy losses in ships and
lives, but we can look forward to the result with confidence.
Including with the German fleet every ship they had that
was not actually known to be destroyed, and only reckoning
with our Fleet, the ships actually present in the North Sea,
we have 49 ships to 40, 442 guns to 282 and 480,000 lbs,
weight of broadside fire against 230,000.
With regard to the men, for without the men the best ship
or the biggest gun is merely useless metal, the men are all
that we expect of the British Navy, and have never been
better since King Alfred commissioned our first Fleet. The
officers are worthy of the men they lead ; their leader is by
universal consent the finest tactitian that has ever handled a
steam fleet at sea ; and we can look forward with confidence
when the great day comes, to him justifying at the Germans*
expense the name the lower deck has admiringly given him of
**HellfireJack."
Explorations in the Japanese Alps 23
RECENT EXPLORATIONS IN THE JAPANESE
ALPS.*
By Rev. Walter Weston, M.A., F.R.G.S.
(Addressed to the Society in the Houldsworth Hall on
Tuesday, November 9th, 191 5.)
I HAVE already had the honour, on two previous occasions, of
reading papers before this Society on exploration in the
Japanese Alps. My first subject, in 1896, was that of
mountaineering in the northern ranges; in 1906 I dealt with
travel in the southern. To-night I ask you to come back with
me once more to the wild and unfamiliar regions of the
northern Japanese Alps. If, therefore, for the sake of clear-
ness, I have to repeat what I have already said on certain
points, I am sure I shall be forgiven.
''The Japanese Alps" is the title I ventured to annex
twenty years ago for the great mountain mass which stretches
across the mainland of Japan at its widest span, lying
approximately between 35° — 37° N. and 137° — 139° E. Its
central portion is practically on the same latitude as the Sierra
Nevada, in Southern Spain. Tokyo, the capital of Japan,
from close to which some of the southern peaks are visible,
is on almost the same latitude as Gibraltar.
Into the geological features of the main range I need not
now enter, as I have already referred to them in previous
papers. But in passing I may again remind you that it is
mainly an immense backbone of granite, through which at
various times mighty volcanic upheavals have thrust them-
selves; it is partly to this combination, together with the
peculiar and marked climatic conditions of Central Japan,
that we owe the varied peaks that rise from deep-cut romantic
valleys, with their magnificent forest-clad flanks and wild,
torrent-dinned ravines, the chief charms of the Japanese
Alpine world.
* We are indebted to the Royal Geographical Society for permis-
sion to print this paper with the map and the four ilhistrations.
24 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
The principal mountain expeditions on which I will now
ask you to accompany me, I will take in geographical order,
beginning with the most northerly : O Renge — '' The Great
Lotus Peak,** about 120 miles north-west of Tokyo, and 30
miles south of Itoigawa, on the Sea of Japan, where the main
granite axis of the range rises in bold tree-topped cliffs
abruptly from the shore known as Oya Shiradzu. Strictly
speaking, O Renge is the name given to the cluster of summits
(supposed to resemble the petals of a lotus flower) as seen by
the people of the province of Etchu on the north ; while the
inhabitants of the great province of Shinshu on the south
know the highest peak itself as Shirouma-dake or Hakuba
San. Both these names mean " The White Horse Peak,**
though the one is the Japanese and the other the Chinese
reading of the same characters.
A good many years ago I explored the mountain by the
northern route, only knowing it then as 0 Renge. I well
remember the kind and unremitting attentions of a friendly
little policeman, whom I met on my way from the coast; he
forthwith took me in charge and never left me, night or day,
for the whole week of the expedition. He wore a white drill
suit, white cotton gloves many sizes too large, and carried his
great two-handed sword even to the mountain-top. In our
little shelter-shed at the bath house of the Renge Onsen (5000
feet up the north flank of O Renge) he made his bed on the
bare board floor, but when my hammock gave way above, and
I landed on him somewhat heavily as he lay snoring peacefully
below, his only reference to the midnight interruption was a
polite apology, O jama wo itashimashita, i.e., *' I am so sorry
to have been in your honourable way." The Japanese
Government subsequently began to issue (not necessarily, I
hope, as a result of this experience) a series of police instruc-
tions for the public in country places and elsewhere, to guide
them in their intercourse with the foreigner. Some of their
precepts are worthy of mention : —
'' No criticism should be made, either by gesture or words,
regarding the language, action, or attire of foreigners.**
" Foreigners are most sensitive regarding cruelty to
animals, therefore special attention should be given to this
matter.**
" It should be remembered that ladies will not take off
their hats** (there are no such things as matinee hats in
Fig. 1. Japan. vSnow Ravine on East of Shiro-uma-dake.
Explorations in the Japanese Alps
25
Japan) '' even in public places, and that it is the usual custom
for a man and wife to walk the streets hand in hand."
*' When a foreigner pulls out his watch and looks at it,
you should think that he has business elsewhere, and that it
is time for you to leave.'*
''It is a mistake to suppose that foreigners will always
respond to an application for a loan of money."
From the highest point of O Renge, which I climbed from
the north, my policeman friend and I looked down a steep
rock-face falling sheer to a wild ravine filled with slopes of
dazzling snow. Later on I learned it was possible to reach
this ravine from the east, and it was to this task that Mrs.
Weston and I applied ourselves at the end of our summer
holiday in 1913. Our natural starting-point was Karuizawa,
a popular '* hill station " near the foot of the famous volcano
of Asama yama, on the railway that runs from Tokyo across
Japan to Naoetsu on the Japan Sea.
Near the station of Komoro, on the right bank of the
Chikumagawa, the Buddhist temple of Shakusonji juts out
from the face of a great cliff (like the musharabiyeh, the carved
bow window, of some Egyptian palace) : at its foot a lovely
lotus pond was blooming in all its glory of pink and white.
The train pierces and worms its way through and over a
mountain barrier for six hours westwards, to the wide long
plain of Matsumoto, and we were finally set down at the way-
side station of Akashina. Here a sign-post on the platform
tells us that this is the most convenient way of approach to
the eastern outskirts of the northern Japanese Alps now rising
before us. A handsome new inn now offers excellent accom-
modation, and the garden in early summer is a charming spot.
From Akashina a native country 'bus, known as a hasha, plies
along the length of the plain northwards for a dozen miles to
the finely placed little town of Omachi, between low hills on
the right and the dark snow-seamed folds of the outliers of the
main chain on the left.
This hasha is a vehicle deserving of passing notice. It is
li sort of cross between a hearse and an ambulance waggon,
and the emotions it inspires, on a typical Japanese country
road, are quite appropriate to either. Its speed, under favour-
able conditions, averages 3 to 4 miles per hour, and its
employment, in those circumstances, always proved one of the
fond delusions to which one at times so unaccountably clings.
26 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
I must confess that a hasha usually needs a good deal of
clinging to, for an average day's outing in its creaking and
gyrating frame offers one of the most strenuous forms of
exercise in which a person of robust frame and unimpaired
nerves is, if unmarried, justified in indulging. In some
districts the hasha^ however, is now being driven off the road
by ''European style" landaus and victorias, themselves
superseded in Tokyo streets by automobiles.
Near Omachi, one of the big boys' schools was holding
the function known as " Commencement exercises," so called
apparently, because they always take place at the e^id of the
summer term. The Japanese are not a warlike people, though
so intensely patriotic; but the Japanese boy is familiarized
with the idea of universal military service from childhood,
;and he is taught that his greatest glory consists not so much
in fighting for his country, as in dying for it. For it is deaths
in battle that will bring prestige, not to his own name merely,
but, what is much more, to that of his family, and it is still
the family, and not the individual, that is the unit of social
life at the present day. Nevertheless, the increase of railway
and steamship communications, of emigration, etc., by
scattering the individual members, is slowly loosening the old
family ties. The subject is a fascinating one, and the facts
are bound to have far-reaching effects in the future.
Near the town of Omachi the upland plain widens for a
while and here horse and man are baited at a good inn, the
Taisan-kwan (literally, ''Grand Hotel des Alpes "). A tall
post at the main entrance tells us that this is " the chief
climbing centre for the Japanese Alps." Omachi will-
probably one day become a Chamonix or a Grindelwald, and
may then doubtless be fitly described somewhat as is another
Japanese mountain town, of which I once saw an ingenuous
railway advertisement declaring that "the principal occupation-
of its inhabitants is to feed peacefully upon tourists!"
Down the Inroad streets of Omachi run sparkling streams ;
the broad low house-roofs, with paper windows in the chim-
neys, like many in these Alpine regions, have their shingling
weighted with boulders from the neighbouring river-bed.
Beyond them, westwards, the snowy peaks of the O Renge or
Shirouma range rise boldly. Over these the Harinoki-toge,
the finest pass in Japan, and the only one for 50 miles, leads
across towards the city of Toyama, near the Sea of Japan,
Photo by O. M. Poole.
Fig. 2. Japan. Yari-ga-take, from the EavSt.
Explorations in the Japanese Alps 27
As the hills draw closer on either hand the plain contracts
and the road climbs up, passes two lovely lakes, Kizaki and
Aoki, and at length reaches Yotsuya, a small village sur-
rounded by mulberry plantations in a broad plain traversed
by the waters of the Matsukawa. It was the silkworm season,
and during the whole night long the landlord and his family
were kept busy feeding the O ko sama {'* the honourable little
gentleman," as the precious worm is entitled). The noise of
the nibbling myriads, on their bamboo trays, arranged in tiers
in every available space outside our room, was exactly the
noise of the scratching of pens in a university examination
room. The only interruption to their operations that night
was the louder but momentary uproar caused by an alarm of
thieves, and the crashing of doors and windows as a burglar
made his escape after a futile attempt to appropriate some of
our baggage left in a ground-floor room.
Our actual start for Shirouma was delayed by the late
arrival of our coolies. They had been busy celebrating, with
sake and song, the festival of the Ni-hyaku-toka, ''the 210th
day." This is regarded as the most critical of the whole year
for the rice harvest, and the gods are then supplicated for good
weather. It is a sort of Japanese St. Swithin*s Day, and, if
fine, is expected to betoken a favourable season for the forth-
coming harvest.
The route to Shirouma leads due west, crossing the wide
swift current of the Matsukawa, and mounting along the right
bank of the main stream through a dense forest-clad valley,
till we reach the tongue of the great snow ravine by which the
final ridge of Shirouma is attained. This was the ravine on
which years before I had looked down from the top of Orenge.
On the left bank of the snow-slope we found the little shelter
under a wedge of rock which is now used by the hunters of
the district. This bivouac lies 5000 feet above the sea," and'
from it the following day we made the ascent, leaving a coolie
behind to guard our provisions against possible bears and
other roaming beasts in search of food. Each of our men
carried a primitive kind of ice-axe and a pair of the native
.cramp on s known as kana-kanjiki.
The actual ascent, including halts, took about five hours.
We rose the first 2,500 feet of altitude up the snowy ravine,
whose surface is here and there seamed by crevasses, some-
times lateral but usually transverse. Near the head of the
Z28 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
ravine, on the left, rises the triangular top of Shakushi-dake,
and on the rocky slopes above the snow bloom Alpine flowers
of every hue and kind. It is probably the richest spot in the
whole of Japan for the variety and abundance of its Alpine
flora. The rocks of the ravine itself are supposed to show
traces of glacial action, but in my two ascents of the mountain
I saw very little to justify the attempts that were made some
years ago to give proofs of such a phenomenon. Above the
flowery slopes we mounted to a saddle on the main arete and
gained the top of Shirouma northwards, over broken rocks
thinly carpeted here and there with low-growing goyo no
matsu, a kind of creeping pine. The height of the peak is
nearly 9,700 feet, and the prospect it commands is one of the
most extensive in the whole of the Empire. For this reason
it enjoys, with Hodaka, of which I shall presently speak, the
distinction of the formal title of Itto or *' first class " bellevue.
These two, however, are not the only peaks dignified with
.an official title to fame. As far back as a thousand years ago
the Japanese authorities, probably alarmed by the violent
-behaviour of a certain active volcano in Southern Japan —
which I ascended and described some twenty years ago —
bestowed upon it the order of the '' Junior branch of the 4th
rank," which is very much like awarding to Vesuvius the
Italian equivalent of a D.S.O. But whether this was to keep
Jiim quiet or actually to commend his behaviour under fire is
not actually recorded.
Our next expedition of importance was the exploration of
a fine mountain lying 30 miles due south of Shirouma, which
rejoices in the title of Otenjo-dake, '' The peak of highest
heaven.*' Our natural starting-point was once more Akashina,
in the Matsumoto plain, which we traversed for 8 miles west-
wards in jinrikisha and on foot to the mouth of the Nakabusa
valley, which, as yet, no foreign traveller had ever penetrated.
At the hamlet of Miyashiro stood a Shinto shrine dedicated
to the god Hodaka-yama. This divinity is said to reign over
wind and storm, and in times of drought is approached with
propitiatory rites known as amagoi, " intercessions for rain."
Fires are lighted and guns discharged to compel her attention
;and induce her to quench the desecrating flames with the
needed showers. The only available accommodation was at
the house of the chief priest. Though he had never before
seen a foreign visitor he received us kindly and gave us a
Explorations in the Japanese Alps 29*
charming- room overlooking a pretty garden. Half hidden in
the azalea bushes and irises, the waters of a noisy cascade fell
into a little pool with ceaseless roar. A chance remark on
this, as offering a somewhat violent lullaby, produced
unexpected results. During the midnight hours the noise
suddenly ceased, and we awoke to see dark forms moving ta
and fro across the garden. Our host had turned out of bed
to divert the water into a remoter channel to ensure our repose !
Our actual starting-point for Otenjo- was the onsen of
Nakabusa, which lies, as do the majority of these Japanese
Alpine hot springs, at an altitude of 5,000 feet. The situation
of some of them is most picturesque. This one is approached
by a valley of surpassing and romantic beauty. A well-made
track, here and there supported on struts of timber on the side
of granite crags, winds in and out through dense vegetation,,
with the flashing green waters of the torrent of the Yu-gawa
often 500 feet sheer below us. Above tower the extraordinarily
steep cliffs of Otenjo on the right bank, or of Ariake-San on
the left, 5,000 to 7,000 feet.
On a second visit to this "enchanted valle}^ " we found
that as a result of our praises of its beauty, the worthy land-
lord of the onsen had been inspired to put up signboards at
suitable spots for the benefit of future prospective European
visitors, to draw attention to the views, e.g,, *' Byobu magari..
From here it is 5 miles to Nakabusa ; far and away up in the
sky can be seen the peaks of the Japanese Alps.'* Nakabusa
itself stands at the end of the valley in a cul-de-sac about 20
miles from Akashina, and almost completely shut in by dark
wooded heights. Except by the way we have come no exit is
possible but over precipitous ridges 7,000 or 9,000 feet in
height. During our stay we explored all the principal peaks
that rise above Nakabusa, but on the details of these, though
wholly new to foreign travel, I have not now time to dwell.
The waters of the onsen abound in sulphur and carbonic
acid gas and leave the source at a temperature of 200° Fahr.
The water is wholesome both for internal and external use.
Excellent quarters had been hurried to completion in
honour of our visit, and the good proprietor also pointed out
with pride one special spring of whose radio-activity a
Government analyst had assured him, arousing hopes of
unbounded usefulness and wealth.
The accommodation for the public is varied. We ourselves-
30 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
were given an excellent room, and during our stay a special
.bath was set aside for our use with the open-work lattice
'Carefully papered to keep out prying eyes. The precaution
was not unneeded. In the public baths the customs were
xiifferent. The division of string or bamboo often stretched
across the bath tanks, as a concession to foreign feelings in
the larger towns, with the legend, *' This side for ladies, that
for gentlemen," was not here to be found. The only annoy-
ance we suffered was afforded by certain specimens of the
student class — whose rowdiness made night hideous to all
within earshot, and whose rudeness to a foreign lady in such
surroundings is sometimes one of the most unpleasant
incidents of travel off the beaten tracks.
From Nakabusa with our mountain coolies we climbed for
four hours up precipitous forest-clad slopes to the crest of the
granite ridge at 9,000 feet, that runs parallel to and on the east
of the main chain of which the sharp arrowhead of Yarigatake
is the culminating point. As far as the eye could reach
stretched a confused sea of mountain ridges, from 8,000 to
nearly 10,500 feet, wave after wave, with densely tree-clothed
flanks. Their crests here and there rose bare and gaunt
-excepting where the low branches of the creeping pine spread
a thick cushion, often thick and close enough to walk over
without great difficulty. The slope is barer and more gentle
on the west ; that on the east is extraordinarily steep.
The ascent of Otenjo involved a series of ups and downs
along the ridge for over four hours, and the final peak rose
abruptly from a wild and shattered gap from which a great
landslide had fallen at no distant date. The highest point is
of granitic gneiss, nearly 9,700 feet, and we bivouacked for
the night in a hole burrowed out on the south arete about
1,000 feet below the actual crest.
From here we made a descent to Kamikochi, a splendid
expedition of about ten hours. The prospect as we started at
dawn revealed on the west the magnificent ramparts of the
Yarigatake-Hodaka ridge running north and south, while
beyond the shoulder of the pyramid of Jonen-dake, one of my
earliest climbs, the graceful cone of Fuji suddenly appeared
nearly 100 miles away; on the north the Sea of Japan lay
shimmering in the sunlight 50 miles distant.
The descent leads southward along the ridge and then
abruptly drops down its western flank by slippery watercourses
■4->
bo.
^
bfl
Explorations in the Japanese Alps 31
-and the broken granite boulders of the torrent beds. In the
Ninomata, one of the two main sources of the Adzusagawa, a
great landslide scars the red granite cliffs and has dammed
the green waters into a lovely emerald lake whose still surface
mirrors every single bush and tree with crystal clearness.
High up, on the left, as we climbed over and among the
mighty boulders of the torrent bed or forced our way through
the dense vegetation, the dark sides of Cho-ga-dake rose
forbiddingly. On this '' Butterfly peak *' some time ago our
iiunter coolies found the body of an outlaw whose native
villagers had expelled him from their midst for his persistently
Avicked deeds. In some of those far-off hamlets some form of
mutual discipline is often needed to enforce order for the
common good; and, as in this case, it was usual for incorri-
gible evil-doers when their crimes became unbearable to be
presented with their birth certificate, to see their name erased
from the village roll, and themselves driven from the commune
never to return.
Few things are more interesting and curious than the
traditions of ancient custom and internal administration in
some of the remoter hamlets of Alpine Japan. One I have
seen where the heads of households are all women ; it is called
Onna taka, " The Woman's Hill." It is stated that should
a mere man outsider venture to marry therein, his days are
fated to be few and full of bitterness and woe. The rule there
is one of a heavy hand as well as of a sharp tongue. Some-
times a village is famous or notorious as Kaka-denka, i.e.,
literally, " a woman's throne." It usually indicates a mascu-
line spirit housed in a feminine form. The most notable
example of this I have met with happens to be a village where
the good wife of the excellent inn is the most charming
Japanese lady I know. She told Mrs. Weston and myself,
however, in a moment of confidence, that she was regarded by
the rest of her family as in every sense their enfant terrible, or,
as she herself put it, a " regular devil.'*
The fact is that, for obvious reasons, the woman, who in
remoter Japan bears her full share of life's burdens, plays, in
some ways, a more important or at least more active part in
household affairs. It is somewhat singular that such a people
can apply to her tlie engaging titles by which a Japanese
husband usually denotes his spouse when speaking of her to
others in formal intercourse; he employs terms such as
32 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
(literally interpreted) " my stupid wife," or " the thing which
lives in the hack part of the house/'
The Ninomata joins the main stream of the Adzusagawa
some 4 or 5 miles south-east of the foot of Yarigatake, and our
crossing of Otenjo was successfully accomplished as we
followed its great bend round the broad base of Hodaka, past
the foot of the Tokugo-toge, finally pulling up at the familiar
onsen of Kamikochi, now the most famous and frequented of
all the resting-places of those travellers who come to pay in
yearly growing numbers their homage at the shrine of the
divinities of Yarigatake, Hodaka Yama, or their attendant
satellites.
Kamikochi lies near the foot of the great granite ramparts
and spires of Hodaka-yama, 5,000 feet above the sea. During
the course of many visits since first I traversed the region
twenty years ago its fascination has grown, and with Mrs.
Weston or alone I have explored all the peaks and valleys for
which it is the natural starting-point. Of these expeditions I
have chosen as the most deserving of your notice the ascent
of the highest of the Hodaka group, which I first made, alone,
in the summer of 191 2, in storm, and repeated in sunshine in
the following year, with Mrs. Weston as my companion.
Our leader, on nearly every occasion, was the famous old
bear-hunter, Kamonji Kamijo, with whom I have made most
of my climbs in this romantic region. Kamonji is a remark-
able character, and though at times his aspect is that of a
good-natured and intelligent gorilla, his behaviour is always
that of a man ; those who have ever heard his weird laughter
and observed his simian agility, even at sixty-three, upon a
mountain-side, will never forget his quaint personalit)^ He
occupies a little hut at the base of Hodaka, where in summer
he fishes for trout in the dark meres hard by, or matures his
plans for stalking the bear and chamois that engage his winter
activities.
Our start was an early one, for the ascent is long and
strenuous. A clear crescent moon with upturned horns was
sailing across the gateway of the hills, purple shadows filled
the valley and grey mists rose from the bed of the Adzusa-
gawa, while above the tops of the tall pines white bands of
cloud hung motionless. Heavy dew fell in showers from
every leaf as we pushed through the rank vegetation, and we
I* A C T J^' 1 C O C K AN
THE NORTHER!^ JARMMESE AL,PS
to illustrate a papei^ by the Rev. Walter ^Veston.
lt.-IT...l„.....l 1.,. ,,..,
THE GEOGRAPHICAL JQURmai
SraL- , 1: 000,000 oi! 1 Inch = «J • 4-7 StrU^itc MUo« .
5 O 1<»
I I I I I I I ■ -— ■
AiUhor's RouuLe^ - - , RxuU^vays
^>
1
m
Explorations in the Japanese Alps 33
were soon so soaked that the fording of the streams on our
way to the foot of the mountain failed to make us wetter.
At a height of 6,500 feet we found quantities of luscious
black currants growing wild in the forest, and as we emerged
from this our course lay for some distance up the Shirasawa,
a ravine filled with broken boulders hurled down in confusion
from the surrounding cliffs. The ascent of this river of rock
was tedious enough until we found we were not making it
alone — for, only 300 yards ahead, we suddenly espied the
unwieldly form of a magnificent black bear lurching along
towards the cliffs on our right. Above the rocks came a long
slope of hummocky wind-blown snow, with here and there a
moulin in full work; and this at length ended in a huge
bergschrund fully 50 feet deep at the foot of the rock-face up
which our further way must lie. The climbing was of a high
order of interest and exceedingly strenuous, till at length we
reached the upper part of the granite wall from which the
summit rises. Here it eased off a little, and the top, 10,200;
feet, was reached without further difficulty.
The main mass of Hodaka is a gigantic horseshoe of
granite cliffs, and it is the central point that forms its apex.
Even up to the very top Alpine flowers abound — soldanellas,
white anemones, gentians of various kinds, and the invariable
Potentilla gelida, whose cheerful little yellow bloom I have
now found on the actual summit of nearly every one of the
highest peaks of the Japanese Alps. The climb had cost us
seven hours of hard work and resolute perseverance, and
Kamonji's delight at conducting his Okusama, his " honour-
able mistress," thiiher was as pleasing as it was sincere. It
was the first time a lady climber had gained any such
distinction in the Japanese Alps, and what legends may not
hereafter be woven around the achievement it is impossible
to predict.
The most striking feature of the wide prospect from the top
is undoubtedly the serpentine windings of the great wall that
connects the granite battlements and towers of Hodaka with
the mass of igneous rocks that suddenly throw up the sharp
arrowhead of Yarigatake — 10,430 feet. On either hand
rugged flanks fall down steeply to densely wooded torrent
ravines, the home only of the bears and chamois, wolves and
boars, in which the region abounds. The sole object that
marked any movement was the delicate column of pearl-grey
34 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
smoke that rose in the still air from the active crater of
Yakedake, about 8,500 feet, the highest active volcano in
Japan. Its outbursts are connected with those of Asamayama,
50 miles to the north-east. On our return to Kamikochi from
the ascent of Hodaka we had a visit from Dr. Omori, the
Professor of Seismology at the Imperial University. He
told us that his observations during a number of years show
that there is an alternation of eruptions quite mathematical
in its regularity, proving that there is a sort of subterranean
connection of hidden volcanic fires between the two mountains.
The reluctant escape from Kamikochi to the outer world
may best be made either by traversing the pass of Tokugo
and down the ravine of a tributary torrent of the Adzusagawa
(the river on whose banks the onsen stands), or by following
the wooded slopes that in the main rise high above its right
bank. The latter is the longer and more arduous route, but it
is the more picturesque. Close by Kamikochi it passes the
Tashiro-ko, a secluded mere, whose waters mirror the sur-
rounding cliffs in their still, untroubled surface. Some hours
further on the onsen of Shirahone lies in a secluded hollow
at the foot of the massive, double-topped, extinct volcano of
Norikura. It has been in the possession of the Saito family,
its present owners, for over three hundred years. A good
road is gradually approaching it from the east, and it is along
this that the way lies to Matsumoto, one of the chief towns in
the province of Shinshu, famous for its silk trade. A magni-
ficent defile, in many places reminding one of the valley of
the Derbyshire Derwent at Matlock, but on a far grander
scale, finally opens out towards the Matsumoto plain at the
village of Shimajima. From here the railway station of
Matsumoto may be gained in a basha ride of some 13 miles.
In closing this paper, I should like to repeat my conviction
expressed nearly twenty years ago, that Japan, for the traveller
who knows where to seek it, is still that Japan in which the
twentieth century joins hands with the tenth. The Japan
most of you are familiar with, in its up-to-date adoption (for
the purposes of adaptation) of the most modern civilization,
is the Japan of the " globe-trotter," whom want of time or of
inclination detains in the beaten tracks and the beautiful
show-places exploited for his especial benefit. It is the land
of those amusing fictions, " that its flowers have no scent, its
birds have no song, and its children never cry.*' But in those
Explorations in the Japanese Alps 35
regions I have during the last twenty years explored and
.attempted to describe you find yourself transported back
nearly one thousand years; with human nature, and, for the
most part, human ways, still almost what they were before
the Normans invaded England.
There is one spot above all others (in every sense) where
those far-sundered centuries meet — the loftiest height in the
land of the Rising Sun, the summit of Fuji San. By the side
of the most sacred shrine on that most sacred summit, at a
height of nearly 12,400 feet, where there is worshipped one of
Japan's most august divinities, there stands a post-office, from
which the summer tourist sends his picture post-cards for a
halfpenny to the remotest regions of the empire. There,
outside the most modern of meteorological stations, you may
find nearly every summer morning at early dawn the shivering
form of some aged pilgrim, who has at length gained the
loftiest goal of his heart's desire — to be able, from the eastern
edge of the crater lip, to clap his wrinkled hands in invocation
and bow his head in humble adoration to the Rising Sun.
Note. — The map to illustrate this paper is based on the
latest maps of the Topographical Survey of Japan, and the
new large scale (Vsoooo) niap of the Imperial General Staff,
published in 1913, with some alterations and additions. The
former is beautifully drawn and engraved, but needed many
corrections in the mountain regions. The latter is extra-
ordinarily detailed, but it is not well printed ; unfortunately,
owing to the fact of all the names being printed in Chinese
characters, it is almost useless to the ordinary European
traveller, and many of the names are often unintelligible to
the average Japanese. It is, nevertheless, a fine production,
and represents a great deal of careful labour carried on for a
^considerable period.
36 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
GLIMPSES OF CEYLON.
By A. Sedgwick Barnard, M.LE.E., A.M.Inst.C.E.
(Notes from a Lecture delivered to the Society on Tuesday y,
November 23rd, 191 5.)
I THINK I am voicing no uncommon experience when I explain
that my residence of rather more than four years in the Island
of Ceylon convinced me that the average European, if he is ta
talk about that country in a really comprehensive and
authoritative style, must either devote a lifetime to the study,
or must limit his stay in the island to a few weeks or months
at the most. I shall not, therefore, attempt to give you much
account of the history, anthropology, ethnology, or any other
of the '^ ologies " of this, the premier Crown Colony of the
British Empire; but rather I shall try to interest you for a
short time in some of the natural beauties, and other features,
that came within the scope of my own very limited experience
of the island.
According to '^ The Ceylon Manual," the derivation of
the name ''Ceylon" and its native equivalent '' Sinhala "
is uncertain, though '' Sinha " means a lion. Lions, however,
and even tigers properly so-called, are at the present date
unknown in Ceylon. There is an Arabic form of the same
word which gives the name *' Serendib " or " Lion Island,'*"
but in the classical language of India, as in the everyday
native use in Ceylon, the island is called ''Lanka." Yet
another, and probably the oldest name, is " Tamraparni," —
oldest, that is, if we except the hoary tradition that Ceylon is
really the Garden of Eden, and that Adam's Peak carries the
footprint in stone of the common ancestor of Sinhalese and
Britisher alike.
I need, perhaps, hardly remind you that Ceylon is situated
at the southern end of the Indian peninsula, between the
Indian Ocean and the Bay of Bengal, and lying from 6 to lO'
degrees north of the equator. Shaped somewhat like a pear,
the lesser, or northern end, is separated from India by a
Glimpses of Ceylon 37
channel only about 40 miles wide, and this is almost bridged
across by the Island of Mannar and a series of coral reefs
called Adam's Bridge. This natural causeway, attributed by
tradition to Hanumann and his army of monkeys, has within
the past few years been utilised as the foundation for a fine
railway-viaduct, by which the railway systems of India and
Ceylon are nearly united. The Paumben viaduct of 145
spans of 40 feet, and a lifting bridge of 225 feet clear span,
together with the railway works in connection, were opened
for traffic in February of last year.
Ceylon is 270 miles long and 140 miles wide, and in area
it is about equal to Belgium and Holland together, or about
three-quarters the size of Ireland. It consists chiefly of
undulating plains, surrounding a mountainous district which
rises abruptly from the low country in the south-west, and
covers an area of about 4,000 square miles. Across the central
plateau of this district, from north to south, there runs a range
of mountains reaching at one point an altitude of 8,290 feet.
There are three harbours on the coast of Ceylon, that at
Trincomalee on the east being a magnificent land-locked
harbour which, until some ten or fifteen years ago, was the
headquarters of the East India Squadron. It is unfortunately
on the least accessible, as well as the least fertile and populous
side of the island.
Galle harbour, or as it was generally called Point de Galle,
on the south, was for many years the port of call for all vessels
plying from England to India, Australia and the Far East;
but it was a very dangerous port and has now entirely fallen
into the background with the development of the new and
commodious harbour at Colombo.
None of the rivers are navigable by ships. The largest is
the Mahaweli-ganga, which covers over two hundred miles in
its course from the mountains to the sea near Trincomalee.
Ceylon lies directly in the path of the south-west and
north-east monsoon currents, and these, together with the
range of mountains I have already mentioned, form the
controlling influences in the climate and rainfall of the island.
There are, roughly speaking, two seasons, known as the south-
west or "big" monsoon, and the north-east monsoon.
During the former the rainfall is usually best described as
" tropical,** and is frequently accompanied by terrific thunder-
storms. In this monsoon the rain falls chiefly in the south-
38 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
west part of the island, whereas in the later, or north-east
monsoon, it is more equally distributed.
The mean annual temperature of the sea-coast and low
country is about 80 degrees Fahrenheit ; while up-country, at
Newara-Eliya, it is 58 degrees, and during the cold season
the temperature occasionally falls to freezing-point. The
rainfall is equally variable, averaging 30 to 40 inches per
annum in the north-west and south-east, and as much as 200
inches in the interior.
The traveller from Europe, approaching Ceylon from the
south-west after a week or ten days on board ship without
sight of land, and with a memory of the arid deserts of Arabia
and Egypt as the last land left behind, is naturally captivated
by the beauty of the island, with its fringe of graceful palms
almost dipping to the surf and breakers of the coral-reef that
surrounds its southern shore. (See Fig. i.) Everywhere the
luxurious green of the tropical vegetation, the rich dark red of
the cabouk roads, and the glorious colouring of the flowering
shrubs and trees, make an arresting contrast to the monotony
of the Indian Ocean with its set smile left behind. As his
vessel enters the harbour of Colombo, he cannot fail to be
impressed with its capacity and importance. With an area
of 680 acres, protected by magnificent breakwaters, and with
a depth of 30 feet at low water for nearly two-thirds of that
space, it is natural that Colombo harbour has become a port
of call of the greatest importance for almost all the lines of
steamers running to the East and to Australia. The harbour-
works were commenced in 1875, and though the main break-
waters were nearly completed when I left the island, I do not
suppose that the whole of the construction work is even yet
accomplished. During the prevalence of the south-west
monsoon immense rollers come up from the Indian Ocean
which would render the harbour untenantable but for the
magnificent breakwaters. It is an impressive sight to see
such a roller spending its force in rearing a tremendous
mountain of water behind which the ships ride safely at
anchor.
Colombo harbour was not always in the possession of the
British. In the sixteenth century it was occupied by the
Portuguese, who erected a fortified town, of which they were
dispossessed by the Dutch in 1656. This town was evidently
built with a view to the strength of the position between the
Glimpses of Ceylon 39
lake on the one side, and the rocks forming the base of what is
now the breakwater on the other. The most ancient quarter
is the native bazaar, or Pettah — Pettah meaning in Tamil the
extramural suburb of a fortress. During the Dutch occupa-
tion one district was inhabited by slaves. These at some later
date revolted, and were driven by the Dutch to live on a large
island in the lake, still known by the name of Slave Island.
In 1796 the Dutch gave way to the British, since when the
town of Colombo has grown and developed in importance.
The fortifications have practically disappeared, though the
great business centre of the town, including the Governor's
residence, the Treasury, banks, and chief business premises,
still retains the title of ''The Fort." Inland, a new district
known as the Cinnamon Gardens has sprung up, where are
the residences of the European and wealthier native commu-
nities.
On the open sweep of country on the seashore south of
Colombo, known as the Galle Face, there are several fine
buildings, such as the Galle Face Hotel, the Colombo Club,
etc. Colombo possesses a fine museum, erected in 1877
during the Governorship of Sir Wm. Gregory, whose statue
is erected in front of the building.
In Ceylon the railways are owned and worked by the
Government, and have their headquarters in Colombo. From
there a railway line runs southwards to Galle and Matara
along the very edge of the sea-shore. So perilously close to
the sea is it, that during the south-west monsoon it is by no
means unusual for portions of the line to be washed away and
buried in the sand. The line runs for many miles through
beautiful groves of coconut palms, and about seven miles
south of Colombo there is a well-known hotel at Mount
Lavinia. This hotel, originally built by a Dutchman as a
residence for his wife, was later adapted by the British for
the accommodation of Arabi Pasha, during his enforced
sojourn on the island as a guest of the Government. One of
the chief attractions of the Mount is the excellent sea-bathing,
to which a spice of adventure is sometimes added by the report
of a shark having shown his fins within the little bay. As a
matter of fact I believe that the sharks never come within the
outer coral-reef which skirts the shore along the south-west
coast of the island, but other visitors do occasionally appear.
I remember witnessing here the capture of a good-sized turtle
40 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
that had been driven in by heavy seas, and was unable to
make his way out again against the breakers. A crowd of
excited coolies watched his floundering about, and when at
last a big wave brought him within a few yards of the shore,
four of them rushed into the water and caught him by his
flippers, and bore him in triumph into the hotel kitchen. We
met again at dinner in the evening and our acquaintance,
though necessarily brief, was of the pleasantest so far as I
was concerned. (See Fig. 2.)
The little village adjoining the hotel is chiefly dependent
upon sea-fishing and supplies a large quantity of very
excellent fish to the Colombo market. It is most interesting
to watch the skilful way in which the Sinhalese fisherman
will bring in his rather clumsy boat on the crest of a wave,
leaping through the shallows of the coral-reef, and running
the boat up on to the sand — to be dragged up high by an
eager crowd of his fellow villagers. These fishing boats are
fitted with a peculiar outrigger which is a distinctive feature
of the Ceylon canoe. These canoes are frequently, but
wrongly, termed catamarrans,. True catamarrans are to be
seen in Colombo harbour, and consist of roughly shaped logs
of wood on which little native boys paddle round the passen-
ger steamers, singing '* Ta-Ra-Ra-Boomeday," or something
equally English (probably nowadays " It's a long way to
Tipperary ! "), to induce passengers to throw coins into the
water ; for which they promptly dive, with invariable success.
The Ceylon outrigger, however, is a much more skilfully
designed boat, with a deep, if narrow, well; and it is really
well adapted for its purpose as a fishing-boat, and is
thoroughly seaworthy. The long beam at the side keeps the
boat upright even in very rough weather ; and in a gale it is
customary for one or more of the crew to climb out onto this
beam so that his added weight may increase the stability.
This has led to the classification by the natives of gales of
wind as "one man," "two man" or "three man" gales,
according to the number of men required on the outrigger to
counterbalance the pressure of wind on the sail.
Pleasant as it was at the Mount Lavinia Hotel, I naturally
lived for the most part in my own bungalow. My first
bungalow in Ceylon was on the main road from Colombo to
Mount Lavinia, surrounded by coconut palms, and within
two minutes of the sea, which was separated from the road
Fig. I. Ceylon. Cocoa Talms on the vSouth-West Shore.
Fip^. 2. Ceylon. The Beach at Mount Lavini^
Glimpses of Ceylon 41
only by the railway and a grove of coconut palms. Two very
pretty king-coconuts formed a natural arch over the entrance,
and for the large sum of twelve rupees per month (or about
ten pounds per annum) a native gentleman kept my compound,
or garden, in a state of artificial beauty. He was an interest-
ing man, by name Samuel, a Tamil who had come from the
over-populated districts of Southern India to make his fortune
in Ceylon, leaving his wife and children behind, and remitting
money to them as opportunity offered by the return of one of
his brethren to their native land. Among other things he was
a Christian, which in this instance means that he was attached
to the Roman Catholic Mission. This had drawbacks and
advantages. Being a Christian, he naturally wanted more or
less of a holiday on Sundays, though this made no difference
to his taking advantage of all the multitudinous Buddhist,
Hindoo and native festivals. On the other hand, not being
a Buddhist, it fell to his lot to be public executioner. When-
ever the lady of the house wanted a chicken killed for dinner,
or the master found a snake, Samuel it was who gave the
coup-de-grace, though the other servants were not above
watching him do it.
Of Samuel's fellow-servants, the two ricksha coolies were
Sinhalese, or natives of Ceylon, as also were the two Ayahs.
The Sinhalese do not wear the elaborate and imposing turbans
of the Tamils and other Indian servants, but content them-
selves with a handkerchief round their head, or at the most a
Fez cap. They are rather an effeminate race of men, and of
distinctly feminine appearance, with long black hair, and
flowing white skirts, or " comboys."
I have several times spoken of the Sinhalese, and it is^
worthy of note that this people, though of Aryan extraction,
and originally coming from the North of India, is peculiar to
Ceylon, or Sinhala. They form the bulk of the population,
and talk their own language which is closely akin to Sanskrit.
The large majority are Buddhists, though there are many
Christian converts, chiefly like my garden coolie already
mentioned, attached to the Roman Catholic Church. They
are natural fishermen and cultivators, with some few minor
industries, such as wood-working, carving, and lace-making,
which last still flourishes, particularly at Galle. The lace is
very popular among European visitors to the island, though
it is hardly as fine or valuable as that made in some parts of
42 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
India. The Sinhalese wear their hair long, and another minor
industry of some importance is the manufacture of elaborate
haircombs, some of which are veritable works of art, in real
tortoise-shell, and often of considerable value. They vary in
size and shape with the wearer's rank and caste. The
Buddhist priest, however, shaves his head and wears no comb,
but carries a palm-leaf fan to protect his eyes from the allure-
ments of this world. His robe is of yellow, the shade varying
from a very crude saffron or chrome to a deep orange,
according to the stage that he has reached in progress through
the long drawn-out education of the priest. As a novice
he would enter the service of the Temple at about eight years
of age, and would have to take upon himself three vows: —
Chastity, Poverty, and Obedience. The vow of poverty is
very strictly observed, and the priest is allowed to possess
eight articles only, viz., three strips of cotton cloth, forming
his robes; a girdle; an alms-bowl; a razor; a needle; and a
strainer through which to strain the water that he drinks.
The fan, being a palm-leaf of no value, is presumably not
counted in the inventory.
As a contrast to the closely-shaven priests, there are the
grotesque Sinhalese devil-dancers. The devil-dancer occupies
an intermediate position between a physician and a priest.
His services are called for in cases of sickness to exorcise the
evil spirits, and the noise that he and his attendant tom-tom
beaters make might certainly be expected to kill or cure the
patient. Devil-dancers are also in evidence at all feasts,
marriages, and similar jollifications.
Of the native population of Ceylon there is a small element
of considerable interest formed by the " Veddahs," or hunters.
These are supposed to represent the pre-aryan aboriginal
inhabitants of the land, and they seem to be akin to some of
the hill tribes of India. They speak Sinhalese or Tamil,
according to tiie neighbourhood where they dwell ; and their
chief industry, if it can be called such, is hunting or fishing.
They are very primitive in all their habits, and mix sparingly
with their neighbours of other races. From the colonist's
point of view probably the most important of the native races
is the Tamil. The Tamils are immigrants who have found
their way from Southern India, either in past centuries as
invaders and conquerors, or in later years as peaceful workers
in search of employment on the coffee, tea, and rubber estates.
Glimpses of Ceylon 43,:
They are altogether a robuster race than the Sinhalese, and
their labour is much sought after on the estates, and indeed
their immigration is carefully fostered and encouraged by the
Government of the island.
While there are a certain number of horses in Ceylon the
Sinhalese make more extensive use of bulls for draught
purposes than of anything else. These little bulls, which are
shod like horses, are very nimble on their feet and with a light
hackery will travel at a really respectable pace. The driver
does not use a whip but prods the animal from behind with
a stick, or with his toe, and depends upon his voice to do the
rest. The heavy goods carts are drawn by one or two bulls,
and are used for all the goods transport by road throughout
the island. The carts have no springs, and the bulls are
yoked to a pole by a heavy cross-piece, the cart being covered
with a tilt or roof of cadjans — the dried and plaited leaves of
the coco-palm. These carts meander along the roads at a pace
of about two miles per hour, swaying from side to side with
the awkward motion of the bulls, and grinding the roads to
powder with the sideways movement of their wheels. They
may be picturesque, but they are certainly less efficient than
the fearsome things of steam and petrol which make life
hideous on some of the main roads of Lancashire. All the
same, the Colombo bullock-cart drivers are an important power
in the land, and I remember seeing as pretty a strike carried
into effect by these gentlemen as ever was managed in
Lancashire. The Town Council of Colombo had been much
exercised over the problem of controlling the traffic in their
streets, and they issued sundry new bye-laws with a view to
improving a somewhat haphazard and disorganised state of
affairs. Among other things they ruled that the driver of a
bullock cart should always walk by his bulls, and penalties
were prescribed for the driver who should be found to be
riding in or on his cart. Now the favourite position of a
driver is sitting on the pole between or behind the bulls, with
his legs dangling in the air, for there his ruminating mind is
free from disturbance by any thought of foolish hurrying
people who may wish to pass his cart on the road. There he
can slumber peacefully, lulled by the rhythmic swaying of the
cart, and automatically prodding his bulls or twisting their
tails to prevent their coming to a dead standstill. This bye-
law liked him not. He said little, but on the morning that
.44 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
the new rule was officially supposed to come into force, not
^one of the drivers went to work. The residents in the fort,
the shopkeepers and merchants, looked in vain for the long
strings of carts that should be plying to and from the customs
houses and harbour. Business came to a standstill, and in (I
believe) about forty-eight hours the offending bye-law was
amended, and Colombo breathed again. The rights of
custom immemorial were vindicated, and the drowsy bells
began to tinkle, and the carts to creak and grind, as they had
been doing for centuries before Town Councils or bye-laws
came to trouble the placidity of a tranquil-minded people.
The Ceylon railways embrace engineering features of
unusual difficulty and magnitude. On the main line, from
the low country to the hills, for instance, the 5 ft. 6 in. gauge
railway is carried to an altitude of 6,225 feet above the sea
level, which, though it would scarcely be noteworthy in the
case of a narrow-gauge line, is a record height for such heavy
traffic as is carried on a broad gauge railway. Everywhere
along the line, as it rises from Colombo to Kandy, the scenery
is a revelation of beauty. The train crawls and burrows
round and through the mountain corners, on ledges cut in
the face of rocky precipices, overlooking miles of luxuriant
.and virgin jungle, in which a herd of elephants might roam
unseen. Here and there the eye is caught by a terraced patch
oi brilliant green, where a native irrigator has turned to
advantage one of the innumerable little streams that trickle
down the face of the cliff. Jutting out from the dense and
mysterious forest are fierce and rugged shapes of rock, and
over all the heavy stillness of the land that has yet to learn
the priceless value of the crowding factories and their
attendant pall of smoke.
During the monsoon, when the mountain streams are
liable to be swollen in an hour into veritable torrents, the
danger of landslides or detachments of rock-masses is such
that constant and diligent watch has to be kept along the line,
and many a picturesque rock as it shows signs of breaking
away is blasted from its foundation before it shall come
^crashing down to block the all-important artery of the land.
It must not be imagined, however, that all the noteworthy
features of the line have been removed. In the 160 miles of
line between Colombo and Bandarawela there are hair-raising
thrills in plenty yet remaining to be experienced, and the
^
Fig. 3. Ceylon. A Tree Fern at Hatton.
Fig. 4. Ceylon. "Grass-clad Humps and Hill-sides" of
3andarawela.
Glimpses of Ceylon ,45:
grandeur of the mountain views is too big a thing to be
affected by the removal of a few odd masses of rock which in.
the past have arrested the attention of the photographer.
At an altitude of about 1,500 ft. above sea level there is a
branch line running into the historic little town of Kandy.
This is the ancient mountain capital of the island, and with its
dependent provinces, Kandy retained its independence for
nearly twenty years after the British took possession of
Colombo. Even to this day the Kandyans are to some extent
a race apart, having their own system of chiefs and peculiar
marriage laws duly recognised by the Colonial Government.
The town itself is unusually picturesque, with a beautiful lake
formed by an ornamental bund, or dam, across a stream, a
tributary of the Kelani-ganga which runs through the valley
below.
Overlooking the lake is the quaint old Buddhist '' Temple
of the Tooth," with its pierced parapet wall and ''broken-
back" roof which are distinctive features of Kandyan
architecture. Jealously guarded in this temple is what is
claimed to be a tooth of Buddha, a relic which unbelievers
assert is either a piece of carved ivory or the tooth of a cow.
This is brought out and shown to the multitude at certain
great religious festivals, but at all other times securely hidden
away in case within case of gold and silver, and watched over
by the priests of the temple. The temple contrasts very well
in its simple and artistic lines with what to me appears to be
the over-decoration and almost tawdry ornamentation charac-
teristic of the Hindu temples.
I have mentioned the Kandyan Chiefs, and they always
arrest attention by the gorgeous, if cumbersome, robes they
wear on state occasions. Various attempts had been made to
modify the powers of the native chiefs or headmen by the
Dutch Governors of the island, who at one time instituted a
system of Dubashes, to whom the collection of taxes, customs
and other revenues was farmed out. These men were for the
most part Moors, Parsees, and Chetties from the coast, who
have been described as "enemies to the religion of the-
Sinhalese, strangers to their habits, and animated by no
impulse but extortion." Eventually, in 1797, the Sinhalese
were exasperated beyond endurance and rose in revolt. When,
in 181 5, the Kandyan Provinces were brought under the
British dominion the old native feudal system, or al any rate
46 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
a near approach to it, was reverted to, and though this did
not immediately prove successful in operation, yet ultimately
it has been retained as the basis of the Kandyan government
• of to-day. The Chiefs hold their appointments, which are
paid offices, by warrant of the Governor of the island, and
though there are privileges attached to the office, such as
freedom from taxation for the holder's lands, there are few if
-any chances for the chief to grow rich at the expense of the
people, as his predecessors were wont to do.
Ceylon is, after all, a garden country; and it is the fruits
(and leaves) of the earth that form its wealth. It is this fact,
in all probability, which is responsible for the establishment
of the Royal Botanical Gardens at Peradeniya near Kandy.
These gardens were established in 182 1, twenty-five years after
the arrival of the British in Ceylon, and five or six years after
the final conquest of the Kandyan Kingdom. They comprise
nearly 150 acres of beautifully undulating land, situated in a
horse-shoe bend of the Kelani-ganga, the river that finds its
outlet to the sea near Colombo. There are evidences that this
exceptionally beautiful site was appreciated by the Kandyan
kings before the formation of the gardens, in which several
.old carved stone pillars and other relics still remain. The
gardens show specimens of many beautiful and majestic trees,
including, naturally, a great variety of palms.
The Talipot palm is a native of Ceylon, where it grows to
sixty or seventy feet high, with a straight cylindrical trunk,
marked by rings and surmounted by a crown of gigantic
fan-like leaves. These leaves have prickly stalks, six or seven
feet long, and when fully expanded form a complete circle of
about thirteen feet in diameter, and composed of from ninety
to a hundred radiating segments, joined together and plaited
like a fan. Near the edge these segments separate and form
a fringe of double points. Large fans made of these leaves
are carried by priests and people of rank among the Sinhalese.
They are also used as umbrellas, and in the construction of
tents, as well as providing the native substitute for paper on
which many of the sacred books are written. The Talipot
flowers only once in its life, when (so it is said) it is nearly a
hundred years old, and after ripening its seed it usually dies
rapidly.
The beauties of the Peradeniya gardens are greatly
^enhanced by the river surrounding them on three sides, and
Glimpses of Ceylon 47
one of the most remarkable sights is the groups of giant
bamboo. It is hardly necessary to tell you how useful the
bamboo canes can be, but one does not realise in England
the enormous size to which these grow, and their importance
in their native lands for ladders, scaffold poles, building, and
a hundred and one other purposes. The stems often grow to
be as thick as a man's body, so that short sections make
excellent buckets, flower-pots and other vessels.
The Palmyra palm, which specially flourishes in the north
of the island, is one of the most useful trees to the native
races. A Tamil poet has immortalised this tree in a poem
enumerating 801 uses to which it may be put — and even then
is said not to have exhausted the catalogue of its economic
virtues. Among other things it furnishes the Toddy or palm
wine from which is distilled that potent spirit known as
Arrack. The paternal Government of the island derives a
handsome revenue from the letting of the rights to produce
and sell this commodity. The same tree also furnishes a
delicious form of palm sugar, known as Jaggery, and boiled
rice and jaggery is a very tolerable substitute for the nursery
rice pudding of England.
Ceylon is blessed with a number of varieties of plantain,
or banana, some small and yellow and of exquisite flavour,
and others of very large size, green or purple when ripe, but
of coarser nature. They are a staple dish at every meal, and
natives and Europeans alike use them freely. Under good
cultivation a banana plant will produce on an average rather
more than a hundredweight of fruit per annum, and the yield
per acre of land under banana cultivation is far in excess of
the maximum obtainable from our tuberous plants, which are
besides less nutritious than an equal weight of bananas.
The Breadfruit tree (Artocarpus incisa) is another of
Ceylon's food bearing products. The fruit, which is as large
as a man's head, is gathered before it is perfectly ripe, cut in
slices, cooked, and eaten like bread, which it somewhat
resembles in taste. There is another variety of Artocarpus
known as the Jak tree, in which the fruits are even larger, but
coarser and possessing a very strong smell and taste which
are disagreeable to the unaccustomed European. The Jak
tree also furnishes a useful timber, not unlike mahogany.
Very closely allied to Artocarpus is the genus Ficus,
including Ficus elastica, the true Indian rubber tree. In
48 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
common with many other species of Ficus, the bark, by
incision, yields a large quantity of an acrid and caustic milk,
or latex, conveying Caoutchouc or rubber. Although there
are many of these trees in Ceylon it is not from them that
Ceylon rubber is chiefly prepared, but rather from the Para
rubber tree, Hevea hrasiliensis, which has more recently been
introduced. Another species of Ficus (F. altissima) is the
great Banyan tree of the East. This tree attains an enormous
size — indeed there is a Banyan in India on the banks of the
Nerbudda which covers an area of nearly 25 acres, and whose
branches are supported by over 300 columns, formed by
adventitious roots. Young roots, 'when hanging down from
the branches, are led into hollow pieces of bamboo, placed at
an angle so as to give most support to the heavy boughs.
The end where the root enters the bamboo is filled with moss
to keep out squirrels and rats, which would otherwise attack
the young root tip, which is very sweet and tender. Where
the roots are not thus protected they are very liable to be eaten
off by cattle passing underneath. When the root has reached
the ground it soon becomes self-supporting, and the bamboo
is removed.
One of the features of tropical vegetation is the number of
giant creepers and trailing plants, such as we are not accus-
tomed to in English woods or wild places. There is one very
noticeable and luxuriant creeper of no commercial value of
the genus Pothos, which has been nicknamed the " Colombo
Agent," the implication being that the Colombo agent of a
tea-estate waxes fat and flourishes while the hard-working
planter (represented by the tree) only lives to support him.
Closely allied to the Colombo Agent is the genus
Anthurium, but these plants justify their existence by the
beauty of their wonderfully velvety leaves, with their still
more wonderful veinings. There are many species of
Anthurium native to Ceylon, which amply repay cultivation
as ornamental pot plants. Flowering shrubs and trees are
also abundant at the Peradeniya Gardens, where also can be
seen several handsome groups of tree-ferns. They are true
ferns, and not palm trees, in spite of their height. (See
Fig- 3.)
Leaving now the old kingdom of Kandy, we rise another
2,500 feet by the railway to the heart of the mountain tea-
growing country at Hatton. One tea estate is apt to be very
Fig. 5. Ceylon. Coolie Children at Bandarawela
Fig. 6. Ceylon. " Poochies "—Butterflies, Hawk-moth,
Locust and Leaf Insect.
Glimpses of Ceylon 49
like another, and this part of the country has rather a
monotonous and bare appearance where the jungle growth
has been cleared away to make room for the profit-bearing
crop. The tea bushes are not allowed to grow more than a
few feet high, and though they are usually interspersed with
rows of shade trees, yet the whole effect is very much like the
chess-board country of ''Alice through the Looking-Glass."
The European staff on a Ceylon estate generally consists
of the Periya Dory, or Manager ; the Sina-Dory, or Assistant
(literally the " Little Master "), and one or more " Creepers,'*
or apprentices. The clerical work may call for a Burgher or
Eurasian clerk, but the overseers and foremen are nearly
always Sinhalese or Tamils who are responsible for gangs of
labour, male and female. Labour is by no means too plentiful,
and there is an organised system of assisted immigration from
India, and very strict laws about what is called ** pinching **
coolies from other estates : in fact, something akin to an
important clause of our Munitions Act has been in operation
there for many years.
Only the young leaves, or '' flush," are picked, and seldom
more than two or three leaves from a branch. In the factory
the leaves undergo various processes of withering, steaming,
rolling, polishing, and packing for shipment, after which the
cases are loaded on the bullock carts for transport to the
nearest railway station.
A more recent development, which bids fair to rival if not
eclipse the tea industry in Ceylon, is the growth and manufac-
ture of rubber. During the past few years immense numbers
of rubber trees have been planted, and many old estates have
even given preference to this new favourite over their old ally
the tea-bush. The Para rubber tree undergoes one of various
forms of treatment for extracting its precious latex. This,
which is a milky juice, is found just within the outer bark of
the tree, and it is collected by draining it from incisions at
regular intervals of time. The process, known as " tapping,"
takes various forms, two of the most successful being the
spiral cut and the herring-bone pattern. The latex drains
from the spiral down a vertical cut into a little tin at the base,
whence it can be collected and taken to the factory for curing.
As the railway continues to ascend, after leaving Hatton
and the great tea-growing district of which it is the centre,
K
50 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
we climb tlirough glorious country to a summit-level of 6,220
feet above the sea. The air becomes fresh and invigorating,
and if the journey has been made by night the traveller has a
delightful experience in waking up to a cool fresh morning air,
after having fallen asleep in the muggy heat of the low
country. Passing through several small tunnels as we cross
the range of mountains, we gradually emerge on the eastern
side among the rolling grass patana-slopes which are typical
of the higher regions of the province of Uva. Here, among
the grass-clad humps and hill-sides, lies the little town of
Diyatalawa, a station famous for its large camp where, in
1900, some 5,000 Boer prisoners of war were accommodated.
One wonders whether the busy scenes of those days are being
even now re-enacted ; but, be that as it may, there are certainly
many less delightful places in which to be forcibly detained
than the sunny slopes and well-watered valleys of this ideal
district. From here to Bandarawela, which is the terminus
of the railway, the line winds round the hills, cuts its way
through the rich red-brown of the rocks, and swings
triumphantly on swaying steel girders over the innocent-
looking ravines which at times develop into roaring torrents
as the monsoon rains come pouring from the hill-sides where
they fell. (See Fig. 4.)
Bandarawela itself, though it has never been developed
or become fashionable like Newara Eliya, is a delightful little
health resort at which to recruit after the heat of Colombo
has begun to tell. Society there may be none, but pure air,
clean skies, green trees, birds, beasts and butterflies, the ever-
changing majesty of sunrise and sunset, and behind all and
surrounding all the constant watchfulness of the everlasting
hills — these have an attraction that it is no easy task to attempt
to convey to others either by word or picture. Looking back,
I think it is the quiet of this little town, and the beauty of
the surrounding country, which held me more than all the
wonders of the East as they are portrayed in the gaudy native
bazaars and thronging crowds of Kandy or Colombo. (See
Figs. 5 and 6.)
*' Larger constellations burning, mellow moons and happy
skies,
Breadths of tropic shade and palms in cluster, knots of
Paradise.
Glimpses of Ceylon 51
Never comes the trader, never floats an European flag,
Slides the bird o'er lustrous woodland, swings the trailer
from the crag ;
Droops the heavy -blossom 'd bower, hangs the heavy-
fruited tree —
Summer isles of Eden lying in dark purple spheres of
sea.**
While Ceylon is too highly cultivated and civilised to fit
•the quotation in its entirety, yet Tennyson's lines have a
wonderful power of conjuring up the haunting charm of
many of the remoter spots in this land of Nature's prodigality.
" Descriptive Handbook to the Relief Model of Wales." By Wallace
E. Whitehouse, L.C.P. With an introduction by H. J. Fleure,
D.Sc. Cardiff : The Museum, 1915.
The author does not claim any value for the book apart from the
model, yet it has a certain value even so. Many teachers of geography
will appreciate the clearness of the chapter on the structure of Wales,
and will find here and there useful suggestions as to the use of relief
models they may have made themselves, and others will be stimulated
to give such aids a trial.
The book wisely begins with a very careful description of the
method adopted in making the model, thus delimiting the possibilities
of error. In his "Descriptions of Ten Selected Blocks" the author
follows the excellent plan, which others have recently carried out in
describing certain ordnance sheets. There is also a chapter on
suggestions for the use of the model. Mr. Whitehouse is careful to
point out that the model is not to replace the map, but to supplement
it, and that the suggestions do not pretend to be exhaustive ; yet they
are many and good, especially for advanced work, but the chapter
might perhaps have been strengthened by a paragraph on the use
of the relief model as an aid to map reading.
In the preface, and again later, it is promised that arrangements
will be made for sections of the model to be supplied at a moderate
price to schools and other institutions. There are hints on the
** grouping of blocks " which will help us in our selection of the
blocks when the arrangements are made. The ordnance map plays a
great part in geographical work of many kinds, but the relief model
is easier to read, and should have a great future if only " schools
and institutions " can afford to buy it.
In brief, this cheap, workmanlike and thorough book, which makes
such modest claims, must be invaluable to those who can use the
^models and should serve as an inspiration and example to others.
H. G.
52 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
THE IMPORTANCE OF GEOGRAPHICAL
RESEARCH.
By Major H. G. Lyons, D.Sc, F.R.S., F.R.G.S.
(The Presidential Address delivered to Section E, Geography^
at the Manchester Meeting of the British Association for
the Advancement of Science, and taken as read at a
Meeting of the Society held in the Geographical Hall on^
Tuesday, December 14, 191 5.)
This year, when the British Association is holding its meeting
in times of the utmost gravity, the changed conditions which
have been brought about by this war must occupy the
attention of all the Sections to a greater or less extent, and
our attention is being called to many fields in which our
activities have been less marked or more restricted than they
might have been, and where more serious study is to be
desired. The same introspection may be usefully exercised
in geography, for although that branch of knowledge has
undoubtedly advanced in a remarkable degree during the last
few decades, we have certainly allowed some parts of the
subject to receive inadequate attention as compared with
others, and the necessity for more serious study of many of
its problems is abundantly evident.
Nor is the present occasion ill adapted to such an examina-
tion of our position, for when the British Association last met
in this city, now twenty-eight years ago, the President of this
Section, General Sir Charles Warren, urged in his address the
importance of a full recognition of geography in education on.
the grounds that a thorough knowledge of it is required in
every branch of life, and is nowhere more important than in.
diplomacy, politics, and administration.
Matters have certainly advanced greatly since that time,
and a much fuller appreciation of geography now exists than
that which formerly prevailed. At the time of the address to
which I have referred the serious study of geography in this
country was on the eve of important developments. The
Council of the Royal Geographical Society had for some time
been urging the importance of geography being studied at
Importance of Geographical Research 53
the Universities so that there should be an opportunity for
advanced students to quahfy themselves as scientific geo-
g-raphers by study and original research in the subject. The
time had arrived for this ideal to become an accomplished
fact, and in the following year, 1888, a Reader in Geography
was appointed at Oxford University, and a Lectureship in
the same subject was established at Cambridge. Since then
the advance has been steady and continuous not only in the
increased attention given to the subject, but also in the way
in which it is treated. The earlier bald and unattractive
statistical presentation of the subject has now been almost
everywhere replaced by a more intelligent treatment of it, in
which the influences of the various environments upon the life
which inhabits a region are appreciated, and the responses to
such influences are followed up. Instruction in the subject
is given by those who have seriously studied it, who realise
its importance, and who are in a position to train up new
scientific workers in the field of geography. Though much
remains to be done there should be now a steady output of
geographical investigators capable of providing an ever-
increasing supply of carefully observed data, which they will
have classified methodically and discussed critically, in order
that these may be utilised to form sound generalisations as to
their relationships and sequence in accordance with the
method which is employed in all scientific work.
In order that we may see what advance has been made in
the scientific study of geography in this country during the
last quarter of a century, we must turn to the results that have
been attained by the activity of geographical investigators
who have devoted themselves to the serious study of various
phenomena, and the detailed investigation of particular
regions. If we do so I think that we must admit that the
number of original investigators in scientific geography who
are extending its scope in this way is not so large as it might
be, nor are we yet utilising sufficiently all the material which
is available to us. Anyone who will examine the geographical
material which has been published in any period which he
may select for review will find that purely descriptive treat-
ment still far outweighs the analytical treatment which alone
can lead to definite advances in scientific geography. If
pleasing descriptions of this or that locality are sought for,
they are for the most part to be found readily in the very large
54 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
amount of such material that has been and is being published
each year by residents, travellers, and explorers ; but if infor-
mation is desired in the prosecution of a piece of geographical
research, we are checked by the lack of precise details. Few
of this class of descriptions are sufficiently definite to enable
the necessary comparisons to be made between one locality
and others which are similarly situated ; thoroughly quantita-
tive treatment is for the most part lacking, and while a
pleasing picture is drawn which is probably true in character^
it is usually inadequately furnished with those definite facts
which the geographer requires.
I propose, therefore, to examine a little more closely the
question of geographical investigation and research in order
to see where we stand and in what direction it behoves us ta
put forth our energies to the end that a branch of knowledge
which is of such importance shall rest upon that basis of
detailed study and investigation which alone can supply the
starting-point for further advance. The intricate and com-
plicated character of the subject, the extent of its purview, the
numerous points at which it touches and imperceptibly passes
into other well-defined branches of knowledge, render the
study of geography very liable to degenerate into a purely
descriptive treatment of the earth's surface and all that is to-
be found thereon, rather than to follow the narrow path of
scientific progress in which the careful collection of data
furnishes the material for systematic discussion and study in
order that trustworthy generalisations may be reached.
The opportunity to undertake long journeys through
distant lands comes to few of us, but this is not the only
direction in which research can be profitably undertaken, for
there is no part of these islands where a geographer cannot
find within his reach some geographical problem which is
well worth working out, and which, if well and thoroughly
done, will be a valuable contribution to his science. Even
for such as cannot undertake such field work the library will
provide a host of subjects which have not received nearly the
amount of attention and of careful study that they deserve.
The one thing essential is that the study should be as thorough
as possible, so that all the contributory lines of evidence shall
be brought together and compared, and so that the result may
prove to be a real addition to geographical science on which
other workers may in their turn build.
Importance of Geographical Research 55
For those who desire to undertake such investigations
there is at any rate no lack of geographical material, for
travellers, explorers, and others engaged in various occupa-
tions in every part of the world are continually recording their
experiences and describing their surroundings in books and
pamphlets ; they recount their experiences to the Geographical
Societies, who apparently have no difficulty in obtaining
communications of wide interest for their meetings. Most
portions of the British Empire as well as regions belonging
to other nations are in these days more or less fully examined,
surveyed, and investigated with a view to their development,
and those who undertake such work have ample opportunities
for the most part for preparing descriptions of the lands in
which they have sojourned and with which they are well
acquainted. But although the material is so ample the quality
of it is not generally such as makes it suitable for an adequate
study of the phenomena or the region to which it relates.
The ease with which a tract of country or a route can be
described by the traveller, and the attractiveness of such a
description of a little-known region, results in the provision
of a vast quantity of geographical information, the greater
part of which has probably been collected by those who have
no adequate training in the subject. In such cases it is not
uncommon for the writer to disclaim any geological or
botanical knowledge, for instance, but the great majority of
those to whom the opportunity is given to travel and see new
lands and peoples are fully convinced of their competence to
describe accurately and sufficiently the geography of the
regions which they traverse. But anyone who has had
occasion to make use of such material in a serious investiga-
tion is only too well aware how little precise and definite
information he will be able to extract from the greater part of
this wealth of material, and in most cases this is due to the
traveller's lack of geographical knowledge. He probably
does not know the phenomena which should be observed in
the type of region which he is traversing, nor can he read the
geographical evidence which lies patent to a trained observer
at every point of the journey; much, therefore, of what he
records may be of interest, but probably lacks data which are
essential to the geographer if he is to understand the
geographical character of the region, and utilise it properly.
Thus it happens that although the amount of geographical
56 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
material which is being garnered may be large, the proportion
of it which is available for use in a scientific investigation of
an area is smaller than is probably realised by those who have
not made the experiment. And yet it is only by this scientific
investigation of selected localities or of a single phenomenon
and by working them out as thoroughly as possible that any
real advance in geographical science can be made. The
accounts of such pieces of work will not appeal to those who
desire picturesque descriptions of little-known lands, but they
will be welcomed by geographers who can appreciate the value
of such studies. There should now be an ever-increasing
number of such geographers, trained to proceed in their
investigations by the true scientific method, and there should
be a very considerable amount of sound work in various
branches of the subject which aims at thoroughly investigating
some phenomenon, or group of phenomena, so as to present
a grouping of data, carefully verified and critically discussed,
in order to arrive at conclusions which may form a useful
addition, however small, to the sum of our geographical
knowledge.
So far as I am able to judge, the output of serious work
of this character is not nearly as large as it should be, and I
would indicate some fields in which there is a lack of
individual work of this character. Until more of it is under-
taken we shall lack in this country the material from which
the foundations of scientific geography can be built up, and
while our own islands and the various parts of the British
Empire furnish unrivalled opportunities for such work, there
are still far too many subjects where the most thorough
investigations have been made in other countries.
Mathematical Geography presents a field for research
which had comparatively little attention paid to it in this
country. In many respects this part of the subject is peculiarly
suitable for such treatment, since it admits of the employment
of precise methods to an extent which is not always practicable
in cases where so many of the factors can only be approxi-
mately defined. The determination of positions on the earth's
surface is carried to great refinement in the national surveys
of most civilised countries in order to furnish the necessary
controls for the preparation of large-scale maps, but when we
pass to the location of travellers* routes, where considerable
allowance has to be made for the conditions under which the
Importance of Geographical Research 57
observations have to be taken, we find that very inadequate
attention is usually paid to the discussion of the results.
Usually a mean value for each latitude, longitude or azimuth
is obtained by the computer, and he remains satisfied with
this, so that when the route of another traveller follows the
same line or crosses it at one or more points, it is almost
impossible for the cartographer to say which of the two
determinations of any position is entitled to the greater
confidence. In this class of work, whether the results are
obtained from absolute observations at certain points or from
the direction of march, and the distance traversed, it is quite
practicable to determine the range of uncertainty within which
the positions of different points are laid down, and it is
eminently desirable that this should always be done in order
that the adjustment of various routes which may intersect in
partially-known regions may be adjusted in accordance with
definite mathematical processes. Some important expeditions
on which infinite labour and considerable sums have been
expended have presented their results, in so far as they relate
to the routes which have been followed and the position of
points which have been determined, in such a way that it is
impossible to say within what precision such positions have
been determined, and consequently any combination of these
results with those of later expeditions has to be carried out
empirically, since adequate data are no longer available for
the employment of better and more scientific methods.
This crude and unsatisfactory way of treating observations,
which in many cases have been obtained under conditions of
the greatest difficulty and even hardship, is largely due to the
lack of interest which geographers have shown in this part
of their subject. Methods of observation and methods of
computation are rarely discussed before any of our Geographi-
cal Societies or in any of our publications, and it is only by
such discussions that the importance of properly working out
the available material at a time when the observer can be
consulted on points which are doubtful, or where further
explanation is desirable, becomes generally appreciated.
No set of physical or astronomical observations is ever
discussed or even presented without the degree of precision
or reliability being definitely stated; yet in geography this
sound rule is too often neglected.
There are several regions where travellers' routes intersect
58 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
which should provide ample material for the careful reduction^
and adjustment of the results. I fear, however, that there
would be great difficulty in obtaining the original observations
which are indispensable in such an investigation, and in the
interest of research it is highly desirable that the original
documents of all work of importance should be preserved and
the place where they may be consulted recorded in the
published account.
There is room in the geographical investigation of sea and
land, even within the limits of the British Empire, for the
employment of methods of observation and computation of the
highest precision as well as of the simpler and more approxi-
mate kinds, but everyone who presents the results of his work
should deem it his first duty to state explicitly the methods
which he employed, and the accuracy to which he attained, in
such a form that all who make use of them can judge for
themselves of the degree of their reliability.
In such work, while the instruments used are of great
importance, too often the briefest description, such as "a
4-inch theodolite," is deemed sufficient. If the observer
wishes his work to be treated seriously as a definite
contribution to science we require to know more than this, and
a clear account of the essentials of the instrument, a statement
of its errors, and of the methods of observation adopted are-
the least that will suffice. The account of any expedition
should treat so fully of the instruments, observations, and
computations utilised to determine the positions of places
visited that anyone can re-examine the evidence and form his
opinion on the value of the results obtained. A mere tabular
statement of accepted values, which frequently is all that is
provided, is of small value from a scientific point of view.
Probably one reason for this state of things is that too little
attention is being paid by geographers to their instruments.
Theodolites, levels, compasses, clinometers, tacheometers,
plane-tables, pantographs, co-ordinatographs, planimeters,
and the many other instruments which are used by the
surveyor, the cartographer, the computer, have in no case
arrived at a final state of perfection, but it is seldom that we
find a critical description of an instrument in our journals.
Descriptions there are from time to time, but these are for the
most part weak and insufficient. Not only is a technical
description required, which treats fully of both the optical
Importance of Geographical Research 59^^
and mechanical details, but we need an extended series of
observations with the instrument which have been made under
the ordinary conditions of practical work, and these must be
mathematically analysed, and the de.sfree of the reliability of
the results clearly demonstrated. The description should be
equally thorough and complete, including scale drawings
showing the construction of the instrument as well as photo-
graphs of it. Nothing less than this is of any use to the
scientific cartographer.
While I am on the subject of instruments I would draw
attention to the importance of the whole history of the develop-
ment of surveying instruments. In the latter part of the
eighteenth century Great Britain provided the best class of
surveying instruments to all countries of Eurof)e, at a time
when high-class geodetic work was being commenced in
several countries; and about this time von Reichenbach spent
a part of his time in this country working in the workshops of
Dollond and learning this particular class of work. UfK>n
his return to Bavaria he set up at Munich that establishment
which soon provided instruments of the highest class for many
of the cadastral surveys which were being undertaken in
Central Europe. At Munich there is now a fine typical
collection of such instruments, but in this country the early
advances of British instrument-makers of surveying instru-
ments are far from being adequately represented in our
National Museum in a manner commensurate with their
importance. The keen and enlightened zeal of geographers
who are interested in this branch of the subject would
doubtless quickly bring to light much still remaining that is
of great interest, but which is yet unrecognised, while a closer
attention to instrumental equipment would lead to improve-
ments and advances in the types that are now employed.
There is no modern work in this country on the development
of such instruments, and references to their history are
conspicuously rare in our journals, so that there is here an
opportunity for those whose duties prevent them from under-
taking travel or exploration of a more ambitious kind. In the
same way, those whose opportunities of field work are few can
find a promising field of study in the early methods and
practice of surveying which have been discussed by many
authors from classical times onwards, and for which a con-
siderable amount of material exists.
^6o Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
In Geodesy and Surveying of high precision there is ample
scope for all who are attracted by the mathematical aspect of
the subject; the critical discussion of the instruments and
methods employed and results obtained, both in this country
tand in other lands, provides opportunity for much work of
real value, while its bearing upon geology, seismology, etc.,
has not yet been adequately treated here. The detailed
^history of this part of our subject is to be found in papers
which have been published in the technical and scientific
journals of other countries for the most part ; here too little
attention has been given to the subject, in spite of the large
amount of geodetic work which has been executed in the
British Empire, and which remains to be done in our Colonies
/and overseas Dominions.
The final expression of the surveyor's detailed measure-
ments is found in the map, and the adequate representation
of any land surface on a map-sheet is both a science and an
.art. Here we require additional work on all sides, for there
is hardly any branch of geography which offers so
remunerative a field for activity as cartography. We need
the co-operation of trained geographers to study requirements,
-and to make acquaintance with the limits of technical methods
of reproduction, so that they may be in a position to deal with
many questions which arise in the preparation of a map
regarding the most suitable mode of presentation of data, a
matter which is purely geographical, but which at the present
♦time is too often left to the skilled draughtsman. Neither the
compilation nor the reduction of maps are merely mechanical
processes. The first requires great skill and care as well as
technical knowledge and a sound method of treatment if the
various pieces of work, which are brought together to make
up the map of any considerable area, are to be utilised
according to their true worth. This demands a competent
'knowledge of the work which has been previously done on the
region, a first-hand acquaintance with the data collected by the
earlier workers, and the critical examination of them in order
that due weight may be given to the better material in the
final result. This is not a task to be handed over to the
draughtsman, who will mechanically incorporate the material
as though it were all of equal accuracy, or will adjust dis-
-crepancies arbitrarily and not on any definite plan. Such
fj>reliminary preparation of cartographical material is a
Importance of Geographical Research 6r
scientific operation which should be carried out by scientific
methods and should be completed before the work reaches the
draughtsman, who will then have but to introduce detail into a
network of controls which has been prepared for him and af
which the accuracy at all points has been definitely ascer-
tained. Similarly in the second case the elimination of detail,
which must of necessity be omitted is an operation needing
the greatest skill, a full understanding of the material available, .
and an adequate appreciation of the resultwhich is being aimed,
at, such as is only to be found in a competent geographer
who has made himself intimately acquainted with all the
material which is available and has his critical faculty fully
developed.
The use of maps has steadily increased of recent years, but
we should look forward to an even more widely extended use
of them in the future; and this will be greatly facilitated if
there are geographers who have made themselves masters of
the technique of map reproduction and, as scientific
geographers, are prepared to select such data as are needed
for any particular class of map on a well-considered method,
and not by the haphazard procedure to which the want of a
scientific study of cartographic methods must inevitably lead.
The paucity of papers dealing with practical cartography and"
the compilation of maps is clear proof that this branch of the
subject awaits far more serious attention than it now receives.
All these problems are well within the reach of the
geographer to whom the opportunity of travel in other regions
does not come, and in them he will find ready to his hand a
field of research which is well worth working and which will^
amply repay any labour that is spent upon it. The same
precise methods of investigation which are employed in the
discussion of observations should be applied to all carto-
graphic material in order to ascertain the exact standard of
its reliability, in which is included not only the correctness of
distance and direction, but also the accuracy of the information^
which has been incorporated in it ; and these may be brought
to bear also on those early maps of which so many are
preserved in our libraries in this country. In this field of
study several investigators have already achieved results of
great interest and value, but I think that they will be ready
to admit that there is here a wide and profitable field of
activity for many more workers who will study closely these
62 Jonrnal of the Manchester Geographical Society
early maps and, not being contented with verbal descriptions,
will use quantitative methods wherever these are possible.
In the study of map projections some activity has been
visible in recent years, and we may hope that those who have
worked in this branch of the subject will see that British
Geography is provided with a comprehensive manual of this
subject which will be worthy of the vast importance of
cartography to the Empire. The selection of suitable
projections is receiving much more attention than was formerly
accorded to it, but the number of communications on this
subject which reach geographical journals are few and far
between. The subject is not one which can appeal strongly to
the amateur geographer, but its importance renders it impera-
tive that the scientific geographer who realises its intimate
bearing upon all his work should so arrange that the matter
does not fall into the background on this account.
A closer relation and a more active co-operation between
those who are prepared to work seriously at cartography and
its various problems may reasonably be expected to raise the
standard of that class of map which is used to illustrate books
of travel, or works descriptive of a region. At the present
time the inadequate character of many of the maps and plans
which are reproduced in such publications shows clearly that
the public demand for maps which have been compiled with
a view to illustrating the volume in question is still very
ineffective.
The whole subject of cartography, with its component
parts of map projection, compilation, reproduction, cartometry
.and the history of its development, is so important, not only
to the individual geographer but also to the advancement of
scientific geography, that we should aim at fostering it and
encouraging the study of it in every way, and it will be the
zeal of individuals rather than the benevolent aid of institu-
tions which will achieve this.
But it may be suggested that the lack of activity in Mathe-
mathical Geography is due to the somewhat specialised nature
of the subject, and to the fact that the number of those who
have received an adequate mathematical training and are
prepared to devote themselves to geography is few. When we
turn to Physical Geography in its treatment of the land we
^o find a field which has been more actively worked, for this
Importance of Geographical Research 63
4S just the one to which the traveller's and explorer's oDserva-
tions should contribute most largely, and where therefore their
material should be utilised with the best results. Even here
there is room for much more work of the detailed and critical
type, which is not merely general and descriptive, but starts
from the careful collection of data, proceeds to the critical
discussion of them, and continues by a comparison of the
results with those obtained in similar observations in other
regions.
To take a single branch of Physical Geography, the study
<of Rivers, the amount of accurate material which has been
adequately discussed is small. In our own country the
rainfall of various river basins is well known through the
efforts of a meteorological Association, but the proportion of
it which is removed by evaporation, and of that which passes
into the soil, has only been very partially studied. Passing
to the run-off, which is more easy to determine satisfactorily,
the carefully measured discharges of streams and rivers are
not nearly so numerous as they should be if the hydrography
of the rivers is to be adequately discussed ; for although the
important rivers have been gauged by the authorities respon-
sible for them in many cases, the results have usually been
filed, and the information which has been published is usually
a final value but without either the original data from which
it has been deduced, or a full account given of the methods
of measurement which have been employed. For the require-
ments of the authority concerned such a record is no doubt
adequate, but the geographer requires the more detailed
information if he is to co-ordinate satisfactorily the volume
discharged with local rainfall, with changes in the rates of
^erosion or deposition, and the many other phenomena which
make up the life-history of a river. Here too it is usually only
the main stream which has been investigated ; the tributaries
still await a similar and even fuller study. A valuable contri-
bution to work of this kind exists in the hydrographical study
of the Medway and of the Exe which has been undertaken by
a Committee of the Royal Geographical Society during recent
years, and this may serve as a guide to other workers; but,
however welcome such a piece of work may be, I should much
prefer to see the hydrography of a tributary of a river system
worked out by a geographer as a piece of individual work,
just as the geology or the botany or the zoology of a single
64 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
restricted area is investigated by those whose interests are
centred in these subjects.
In the same way we still know too little of the amounts of
the dissolved and suspended matter which is carried down by
our streams at various seasons of the year and in the different
parts of their course. This class of investigation does not
need very elaborate equipment, and may provide the oppor-
tunity for much useful study, which may be extended as
information is increasingly acquired. In this way when
numerous individual workers have studied the conditions
prevailing in their own areas, and traced them through their
seasonal and yearly variations, we shall possess a mass of
valuable data with which we may undertake a revision of the
results which have been arrived at in past years by various
workers from such data as were then at their disposal.
In this one branch of the subject there is ample scope for
workers of all interests in the measurement of discharges, in
the determination of level, and of the movement of flood waves,
in determining the amount of matter transported both in
suspension and in solution, in tracing out the changes of the
river channel, in following out the variation of the water-table
which feeds the stream, in ascertaining the loss of water by
seepage in various parts of its course, and generally in study-
ing the hundred other phenomena which are well worth
investigating, and which give ample scope for workers of all
kinds and of all opportunities. There is work not only in the
field, but also in the laboratory and in the library which needs
doing, for the full account of even a single stream can only
be prepared when data of all classes have been collected and
discussed.
On the Scottish lakes much valuable scientific work has
been done, and also on some of the English lakes, so that
excellent examples of how such work should be done are
available as a guide to anyone who will devote his spare time
for a year or two in making a thorough acquaintance with the
characteristics and phenomena of any lake to which he has
access.
Coast-lines provide another class of geographical control
which repays detailed study, and presents numberless oppor-
tunities for systematic investigation and material for many
profitable studies in geography. The shores of these islands
include almost every variety of type, and furnish exceptional
Importance of Geographical Research 65
opportunities for research of a profitable character, especially
as lying on the border-line between the domain of the oceano-
grapher on the one hand and the physiographer on the other.
The precise methods of representation which are possible on
the land have to give way to a more generalised treatment over
the sea, and the shore line is liable to be handed over to the
latter sphere, so tliat there is much interesting and useful work
open to anyone who will make an accurate and detailed study
of a selected piece of coast-line, co-ordinating it with the
phenomena of the land and sea respectively.
The teaching of Professor Davis in pressing for the
employment of systematic methods in describing the land-
scapes with which the geographer has to deal has brought
about a more rational treatment, in which due recognition is
given to the structure of the area, and the processes which
have moulded it, so that land forms are now for the most part
described more or less adequately in terms which are familiar
to all geographers and which convey definite associated ideas,
in the light of which the particular description is adequately
appreciated. It has been urged by some that such technical
terms are unnecessary and serve to render the writings in
which they occur intelligible only to the few; that anyone
should be able to express his meaning in words and sentences
which will convey his meaning to all. There is no great
difficulty in doing this, but in such descriptions to convey all
that a technically -worded account can give to those wha
understand its terms would be long and involved on account
of the numerous related facts which would be included. It is.
consequently essential in all accurate work that certain terms >
should have very definite and restricted meanings, and such
technical terms, when suitably chosen, are not only convenient
in that they avoid circumlocution, but when used in the-
accepted sense at once suggest to the mind a whole series of
related and dependent conditions which are always associated^
with it.
The compilation of a glossary of geographical terms has;
been in progress in this country for many years without
having reached finality, and much of the difficulty which has
been experienced is doubtless due to the fact that so many
words have not been consistently used with a well-defined
meaning. Such looseness of expression is more liable to
occur in the case of foreign words which have been imported
66 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
in the first case by writers who are not scientifically trained,
and therefore do not use them in connection with a specified
set of conditions. This, however, is unimportant if only
scientific geographers, when they accept a term as a desirable
addition to the geographical vocabulary, will associate it
definitely with such conditions and use it consistently in that
connection. As an instance I may quote the word *' sadd,**
which etymologically means to block, or stop. This term was
naturally and reasonably used to indicate masses of uprooted
marsh vegetation which had been carried along by the current
and, if checked at a sharp bend or a narrow point of the stream,
blocked the channel. So long as it is used in this restricted
sense it is a useful term to describe a phenomenon which
occurs under certain definite conditions and which leads to
equally well-defined geographical results. This use of it is
associated with a meandering river channel in an alluvial
flood plain, where shallow lagoons occur, in which such marsh
vegetation grows luxuriantly ; when this vegetation is uprooted
by storms and carried by the rising water into the main stream
it provides the drift material which makes up the block or
" sadd."
But this term has been extended immoderately to mean
the region in which these physical conditions occur, or the
type of vegetation which grows under these conditions, and
•even the type of country where such conditions prevail. One
writer has even used the word in describing fossil vegetation
of a character such as is associated with marsh lands.
The crystallisation of such geographical terms into true
technical terms is an important step in the furtherance of
scientific geography, but it must be done by the geographers
themselves, and no means of doing this is more fruitful than
the work of original research and investigation in definite
areas or on specific problems.
It would take too long to discuss each branch of physical
geography and indicate the opportunities for individual effort,
but what has been said of one may be said of all the others.
Not only in all parts of the Empire but in these islands also
there is ample opportunity for the detailed geographical study
of single localities or individual phenomena, just as much as
in geology, in botany, or in zoology ; and it is these separate
pieces of work which, when thoroughly carried out and criti-
cally discussed, provide the material on which wider generali-
Importance of Geographical Research 67
■sations or larger investigations can be based. Herein lies,
therefore, the importance of the prosecution of them by as
many workers as possible, and the value of communicating
the results to others for criticism and for comparison with the
results which they have obtained ; for such work, if it cannot
be made accessible to other workers in the same and related
■fields, loses a large proportion of its value.
If we now consider some of the problems of human
geography we shall find the need for such systematic study to
be even greater; for the variable factors involved are more
numerous than in physical geography, and many of them are
difficult to reduce to precise statement ; the quantitative study
of the subject is therefore much more difficult than the qualita-
tive or descriptive, so that the latter is too frequently adopted
to the exclusion of the former. The remedy lies, I believe, in
individual research into special cases and special areas where
the factors involved are not too numerous, where some of them
at least can be defined with some accuracy, and where, conse-
quently, deductions can be drawn with some precision and
with an accuracy which gives grounds for confidence in the
result. The settlements of man, his occupations, his move-
ments in their geographical relations are manifested every-
where, and subjects of study are to be found without difficulty,
but their investigation must be based on actual observation,
and on data which have been carefully collected and critically
examined, so that the subject may be treated as completely as
possible, and in such a way that the evidence is laid before
the reader in order that he may form his own conclusions.
It is probable that some of the lack of precision which is
to be found in this part of the subject is to be attributed to
the want of precision in its terminology. For many things
in human geography good technical terms are required, but
these must be selected by those who have studied the type or
phenomenon concerned and have a clear idea of the particular
conditions which they desire to associate with the term ; this
is not the work of a Committee of Selection, but must grow
out of the needs of the individual workers.
There is, it must be admitted, no small difficulty in using
the same preciseness of method in this portion of the subject
as is readily attainable in mathematical geography, and is
usually practicable in physiography ; but at any rate it is
aindesirable to indicate any condition as the controlling one
6S Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
until all other possible influences have been carefully examined
and have been shown to have less weight than that one which
has been selected.
Whether the investigation deals with the settlements of
man or his movements and means of communication it is
important that in the first instance problems of a manageable
size should be undertaken and thoroughly treated, leaving
larger areas and wider generalisations until a sufficient stock
of thoroughly reliable material which is in the form in which
it can properly be used for wider aims is available.
The relation of geographical conditions to small settlements
can be satisfactorily worked out if sufficient trouble is taken
and all possible sources of information, both of present date
and of periods which have passed away, are utiHsed. Such
studies are of a real value and pave the way to more elaborate
studies, but we need more serious study of these simpler cases
both to set our facts in order and to provide a methodical
classification of the conditions which prevail in this part of the
subject. Out of such studies there will grow such a series of
terms with well-defined associations as will give a real precision
to the subject which it seems at the present time to lack.
The same benefit is to be anticipated from detailed work
in relation to man's communications and the interchange of
commodities in all their varied relations. Generalised and
descriptive accounts are readily to be found, and these are for
the most part supported by tables of statistics, all of which
have their value and present truths of great importance in
geography, but the spirit of active research which aims at
clearing up thoroughly a small portion of the wide field of
geographical activities has unequalled opportunities in the
somewhat shadowy relations between the phenomena which
we meet in this part of the subject, for focussing the facts
better, and obtaining a more exact view of the questions
involved.
Where the geography of States (political geography) is
concerned the same need for original investigation as a basis
for generalisations may be seen. At the present time there
is much said about the various boundaries of States, and in
general terms the advantages and disadvantages of different
boundaries under varied conditions can be stated with fair
approximation to accuracy. But I do not know of many
detailed examinations of these boundaries or portions of thent
Importance of Geographical Research 69
where full information of all the factors involved can be found
set out in an orderly and authoritative manner, thus forming
a sure foundation for the generalised description and providing
the means of verifying its correctness or revising it where
necessary.
Perhaps there is really more scientific research in
geography being undertaken by individuals than I have given
credit for, but certainly in geographical periodicals, and in
the bibliographies which are published annually, the amount
shown is not large ; neither is the number of authors as large
as might be expected from the importance and interest of the
subject and from the activity of those centres where geography
is seriously taught. There seems to be no reason why
individual research on true scientific lines should not be as
active in geography as it is in geology, botany, zoology, or
any other branch of knowledge ; and, just as in these, the real
advance on the subject is dependent on such investigations
rather than on travels and explorations in little-known lands,
unless these too are carried out scientifically and by thoroughly
trained observers who know the problems which there await
solution, and can read the evidence which lies before them on
their route.
If research in these directions is being actively prosecuted,
but the appearance of its results is delayed, let us seek out
the retarding causes if there be any, and increase any facilities
that may be desirable to assist individual efforts.
Short technical papers of a thoroughly scientific character,
such as are the outcome of serious individual research, are, of
course, not suitable for those meetings of Geographical
Societies where the majority of the Fellows present are not
scientific geographers, but should be presented to small
meetings of other workers in the same or allied fields, where
they can be completely criticised. The reading, discussion,
and the publication of papers of this class are for geography
a great desideratum, for it is in them and by them that all
real advance in the subject is made, rather than by tales of
travel, however interesting, if these are not the work of one
trained in the subject, having a knowledge of what he should
observe, and of what his predecessors have done in the same
field. The regional aspect of geography in the hands of its
best exponents has given to young geographers a wide and
comprehensive outlook on the interaction of the various
70 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
geographical factors in a region, the responses between the
earth's surface and the life upon it, and the control that one
factor may exercise upK>n another. In this form the fascina-
tion of geographical study is apparent to everyone, but I
sometimes wonder whether the exposition of such a regional
study by one who is thoroughly master of the component
factors, having a first-hand knowledge of all the material
involved, and knowing exactly the reliability of each portion,
impresses sufficiently upon the student the necessity of
personal research into the details of some problem or
phenomenon in such a way as to gain a real working acquaint-
ance with them ; or does it on the other hand tend to encourage
generalisations based on descriptive accounts which have not
been verified, and where coincidences and similarities may be*
accepted without further inquiry as evidence of a causal
connection which may not really exist ? I imagine that the
student may be attracted by the apparent simplicity of a
masterly account of the geographical controls and responses
involved, and may fail to realise that geographical descrip-
tions, even though technically phrased, are not the equivalent
of original quantitative investigation, either for his own
education or as a contribution to the subject.
For these reasons I believe that Societies can-do far more
good in the promotion of geography as a science by assisting
competent investigators, by the loan of books and instruments
and by giving facilities for the discussion and publication of
technical papers, than by undertaking the investigation of
problems themselves.
Among the earlier Presidential Addresses of this Section
some have laid stress on the importance of the recognition by
the State of geography in education ; others have represented
the great part which the Geographical Societies have played
in supporting and advancing the subject; others again have
urged the fuller recognition of geography by educational
institutions. I would on this occasion attach special import-
ance to the prosecution of serious research by individuals in
any branch of the subject that is accessible to them, to the
discussion of the results of such by others of like interests,
and to the publication of such studies as having a real value in
promoting the advancement of scientific geography.
Delegate's Report 71
MEETING OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR
THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE, MAN-
CHESTER, SEPTEMBER 7x11— iith, 1915.
(Report of the Delegate, Harry Sowerbutts, A.R.C.Sc,
taken as read at the Meeting of the Society held on
Tuesday, December 14th, 191 5.)
This meeting was curtailed in regard both to length of the
meeting and to the social gatherings, on account of the condi-
tion of affairs due to the War.
The opinion was expressed by many that the amount ot
benefit which would accrue to Science from the discussions
and decisions at the meeting itself would be equal to, if not
greater than, usual, but of course the smaller membership
would necessitate a slight reduction of the amount available for
grants to finance the Committees appointed to carry on
Scientific Investigation and Research.
The Conference of the Delegates of Corresponding
Societies met on two occasions, both of which meetings your
delegate attended. At the first meeting the President of the
Conference, Professor Sir T. H. Holland, K.C.I. E., F.R.S.^
gave an address on "The Classification of Scientific
Societies." The main point raised was whether it is more
satisfactory for local scientific societies (which deal with
science generally) to each publish the papers read at their
meetings than for the Royal Society to decide which papers
were of important scientific value and worthy a place in the
Journal of the Royal Society, to print these therein and thus
give them a world-wide circulation. The question was
referred to the Committee of the Conference for consideration.
After consideration, if advisable, they will refer the question
to the different Societies, so that the delegates may be able to
take definite action, if thought fit, at the next meeting of the
Association at Newcastle.
A paper on ** Local Museums *' was given by Mr. W. E.
Hoyle, M.A., D.Sc, of Cardiff, late of Manchester. One
point raised was the doubt if sufficient care was taken in many
local museums of valuable additions, and if the most valuable
72 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
objects should not be sent to National or similar Museums,
where they would be safer, and possibly, replicas of such
objects would be deposited in the local museum.
At the second meeting a paper on ''Colour Standards*'
was read by Mr. J. Ramsbottom, M.A., and, after discussion,
it was resolved that the Committee of the Conference be
requested to consider this matter, and if, after consultation
with representative manufacturers and others, further action
seems possible, to refer the matter to the various Correspond-
ing Societies, so that the question of the issue of a colour
standard at a reasonable price may be brought before the
delegates at Newcastle.
The papers read in Section E (Geography) were mainly of
a scientific character. The address sent by the President
of the Section (Major H. G. Lyons, F.R.S.), who owing to
urgent duties for the War Office was unable to attend, was the
most important, and will be found preceding this Report
(p. 52). This address will be brought before the Council for
consideration, and if thought advisable, some action may be
taken after the conclusion of the war to carry out some of the
suggestions contained therein.
The address which attracted the largest attendance was that
by Professor Patrick Geddes and Miss M. Barker on "The
Growth of Cities.**
After the address, which was the last given in Section E,
those present, on the invitation of the Professor, proceeded to
the School of Technology to inspect the collection of Exhibits
organised originally by the Professor in Edinburgh last
February, taken in July to King's College, London, in
connection with the Summer Meeting there and now brought
to Manchester. In one room were a series of diagrams,
charts, photographs and essays, many by children, relating
to regional surveys, and also diagrams illustrating the growth
of cities (usually on unsatisfactory lines). The other four
rooms contained a collection of maps, diagrams, pictures and
literature dealing with war and its problems, more especially
in relation to the present war. The whole exhibition was of
intense interest to all who attended.
Another paper of great interest was on "The Racial
Distribution in the Balkans,** by Professor Elliot Smith,
F.R.S., delivered at a joint meeting of Sections E and H in
the rooms of Section H (Anthropology). At this meeting the
Delegate's Report
/*>
President-elect of the Association, Sir A. J. Evans, F.R.S.,
spoke in description of a Map which he had prepared to
illustrate the Ethnic Relations between the Adriatic, the Drave
and the Danube.
There was an afternoon devoted to Australian Questions,
when Mr. O. J. R. Howarth, M.A., Professor J. W. Gregory,
F.R.S., Mr. J. McFarlane, M.A., M.Com., F.R.G.S., and
Mr. H. Yule Oldham, M.A., F.R.G.S., spoke. They had all
visited Australia in the previous year and so were able to give
valuable original information.
Several papers were read, dealing with local Geography,
such as were suggested by the President of the Section in his
Address. The two chief papers of this character were upon
the ''Leek District" by Mr. R. Curtis, and ''The Middle
Tees " by Mr. C. B. Fawcett.
Mr. A. R. Hinks, F.R.S., F.R.G.S., the Secretary of the
Royal Geographical Society, made some remarks in continua-
tion of his paper in the Geographical Journal dealing with the
Map on the Scale i : 1,000,000, which is being prepared by the
Royal Geographical Society for the War Office. He specially
mentioned the representation of elevation by varying shades
of colour, and the names of countries, etc., on the Map. It
has been decided to print a small key map on each sheet giving
the boundaries of countries, etc., with the names of the larger
areas. Colonel H. T. Crook, D.L., in discussing the matter
expressed his agreement with the proposals of Mr. Hinks,
especially as regards leaving the names of large areas off the
sheets of the map.
There were only two papers describing journeys, by
Professor P. M. Roxby on " North China and Korea," and
Dr. R. N. Rudmose Brown on " Spitsbergen," which were
both of great interest.
The various meetings thus gave the leading geographers
of the country the opportunity to deal with the subjects in
which they were specially interested, and to exchange ideas
on various points, as discussions generally took place after
the papers.
The evening discourses delivered in the Free Trade Hall
were not of a geographical character, though the President's
Address was a fine intellectual treat and well worth reading,
and the two scientific lectures dealing with Botany and
Astronomy were of interest, as containing new and original
74 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
matter. Some of the lantern slides on both occasions had not
been shown previously in public.
The Reception in the School of Technology by the Right
Hon. the Lord Mayor and the Lady Mayoress was welF
attended and very successful. The visits to works and'
institutions were, I am given to understand, satisfactorily
carried out.
As mentioned previously the meeting was considered to-
have been as satisfactory a meeting as any of the earlier ones,
when the special circumstances of the war were taken into
account, and to have fully justified the action of the Council
of the Association and of the Local Committee in deciding to
hold the meeting at this time.
The meeting next year will be held in Newcastle-on-Tyne,
with Sir Arthur J. Evans, F.R.S., as President.
" The North-West and Nortli-East Passages, 1576 — 161 1." Edited by
P. F. Alexander, M.A. Cambridge : University Press.
The volume opens with a useful list of the world's most important
geographical discoveries dating from B.C. 327 to the voyage of Captain
Scott to the South Pole, and then gives a concise and well edited
record of the early voyages between 1576 — 1611, readable alike to the
student and to the casual reader. It represents a library of Arctic
literature told in the words of the chroniclers of those times, and
embraces the voyages of Frobisher, Davis, Hudson's last voyage and
Barents (third voyage) . The link of the latter with modern times is to
be found in the discovery of ancient relics, brought from Nova Zembla
in 1871, after lying undisturbed for 300 years. There is a good view of
these relics as they repose in the National Museum at Amsterdam.
The book contains 18 illustrations, excellent reproductions of the
original woodcuts.
The only improvement that could be suggested in this admirable
collection of early vo3^ages would be a chart showing the various routes-
taken by these early pioneers of Arctic discovery. G.H.W.
Annual Meeting 75
annual riDecting, 1915-
The 30th Annual Meeting of the Society was held, by kind
permission, in the Lord Mayor's Parlour, Town Hall, Man-
chester, on Friday, May 7th, 1915, at 3-0 p.m.
The Right Hon. the Lord Mayor (Mr. Alderman McCabe)
presided.
The following members and friends attended : — Mr. Harry
Nuttall, M.P., F.R.G.S., the Right Rev. Bishop Welldon,
D.D., Messrs. E. W. Mellor, J. P., F.R.G.S., and F.
Zimmern, F.R.G.S., Miss E. Blanchoud, Mrs. Bucknall,
Mrs. G. W. Nichols, Miss L. E. Walter, H.M.L, B.Sc,
Messrs. J. E. Balmer, F.R.G.S., Gustav Behrens, J.P., W. J.
Dean, R. M. Downie, C. T. I, Garner, G. Ginger, J. W.
Goodwin, Wm. Harper, Alderman Thos. Hassall, J. P.,
Hinmers, Rev. W. H. Leak, W. Booth Leech, A. W.
Longden, W. A. M'Grath, F. Mills, G. W. Nichols, J.
Stephenson Reid, T. M.Smith, Harry Sowerbutts, A.R.C.Sc,
T. W. Sowerbutts, F.S.A.A., R. A. Staniforth, R. B. Stoker,,
F.R.G.S., George Thomas, J. P., Cecil B. Thonger, Joel
Wainwright, J. P., T. F. Wilkinson, S. W. Williams, Ralph
Yates, J. P., and others.
Apologies were received from Messrs. D. A. Little and
J. Howard Reed, F.R.G.S.
The Minutes of the Twenty-ninth Annual Meeting, held
on May 8th, 1914, were taken as read, a full Report appearing
in the Journal, Vol. XXX, page 88.
The following Annual Report and Balance-Sheet were
submitted by the Secretary, who made explanatory references
to the principal matters dealt with therein.
REPORT OF THE COUNCIL
For the Year ending December 31ST, 1914.
The Council have pleasure in reporting that^ notwithstanding-
the national crisis, the work of the Society has been carried:
on successfully during the year.
76 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
The weekly meetings held during the winter months have
been more largely attended than in any previous year, and
the Council desire to express their thanks to all those who
have given valuable help.
Unfortunately on three occasions many members were
unable to obtain admission owing to the large attendance,
and the Council therefore thought it advisable to call the
attention of members to Rule 26, which provides that each
ordinary member may introduce one visitor only.
The interesting and instructive character of the lectures
.^delivered will be seen from the following list : —
"Manchester to the Highlands of Scotland by Road." Mr.
Charles Sutton.
"The Theatre of the War." Rev. T. T. Norgate, F.R.G.S.,
F.R.Hist.S.
" A Few Places in Sweden." Mr. H. L. Joseland, M.A.
" The Romance and Tragedy of the Volga and its Towns." Mr.
Wm. Barnes Steveni.
*' Where Three Empires Meet : Poland." Mr. Samuel Wells,
F.R.G.S.
•" A Geographer's Holiday Study of the Rhine and the Rhine-
land." Mr. Albert Wilmore, D.Sc, F.G.S.
-" A Journey to the Rhine and the Black Forest." Mr. Charles
Sutton.
'" In the Zuider Zee." Mr. T. E. Green, F.R.G.S.
" Belgium : The Land of Art ; Its Economic and Political
History." Mr. Arnold Williams.
" Belgium, the Battleground of Europe." Mr. Albert Wilmore,
D.Sc, F.G.S.
•" To and Over the Simplon Pass." Mr. W. H. Ward.
" Sunny Sicily." Mr. George Ginger.
" Tramps in the Tyrol." Mr. G. Waterhouse, F.R.G.S.
" Journeys in the Middle East." Mr. M. Philips Price, F.R.G.S.
" Armenia, in Olden Times and Nowadays." Professor C. F.
Lehmann-Haupt, Ph.D., LL.D.
" A Holiday in the Indian Empire." Mr. John Hancock.
" lit the Home of the Rajput." Mr. E. W. Mellor, J.P., F.R.G.S.
" British Burma." Mr. E. G. P. Cotelingam.
•" The Marches of Chinese Tibet." Mr. T. M. Ainscough, M.Com.,
F.R.G.S.
Annual Meeting 77
** Newfoundland : Our Oldest Colony." Mr. W. Herbert Garrison,.
F.R.G.S.
** America's Wonderland : The Yellowstone Park." Mr. W. H.
Shrubsole, F.G.S.
" Personal Experiences among Maoris and Mountains in New
Zealand." Mrs. Edward Melland (late of New Zealand).
'* A Journey round the World, with special reference to the Far
East." Mrs. H. L. Lees, F.R.G.S., A.R.C.I.
" Recent Great Earthquakes." Mr. F. E. Tilleniont-Thomason,
F.R.G.S.
** vSome Recent Changes in our National Maps." Colonel H. T.
Crook, J.P., V.D.
" The Influences of Geographical Environment." Mr. G. R.
Swaine, F.R.Met.Soc.
" The Genesis of Geography." Miss Kate Qualtrough, F.R.G.S.
rthese addresses, with the exception of four, were delivered
in the Geographical Hall, three being given in the Houlds-
worth Hall, and one in the Free Trade Hall.
As a result of the lectures by Mr. Hilaire Belloc in the
Free Trade Hall, and by the Rev. T. T. Norgate, F.R.G.S.,
in the Houldsworth Hall, sums amounting to ;^5o 17s, 5d.
in the former case and of ;^i8 17s. lod. in the latter case
were handed over to the Belgian Relief Fund.
The lectures by Mr. E. W. Mellor, J.P., F.R.G.S., and
Mr. T. E. Green, F.R.G.S., in the Houldsworth Hall were
well attended, and the large audiences fully appreciated the
able addresses delivered, and the fine lantern illustrations
(including many photographs in colour) and, in the case of
Mr. Mellor's lecture, the cinematograph views which were-
shown.
The Council thank the Vice-Chairman, Mr. E. W. Mellor,
J. P., F.R.G.S., for the use of his powerful electric lantern
for the lectures in the Houldsworth Hall and the Free Trade
Hall, and for engaging the Houldsworth Hall for the two
lectures in January. His valuable help is highly appreciated.
The Journal for 1913 has been issued during the year in
half-yearly parts.
Valuable additions to the Library and Map Collection
have been made during the year, full particulars of which are
given in the Journal.
78 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
The services so freely given by the Victorians in lecturing
are greatly esteemed.
The Council greatly deplore the loss by death of the
following members : —
His Grace the Duke of Argyll, K.G/K.T.,G.C.M.G.,&c.
Mr. J. H .Abbott.
Mr. G. H. Bell.
Mr. C. Beving.
Mr. G. I. Blake.
Mr. A. R. Colquhoun, F.R.G.S.
Mr. J. G. Groves, D.L.
Mr. Hy. Kirkpatrick, J. P.
Mr. James Leigh.
Mr. Joseph Lunn.
Mr. S. Massey.
Mr. T. Newbigging, M.Inst.C.E.
Mr. Frank Radcliffe.
Mr. Wm. Rigby.
Mr. G. Reiss.
Mr. Sahs Simon, Swedish Consul.
The Balance Sheet for the year with the Report of the
Honorary Auditor is appended.
It will be seen that there is a small deficiency on the
Revenue Account for the year.
The Council greatly appreciate the generosity of Mrs.
Thomasson and of Mr. George Thomas, J. P., in presenting
fifty shares and ten shares respectively in the Manchester
Geographical Society Building Co., Ltd.
It has been considered advisable to open an Investment
Reserve Account against the shares in the Building Company
now in the hands of the Society.
The number of members on December 31, 1914, was 721,
being a net increase of 13 during the year.
Additions to the membership are urgently needed to take
the place of members who have had to withdraw owing to the
war, so as to enable the work of the Society to be carried on
as efficiently as possible.
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Annual Meeting 8i
The Lord Mayor, in moving the adoption of the report and
balance-sheet, said that, considering the times, he thought
they were fairly satisfactory. Next year promised to be better
because they would have some interest from the shares in the
Building Company. Regarding the membership, it would be
a pity if there was any marked falling off. A great commercial
city like Manchester, with so many interests throughout the
world, should not be remiss in supporting such a Society. He
believed that the Manchester Geographical Society was the
second to be founded in the British Isles. It was almost a
fortnight before the one established in Edinburgh, and to be
in front of the Scottish was in itself a great achievement. He
remembered, in reading the proceedings that were held in the
Athenaeum, under the chairmanship of Mr. J. F. Hutton, to
celebrate the formation of the Society, that Lord Aberdare said
that for every square mile in Great Britain and Ireland we
had sixty-six square miles across the sea. Lord Aberdare
referred to the extent of other countries' possessions, but did
not mention Germany. That country, the Lord Mayor
thought, must have had very small possessions at that time>
but since then it had annexed many places. When the Man-
chester Society was started, however, Germany had a similar
number of Geographical Societies to France, namely, twenty-
four. That showed that Germany was even then much alive
to the importance of knowing all it could about the world and
where commerce could be promoted. It was essential for us,
as commercial people, to take a keen interest in Geography
and so gain a knowledge of possible markets for our manufac-
turers and of places where we could get raw materials.
Mr. E. W. Mellor, J.P., F.R.G.S., Vice-Chairman of the
Council, who seconded the resolution, said that he thought
they would agree that the Executive Committee had worked
the affairs of the Society during a somewhat trying season
with very great care and with thrift. At the outset of the
session it was a question with the Committee whether they
were justified, with all the horrors of a great war prevailing,
in organising a series of lectures. As they could not arrive
at a decision they referred the question to the Council. The
Council, very wisely he thought, came to the conclusion that
the civilian population required something to occupy their
minds besides the daily tale of fighting and that the occupa-
tion of their minds might just as well be of an intellectual
G
82 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
character as of light amusement. Therefore the Committee
were empowered to arrange a series of lectures, and the result
was that they had had a very interesting and intellectual series,
while many of the lectures had also partaken of an entertain-
ing character. The lectures, too, were arranged with some
degree of enterprise, because it was entirely due to the work of
the Committee that, for example, they succeeded in getting
Mr. Hilaire Belloc, at a time when he was extremely busy, to
come and lecture. The interest in this side of the Society's
work was shown by the crowded attendances, so crowded that
it became necessary to call the attention of members to the
fact that they were each entitled to introduce one friend only.
It was not that the Society did not welcome guests, but because
it was hardly fair that members who paid subscriptions should
have difficulty in getting into the room. The Society has lost
in deaths just a little more than the average number of
members, and it was a bad time, perhaps, when people had so
much to occupy their minds and had so many calls upon their
pockets, to ask for additions to the membership. At the same
time, if the Society was to keep up its useful work and arrange
high-class lectures, it was necessary to have the wherewithal
to carry out such work, and that could only be got by keeping
up the number of members. Therefore, he hoped members
would do their best to induce friends to join the Society.
The Right Rev. Bishop Welldon, in supporting the
resolution, which was carried unanimously, agreed that the
decision to maintain the lectures during the war was a wise
one. Apart from the constant interest a city like Manchester
should have in Geography, there was a need for giving people
something else to think of as well as the war. The war was
becoming an obsession and there was need of relief, both
artistic and intellectual. It could not be doubted that the war
itself had thrown light upon the geography of places that
were not known before by a great many people. It might be
well in future lectures to look at events which were already
casting their shadows upon the world. There would be when
the war was over such political and material changes as had
never, or seldom, occurred in past history. It was, therefore,
very important to increase our knowledge of geography.
Lord Curzon had drawn attention to mistakes made by
English statesmen in the past through ignorance of geo-
graphy. There would be a re-making not only of the map of
Annual Meeting 83
Europe but, to some extent, of the whole world. He hoped
that that re-making would be on sound, scientific, and
righteous principles, and that when it did take place the
interests of the British Empire would be thoroughly recog-
nised. No one in that room, however, would wish Great
Britain to pursue any selfish policy, or greed, in the manner
of the German Empire. He hoped that schoolmasters would
be wiser than in his generation, and give more attention to
geography. The Society was doing good work and he
heartily commended it to the support of the public.
Mr. Harry Nuttall, M.P., F.R.G.S., the President of the
Society, then gave an Address. When he addressed them
about a year ago he pointed out that the prospects of the
world were especially bright. We were looking to, and
believing we would have, good harvests. The Balkan settle-
ment had taken place, and no one would have believed that
the whole of that question would be revived in so compara-
tively short a time. He remembered saying that we were left
to the peaceful occupation of making new maps of that part
of the world. Communications and facilities for exchanging
products had increased very rapidly. Nations had come
closer together. There was greater international confidence
in trade and finance, and altogether at that time a great
impetus was being given to the development of the world and
its resources.
But three months later all this was put an end to, and the
greatest war in history suddenly burst upon us, putting an
end to all our hopes of present progress.
In regard to Geographical Exploration there was not much
new in consequence of the war. Nevertheless we had some
interesting information as to expeditions which had already
been arranged for, and seeing that we were interested both
in scientific and commercial geography, it would be well to
look at not only the explorations which were going on, but
also at the great geographical problems which would arise out
of and after the war.
With regard to the first, explorations, there was a report
from Sir Aurel Stein, whose expedition into Central Asia,
under the auspices of the Indian Government, he referred to
last year. In the report. Sir Aurel Stein mentioned, for
example, his discoveries in the neighbourhood of the old
^Chinese wall. He found there relics of the occupation of that
84 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
distant part of the Chinese Empire which had remained where
he found them for i,ooo years, relics of implements and similar
things.
He referred last year to the Mawson Expedition, and since
then we had had a publication by Sir Douglas Mawson. A
most important part of his work was mapping a great area in
the Antarctic borders, and also his investigations with regard
to meteorology, which were of the highest importance to
Australia. There had been a large number of minor expedi-
tions, a considerable number of which were undertaken by
Russians. He referred especially to those because of our
present and future interest in Russia. That Russian
continent — he called it such because it was so large, especially
in Asia — had been explored and exploited probably less than
any other part of the world. It had immense resources, both
mineral and agricultural, which it was hoped, when the war
was over, would be developed through the greater friendship
and intimacy which would exist between Russia and Great
Britain. That development might make up for some of the
other difficulties and drawbacks we should have to suffer.
The Russian Expeditions were mainly in Polar Regions,
starting from Northern Russia in Europe and Asia. There
were yet no results to report, but we could reflect upon the
courage and enterprise of the Russians, and we had ta
sympathise with them because the explorers had been very
unfortunate. Captain Sedoff had lost his life in trying to
penetrate Franz Joseph Land. Parties under Brusiloff and
Russanoff were missing, and Dr. Sverdrup, the Norwegian
explorer, had gone in search of them. There was also another
Russian explorer, Vilkitsky, missing.
Dr. Fillipi, who started for Northern Kashmir about a year
ago, had completed his explorations, and there was a good
deal that was interesting about them. He determined
longitudes, by wireless, probably the first time by that
method, and latitudes by astronomical observations. He was
also engaged in meteorology and other subjects. Captain
Bailey and Mr. Morshead had completed their explorations
of the Brahmaputra, tracing the course of the river among the
Himalayas almost to its source.
Another instance of the unceasing activity of geographers
was that the Dutch were systematically engaged on the
exploration of Western New Guinea. We had also had the-
Annual Meeting 85
expedition, under Mr. Massey Baker and Mr. H. J. Ryan,
in British Papua.
Captain Amundsen's expedition to the North Pole, which
he proposed to carry on by similar methods to those of Dr.
Nansen, had been postponed. As to Sir Ernest Shackleton,
we should be having news of him about this time. If he
started, as he expected to do, in December last from Weddell
Sea he should have arrived at Ross Sea this month. If we
•did not hear from him before very long it would be probably
next March before we heard from him. It was a journey of
1,700 miles from Weddell Sea to Ross Sea.
Touching upon the teaching of Geography, Mr. Nuttall
said that, perceiving the deficiency in that matter, one of the
first things the Society took in hand was to try to encourage
greater study of geography and draw more attention to the
subject. As a result they had, twenty-seven years ago, an
exhibition in the Royal Institution in Mosley Street, and for a
period they provided part of the cost of a lecturer in
Geography at Owens College. It is of interest to note that the
first lecturer appointed here is now head of the Geographical
Department at Cambridge University, and the second is
head of the same department at Oxford. Thus the Society
claimed that they had done a good deal in bringing geography
into its right place as a subject of study.
Turning to geographical problems which would be created
by the war, he said that whatever happened after the war there
was no doubt we would see a very different world from that
we lived in at present. A portion of the population formerly
was set aside for the purposes of defence, but now we were in
the position that the whole of the vigorous manhood of nations
came into the field to fight. If the whole of the vigorous male
population was to be engaged in fighting no man could calcu-
late what the end of it would be, nor could any man foretell
when the war would end. Every country was affected by the
war, either directly or indirectly, and there would be great
poverty and difficulties over the whole world when the war was
finished. The longer the war went on and the worse would
be the effect. It was a curious thing that some time previous
to the breaking out of the war there appeared to be a great
movement or upheaval over the whole world, both East and
West. Chinese women, for example, burst into their House
of Assembly about their votes. Japan had become very active
86 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
and in a way which caused us great anxiety. She joined us^
or we joined her, in turning the Germans out of China, and
now, as far as we could gather, whilst everyone else was
engaged in the war, she was trying to establish for herself
a predominant position in that country. All these things
added to problems brought about by the war, and it behoved
us to study these problems. We would see surprises that very
few of us expected or anticipated. Political boundaries would
be altered, trade currents and financial movements changed.
Great movements of populations would continue and probably
increase. It was a remarkable fact that the movement of
population for thousands of years had been always from East
to West. But not very long ago a movement began in the
opposite direction, and now we had, in America, the Chinese-
and Japanese meeting the movement of population to the
West.
Reverting to the war, Mr. Nuttall said, that for his part
he never believed that the Germans could have been such fools
as to risk in war all the prosperity they had acquired in the
world. They were said to be a very intelligent people, and
they were in a certain way, but if we wanted an example of
stupidity in main principles and great factors we had it in
what the Germans had done in plunging into this war. It
was an example of the greatest stupidity it was possible to
find.
After touching upon the folly of nations fighting against
each other instead of against the forces of nature for mutual
progress and development, he expressed the opinion that
through w^eight of numbers and resources we should eventually
and without doubt gain the victory. Might that victory come
soon, so that the nations would be brought into a sane state
of mind in regard to armaments and that even Germany
would learn how great a folly she had committed.
The Secretary announced that the retiring Officers and
Council had been nominated for election.
Mr. R. A. Staniforth, in moving the resolution " That the
Officers and Council, as nominated, be elected, and that the
thanks of the Meeting be given to the President for his
Address," expressed on behalf of the members thanks to the
retiring Officers and Council for their services during the
year, making special reference to the lectures which had been
arranged and to the crowded condition of the Hall on most
occasions.
Annual Meeting 87
Mr. Wm. Harper, in seconding the resolution, referred to
the very interesting address for which they were greatly
indebted to the President.
The resolution was passed unanimously. (See list of
Officers and Council with Title Page.)
Mr. J. Stephenson Reid drew attention to the fact that the
Society was now indebted to Mr. Theodore Gregory for thirty
years service as Honorary Auditor, and moved the following
resolution : — " That the best thanks of the Society be given
to Mr. Theodore Gregory, F.C.A., J.P., for his services as
Honorary Auditor, and that he be re-elected." Mr. T. M,
Smith seconded the resolution, which was passed unanimously.
Mr. Joel Wainwright, J. P., moved, Mr. T. W. Sowerbutts,
F.S. A. A., seconded the following resolution, which was passed
unanimously : — '' That the best thanks of this Meeting be
tendered to the Right Hon. the Lord Mayor for the use of his
Parlour, and for presiding over the Meeting."
88 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
procecMnQ6 of tbc Society.*
January ist to December 31st, 1915.
The 978th Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, January
5th, 1915, at 7.30 p.m. In the Chair, Mr. J. McFarlane, M.A., M.Com.,
F.R.G.S.
The Minutes of the Meeting held on December 15th and i8th
were taken as read.
The election of Messrs. I,. A. Galle, Belgian Consul, J. H. Billinge,
and E. H. Thomas, F.C.I. I., as Ordinary Members was announced.
The Chairman mentioned the loss by death of Sir James Duckworth,
Vice President, and a resolution of S3mipathy with Lady Duckworth
and family was passed by all present rising in silence.
Mr. H. Yule Oldham, M.A., F.R.G.S., gave a lecture on " Round
the World in War Time," and illustrated his address with many
original lantern views.
The Chairman moved and it was unanimously resolved that hearty
thanks be tendered to Mr. Oldham for the very interesting description
which he had given of his journey and for the illustrations shown.
The 979th Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, January
12th, 1915, at 7.30 p.m. In the Chair, Colonel H. T. Crook, D.L.,
V.D.
The Minutes of the Meeting held on January 5th were taken as
read.
The Chairman announced the election of Miss Welding as an
Ordinary Member, and Miss Wilkinson as an Associate.
Mr. J. A. Osbom gave a lecture on ** The Sea and the Shore : A
Study in Coast Erosion," and illustrated the lecture with many
lantern views
The Chairman, in moving a vote of thanks to the Lecturer, which
was passed unanimously, referred to the Royal Commission on Coast
Erosion and the delay of action thereon, also to the legal decision
re Coast Line which had enabled landowners to annex the land
covered at high water, and thus the amount of land taken into account
has been increased.
The 980th Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, January
19th, 1915, at 7.30 p.m. In the Chair, Mr. E. W. Mellor, J.P.,
F.R.G.S.
The Minutes of the Meeting held on January 12th were taken as
read.
• The Meetings are held in the Geographical Hall, unless other-
wise stated.
Proceedings 89
The Rev. A. W. Fox, M.A., gave a lecture on ** Life and Character
iu County Galway,'* illustrating his remarks with many lantern
views.
The Chairman moved, and it was unanimously resolved, that
hearty thanks be given to the lecturer for his racy, interesting and
instructive account, so well illustrated, of his visits to County Galway
and the Aran Islands.
The 981st Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, January
26th, 1915, at 7.30 p.m. In the Chair, Colonel H. T. Crook, D.L., V.D.
The Minutes of the Meeting held on January 19th were taken as
read.
The death of Mr. Ralph Peters, an original member of the Society,
was mentioned, and on the motion of the Chairman a resolution of
sympathy with his children was passed unanimously by all rising in
silence.
Mr. Samuel Wells, F.R.G.S., gave a lecture on " Across Europe
by water; from the Black Country to the Black Sea." The lecturer
illustrated his remarks with a very large number of lantern views.
The Chairman moved, and it was unanimously resolved, that the
hearty thanks of the meeting be given to the lecturer for his interest-
ing, instructive and humorous address and for the interesting slides
shown.
The 982nd Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, February
2nd, 1915, at 7.30 p.m. In the Chair, Mr. J. Stephenson Reid.
The Minutes of the Meeting held on January 26th were taken as
read.
The Chairman, after mentioning the loss by death of Mr. T. C.
Middleton, J.P., a member of the Council for twenty years, and of
Mr. N. Bradley, J. P., moved a resolution of S5ntnpathy with the
relatives of both. The resolution was passed by the members rising
in silence.
Mr. George Ginger described " Journeys in the Mediterranean/*
and illustrated his lecture with a large number of lantern views.
On the motion of the Chairman, a hearty vote of thanks was passed
to Mr. Ginger for his very interesting address and for the many slides
shown.
The 983rd Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, February
9th, 1915, at 7.30 p.m. In the Chair, Mr. J. A. Osbom.
The Minutes of the Meeting held on February 2nd were taken as
read.
The Chairman announced the election of Mr. W. J. Dean as an
Ordinary Member and Mrs. Hoole and Miss Lancashire as Associate
Members.
Mr. Gilbert Waterhouse, M.A., F.R.G.S., described " A Flying
Visit to Eastern Canada and the State of New York," and illustrated
his remarks with many original lantern views.
90 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
On the motion of Mr. R. A. Stanifortli, it was unanimously
resolved that the hearty thanks of the meeting be given to Mr.
Waterhouse for his humorous, instructive and interesting account of
his visit and for the slides shown.
The 984th Meeting of the Society was held in the Houldsworth
Hall, on Tuesday, February i6th, 1915, at 7.30 p.m. In the Chair,
Mr. E. W. Mellor, J.P., F.R.G.S.
The Chairman mentioned the loss by death of Mr. S. Barton
Worthington, to whose relatives a letter of condolence had been sent
by the Secretary by direction of the Council.
Mr. James Shaw, F.R.P.S., described " A Four Hundred Mile
Walk in Dolomite Tyrol," and illustrated his remarks with a large
number of natural colour and other lantern views, all ta^en by
himself and shown by the powerful electric lantern of the Vice-
Chairman.
On the motion of the Chairman, seconded by Mr. T. W. F.
Parkinson, M.Sc, F.G.S., a hearty vote of thanks was passed to the
lecturer for the very interesting account of his journeys in the Tyrol
and for the magnificent slides shown.
The lecturer, in acknowledging the vote of thanks, said that he
never had his slides so well shown as they had been with Mr..
Mellor 's powerful lantern.
A short report here follows : —
" A large audience assembled in the Houldsworth Hall, Deansgate,
on Tuesday evening, to hear Mr. James Shaw describe a 400-mile walk
which he took in June of last year in Dolomite Tyrol, Austria. The
lecture was one of the current weekly series arranged by the Man-
chester Geographical Society. Mr. E. W. Mellor, who not onl}^
presided, but acted as lanternist, in opening the meeting, said by the
death of Mr. S. B. Worthington the Society had lost one of its oldest
members. Mr. Worthington, who had reached his ninety-fifth year,
visited the Society's rooms in the Parsonage a few years ago, and
instead of making use of the lift mounted the flight of steps. There
he saw a map of Manchester made about 1824, and, pointing to it,
said, * That is the town as I knew it as a little boy ' Entering upon
his story, Mr. Shaw for an hour and a half entertained his audience
with his delightful account of his tramp. A Fellow of the Royal
Photographic Society, and one of our most noted Manchester men
with the camera, Mr. vShaw is gifted with the seeing eye, and he has
been a considerable traveller in this country as well as abroad.
Further, he makes himself at home wherever he goes, and gains
friends and pictures at the same time, especially among peasant folk.
Examples of figure groups, as well as pictures of natural scenery and
old-world buildings, including castles and homesteads, and the
Dolomites, that grandly impressive range of mountains, were shown
on the screen. Not a few were in colour, and, referring to these
as well as to the other slides, Mr. Shaw complimented Mr. Mellor on
the excellence of his task with the lantern — a tribute which was richly
Proceedings 9e
deserved. The lecture itself, the word description, was equal to the
pictures — simple and strong throughout, with touches of timely
humour here and there, and over and above all was the flavour of
the artistic sense for colour and beauty and grandeur which evolved
naturally as the story proceeded. Added to all this was the excellent
delivery. For the time being the war has closed the Tyrol to English
tourists, and Mr. Shaw expressed the hope that the day was not far
distant when this famous holiday resort, which had such pleasant
memories for him, would be once more available." — {Manchester City
News.)
The 985th Meeting of the Society was held in the Houldsworth
Hall, on Tuesday, February 23rd, 1915, at 7.30 p.m. In the Chair,..
Mr. Richard Kalisch, F.R.G.S.
The Chairman read a letter from the Manchester Cruising Associa-
tion inviting the Members of the Geographical Society to attend a
lantern lecture on " The Gulf Stream and the Weather," by Dr.
Johnstone, of the Fisheries Laboratory, Liverpool University, on
Friday, February 26th.
Mr. John Hilditch, M.R.A.S., gave a lecture on the ** Ancient Arts
of China," and illustrated the paper with photographs of the Chinese
objects recently exhibited at Stretford, and which form part of the
Hilditch Collection.
The Chairman moved, Mr. D. A. Little seconded, and it was
unanimously resolved that the thanks of the meeting be given to
Mr. Hilditch for his informing and interesting lecture and for the
illustrations shown.
The 986th Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, March 2nd,,
1915, at 7.30 p.m. In the Chair, Mr. George Ginger.
The Minutes of the Meetings held on February 9th, i6th and 23rd
were taken as read.
The Chairman referred to the death of Mr. Charles Illingworth, a
member for twenty-three years, and a resolution of S5nnpathy with
his relatives was unanimously passed.
Mr. Wm. Filer gave a lecture on the " Channel Islands," and
illustrated his description with a fine collection of lantern slides kindly
lent by the Chambers of Commerce of Jersey and Guemse}'.
On the motion of Mr. Richard Kalisch, F.R.G.S., seconded by
Mr. C. Owen Hockin, it was unanimously resolved that the best
thanks of the meeting be given to Mr. Filer for his interesting
account of the Islands so well illustrated.
The 987th Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, March 9th,
1915, at 7.30 p.m. In the Chair, Mr. Gilbert Waterhouse, M.A.,.
F.R.G.S.
The Minutes of the Meeting held on March 2nd were taken as read.
Mr. T. A. Edwards, F.R.G.S., gave a lecture on " Progress in
South Africa under the Union," and illustrated his remarks with a
^92 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
large number of lantern slides from his own photographs taken
during visits in 1908, 191 1 and 1914.
Mr. E. Pickstone moved, Mr. J. Hancock seconded, and it was
unanimously resolved that a hearty vote of thanks be given to Mr.
Edwards for his very interesting and informing lecture so well and
clearly illustrated.
The 988th Meeting of the Society was held in the Houldsworth Hall
on Tuesday, March i6th, 1915, at 7.30 p.m. In the Chair, Colonel
H. T. Crook, D.L., V.D.
The Minutes of the Meeting held on March 9th were taken as read.
Mr. E. W. Mellor, J.P., F.R.G.S., gave a lecture on *' Southern
India — Some Dra vidian Landmarks." The address was illustrated
with natural colour photographs taken by the lecturer, and shown by
means of his powerful lantern.
On the motion of Mr. J. Stephenson Reid, seconded by the Chair-
man, it was unanimously resolved that the hearty thanks of the
meeting be given to Mr. Mellor for his interesting and instructive
address, for the beautiful slides with which it was illustrated, and
for his splendid lantern, which enabled the slides to be adequately
shown.
The 989th Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, March 23rd,
1915, at 7.30 p.m. In the Chair, Mr. J. Stephenson Reid.
The Minutes of the Meeting held on March i6th were taken as
read.
As Colonel W. G. Giel, of the Hague, was unable to cross over
from Holland, his lecture on the " East Indian Colonies of the
Netherlands " was unavoidably postponed, and Councillor C. W.
Godbert kindly gave " A Chat about Russia," illustrated with lantern
views, mostly taken by himself.
On the motion of the Chairman, it was resolved that a hearty vote
of thanks be given to the lecturer for his very interesting and
instructive account of the places visited and of the various experiences
during his journeys in the country.
The 990th Meeting of the vSocietj'- was held in the Houldsworth Hall
on Friday, March 26th, 1915, at 7.30 p.m. In the chair, Mr. E. W.
Mellor, J.P., F.R.G.S., Vice-Chairnian of the Council.
Mr. Christopher Pilkington gave an account of the *' British Army
in Flanders and France," illustrated with lantern views, mostly hand
painted, and all from his own photographs.
Mr. J. Stephenson Reid moved a vote of thanks to Mr. Pilkington
for the intensely interesting account which he had given of his
experiences with the Seventh Division and for the photographs, all
taken by himself, with which it was illustrated.
Sergeant Wilford, in seconding the resolution, which was carried
unanimously, made an urgent appeal for all to help in obtaining
•recruits for the army.
Proceedings 93c
Mr. Pilkington, after suitably acknowledging the vote of thanks,
tendered special thanks to Mr. Mellor for presiding and for so-
splendidly showing the slides with his powerful lantern.
A full report here follows : —
" It is almost certainly true that no one who has lectured or written
on the war has had the same opportunities of seeing things and taking
photographs as Mr. Christopher Pilkington. His opportunities were
those of a soldier, armed with a camera, who had permission to go any-
where and take anything. One gathered that he is making an oflficial
regimental record of the doings of the Scots Guards. Early in September
he went out with the 2nd Battalion, and he was attached to the famous
Seventh Division through the terrible fighting round Ypres. His
unaffected descriptions were full of a kind of closeness to the reality
only possible from a man who has lived with the soldiers as one of
them. He told us that of 1,000 men who left the Tower with him on
September 15, "so cheerful and jolly," only 100 now remain, and of
the officers, Lord Dalhousie and the others whose photographs we saw
taken on the boat going over, there is a remnant of two. You realised
the terrible wastage in another way from two photographs — one the
thick, brown crowd of the battalion gathered on the landing stage at
Zeebrugge, and the other the thin ranks mustered on the Menin road
after weeks in the trenches.
" From his account of the first days of marching and counter-
marching in Belgium — Bruges, Ostend, Ghent, and back to Ypres —
you got a curious impression of the men's ignorance of the coming
storm, how they wondered, * when the fun was going to begin,' and
asked, * Is this going to be a Cook's tour round Belgium ?' He gave a
touching account of the enthusiastic welcome given the English by
the Belgian people, and said that when the word came to leave Ghent
' there was hardly a man in the Seventh Division who could not have
cried. We felt we were deserting the people who had welcomed us
as their deliverers.'
"Round about Ypres the Seventh Division got into the thick of the
German guns. * You continually heard men who had been through
Indian campaigns and South Africa say that what they had been
through before was an absolute picnic compared to what they had to-
put up with from the Germans.' The battle of Ypres, which lasted
for weeks and is not over yet, was for Mr. Pilkington a time of
cycling about with his camera, usually under shell fire, taking
extraordinary pictures of smashed-up houses and anything particu-
larly exciting that happened. One of his photographs shows the
smoke actually clearing away the moment after a shell has destroyed
the tower of the village church — one of many vivid glimpses of the
wreckage of war.
" Mr. Pilkington was so neai the actual thing that he would see
a shell fall into a house full of sleeping soldiers, and a few minutes
afterwards would rush in with his camera and take a photograph of
the horrible mess inside. He said he would be talking to an officer
one day, and the next morning someone would come to him and ask
94 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
if he would take a photograph of that officer's grave. He said that
the firing Hue was often the safest place, as the shells raked the
country for miles behind, and death might come at any moment from
the most unexpected quarter. During the height of the attacks on
Ypres at the end of October he was constantly passing along the
Menin road while the shells were searching out the transports. He
said that after a time men became curiously indifferent about the
shells, and he showed a photograph of some transport drivers calmly
gazing round to see exactly where the shells were going to fall and
if it was time to move on. At such times the drivers would think first
of their horses' safety and only second of their own. Mr. Pilkington
was only a few yards away from the chateau which contained a general
. and his staff at the moment when a shell struck it, killing six officers
and wounding the general.
" People seem to have been living much as usual in the houses on
the Menin road during this terrible time, and ten minutes after a
shell had wrecked a house Mr. Pilkington saw and photographed
people hunting for souvenirs. One astonishing thing was the sight
of some children playing with toys on a doorstep in one of the hottest
places. He photographed a soldier having his hair cut by a comrade
with shells falling all around at a spot christened by the soldiers
** Hell Comer." He saw the French burying their dead in layers in
a big hole made by a Jack Johnson. * They were like herrings in a
barrel.* He insisted that there is nothing picturesque to be seen, and
his photograph of a line of Guardsmen advancing to the attack showed
nothing but a few blobs of khaki in a muddy field.
** Mr. Pilkington lived in Ypres in a convent, which was struck by
shells while he was sheltering in the cellar. His photograph of the
ruin of the Cathedral and the Cloth Hall suggested that in spite of
what has been said it will be impossible ever to restore them, and
he told us that all the soldiers in Ypres know very well that these
priceless buildings were destroyed by the Germans * for spite and for
nothing else." — {Manchester Guardian.)
The 991st Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, March
30th, 1915, at 7.30 p.m. In the Chair, Mr. E. W. Mellor, J. P.,
F.R.G.S.
The Minutes of the Meetings held on March 23rd and 26th were
taken as read.
The election of Mrs. W. L. Gaudie as an Associate Member was
announced.
Mr, Wm. H. Ward (Victorian Lecturer) described his visit to
** The Italian and French Rivieras," and illustrated his remarks with
a large number of original and other lantern views.
On the motion of Mr. George Ginger, seconded by the Chairman,
it was unanimously resolved that the hearty thanks of those present
be given to the lecturer for his full, interesting and instructive
account of the places visited by him along the Riviera, so beautifully
illustrated.
Proceedings 95
The 992ncl Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, October
^th, 1915, at 7.30 p.m. In the Chair Mr. J. Howard Reed, F.R.G.S.
The Minutes of the Meeting held on March 30th were taken as
read.
The Chairman mentioned that since the last meeting the Society
had lost the following members by death, and that letters of regret
and sympathy had been sent to their relatives by direction of the
Council : — Professor A. J. Herbertson, D.Sc, Messrs. James Chorlton,
Joseph Hall worth, Wm. Jones, J.P., and Wm. H. Robinson. The
Chairman also mentioned the loss by death (two days before the
meeting) of Miss Leech, a regular attender at the meetings, and asked
those present to show their regret and sympathy by rising.
The election of the following members was announced : —
Corresponding : Captain E. Keith-Roach and Captain N. Zimmem ;
Ordinary : Mrs. A. G. M. Clark, Mrs. F. Grundy, Miss M. Cookson,
Miss Stocks, Messrs. J. A. Makin and Arnold Williams ; Associate :
Mrs. L. Barnes, Miss F. Mellor, Miss M. Ashworth, Mr. and Mrs.
F. Briggs.
A letter was read from Professor Sedgefield, M.A., drawing atten-
tion to a class in Russian at the University.
The Rev. J. H. Burkitt gave a lectuie on " Belgium : Before the
War and After." The lecturer gave a short history of the country
and described journeys in Belgium before the war, dealing very fully
with the town of Bruges, also with Ghent, Brussels, Antwerp,
Louvain, Liege, Namur, and Dinant. He then described its present
condition as the result of the German invasion and occupation. The
lecture was illustrated with many fine lantern views.
On the motion of the Chairman, it was unanimously resolved that
the best thanks of the meeting be given to the lecturer for his interest-
ing address and for the illustrations shown.
The 993rd Ordinary Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday,
October 12th, 1915, at 7.30 p.m. In the Chair, Mr. J. Stephenson
Reid.
The Minutes of the Meeting held on October 5tli were taken as
read.
Miss L. Edna Walter, B.vSc, H.M.I. , gave a lecture on " The
Fascination of Holland." The address was illustrated with original
and other lantern views, some of which were kindly lent by Mr.
S. L. Coulthurst.
On the motion of Mr. J. E. Balmer, F.R.G.S., seconded by the
Chairman, it was unanimously resolved, that the best thanks of the
meeting be tendered to Miss Walter for her intensely interesting
account of the country and the people and for the illustrations shown.
The 994th Ordinary Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday,
October 19th, 1915, at 7.30 p.m. In the Chair, Mr. E. W. Mellor, J.P.,
iF.R.G.S.
96 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
The Minutes of the Meeting held on October 12th were taken as
read.
The election of the following members was announced : —
Ordinary : Messrs. A. Harris, L. Hope, R. Huntbach and W. R.
Livesey; Associate: Mrs. J. Allen, Miss Gladys E. A. Bruce, Miss
M. Gamer, Miss Holt, Miss M. Houghton, Miss h. W. Warburton,.
Mrs. W. B. Walch, and Mr. W. R. Shaw.
A paper by Mr. J. Hutcheon, M.A., of the Department of
Geography at Capetown, on "Geography, its Field, its Fascination,
and its Future, with special reference to South Africa," was
submitted by the Chairman, and taken as read. (See Vol. XXX^
p. I45-)
Mr. F. G. Percival, B.Sc, F.G.S., gave an account of his journey
to "Trinidad and Venezuela," as a member of an expedition engaged
in prospecting for petroleum. He described many personal experi-
ences, and illustrated his remarks with lantern views, mostly
original. (See p. 16.)
Mr. W. H. Zimmern moved, Mrs. A. de Bolivar seconded, and
it was unanimously resolved, that the lecturer be thanked for his
interesting address and for the slides shown.
The 995th Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, October
26th, 1915, at 7.30 p.m. In the Chair, Mr. J. Stephenson Reid.
The Minutes of the Meeting held on October 19th were taken as
read.
Mr. James D. Berwick described visits made to " The North of
Ireland," and illustrated his remarks with a large number of lantern
views, made, and many coloured, by himself.
On the motion of Mr. Robert Stewart, seconded by the Chairman,
it was resolved that the hearty thanks of the meeting be given
to Mr. Berwick for his interesting, poetical and very humorous
address, so splendidly illustrated with his beautiful slides.
The 996th Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, November
2nd, 1915, at 7.30 p.m. In the Chair, Mr. R. B. Stoker, F.R.G.S.
The Minutes of the Meeting held on October 26th were taken as
read.
The election of the following members was announced : —
Ordinary: Mrs. M. M. White; Associate: Miss D. H. Todd.
Mr. Thomas Whyman, Secretary of the Port of Manchester Branch
of the Navy League, gave a lecture on " The Effect of Geographical
Features on the War at Sea," and illustrated his address with a
large number of lantern slides of maps, diagrams and views. (See
p. 19.)
Mr. E. W. Mellor, J.P., F.R.G.S., moved, Mr. R. A. Staniforth
seconded, and the Chairman supported, a resolution of thanks to the
lecturer for his very interesting account of the work of the Navy in
the last sixteen months, and for the many lantern views shown.
Proceedings 97
\
The 997th Meeting of the Society was held in the Houldsworthi
Hall, on Tuesday, November 9th, 1915, at 7.30 p.m. In the Chair,
Mr. Hermann Woolley, F.R.G.S., Vice President of the Society and
late President of the Alpine Club.
The Rev. Walter Weston, M.A., F.R.G.S., Member of the Alpine
Club and First Honorary Member of the Japanese Alpine Club,
described " Recent Explorations in the Japanese Alps." (See page
23.) The lecture was illustrated with many beautiful, Japanese
coloured, lantern views.
Mrs. H. L. Lees, F.R.G.S., moved, and Mr. Wm. Robinow
seconded a hearty vote of thanks to the lecturer for his intensely
interesting address and for the beautiful slides.
The Chairman, in putting the resolution, mentioned that both
mover and seconder had visited Japan, and he also asked to be
permitted to add to the resolution thanks to the Vice-Chairman for
arranging the meeting in this hall and for having his powerful
lantern erected so that the slides could be so splendidly shown a3
they had been. The resolution, as amended, was carried with
acclamation.
The 998th Meeting of the Society was held in the Houldsworth
Hall on Tuesday, November 16th, 1915, at 7.30 p.m. In the Chair,
Colonel H. T. Crook, D.L., J.P.
The Rev. W. H. Elliott, F.R.G.S., gave a lecture on " Bothaland :
or German Colonization in South West Africa, its objects and
results.'* The synopsis of his lecture was as follows : — First coming
of Europeans to South Africa : the Stone Cross : England and
Germany, allies in Mission Work : The True Cross : Early
Explorers : Boer treks and Boer troubles, the tragedy of drought :
the partition of Africa, Germany's share : The Iron Cross.
The Territory, its size, surface and climate, deserts which engulf,
rivers which disappear : Vegetable poverty and mineral wealth, a
great and terrible wilderness : imported water.
Population : Bushman, Hottentot, Bantu : Their tribes and
tongues, their rule and religion.
Development under German rule : the German terror and Herero
tragedy : Cultivating the desert, destroying the inhabitants :
Settlements : Oases and their extensions : Ranching and agriculture :
Railways, roads and routes.
German methods and British methods : The German menace :
vSouth West Africa necessary to the Union.
The lecture was well illustrated with lantern views shown by the
powerful lantern of the Vice-Chairman of the Society.
Mr. T. A. Edwards, F.R.G.S., in moving that the hearty thanks
of the meeting be given to the lecturer for his very interesting and
instructive address, so well illustrated, described some of his
experiences in various parts of South Africa; Mr. J. Howard Reed,
F.R.G.S., in seconding the resolution, asked that the thanks of the
H
98 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
meeting should also be given to the Vice-Chairman for his valuable
help. The resolution as amended was passed unanimously.
The 999th Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, November
23rd, 1915, at 7.30 p.m. In the Chair, Mr. George Ginger.
The Minutes of the Meetings held on November 2nd, 9th, and i6th
were taken as read.
The Chairman announced the election of Mrs. Bubb and Mr. S.
Wigham as Associate Members.
Mr. A. Sedgwick Barnard, M.I.E.E., A.M.Inst.CE., lectured on
*' Something about Ceylon." He specially referred to the railways
which had been constructed in the island, to the Botanical Gardens
at Peradeniya, and to native life and questions. (See p. 36.)
The address was illustrated with views, mostly taken by the
lecturer.
Mr. C. A. Clarke moved, Mr. R. A. Staniforth seconded, and it
was unanimously resolved, that the hearty thanks of the meeting be
tendered to Mr. Barnard for his very interesting lecture and for the
illustrations shown.
The i,oooth Meeting of the Society was held in the Houldsworth
Hall on Tuesday, November 30th, 1915, at 7.30 p.m.
Mr. Harry Nuttall, M.P., F.R.G.S., President of the Society,
presided.
Mr. Nuttall said the occasion was one of which they ought to take
some notice, by calling to their minds what happened thirty years
ago. He held in his hands the minutes of the first ordinary meeting
in 1885. Since that time, as he had said, they had met one thousand
times for the purpose of hearing different eminent men on geographi-
cal matters, gathering knowledge of all kinds relating to geography.
At the first ordinary meeting, to which he had referred, they had
in the chair Mr. J. F. Hutton, the then President of the Manchester
Chamber of Commerce, father of Mr. Arthur Hutton, who was
doing such excellent work in connection with the cotton trade; the
Bishop of Salford (afterwards Cardinal Vaughan), Lord Aberdare,
President of the Royal Geographical Society; Professor Boyd
Dawkins, the late Mr. Arthur Arnold, then one of the Parliamentary
representatives for Salford, and others. A resolution was passed at
that meeting that "the establishment of the Manchester Geographical
Society would very largely aid in advancing science, commerce, and
civilisation, and that the Society deserved the hearty support of the
people of Lancashire, Cheshire and the adjoining districts." Of the
Council elected at that meeting five were still serving the Society
in that capacity :— The Rt. Rev. the Bishop of Salford, Rt. Hon.
vSir Wm. Mather, Sir W. H. Houldsworth, Bart., Professor W. Boyd
Dawkins, J.P., F.R.S., and Mr. F. Zimmem, F.R.G.S. Among the
Proceedings 99
eminent men who had addressed them might be mentioned Sir H. M.
■Stanley, Nansen, Peary, Sven Hedin — who was not very popular with us
.now, though he was an eminent traveller, — Captain Scott, Sir Ernest
Shackleton, and Captain Amundsen. The last three were Antarctic
explorers, and they were now awaiting news from Sir E. Shackleton
irom the neighbourhood of the South Pole, which they expected to
liave about the middle of next year.
It has been said that war taught geography. He thought most
people in this country, and perhaps throughout the civilised world,
knew more about the map of the world now than they ever did in
their lives before. We were all familiar with the Balkans and,
indeed, with other parts of the globe, because events relating to the
war were happening everywhere. The study of geography had
always been very important, and certainly after the war we should
need to pay more attention to it than ever we had done in the past.
He had always regarded geography as the basis of knowledge. We
should need after the war more than ever in the past, not only to
study geography — which included a knowledge of the products of the
earth and of the peoples of the earth, — but everj^hing connected with
geography in its relation to commerce and to the advancement of
science and civilisation.
The President then introduced Mr. James Shaw, F.R.P.S., who
gave a lecture on " Three Picturesque Cities of Italy : Perugia,
Orvieto and Siena." Before proceeding with the lecture, Mr. Shaw
described a number of natural colour lantern views of the Austro-
Italian frontier where fighting is taking place.
The lecture was illustrated with a large number of very fine
photographs shown to the best advantage by means of the powerful
electric lantern of the Vice-Chairman.
On the motion of the Chairman, a hearty vote of thanks was
unanimously passed to Mr. Shaw for his very interesting lecture,
for the slides with which it was illustrated, and for the natural
colour views of the frontier.
Mr. Shaw, after acknowledging the resolution, said that both for
himself and for all present, he wished to thank Mr. Mellor for his
kindness and generosity in enabling the slides to be so well shown
with his powerful lantern in that fine hall.
The i,ooist Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, December
7th, 1915, at 7.30 p.m. In the Chair, Colonel H. T. Crook, D.L., V.D.
The Minutes of the Meetings held on November 23rd and 30th
were taken as read.
The Chairman announced that Miss M. G. Walker, Miss B. Wylde,
and Messrs. H. Dakin and R. Palmer had been elected Ordinary
Members.
Mr. Wm. Eller gave a lecture on " The Panama Canal," which he
-described as the greatest liberty man had ever taken with nature.
loo Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
The lecture was illustrated with a fine collection of slides, many
obtained direct from the Canal Authorities and never before shown in
this country.
Mr. Ewin Pickstone moved, and the Chairman seconded, a hearty
vote of thanks to Mr. KHer for his interesting and instructive address,
and to the American Consul, Mr. R. E. Holaday, and the Canal
Authorities for their assistance in regard to the slides. The resolu-
tion was passed unanimously.
The 1,002nd Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday,
December 14th, 1915, at 7.30 p.m. In the Chair, Mr. B. W. Mellor,
J.P., F.R.G.S.
The Minutes of the Meeting held on December 7th were taken as
read.
The Chairman announced that Dr. E. J. Bles, Mr. C. M. Bles and
Mr. S. D. Bles, the sons of the late Mr. A. J. S. Bles, J.P., who was a
member of the Society for twenty-one years, have presented to the
Society thirty-seven volumes of " Le Tour du Monde '* from the
beginning in i860 to 1897, all beautifully bound.
On the motion of the Chairman, it was resolved that the Report
of the Delegate (Mr. Harry Sowerbutts, A.R.C.Sc) to the Manchester
Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science,
which was submitted to the meeting, be taken as read. (See p. 71.)
Mr. W. Leonard Flinn gave a lecture on " Persia : Past and
Present," and illustrated his remarks with many original lantern
views.
On the motion of the Chairman, it was unanimously resolved that
the hearty thanks of the meeting be given to Mr. Flinn for his very
interesting description of Persia, and for the illustrations shown.
The 1,003rd Meeting of the Society was held on Friday, December
17th, 1915, at 7.0 p.m., and took the form of a lecture to the children
ojf the members and their friends. Miss Kate Qualtrough, F.R.G.S.,
presided.
Mr. Thomas Why man. Secretary of the Port of Manchester Branch
of the Navy League, gave a lecture on " Life in the Navy," illus-
trated with many fine lantern views.
Miss Qualtrough gave expression to the thanks of all to Mr.
Whyman, and the children showed their appreciation of the interest
ing lecture and of the pictures shown on the screen by rounds of
hearty applause.
Additions to Library loi
Xi6t Of flDap6, JSoofts, 3ournal0, etc,
ACQUIRED BY THE SOCIETY
FROM JANUARY TO DECEMBER 31st, 1915.
flDap0*
GENERAL.
A Collection of 219 Maps and Charts (416 sheets), mostly published by
Laurie and Whittle from 1794 to 1830. *Mr. W. Richardson Kettle,
F.R.G.S.
Six Wall Diagrams of the World illustrating Ancient and Modem Projection.
Constructed by Mr. Reed. *Mr. J. Howard Reed, F.R.G.S.
EUROPE.
Teatro della Guerra Europa. Scala 1/4,000,000 No vara : Istituto Geografico
de Agostini. *The Publishers.
Europa Sud-Orientale. Carta Politica. Scala 1/3,000,000. Novara : Istituto
Geografico de Agostini. *The Publishers.
Oarta-Base pel Raggruppamento politico delle Nazionalita nell' Austria-
Ungheria e Stati limitrofi. Adriano Colocci. Scale 1/4,000,000. 2dedizione.
Novara : Istituto Geografico de Agostini. 1915. *The Publishers.
The Theatre of War in Eastern Europe (Standford's War Map, No. 11).
Including Poland and the Russo-German Frontier on the North, the
Northern part of Serbia on the South, and Transylvania, Bukowina, and
Rumania as far as Bucharest on the South-East. Scale 18 miles to an
inch (1/1,140,000). London: Edward Stanford, 1915. (Price, Coloured
Sheet 7/6). *The Publisher.
Scacchiere Franco-Belga-Tedesco. Scala 1/1,000,000. Con indice-dizionario
di 2,000 nomi. Novara : Istituto Geografico de Agostini, 1915. *The
Publishers.
Scacchiere Russo-Austro-Tedesco. Scala 1/1,500,000. Con indice-dizionario
di 4,000 nomi. Novara : Istituto Geografico de Agostini, 1915. *The
Publishers.
La Guerra nell' Adriatico. Carta del mare Adriatico, Adiacenze e Porti
Principali. Con 18 Piani Portuali. Scala 1/1,500,000. Novara: Istituto
Geografico de Agostini, 1915. *The Publishers.
I due confini d'ltalia. Carta fisico-politica. Scala 1/1,250,000. Seconda
edizione. Novara : Istituto Geografico de Agostini, 1915 *The
Publishers.
La Regione Veneta e le Alpi Nostre dalle fonti dell* Adige al Quarnaro. Carta
Etnico-Linguistica. Scala 1/500,000. 3d edizione. Novara: Istituto
Geografico de Agostini, 1915. *The Publishers.
€arta del Teatro della Guerra Nostra. Scala 1/500,000. Novara : Istituto
Geografico de Agostini, 1915. *The Publishers.
I02 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
Le Tre Venezie — la Venezia Tridentina. La Venezia Propria — la Venezis
Giulia. Grande Carta Ipsometrica in due fogli. Scala 1/250,000.
Seconda edizione. Novara : Istituto Geografico de Agostini, 1915. *The-
Publishers.
Katalog over Norske Sjokarter, den 1 Januar, 1915. Kristiania, 1915.
*Norges Geografiske Opmaaling.
AFRICA.
Twelve Wall Diagrams of Africa, illustrating the Progress of Discovery^r
Constructed by Mr. Reed. *Mr. J. Howard Reed, F.R.G.S.
AMERICA.
Panoramic View of the Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming-Montana-
Idaho. Scale 1/187,500. Prepared by John H. Renshawe from topo-
graphic sheets of the U.S. Geological Survey. Engraved and Printed by
the U.S. Geological Survey. Washington : Department of the Interior^
1915. *Department of the Interior.
ATLASES, PHOTOGRAPHS, Etc.
Atlas Minor L. Selectarum Tabularum Geographicarum Homanni (Johann
Baptist Homann), ad Mentem recent iorum geographorum recognitus et
dispositus. Numberg : Homannischen Officin. [1740]. *Mr. William
Richardson Kettle, F.R.G.S.
A General Atlas, describing the whole Universe. Being a complete and new
collection of the most approved Maps extant; corrected with the utmost
care, and augmented from the latest Discoveries : The whole being an
improvement of the Maps of D'Anville and Robert. Engraved on 62
Copper Plates by Thomas Kitchen, senior, and others. London : Robert
Sayer, 1773. *Mr. William Richardson Kettle, F.R.G.S.
A New and Complete Pilot, from the Mouth of the Thames, to the Cape-
of Good Hope : Comprehending on a very extensive scale the whole
of that Navigation, chiefly selected from the large East-India Pilot, and
particularly adapted for Ships bound to the Cape only. London : Robert
Laurie and James Whittle, 1796. *Mr. William Richardson Kettle,.
F.R.G.S.
A New Royal Atlas, by the Rev. John Evans, A.M. London : James Cundee,
1810. *Mr. J. Howard Reed, F.R.G.S.
A New General Atlas, Ancient and Modern, Accurately Constructed by
James Playfair, D.D., and elegantly engraved by the most eminent
Artists in London. Revised and Corrected. Edinburgh : Macredie,
Skelly and Co., 1822. *Mr. William Richardson Kettle, F.R.G.S.
Atlas de I'Ocean Pacifique — Hemisphere Austral — dresse par M, de Krusen-
stem, Commodore de la Marine. Publie par ordre de sa Majeste
Imperiale. St. Petersbourg, 1824. *Mr. William Richardson Kettle,
F.R.G.S.
Atlas de TOcean Pacifique — Hemisphere Boreal — dresse par M. de Krusenstern,.
Contre-Amiral. Publie par ordre de sa Majesty Imperiale. (Five Maps
missing.) St. Petersbourg, 1827. *Mr. William Richardson Kettle,.
F.R.G.S.
Additions to Library lo ,
A Classical Atlas on an entirely new plan. Revised by Rev. D. Blair.
London : T. J. Allman. *Mr. J. Howard Reed, F.R.G.S.
A Classical Atlas to illustrate Ancient Geography; comprised in twenty-five
Maps, showing the various divisions of the World as known to the
Ancients. With an Index of Ancient and Modern Names, by Alexander
a Findlay, F.R.G.S. London: William Tegg, 1853. *Mr. William
Richardson Kettle, F.R.G.S.
Atlanta Geografico Metodico, Dott. Prof. Giovanni de Agostini. Terza
Edizione Riveduta ed Ampliata, 75 Tavole con 196 Carte, cartine e figure.
Novara : Istituto Geografico de Agostini. *The Publishers.
Atlante Geografico Muto fisico politico a colori ed albo di esercitazioni
cartografiche in due fascicoli. G. de Agostini. Fascicolo Primo, Tavole 17.
Fascicolo Secondo, Tavole 11. 3d. edizione. Novara : Istituto Geografico
de Agostini. (Price : Fasc. 1, L. 1,50. Fasc. 11. L. 1,00.) *The Publishers.
Calendario-Atlante de Agostini, 1915, con notiziario redatto da L. F. de
Magistris. Novara : Istituto Geografico de Agostini, 1915. *The
Publishers.
An Historical Atlas of Modern Europe from 1789 to 1914. With an
Historical and Explanatory Text, by C. Grant Robertson, M.A., C.V.O.,
and J. G. Bartholomew, F.R.S.E., F.R.G.S. London : Oxford University
Press, 1915. (Price, 3/6 net.) *The Delegates of the Clarendon Press,
Oxford.
Great Britain's Coasting Pilot : in two parts. Being a new and exact Survey
of the Sea-Coast of England and Scotland, from the River of Thames
to the Westward and Northward; with the Islands of Scilly, and from
thence to Carlisle : likewise the Islands of Orkney and Shetland. With
directions for coming into the Channel between England and France,
by Captain Green vile Collins. London : J. Mount and T. Page, 1764.
*Mr. William Richardson Kettle, F.R.G.S.
The Coasting Pilot for Great Britain and Ireland ; done from Actual Surveys
and Observations by Capt. Joseph Huddart, George Burn, James
Grosvenor, and many other Navigators. The whole engraved on thirty-
six copper-plates, with sailing directions on the Charts. London : Laurie
and Whittle, 1794-1800. *Mr. William Richardson Kettle, F.R.G.S.
Pilot for the Eastern Coasts of Great Britain, from London to Edinburgh,
including the new general Chart of the North Sea. London : Robert
Laurie and James Whittle, 1810. *Mr. William Richardson Kettle,
F.R.G.S.
A New and Enlarged Baltic Pilot, comprehending a Collection of Surveys and
General Charts, from London to St. Petersburg; including the North
Sea, Kattegat, the Belts, Sound, and Gulf of Finland, etc. The Third
Edition. London : Robert Laurie and James Whittle, 1809. *Mr.
William Richardson Kettle, F.R.G.S.
A New Atlas of France : Comprising Maps of the Eighty-three Departments,
each being divided into its several Districts and Cantons. Also, two
General Maps of France, exhibiting that Country both in its Former
and Present Divisions. To which is added, a General Alphabetical Index.
London : John Wallis, 1794. *Mr. William Richardson Kettle, F.R.G.S.
I04 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society "
Atlas Geographique et Militaire de la France, divise en deux parties. Part 1,
Carte de France et des Etats limitrophes. Part 2, Plans et descriptions
des principales places de Guerre. Paris : R. J. Julien, 1751. *Mr.
William Richardson Kettle, F.R.G.S.
Carte Genarale du Theatre de la Guerre en Italie et dans les Alpes par
Bacler Dalbe. Two parts, bound in one. Fifty-four Sheets. Paris :
I'Auteur, 1792. *Mr. William Richardson Kettle, F.R.G.S.
A Bengal Atlas : Containing Maps of the Theatre of War and Commerce oh
that side of Hindoostan, by James Rennell. London : J. Rennell, 1781.
*Mr. William Richardson Kettle, F.R.G.S.
The American Atlas : or, a Geographical Description of the whole Continent
of America; wherein are delineated at large, its several regions, countries,
States and Islands; and chiefly the British Colonies, composed from
numerous surveys, several of which were made by Order of Government
by Major Holland, Lewis Evans, William Scull, Henry Mouzon, Lieut.
Ross, J. Cook, Michael Lane, Joseph Gilbert, Gardner, Hillock, etc., etc.
Engraved on 49 Copper-Plates by the late Thomas Jefferys. London :
R. Sayer and Bennett, 1778. *Mr. William Richardson Kettle, F.R.G.S.
3Booft0.
GENERAL.
Atti del X Congress© Internazionale di Geografia. Roma, 1913. Maps,
Diagrams and Illustrations. Roma : Reale Societa Geografica, 1915.
*Mr. William Heinemann.
An Introduction to General Geography, by Alec A. Golding, B.Sc. (Marl-
borough Grammar School). Diagrams. Cambridge : University Press
(C. F. Clay, Manager), 1915. (Price, 4/-.) *The Publishers.
The Teaching of Geography, by B. C. Wallis, B.Sc (Econ.) London, F.C.P.,
F.R.G.S. Sketch Map, Diagrams, etc. Cambridge : Cambridge University
Press (C. F. Clay, Manager), 1915. (Price, 3/6 net.) *The Publishers.
Economic Geography, by John McFarlane, M.A., M.Com., Lecturer in
Geography in the University of Manchester. Maps. London : Sir Isaac
Pitman and Sons. (Price, 7/6 net.) *The Author.
Physical Geography, by Philip Lake, M.A., University Lecturer in Regional
and Physical Geography. Maps, Figures and Illustrations. Cambridge :
University Press, 1915. (Price, 7/6 net.) *The Publishers.
The Surface of the Earth : Elementary, Physical and Economic Geography,
by Herbert Pickles, B.A., B.Sc. Maps, Diagrams and Illustrations.
Cambridge : University Press (C. F. Clay, Manager), 1915. (Price, 2/-.)
*The Syndics of the Cambridge University Press.
A Manual of Map-Making and Mechanical Geography, by Alexander
Jamieson, LL.D. Maps and Diagrams. London : A. FuUerton and Co.,
1846. 'Mr. J. Howard Reed, F.R.G.S.
A Treatise on Astronomy, by Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart., K.H., M.A.,
etc. Illustrations. London : Longman and others, 1851. *Mr. J. Howard
Reed, F.R.G.S.
Additions to Library 105
The Geographical Journal, Vols. XXIX to XLIII, January, 1907, to June,
1914. London : Royal Geographical Society. *Mr. J. Howard Beed,
F.R.G.S.
The Geographical Teacher, 1915, Nos. 41, 42, 43. *Mr. H. Sowerbutts,
A.R.C.SC.
Report of the Conference of Educational Associations held at the University
of London, January, 1915.
Le Tour du Monde. Journal des Voyages et des Voyageurs. Fonde par
Edouard Charton. Maps and Illustrations, 1860-1897. (37 Bound
Volumes.) Paris: Hachette et Cie, 1860-1897. *Dr. E. J. Bles, Mr.
C. M. Bles and Mr. S. D. Bles.
Stories of Exploration and Discovery, by Arthur B. Archer, M.A. Maps and
illustrations. Cambridge : At the University Press, 1915. *The
Publishers.
The Fortnightly Review, 1915. *Miss K. Qualtrough, F.R.G.S.
Almanack for the Year 1915, by Joseph Whitaker, F.S.A., London.
The Co-operative Wholesale Societies, Limited, Annual, 1915. *Mr. G. H.
Warren.
The Incorporated Accountants' Year-Book, 1915-16. *The Council of the
Society of Incorporated Accountants and Auditors.
A Student's Book on Soils and Manure, by E. J. Russell, D.Sc. Illustrated.
Cambridge : University Press, 1915. (Price, 3/6 net.) *The Syndics of
the University Press.
BRITISH ISLES.
The New Lancashire Gazetteer, or Topographical Dictionary, by Stephen
Reynolds Clarke. London : Henry Teesdale and Co., 1830. *Mr. J.
Howard Reed, F.R.G.S.
Geological Essays, and Sketch of the Geology of Manchester and the Neigh-
bourhood, by John Taylor. Illustrated. Manchester : Alex. Ireland
and Co., 1864. *Mr. J. Howard Reed, F.R.G.S.
The Official Handbook of Manchester and Salford and Surrounding District.
With information on Local Institutions and Societies, 1915. Manchester :
Manchester Corporation, 1915.
Manchester. City of Manchester. Report of the Sanitary Committee on the
Subject of Air Pollution, April, 1915.
Report and Proceedings of the Manchester Field Naturalists and Archaeolo-
gists' Society for the year 1914. Illustrations. Manchester, 1915. *Mr.
Wm. H. Ward.
Descriptive Handbook to the Relief Model of Wales, by Wallace E. White-
house, L.C.P. With an Introduction by H. J. Fleure, D.Sc. Illustrated.
Cardiff : National Museum of Wales, 1915. (Price, 6d.) "The Author
and the Director of the National Museum.
Handbook and Guide to Dundee and District. Edited by A. W. Paton,
F.I.P.S., etc., and A. H. Millar, LL.D., etc. Maps and Illustrations.
Prepared for the British Association Meeting. Dundee : 1912. *Mr. J.
Howard Reed, F.R.G.S.
Dundee. Five Illustrated Handbooks of Dundee. Souvenirs of the British
Association Meeting, 1912. *Mr. J. Howard Reed, F.R.G.S.
io6 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
EUROPE.
Den Norske Lods utgit av Norges Geografiske Opmaaling. Hefte 2, Kyst-
straekningen fra Langesund til Kristiansand, 1896. Omarbeidet, 1914.
Kristiania : Norges Geografiske Opmaaling, 1915. *Norges Geografiske
Opmaaling.
The Times Russian Supplement. *Mr. Isaac Chorlton.
Guide to Jersey, Guernsey, Herm, Sark, Aldemey and Western Normandy,
by C. B. Black. Five Plans and ten Maps. 15th Edition. London :
A. and C. Black, 1913. *Mr. William Eller.
The Alps from End to End, by Sir William Martin Conway. With 16 full-
page Illustrations by A. D. M'Cormick, and a Chapter by the Rev.
W. A. B. Coolidge. London : Archibald Constable and Co., Ltd., 1905.
*Mr. Wm. H. Ward.
Along the Rivieras of France and Italy, by Gordon Home. Map and Illustra-
tions. London : J. M. Dent and Co., 1908.
With the Turks in Thrace, by Ellis Ashmead-Bartlett. In Collaboration with
Seabury Ashmead-Bartlett. Map and Illustrations. London : Williamt
Heinemann, 1913.
ASIA.
Palestine : Notes, Descriptive and Historical. With a Map of the Countries
travelled by the Apostles. Second Edition. London : R. H. Laurie, 1833.
*Mr. William Richardson Kettle, F.R.G.S.
Palestine Exploration Fund. Quarterly Statement, 1915. Annual Report for
1914.
Ninth Report on Plague Investigations in India. Issued by the Advisory
Committee, appointed by the Secretary of State for India, the Royal
Society and the Lister Institute. London : The Journal of Hygiene,
Plague Supplement IV, 1915. *The Chairman of the Advisory Committee.
Campaigns on the North-West Frontier, by Captain H. L. Nevill, D.S.O.
Maps and Illustrations. London : John Murray, 1912.
Punjab District Gazetteers, Vol. XXI A. Gurdaspur District, with Maps,
1914. *H.M. Secretary of State for India.
Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency. B. Vols. II, Surat and Broach;
III, Kaira and Panch Mahals; V, Cutch, Palanpur, Mahi Kantha; VI,-
Rewa Kantha, Cambay and Surat Agency; VIII, Kathiawar; XII,
Khandesh and Mehwas Estates; XXI, Belgaum; XXIV, Kolhapur and
Southern Mahratta Jachirs. *H.M. Secretary of State for India.
Central Provinces and Berar District Gazetteers. B Volumes (1891-1911) :
Damoh, Hoshangabad, Jubbulpore and Yeotmal Districts. *H.M.
Secretary of State for India.
Central Provinces and Berar District Gazetteers. Addenda and Corrigenda
to B Volumes of the Akola, Amraoti, Bilaspur, Buldana, Drug, Mandla,
Narsinghpur, Raipur, Saugor and Seoni Districts (1912-13 and 1913-14).
•H.M. Secretary of State for India.
Additions to Library 107
District Gazetteers of the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh. Supple-
mentary Notes and Statistics to Vols. VI, VII, VIII, X, XIII, XIV,
XVI, XVII, XVIII, XXII, XXIII, XXV, XXVI, XXVIII, XXX, xxxv»
XXXVI, XXXVIII, XXXIX, XL, XLI, XLII, XLIII, XLV, XLVIII,
and the Rampur State. *H.M. Secretary of State for India in Council
Bengal District Gazetteers Vol. XXXII- A, Murshidabad District. *H.M.
Secretary of State for India.
Bengal District Gazetteers. B Volumes (Statistics) : Gaya, Muzaffarpur,
Darbhanga, Patna, Palamau, Champaran, Saran, Singhbhum, Bhagalpur
and Ranchi Districts. *H.M. Secretary of State for India.
Assam District Gazetteers. Supplements to Vols. I, Cachar; III, Goalpara;
IX, Naga Hills and Manipur. *H.M. Secretary of State for India,
Burma Gazetteer. Henzada District, Vol. A ; Syriam District, Vol. A ; -
Toungoo District, Vol. A. *H.M. Secretary for State for India.
Notes from a Frontier, by Thomas M. Ainscough, M.Cora., F.R.G.S. Illus-
trated. Shanghai : Kelly and Walsh, Ltd., 1915. *The Author.
On and Off Duty in Annam, by Gabrielle M. Vassal. Illustrated. London :
William Heinemann, 1910.
The Opening of China. Six Letters reprinted from the Times on the Present
Condition and Future Prospects of China, by A. R. Colquhoun,
A.M.Inst.C.E., etc. With an Introduction by S. H. Louttit. London :
Field and Tuer, 1884. *Mr. J. Howard Reed, F.R.G.S.
Korea, by Angus Hamilton. Map and Illustrations. London : William
Heinemann, 1904.
AFRICA.
An Account of Timbuctoo and Housa, Territories in the Interior of Africa,,
by El Hage Abd Salem Shabeeny. With Notes, Critical and Explanatory.
To which is added, Letters descriptive of Travels through West and
South Barbary, and across the Mountains of Atlas, etc., etc., by James
Grey Jackson. Maps. London : Longman and others, 1820. *Mr. J.
Howard Reed, F.R.G.S.
Narrative of Discovery and Adventure in Africa, from the earliest ages to the
present time, by Professor Jameson, James Wilson, F.R.S.E., and Hugh
Murray, F.R.S.E. Map and Illustrations. Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd,
1830. *Mr. J. Howard Reed, F.R.G.S.
The Travels of Richard and John Lander, into the Interior of Africa, for
the discovery of the Course and Termination of the Niger; from un-
published documents in the possession of the late Capt. John William
Barber Fullerton. With a prefatory analysis of the previous travels of
Park, Denham, Clapperton, Adams, Lyon, Ritchie, etc., into the hitherto-
unexplored Countries of Africa, by Robert Huish. Illustrations.
London : John Saunders, 1836. *Mr. J. Howard Reed, F.R.G.S.
The Story of Africa and its Explorers, by Robert Brown, M.A., etc. Maps
and Illustrations. Four Vols. (40 parts). London : Cassell and Co.,
1892-1895. *Mr. J. Howard Reed, F.R.G.S.
From the Congo to the Niger and the Nile. An account of the German
Central African Expedition of 1910-1911, by Adolf Friedrich Duke of"
yic8 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
Mecklenburg. With 514 Illustrations and a Map. In two Vols.
London : Duckworth and Co., 1913.
In the Tail of the Peacock, by Isabel Savory. Illustrations. London :
Hutchinson and Co., 1903. *Mr. William B. Leech.
A Transformed Colony : Sierra Leone, as it was, and as it is. Its Progress,
Peoples, Native Customs, and Undeveloped Wealth, by T. J. AUdridge,
I.S.O., r.R.G.S. Map and Illustrations. London : Seeley and Co., 1910,
*Mr. William B. Leech.
Sierra Leone Messenger. Illustrated. 1915, Nos. 89-92. *Rev. F. C. Smith,
M.A., F.R.G.S.
Government Handbook of the Transvaal. Compiled for the South African
Products Exhibition, 1907. Maps, Diagrams and Illustrations. Pretoria :
Transvaal Department of Agriculture, 1907. *Mr. J. Howard Reed,
F.R.G.S.
The Life and Work of Emin Pasha in Equatorial Africa, by the Rev. Henry
W. Little. Portrait and Map. London : J. S. Virtue, 1889. *Mr. J.
Howard Reed, F.R.G.S.
Modern Egypt, by the Earl of Cromer. Portrait and Map. Two Volumes.
London : Macmillan and Co., Ltd., 1908.
Egypt in Transition, by Sidney Low. With an Introduction by the Earl of
Cromer, G.C.B., etc. Portraits. London : Smith, Elder and Co., 1914.
AMERICA.
The New North. Being some account of a Woman's Journey through
Canada to the Arctic, by Agnes Deans Cameron. Illustrated. New
York : D. Appleton and Co., 1910.
•Guide-book of the Western United States. Part A. The Northern Pacific
Route. With a Side Trip to Yellowstone Park, by Marius R. Campbell
and others. Maps, Diagrams and Illustrations. Washington : U.S.
Geological Survey, Bulletin 611, 1915. (Price, one Dollar.) *The
Director of the Survey.
<Juide-book of the Western United States, Part B. The Overland Route.
With a Side Trip to Yellowstone Park, by W. T. Lee, R. W. Stone,
H. S. Gale, and others. Maps, Diagrams and Illustrations. Washington :
United States Geological Survey, Bulletin 612, 1915. (Price, one Dollar.)
*The Director of the Survey.
'Guide-book of the Western United States. Part C. The Santa Fe Route.
With a Side Trip to the Grand Canyon of the Colorado, by N. H. Darton
and others. Maps, Diagrams and Illustrations. Washington : U.S.
Geological Survey, Bulletin 613, 1915. (Price, one Dollar.) *The
Director of the Survey.
Ouide-book of the Western United States. Part D. The Shasta Route and
Coast Line, by J. S. Diller and others. Maps, Diagrams and Illustrations.
Washington : U.S. Geological Survey, Bulletin 614, 1915. (Price, one
Dollar.) *The Director of the Survey.
The Discovery of Guiana, and the Journal of the Second Voyage thereto, by
Sir Walter Raleigh. London : Cassell and Co., 1887. *Mr. J. Howard
Reed, F.R.G.S.
Additions to Library 1091*
OCEANIA.
A Narrative of Missionary Enterprises in the South Sea Islands, by John
Williams. Map and Illustrations. 13th Thousand. London: John Snow,
1839. *Mr. J. Howard Keed, F.R.G.S.
POLAR REGIONS.
The North-West and North-East Passages, 1576-1611. Edited by Philip F.
Alexander, M. A. Maps and Illustrations. Cambridge : At the University
Press, 1915. *The Publishers.
My Life with the Eskimo, fey Vilhjalmur Stefansson, Maps and Illustrations.
London : Macmillan and Co., 1913.
Scott's Last Expedition. Arranged by Leonard Huxley. With a Preface by
Sir Clements R. Markham, K.C.B., F.R.S. Maps and Illustrations. In
two Vols. London : Smith, Elder and Co., 1913.
Xiet of Correaponbins Soctetiea, etc*
oeycbangea)*
NOTE. — Exchanges with Societies marked " S." have been suspended from
August 1st, 1914.
BRITISH.
Belfast. Natural History and Philosophical Society. Report and Proceedings
for the Session 1914-1915.
Birmingham. Natural History and Philosophical Society. (Nothing received.)
Cardiff. Naturalists' Society. Report and Transactions. Vol. XLVII, 1914.
Croydon. Natural History and Scientific Society. Proceedings and Transac-
tions, 1914-1915.
Edinburgh. The Royal Scottish Geographical Society. The Scottish Geo-
graphical Magazine, 1915, Vol. XXXI, Nos. 1-12 and Index.
Glasgow. Geological Society. Transactions. Vol. XV, Part II, 1913-1914.
Glasgow. Royal Philosophical Society. Proceedings. Vol. XLVI, 1914-1915.
Hertford. Hertfordshire Natural History Society and Field Club. Transac-
tions. Vol. XV, Part 4; XVI, 1.
Hull. Yorkshire Naturalists' Union. (Nothing received.)
Leeds. Geological Association. Transactions. (Nothing received.)
Leeds. Yorkshire Geological Society. Proceedings. (Nothing received.)
Leicester. Literary and Philosophical Society. Transactions and Annual
Report. Vol. XIX, 1915.
Liverpool. Geographical Society. Transactions and Twenty-third Annual
Report for the year 1914.
London. The Anti-Slavery Reporter and Aborigines' Friend. 1915, Series V,
Vol. IV, No. 4; V, 1, 2, 3.
London. British Association for the Advancement of Science. Report of the
Eighty-fourth Meeting, held in Australia in 1914. Report of the Corre-
sponding Societies' Committee and of the Conference of Delegates held at
Havre, 1914.
no Jonrnal of the Manchester Geographical Society
London. Colliery Guardian, 1915. Nos. 2818-2870.
London. The Colonial Journal. Vol. VIII, 3, 4 ; IX, 1, 2.
London. The Eoyal Colonial Institute Journal. " United Empire." Vol. VI,
Nos. 1-12. Year Book, 1915.
London. East India Association. Journal, 1915, Vol. VI, Nos. 1-4.
London. Emigrants' Information OfRce. Combined circulars on Canada,
Australia and New Zealand, and South Africa. 1915, January to July.
London. Royal Geographical Society. The Geographical Journal, 1915, Jan.
to Dec.
London. Imperial Institute. Bulletin. Vol, XII, Nos. 1-4.
London. India Office. (See List of Books.)
London. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Bulletin, 1915, Nos. 1-10 and
Appendices I-IV.
London. Royal Society of Literature. Transactions. Vol. XXXIII, Part 2,
3, 4. Report and List of Fellows, 1915.
London. The Near East, 1915, Nos. 191-243.
London. War Office. Geographical Section, General Staff. (See List of
Maps.)
London. War Office. Catalogue of Maps. Accessions. (Nothing received.)
London. War Office Library. Accessions, 1915, January to December.
Catalogue of the War Office Library, Part III (Subject Index). Third
Annual Supplement, 1914.
Manchester. The British Cotton Growing Association. Publications. No. 59.
Manchester. Literary and Philosophical Society. Memoirs and Proceedings.
Vol. 58, Part III; 59, I, II, III.
Manchester. Museum. The University. Publications, Nos. 75, 76.
Manchester. The Textile Recorder, 1915, January to December.
Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Tyneside Geographical Society. (Nothing received.)
Newcastle-upon-Tyne. North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical
Engineers. Transactions. Vol. LXV, 3, 4, 6. Annual Report, 1914-1915.
Oxford. Clarendon Press. (See List of Books.)
Penzance. Royal Geological Society of Cornwall. Transactions. Vol. XIII,
Part X.
Rochdale. Literary and Scientific Society. (Nothing received.)
Salford. Museum, Libraries and Parks Committee. Sixty-Seventh Report,
1914-1915.
York. Yorkshire Philosophical Society. Annual Report for 1914,
MISSIONARY.
' " S," Freiburg im Breisgau. Die Katholischen Missionen.
London. Baptist Missionary Society. The Herald, 1915, January to Dec.
London, The British and Foreign Bible Society, 11 1th Annual Report, 1915,
"The Book and the Sword," A Popular Illustrated Report, 1914-1915.
" The Bible in the World," 1915, January to December. Manchester and
Salford Auxiliary, Annual Report, 1914.
London. Church Missionary Society for Africa and the East. Report of
Proceedings, 116th year, 1914-1915.
London. Church Missionary Review, 1915, January to December.
Additions to Library 1 1 1
London. Colonial and Continental Church Society. Greater Britain Mes-
senger, 1915, January to December.
London. The London Missionary Society. 120th Report, 1914-1915.
London. Illustrated Catholic Missions. (Nothing received.)
London. Society for Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts. Report
of the year 1914.
London. Universities' Mission to Central Africa. " Central Africa." 1915,
January to December.
London. The United Methodist Church. " Missionary Echo." 1915, Jan.
to December.
"" S." Mangalore. Basel-German Evangelical Mission in South- Western India.
COLONIAL.
Adelaide. Royal Geographical Society of Australasia; South Australian
Branch. Proceedings for the Session 1913-1914, Vol. XV.
Brisbane. Royal Geographical Society of Australasia. Queensland Branch.
Queensland Geographical Journal. Vols. XXVIII-XXIX, 1912-1914.
Brisband. Queensland Museum. Memoirs. Vols. Ill, IV.
Brisbane. Department of Mines. Queensland Geological Survey. Publica-
tions, Nos. 227, 243, 246.
Bulawayo. Rhodesia Scientific Association. Proceedings. Vol. XIII (July
1913, to May 1914).
Cape Town. Royal Society of South Africa. Transactions. Vol. IV, Part 3 ;
V, 1, 2.
^Georgetown. The Royal Agricultural and Commercial Society of British
Guiana. The Journal. " Timehri." Vol. Ill, No. 2, May, 1915.
Halifax. Nova Scotian Institute of Science. Proceedings and Transactions.
Vol. XIII, Parts 3, 4, 1912-1914.
Melbourne. Royal Geographical Society of Australasia (Victorian Branch).
Victorian Geographical Journal. Vol. XXXI, Part II, 1915.
Melbourne. Department of Agriculture of Victoria (per the favour of the
Agent General). Journal. Vol. XIII, Parts 1-8.
Melbourne. Victorian Statistical Department. (Nothing received.)
Perth. Western Australia Geological Survey (per favour of the Agent
General). Bulletins, Nos. 56-59, 61, 62, 65.
Port Moresby. Papua. Annual Report for the year (Nothing received.)
Quebec. Societe de Geographie. Bulletin. Vol. IX, Nos. 1-6, 1915.
Sydney. New South Wales. Department of Mines. Annual Report for the
year 1914.
Sydney. New South Wales. Department of Mines. Geological Survey.
Mineral Resources. Nos. 18, 19.
Toronto. Canadian Institute. Transactions. No. 24, Vol. X, Part 2, May,
1915. General Index to Publications, 1852-1912.
Victoria, B.C. Minister of Mines. Province of British Columbia. Annual
Report, 1914.
Wellington, New Zealand. Department of Lands and Survey. (Nothing
received. )
112 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
FOREIGN
Alger. Societe de Geographie d'Alger et de L'Afrique du Nord. Bulletin.
(Nothing received.)
^Vmi Arbor. The Michigan Academy of Science. University of Michigan.
(Nothing received.)
" S." Antwerp. Societe Royale de Geographie d'Anvers. Bulletin.
J^altimore. Johns Hopkins University. Studies in Historical and Political
Science. Series XXXIII, Nos. 1-3. Circulars, 1915, Nos. 1-5.
Baltimore. Maryland Geological Survey. (Nothing received.)
Barcelona. Sociedad de Geografia Comercial. Publicaciones. (Nothing re-
ceived. )
" S." Belgrade. Societe Serbe de Geographie. Bulletin.
Berkeley. University of California. Publications in American Archaeology
and Ethnology. Vol. X, No. 7, Title-page and Index; XI, 3, 4.
"S." Berlin. Gesellschaft fiir Erdkunde. Zeitschrift.
" S." Berlin. Deutsche Kolonialzeitung.
Bern. Geographische Gesellschaft. (Nothing received.)
Bordeaux. Societe de Geographie Commerciale. Revue. (Nothing received.)
" S." Bremen. Deutsche Geographische Blatter.
" S." Brussels. Congo Beige. Bulletin Official.
" S." Brussels. Societe Royale Beige de Geographie.
" S." Brussels. Le Mouvement Geographique.
" S.** Brussels. Institut Colonial International.
" S." Brussels. Societe Beige d'Etudes Coloniales. Bulletin.
" S." Brussels. Commission Polaire Internationale.
" S." Budapest. Hungarian Geographical Society. Bulletin,
Buenos Aires. Instituto Geografico Argentino. Boletin. (Nothing received.)
Buenos Aires. Museo Nacional de Historia Natural de Buenos Aires. Anales.
Tomo XXVI. Indices. Tomos I-XX; 1864-1911.
Buenos Aires. Monthly Bulletin of Municipal Statistics. 1915. Nos. 1-6.
Buenos Aires. Ministerio de Agricultura. Boletin. (Nothing received.)
Cairo. Societe Khediviale de Geographie. Bulletin. (Nothing received.)
Cambridge. Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology.
Harvard University. " The Library of Harvard University : Descriptive
and Historical Notes," 3rd Edition.
" S." Cassel. Gesellschaft fiir Erd-und Volkerkunde.
Christiania. Norges Geografiske Opmaaling. (See List of Maps.)
Copenhagen. Geografisk Tidskrift udgivet af Bestyrelsen for det Kongelige
Danske Geografiske Selskab. Bind XXIII, Hefte 1-4.
" S." Darmstadt. Verein fiir Erdkunde. Notizblatt.
Dijon. Soci6t6 Bourguignonne de Geographie et d'Histoire. M6moires.
(Nothing received.)
" S." Douai. Union Geographique du Nord de la France. Bulletin.
" 8." Dresden. Verein fiir Erdkunde. Mitteilungen.
Dunkerque. Soci6te de Geographie. Bulletin. (Nothing received.)
Firenze (Florence). Revista Geografica Italiana e Bollettino della Societa di
Studi Geografici e Coloniali. Annata XXII, Fascs. 1-10.
Additions to Library 113
" S." Frankfurt. Verein fiir Geographie und Statistik.
Geneva. "Le Globe." Organs de la Societe de Geographie. Bulletin.
Tome LIV.
Geneva. Societe des xVnciens Eleves de I'Ecole Superieure de Commerce.
Bulletin. Nos. 105-108.
" S." Giessen. Geographische Mitteilungen aus Hessen.
" S." Greifswald. Geographische Gesellschaft zu Greifswald. Jahresbericht.
" S." Halle. Sachsisch-Thiiringischen Vereins fiir Erdkunde.
" S." Halle. Kaiserliche Leopoldinisch-Carolinische Deutsche Akademie
der Naturforscher. Leopoldina.
" S." Hamburg. Geographische Gesellschaft. Mitteilungen.
" S." Hamburg. Hauptstation fiir Erdbebenforschung. Professor Dr. R.
Schiitt.
" S." Hannover. Geographische Gesellschaft.
Havre. Societe de Geographie Commerciale. Bulletin. (Nothing received.)
Havre. Societe Geologique de Normandie. Bulletin. (Nothing received.)
Helsingfors. Societe de Geographie de Finlande. Fennia. (Nothing received.)
Helsingf ors. Meddelanden af Geografiska Foreningen. Velenskagliga. (Nothing
received.)
Irkutsk. Imperial Russian Geographical Society. East Siberian Section.
Journal. (Nothing received.)
** S." Jena. Geographische Gesellschaft. Mitteilungen.
Kazan. Naturalists' Society of the Imperial University. Journal. VoL
XLVII, No. 1.
"S." Konigsberg. Physikalisch = 6konomischen Gesellschaft.
La Paz. Sociedad Geografica de La Paz. (Nothing received.)
La Paz. Republica de Bolivia. Direccion General de Estadistica y Estudios
Geograficos. Boletin. (Nothing received.)
La Plata. Direccion General de Estadistica de la Provincia de Buenos Aires.
Boletin Mensual. (Nothing received.)
La Plata. Museo de La Plata. Re vista. Tomo XIX, Primera Parte; XX:
XXIL
" S." Leipzic. Gesellschaft fiir Erdkunde.
" S." Lille. Societe de Geographic. Bulletin.
Lima. Sociedad Geografica. Boletin. 1914, Tomo XXX, Trim 1, 2.
Lima. Cuerpo de Ingenieres de Minas del Peru. Boletin. No. 81.
Lisbon. Sociedade de Geographia de Lisboa. Boletim. 1915, Nos. 1-10.
Boletim Comemorativo do V Centenario da Tomada de Ceuta. 21 d'Agosto-
de 1915.
" S." Liibeck. Geographische Gesellschaft und Naturhistorische Museum.
Mitteilungen.
" S." Lwowie (Lemberg). Towarzystwo Ludozonaweze Kwartalnik Etno-
grafiezny. " Lud."
Madison. Wisconsin Academy of Science, Arts and Letters. Transactions.
(Nothing received.)
Madison. Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey. Bulletin.
Nos. XXXIV; XLII; XLV.
114 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
Madrid. Real Sociedad Geografica. Boletin. Tomo LVII, Trims. 1-4.
Re vista. Tomo XII, 1-12.
Madrid. Ayimtamiento de Madrid. Boletin, Nos. 940-991.
Marseille. Societe de Geographic. Bulletin. Tome XXXVIII, Nos. 1-4.
" S." Metz. Verein fiir Erdkunde. Jahresbericht.
Mexico. Sociedad Mexicana de Geografia y Estadistica. Boletin. (Nothing
received.)
Mexico. Sociedad Cientifica "Antonio Alzate." Memorias y Re vista.
(Nothing received.)
Milan. L'Esplorazione Commerciale. Anno XXX, Eases. 1-12.
Missoula. University of Montana. Bulletin. (Nothing received.)
Montevideo. Museo de Historia Natural. (Nothing received.)
Montevideo. Anuario Estadistico de la Repiiblica Oriental del Uruguay.
Libro XXIII, 1911-1912.
Montpellier. Societe Languedocienne de Geographic. Bulletin. Tome
XXXVII, 3, 4; XXXVIII, 1, 2, 3.
Moscow. Geographical Section of the Imperial Society of Natural Science of
the University. (Nothing received.)
"S." Munich. Geographische Gesellschaft in Miinchen. Mitteilungen.
Nancy. Societe de Geographic de L'Est. Bulletin. (Nothing received.)
Nantes. Societe de Geographic Commerciale. Bulletin. (Nothing received.)
Naples. Societa Africana d'ltalia. BoUettino. Anno XXXIV, 1-9.
Ncuchatel. Societe Neuchatcloise de Geographic. Bulletin. Tome XXIII
(Fin) et Tome XXIV.
New Haven. Connecticut Acac^my of Arts and Sciences. Transactions.
Vol. 19, pp. 1-110; 20, 1-160.
New York. American Geographical Society. Bulletin. Vol. XLVII, Nos.
1-12 and Index.
New York. American Museum of Natural History. Bulletin. Vol. XXV,
Part 2.
New York. Public Library. Bulletin. 1915, January — December.
Novara. Istituto Geografico de Agostini. (Sec List of Maps.)
'"S." Niirnberg. Naturhistorische Gesellschaft.
Odessa. Club Alpin de Crime et du Caucase. Bulletin. 1915, Nos. 1, 2.
Omsk. Imperial Russian Geographical Society. West Siberian Branch.
(Nothing received.)
Oran. Societe de Geographic et d'Archeologic. Bulletin. Tome XXXIV,
Fascs. 140 ; XXXV, 141, 142.
Para. Museu Goeldi. Bolctim. (Nothing received.)
Paris. Societe de Geographic. La Geographic. 1914, July to December;
1915, April.
Paris. Societe de Geographic Commerciale. Bulletin. 1915, January to
December.
Paris. Societe de Speleologie. Bulletin and M6moires. Spclunca. (Nothing
received.)
Paris. Soci6t6 de Topographic de France. Bulletin Bimestriel. (Nothing
received.)
Additions to Library 115
SParis. Comite de L'Afrique Frangaise et du Comite du Maroc. Bulletin.
1915, Nos. 1-12. Renseignements Coloniaux. 1915, Nos. 1-12.
Petrograd. Imperial Russian Geographical Society. (Nothing received.)
Philadelphia. American Philosophical Society. Proceedings. Vol. LIV, Nos.
216, 217, 218, 219.
Philadelphia. The Commercial Museum. Annual Report for the year 1914.
" Commercial America." 1915, January to December.
Philadelphia. Geographical Society of Philadelphia. Bulletin. 1915, Nos. 1-4.
Philadelphia. University of Pennsylvania. The Museum Journal. Vol. VI,
Nos. 1, 2.
«.g» Prague. Societe de Geographic tcheque a Prague.
Rochefort. Societe de Geographic. Bulletin. 1914, No. 2.
Rolla, Mo. Missouri Bureau of Geology and Mines. (Nothing received.)
Roma. Reale Societa Geografica. Bollettino. 1915, Nos. 1-12.
Roma. Direzione Generale della Statistica e del Lavoro. Annuario Statistico
Italiano. Seconda Serie, Vol. IV. Anno 1914.
Roma. Commissariato dell' Emigrazione. Bollettino. 1915, Nos. 1-9.
Roma. Cosmos. Del Profr. Guido Cora. (Nothing received.)
Rome. International Institute of Agriculture. Monthly Bulletin of Agricul-
tural Intelligence and Plant Diseases. 1915, Nos. 1-12.
Rouen. Societe Normande de Geographic. Bulletin. (Nothing received.)
San Francisco. Geographical Society of the Pacific. (Nothing received.)
San Francisco. Southern Pacific Railway (per the favour of Mr. Rud Falck,
Liverpool). "Sunset" — The Pacific Monthly. 1915, January.
San Jose. Museo Nacional. Boletin de Fomento, organo del Ministerio de
Fomento. (Nothing received.)
St. Louis, Mo. Washington University Studies. Vol. II, Part, I, No. 1.
Bt. Nazaire. Societe de Geographie Commerciale. (Nothing received.)
San Salvador. Direccion General de Estadistica. (Nothing received.)
^*S.** Santiago de Chile Deutsche Wissenschaftliche Verein.
Shanghai. Chinese Maritime Customs. Gazette. Statistical Series. Nos. 3
and 4. Returns of Trade and Trade Reports. 1914, Parts I, II, Vols. 1-3 ;
III, Vol. 1.
Shanghai. Ministry of Communications. Directorate General of Posts. II.
Public Series : No. 2. Report on the Working of the Chinese Post Ofiice
for 1914.
■" S." Stettin. Gesellschaft fiir V61ker-u-Erdkunde.
Stockholm. Svenska Sallskapet for Antropologi och Geografi. " Ymer," 1915,
Haft 1-4.
** S." Strassburg. Gesellschaft fiir Erdkunde und Kolonialwesen.
" S." Stuttgart. Wiirttembergische Vereins fiir Handelsgeographie.
Tokyo. Geographical Society. Journal of Geography. (Nothing received.)
Toulouse. Societe de Geographie. Bulletin. 1914, Nos. 2, 3, 4; 1915, 1.
Tours. Societe de Geographie. Revue. 1914, No. 2.
.Upsala. University of Upsala. Geological Institution. Bulletin. Vol. XIII,
Part 1.
ii6 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
Urbana. Illinois State Geological Survey. Bulletins, Nos. 28, 29, 31».
Illinois Coal Mining Investigations, Co-operative Agreement. Bulletin^
Vol. I, Nos. 1-5.
" S." Vienna. K.K. Geographische Gesellschaft. Mitteilungen.
"S." Vienna. Verein der Geographen an der K.K. Universitat in Wien.
"S." Vienna. K.K. Naturhistorische Hofmuseum. Annalen.
Washington, Conn. Association of American Geographers. Annals. (Nothing
received.)
Washington, D.C. National Geographic Society. National Geographic
Magazine. 1915, Vol. XXVII, Nos. 1-6; XXVIII, 1-6.
Washington, D.C. Department of Commerce, United States Coast and
Geodetic Survey. " Geodesy," Special Publication, Nos. 24, 28.
Washington, D.C. United States Department of the Interior. General Infor-
mation regarding Crater Lake, Glacier, Mesa Verde, Mount Rainier,
Sequoia and General Grant, Yellowstone, Yosemite, and Wind Cave
National Parks; Season of 1915.
Washington, D.C. U.S. Geological Survey. List of Publications of the
Survey, March, 1915. (See also List of Books.)
Washington, D.C. U.S. Geological Survey. Monograph. Vols. LIII, LIV.
Washington, D.C. U.S. Geological Survey. Mineral Resources for the year
1914, Part 1, Nos. 1-9; Part 2, Nos. 1-20.
Washington, D.C. U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin. Nos. 544, 565, 566, 568, 569,
573, 581 A-E, 582-596, 598-602.
Washington, D.C. U.S. Geological Survey. Professional Papers. Nos.
90 A-L, 95 A-D.
Washington, D.C. U.S. Geological Survey. Water Supply Papers. Nos.
340 k, 1, 342, 353, 354, 356-358, 363-368, 371.
Washington, D.C. U.S. National Museum. Report for the year ending June
30, 1914.
Washington, D.C. U.S. Geographic Board. (Nothing received.)
Washington, D.C. U.S. Department of Agriculture. Weather Bureau.
Farmers' Bulletins, Nos. 640-651, 653-667, 670, 672-698.
Washington, D.C. U.S. War Department. (Nothing received.)
Washington, D.C. U.S. Bureau of Education. Report of the Commissioner
for the year ending June 30, 1914. Vols. 1 and 2. Bulletin No. 27.
Washington, D.C. Library of Congress. (Nothing received.)
Washington, D.C. Pan American Union. Bulletin. 1915, January to Dec.
Washington, D.C. Carnegie Institution. Department of Terrestrial Mag-
netism. (Nothing received.)
Ziirich. Geographisch-Ethnographische G esellschaft in Zurich. Jahres-
bericht. XIV und XV, 1913-14 und 1914-15.
LANTERN SLIDES.
1,200 Lantern Slides of prominent people and places of interest in various parts
of the World. *Mr. J. Howard Reed, F.R.G.S.
List of Members
117
Xi0t of flDembere.
DECEMBER 31st, 1915.
iSTote. — H signifies Honorary, C — Corresponding, L — Life, A — Associate,
* Afl&liated Societies. All others are Ordinary Members.
Abbott, F. S., F.C.A.
Abson, Miss Ada
Adnett, Madame M.
LAins worth, John, C.M.G.,
(Kisumu)
Aldred, John C, A.C.A.
Alexander, W. T., J. P.
A Allen, Mrs. James
HAmundsen, Captain Roald
Appleby, Wm.
Armitage, G. F., J.P. (His
the Mayor of Altrincham)
Armstrong, F.
Aming, A. W.
Arnold, W. A.
Aron, L.
Ascoli, W. S., F.R.G.S.
Ashton, Miss B.
AAshworth, Mrs. Ada
AAshworth, Miss D.
Ashworth, Francis, J.P.
AAshworth, Miss Mary p
AAshworth, Miss M. B.
AAshworth, S.
Ashworth, Wm., F.C.A.
Ashwoi-th, W. E.
Atkinson, George, F.R.G.S.
Bacon, W. C.
Baerlein, H. A.
Bailey, W. D.
LBalmer, J. E., F.R.G.S.
LBalmforth, Alfred
Bardsley, G. W.
Barlow, Edwin
Barlow, John R., J.P,
ABarnes, Mrs. Lily
Barningham, Mrs. James
Baminghara, Thomas, J.P.
Baron, J. W., C.C.
Baronian, Z. S. Iplicjian
Bax, Wm. Robert
ABayley, Mrs. C. H.
ABeck, H. S.
F.R.G.S. Beer, Walter
Behrens, Councillor Sir Charles, J.P.
Behrens, Gustav, J.P.
cBellamy, C. H., F.R.G.S., Tourcoing
ABellamy, Reginald C, A.C.A.
Bennett, Miss Ruth
Bentley, John Howard, F.R.G.S.
Worship Berry, G.F.
Berry, R H.
Berry, W. H., Free Public Library^
Oldham.
ABickerton, Richard
Billinge, J. H.
Bishop, J. K.
Blaikie, W. V.
ABlanchoud, Miss
Blass, A.
Bles, Marcus S., J.P.
Bock, Richard
LBoddington, Henry, J.P.
HBodio, Senator Luigi, Rome
ABolivar, Mrs. A. de
HBonaparte, S. A. Prince Roland, Paris
HBond, Rt. Hon. Sir R., K.C.M.G.,
Newfoundland
HBothaw Rt. Hon. Louis, Pretoria
Bowen, E.
Bradshaw, Wm.
Bramwell, Samuel.
cBrice, A. Montefiore
Brier, Charles
LBrierley, James, M.A., F.R.G.S.
ABriggs, Mrs. F.
ABriggs, Frederick
Briggs, Henry
Briggs, Herbert
Broadhurst, E. Tootal, D.L., J.P.
ABrobson, Miss M.
ii8 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
LBrooks, Mrs. S. H.
LBrooks, S. H., J.P., F.E.G.S.
Broome, Henry
Brown, Alfred
Brown, A. E. Buchanan
LBrown, James, J. P.
ABrown, Miss M. A.
Brownell, Thos. W.
ABruce, Miss Gladys E. A.
Brumm, Charles, J. P.
Bryant, James
cBryce, J. Annan, M.P.
ABubb, Mrs.
Buckley, J.
Buckley, W. S.
Burgess, Alfred, A.C.A.
LBurgon, Anthony
Burke, Thomas
*Bumley Literary and Scientific Club
Burstall, Miss S. A., M.A.
Butterworth, Walter, J. P.
Bythell, J. K., J.P.
Bythell, W. J. S., B.A., M.D.
Byrne, Miss T. G.
Calvert, D. E.
Campbell, Richardson
ACardwell, J. J.
Carr, Arthur
LCarver, W. Oswald
Chadwick, J. J.
Champ, F.
AChamock, Mrs E.
Cheetham, Rt. Hon. J. F., J.P.
AChorley, Miss K.
Chorlton, Isaac
Clapham, Col. W. W.
Clapham, Thomas, F.R.G.S.
Clarke, Mrs. A. G. M.
Clarke, Charles A.
Clay, Frederick
ACockshaw, Miss E.
cColbeck, Rev. A.
LCoUey, T. H. Davies
ACoUinge, Miss A.
CoUmann, C.
Colt, W. H.
Cooke, J. Herbert
Cookson, G. P.
Cookson, Miss Marion
Coop, Thos.
LCooper, Mrs. A. H.
aCox, C. H., B.Sc, L.C.P.
Cox, Dr. Frederic
Crawford, W. L.
Crewdson, Alfred
Crompton, Mrs.
Crompton, Thos. A.
Crook, Col. H. T., D.L., V.D.^
M.Inst.C.E.
Crosland, Leo
ACrosthwaite, Robert, M.A., B.Sc.
Crowther, Miss E.
Dakin, Harold
ADaves, Miss A.
David, Henry E.
ADavies, Charles J.
Dawkins, Prof. W. Boyd, J. P., M.A.^
F.R.S.
HDeakin, Hon. Alfret^, Australia
Deakin, G. G. D.
Deakin, Thos. S.
Dean, J.
Dean, J. N.
Dean, W. J.
Dennis, Cammack, J.P.
LDerby, Rt. Hon. Earl, G.C.V.O.
ADewez, Mdlle. F.
Dickson, E. H. L.
Dixon, H. C.
Donner, Sir Edward, Bart.
Downie, R. M.
LDoxey, Alex. S.
Draper, Walter T.
Duckworth, Charles
Dugdill, John
Dyckhoff, C.
Earnshaw, John A.
Eason, Edward A.
*Eccles Prov. Ind. Co-op. Soc, Ltd.
Eckhard, Gustav, J.P.
Edleston, C. V. M.
LEdwards, T. A., F.R.G.S.
Egerton of Tatton, Rt. Hon. Lord
Ellinger, George
Ellinger, Martin
List of Members
119
Eliot, W.
cEngland, Major A.
LErmen, Charles
Evans, E. Roose
Evans, E. Russell
Evans, J. H.
Evans, L. C.
AEwbank, Miss
Fairhurst, Thomas
cFedotoff, A., Moscow
Ferguson, Wm.
Fern, George
cFisher, Rev. A. B., F.R.G.S.
Fletcher, Miss D. E.
Fletcher, R.
Flinn, W. Leonard
Follows, F. W.
Forsyth, Henry
AFosbrooke, Miss Agnes
Franc, Henry-
Frank, Ernest
Frankenburg, Alderman I., J.P.
HFreshfield, Douglas W., F.R.G.S.
Frischmann, A.
Fullerton, Miss E.
Galle, L. A., Belgian Consul
Gamble, J.
AGamer, Miss M.
AGamer, Miss P. M.
AGamer, Charles T. I.
Gamett, Mrs. Charles
Gamett, Charles
AGaudie, Mrs. W. L.
Gaythorpe, Thomas
Geiler, Hermann
LGinger, George
Glazebrook, Philip K, M.P.
Gleave, Joseph James
Glossop, J. P. B.
Godbert, Councillor Chas. W.
Godlee, Francis
Goodbehere, Frederick G.
Goodwin, F. W.
Goodwin, J. W.
Gordon, T. Hodgetts, C.C., B A.
Green, H., M.A.
Greene, Miss Kate
ja;
Greenhow, J. H., Vice-Consul for
Norway
AGreenough, Richard, Leigh
Greg, Lieut.-Col. Ernest W., V.D.,
C.C, F.R.G.S.
Gregory, Joseph
Gregory, Theodore, F.C.A., J.P.
cGrey, Dr. Edgar
LGriffiths, Albert, D.Sc.
Griffiths, Alderman John
Griffiths, Horatio
AGroves, Miss M.
Groves, Charles V.
LGroves, W. G.
Grundy, Mrs. F.
Guest, R.
Guggenheim, A.
AGumbrell, Mrs.
Giiterbock, Alfred
Giiterbock, Richard
Guthrie, Mrs. S. F.
Hacking, Nicholas H., J.P.
Haerem, C. V.
Hailwood, Councillor Anthony, J.P.
AHall, Miss Hilda
LHall, Mrs. J. Howard
LHall, J. Howard
Halsall, Frank, F.C.A., J.P.
AHamilton, Mrs.
AHamilton, Miss Joyce
Hammond, G. S. ,
Hamp, E. H.
Hancock, J.
AHandcock, H. C.
cHanlon, Right Rev. Henry
Hardcastle, G. L.
AHarden, Miss C.
LHargreaves, George
Harlow, Charles
AHarper, William
Harrap, Thomas
Harris, Arthur
AHarris, Miss E. M.
AHarris, Miss Evelyn
Harrop, James
LHassall, Alderman Thomas, J.P.
Hawkins, William
Haworth, Alfred, J.P.
I20 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
Haworth, G. C, J.P.
Heap, Alderman, W. T., J.P.
Heighway, Mrs.
Heighway, George
Herd, Harry
Hertz, F. M.
Hesketh, W. R.
Hewerdine, W. H.
AHewit, R. P., J.P.
LHeys, John, J.P.
Heywood, Abel, J.P.
Higginbottom, Walter
Higgins, J.
Higham, J. Sharp, M.P.
Hilditch, John, M.R.A.S., M.J.S.
Hilton, Thomas
Hindle, James, L.R.A.M.
Hinrichsen, S.
Hockin, C. Owen
Hodgson, Jas. T.
Hodgson, William
AHolden, Henry
AHoUingworth, Edgar W
Holmes, W. Francis
AHolt, Miss
LHolt, Arthur
AHoole, Mrs.
Hope, Leonard
Hopkinson, Edward, D.Sc
Horsfall, T. C.
AHoughton, Miss May
Houghton, John
Houldsworth, Sir W. H., Bart.
cHoyle, W. E., M.A.
Hudson, James H., M.A.
Hughes, Joseph David
Huhne, C. J.
Huntbach, Robert
LHutton, J. Arthur
Hyde, Thomas
Irving, R. J.
A Jackson, Miss A.
Jackson, Fred J.
HJameson, Rt. Hon. Sir L. S., C.B.
Janus, H.
Jefferson, Alfred Hy.
Jenkins, Alderman T. H., J.P.
Johnson, E., J.P.
LJohnson, Wm. Morton, F.R.G.S.
cJohnston, Sir H. H., G.C.M.G.,
K.C.B., F.R.G.S.
Johnstone, Charles Andrew
Jones, R. Lomas
Jones, Wm., Didsbury
Jordan, Bernard
Kalisch, Moritz
Kay, Max M.
Kay, Richard, F.R.G.S.
cKeiffer, F., Moscow
cKeith-Roach, Captain Edward
AKelley, H. F.
Kelley, J. Macpherson
HKeltie, J. Scott, LL.D., F.R.G.S.
Kessler, P. W.
AKewley, Miss Jane
Keymer, Sidney L., F.R.G.S.
AKiesling, A. E.
Kinch, W. S., C.C.
Knowles, Peter
Knudsen, A., Consul for Denmark
Kukla, Charles
cLabbe, Paul, Paris
ALancashire, Miss M.
ALancaster, James, J.P,
Larmuth, Dr.
Lauder, Francis A.
HLaurier, Rt. Hon. Sir W., G.C.M.G.
ALaw, Miss Annie E., L.L.A.
Lawson, R. G.
Lea, John
Leah, S. P.
Leak, Rev. W. H.
ALedward, H. Davenport
cLeech, Wm. Booth
Leemann, E.
Lees, Mrs. H. L., F.R.G.S., A.R.C.L
Lees, Walter
*Leigh Literary Society
Leite, J. Pinto, Vice Consul for
Portugal
Lemon, Miss Ada
LLemos, Professor Angel Ma Diaz
Levinstein, Herbert
Levinstein, Ivan
List of Members
121
Lewis, John Wm.
ALightowler, Mrs. E.
ALightowler, E.
Little, David Ainsworth
Littler, Henry Landon
Livesey, W. R.
Lomas, J. A.
Longden, A. W.
Lord, Charles
Lowe, Wm. *
Macara, Sir C. W., Bart., J. P.
cMcDermott, Rev. P. A., C.S.Sp.
HMacdonald, Major-Gen. Sir J. R. L.,
R.E.
McDougall, Charles
McDougall, Robert
McFarlane, H. H.
McFarlane, John, M.A., M.Com.,
F.R.G.S.
M'Grath, W. A.
HMacGregor, H. E. Sir Wm., M.D.,
K.C.M.G.
McPherson, Alexander
Makin, E., junr.
Makin, John A.
^Manchester Corporation, Free Libra-
ries Committee
Mandleberg, G. C, J.P.
Mandleberg, Colonel S. L., J.P.
AMarkham, Mrs. M.
cMarrs, F. W., M.A., Bombay
liMarsden, James, J.P.
Martin, Horace C, F.R.G.S.
Marx, Charles
Massey, Harold F.
Massey, L. F.
LMather, Loris Emerson, F.R.G.S.
Mather, Rt. Hon. Sir William, J.P.
Maude, Rev. J. G.
May, Wm.
AMaybury, J. H.
AMaybury, W. H.
Medlyn, Wm. John
Melland, Edward
Melland, Councillor Will
LMellor, E. W., J.P., F.R.G.S.
AMellor, Miss F.
LMellor, Geoffrey Robert
Midwood, T. C.
Millers, R. Townley
Milligan, Sir Wm., M.D.
Mills, Albert
HMoor, Rt. Hon. F. R., Natal
Moore, A. E.
Morehouse, James T.
Morland, J. R.
Morreau, M.
Mort, Miss G. E.
Moxon, Thomas Bouchier
Murton, T. P., London
HNansen, Dr. F., G.C.V.O.
Nanson, Miss W.
ANash, Miss M. R.
Nathan, Fred P.
LNeil, Alexander
Neild, F. E., F.C.A.
Neild, Jesse
Nichol, Wm.
Nicholls, Rev. Wm.
Nichols, Geo. Wm.
Nicholson, Joseph
Nightingale, Thos. H.
ANoar, H.
LNuttall, Harry, M.P., F.R.G.S.
Nuttall, Mrs. Harry
ANuttall, R. Wilson
cOederlin, F.
Oldham, H. Yule, M.A., F.R.G.S.,
Cambridge
cO'Neill, H. E., F.R.G.S.
Openshaw, Miss E. N.
Oppenheim, F. S., M.A.
Ormrod, Miss B.
Osbom, John A.
Ost, Emil
APaine, Miss
Palmer, Robert
Parkinson, H. F.
Parkinson, J. B.
Parkinson, T. W. F., M.Sc, F.G.S.
APearson, Miss E.
Pearson, J. A.
nPeary, Rear-Admiral R. E.
Peters, Miss S. Kate
122 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
Philips, Miss
Phythian, J. Ernest
Pickstone, E.
Pidd, Arthur J.
APidd, Leslie S.
APidd, Mrs. Eli
APidd, Miss Maggie
Pilcher, Colonel Jesse, V.D.
Pilkington, Charles, J. P.
LPilkington, Edward, J.P.
Pilkington, Lawrence, J.P.
cPingstone, G. A.
Pingstone, H. C.
APotts, Mrs.
APrescott, Mrs.
APrescott Miss E. M.
Prestwich, R. H.
Proctor, Mrs.
AProctor, Miss
Pro vis, Frank M.
Prusmann, Robert Henry
Putz, F. R.
Qualtrough, Miss Kate, F.R.G.S.
Quine, Dr. R. H., L.R.C.P., etc.
Raby, C. R.
Ragdale, J. R., C.A., J.P.
Ramsay, P. J., J.P.
ARawlinson, Miss Maud
Reade, Charles E.
Ree, Alfred, Ph.D.
Reed, J. Howard, F.R.G.S,
Reekie, W. Maxwell
Reid, James Stephenson
LReiss, Alec
Renold, Hans
Renshaw, James
ARenshaw, Miss L. W.
Rhodes, Edward
Richardson, J. E. T.
Richmond, Wm., J. P.
Rigby, Wm.
Riley, R. J.
ARobertshaw, James
Robertson, W. J.
Robinow, W.
Robinson, T. Fletcher
Robinson, Miss R.
Robson, J. Walter, J.P.
Rogerson, James
Rothband, H. L.
Rotherham of Broughton, the Righli
Hon, Lord
Rothwell, Alderman W. T., J.P.
Row, 0. M., M.I.M.E.
Royse, Councillor Sir S. W., J.P.
Russell, A. C.
Russell, C. E. B.
Ruttenau, Wm.
Saalfeld, A.
Salford, the Rt. Rev. the Bishop of
*Salford Corporation Free Libraries
Committee
Schofield, Edwin, J.P.
Scholfield, Councillor A. Y.
Scott, C. Archibald
Scott, C. P., J.P.
Scott, J. E. P.
Scott, W.
Segalla, Emil
Sever, John
HShackleton, Sir E. H., C.V.O;,.
F.R.G.S.
Shann, Alderman Sir T. T., J.P:
Shaw, A. E.
Shaw, Matthew
AShaw, Wm. Runcimaai
Sheppard, E. F.
Shipman, Mrs. W. M.
Shorrocks, Henry
Simmons, C. L.
Simon, Louis
Simpson, Alfred, J.P.
Simpson, C. J.
ASimpson, Miss F.
Sinclair, Harry.
Sivewright, Wm.
LSmith, Rev. F. C, M.A., F.R.G.&.
Smith, James, Oldham
Smith, J., Moss Side
Smith, J. H. H., J.P.
ASmith, Miss M. J.
Smith, R. Heaton
ASmith, Mrs. R. Heaton
Smith, Mrs. Samuel
Smith, Sidney
List of Members
123:
Smith, T. M.
Somerset, Henry
ASomerset, Henry, Junr.
Southam, T. Frank, M.D., F.R.G.S.
ASouthern, John E.
HSowerbutts, Mrs. Eli
ASowerbutts, Harry, A.R.C.Sc.
Sowerbutts, T. W., F.S.A.A.
Speakman, Walter
ASpencer, Miss M. R.
ASpencer, S.
Spencer, Wm.
Sprott, W. J., M.D., M.R.C.S.
Stadelbauer, H.
Staniforth, Harry
Staniforth, R. A.
LSteinthal, Egbert
Stephens, Alderman Sir W., J.P.
Sternberg, S.
Stevenson, Frederick
Stevenson, John
AStewart, Robert
Stocks, Miss A.
Stoker, R. B., F.R.G.S.
LStonehewer, Walter.
Stordy, Mrs.
Storey, Henry E.
AStott, Miss
Stowell, Hugh
Stubbs, Wm. T.
ASummerville College, The Principal
Sussum, Geo. H.
Sutton, Charles
Sutton, Councillor E. F. M., J.P.
cSwaine, Lieut. Geo. Raymond
Swallow, Miss Eunice
HSwallow, Rev. R., M.D.
Swallow, R. W., B.Sc.
LSykes, Arthur H., D.L., J.P.
Symonds, The Rev. Canon
Tatham, Mrs. N.
Tattersall, Herbert W.
ATatton, Lees W.
ATaylor, Albert
Taylor, Miss A. I.
Taylor, Frederick
Taylor, John Tyson
ATaylor, Miss M.
ATaylor, Miss Ruth
Taylor, Walter
Taylor, William
Tejeria, Antonio Maria, Spanish
Consul
Terry, Henry
Thewlis, Councillor J. Herbert, J; P.
Thomas, E. H., F.C.I.L
LThomas, George, J.P.
cThomson, J. P., LL.D,, Brisbane
Thomson, R.
Thomson, Wm., F.R.S. (Ed.)
Thorpe, Walter
ATodd, Miss Dorothy H.
Tout, Prof. T. F., M.A.
LTrafEord, Sir Humphrey F. de, Bart.
Tuke, Rev. R. M.
LTulloch, Angus A. G.
Turner, Mrs. S. A.
ATydeman, B. R.
ATyldesley Higher Education Commit^-
tee
Tyne, W. J.
, Vallance, A. C.
Vaudrey, Sir W. H., J.P.
Viehoff, Miss F.
nWainwright, Joel, J.P.
Wainwright, Thomas Foster, JiP:
AWalch, Mrs. W. E.
Walkden, Arthur
Walker, G. H.
Walker, J. Alan
Walker, John
Walker, Miss Mary G.
Walker, Sam
AWallace, Miss M. W.
LWallace, Reginald W.
Walmsley, R.
Walter, Miss L. Edna, B.Sc, H.M.I.
Warburton, Miss L. M.
AWarburton, Miss L. W.
HWard, Sir A. W., M.A., Litt.D.
HWard, Rt. Hon. Sir J. G., K.C.M.G.,.
New Zealand
LWard, Wm. H.
Ward, Ziba Armitage
AWardle, Miss
124 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
cWardrop, Capt. A. Tucker, F.E.G.S.
AWarren, Geo. H.
A Warrington, Miss M.
Waterhouse, Gilbert, F.RG.S.
AWatson, Col. Sir C. M., K.C.M.G.,
RE.
Watson, D. Fraser
Watson, Joseph
A Webster, John
Welding, Miss
Welldon, Et. Kev. Bishop, D.D.,
Dean of Manchester
Welsh, W.
Whalley, Joseph, F.R.G.S.
Whitby, W. H.
White, Mrs. M. M.
xWhittaker, Mrs. A. H.
AWhittaker, Miss F.
Whitworth, Herbert
AWigham, Sam
Wihl, G.
Wilde, J. J.
AWilkinson, Miss
Wilkinson, T. F.
Wilkinson, Wm,
Willcock, Thomas
HWillcocks, Major-General Sir James,
K.C.M.G., D.S.O.
Williams, Arnold, A.C.A.
Williams, James
Williams, S. W., C.A.
Williamson, R. T., M.D., F.R.G.S.
Williamson, William Henry
Wilmore, Albert, D.Sc, F.G.S.
Winder, Mark
AWinstanley, T. G.
Wood, A. W.
Wood, George Hervey
LWood, George W. Rayner, J.P.
Wood, Henry
Wood, Thomas
Woodhouse, J. H., F.R.I.B.A.
Woodruff, Herbert
Woods, W. D.
Woolf, Miss M. A.
Woolfenden, Miss Alice H.
Woolf enden, Joseph
Woolfenden, R. S. H.
Woolley, George Stephen
LWoolley, Hermann, F.R.G.S.
LWrathmell, T.
Wright, Reginald
Wylde, Miss Bertha
Young, Harold
Young, Leonard
Young, Robert
Zellweger, I.
Zimmem, Fritz, F.R.G.S.
cZimmern, Captain N. H.
Zimmern, W. H.
Rules 125.
I. OBJECT AND WORK.
The object of the Manchester Geographical Society is to promote the study
of all branches of Geographical Science, especially in its relations to commerce
and civilisation.
The work of the Society shall be : —
1. To further in every way the pursuit of the science; as, by the study of
official and scientific documents, by communications with learned, industrial
and commercial societies, by correspondence with consuls, men of science,
explorers, missionaries, and travellers, and by the encouragement of the
teaching of geography in schools and colleges.
2. To hold meetings at which papers shall be read, or lectures delivered by
members or others.
3. To examine the possibility of opening new markets to commerce and to
collect information as to the number, character, needs, natural products and
resources of such populations as have not yet been brought into relation with
British commerce and industry.
4. To promote and encourage, in such way as may be found expedient,
either alone or in conjunction with other Societies, the exploration of the less
known regions of the earth.
5. To inquire into all questions relating to British and Foreign colonisation
and emigration.
6. To publish a Journal of the proceedings of the Society, with a summary
of geographical information.
7. To form a collection of maps, charts, geographical works of reference,
and specimens of raw materials and commercial products.
8. The Society shall not enter into any financial transactions beyond those
necessarily attached to its declared object, and shall not make any dividend,
gift, division, or bonus in money unto or between any of its members.
II. ORGANISATION.
9. The Society shall consist of ordinary, associate, corresponding, and
honorary members.
10. A Council shall be chosen annually from the ordinary members to con-
duct the affairs of the Society. It shall consist of a President, four or more
Vice-Presidents, a Treasurer, two or more Honorary Secretaries (including a
Secretary for Foreign Correspondence), and twenty-one Councillors.
11. There shall be three Trustees elected by the Society, who shall hold
office until death, disability, insolvency or resignation. They shall be members
of the Council by virtue of their office.
12. Any vacancy occurring in the Council during the current year may be
filled up by the Council.
III. ELECTION OF MEMBERS.
13. Every candidate for admission into the Society as an ordinary or an
associate member must be proposed by a member. The proposal shall be read
out at the next Ordinary Meeting of the members, and any objection shall be
forwarded in writing to the Secretary within seven days.
14. The election of members is entrusted to the Council. The names of
those elected shall be announced from the chair at the next Ordinary Meeting
after the election.
15. The Secretary shall within three days forward to every newly-elected
member notice of his election, a copy of the Rules of the Society, and a card
126 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
announcing the days on which the Ordinary Meetings will be held during the
session. But the election of an ordinary or associate member shall not be com-
|)lete, nor shall he be permitted to enjoy the privileges of a member, until he
«hall have paid his first year's subscription. Unless such a payment be made
within three calendar months from the date of election the election shall be
void.
16. The Council shall have power to elect honorary and corresponding
members.
17. Women shall be eligible as members and ofl&cers of the Society.
IV. PAYMENTS.
•18. An ordinary member shall pay an annual subscription of £1. Is., or he
may compound by one payment of £10. 10s. An associate member shall pay
an annual subscription of 10s. 6d. The Society's year shall begin on the first
day of January.
19. Members shall not be entitled to vote or to enjoy any other privilege of
the Society so long as their payment shall continue in arrear, but associate
members shall not vote nor shall they take any part in the government of the
Society.
20. The first annual payment of a member elected in November or December
shall cover his subscription to the 31st of December in the year following.
21. On the first day of January in each year there shall be put up in the
rooms of the Society a complete list of the members with the amount of their
subscription due, and as the amounts are paid the fact shall be marked on the
list.
22. Notice shall be sent to every member whose subscription shall not have
been paid by the first of February, and if the arrears are not discharged by
the first of July the Council may remove the member from the list of members.
Any member, whose subscription is in arrear for two years shall not be entitled
to receive the Journal of the Society.
V. MEETINGS.
23. The meetings of the Society shall be of three kinds — Ordinary, Annual,
and Special.
24. In all meetings a majority of those present shall decide on all questions,
the President or Chairman having a casting vote in addition to his own.
OEDINARY MEETINGS.
25. The Ordinary Meetings of the Society shall be held once a month, from
/the month of October to the month of May, or oftener, if judged expedient by
the Council.
26. All members whose subscriptions are not in arrear shall have a right to
be present. All ordinary members shall have the privilege of introducing one
visitor.
27. The order of the proceedings shall be as follows : —
(a) The minutes of the last meeting to be read and if correctly recorded
they shall be signed by the Chairman.
(b) Presents, whether of money, books, maps, charts, instruments or
specimens, made to the Society to be announced.
(c) The election of new members to be declared and the names of
candidates to be read.
(d) Papers and communications to be read and discussed.
28. At these meetings nothing relating to the rules or management shall be
brought forward, but the minute book of the Council shall be on the table at
each meeting for the inspection of any member, and extracts therefrom may,
Rules 127
with the consent of the chairman, be read to the meeting on the requisition of
any member.
23. On occasions of exceptional interest the Council may make provision for
a larger admission of visitors.
ANNUAL MEETINGS.
30. The Annual Meeting of the members shall be held at such time and
place as the Council may determine.
31. Fourteen days' Notice of such meeting shall be sent to every member
within the United Kingdom who has given his address to the Secretary, and
notice of the meeting shall be advertised in such newspapers as the Council
may direct.
32. The object of this meeting shall be to receive the Annual Report of the
Council and the Treasurer's Balance Sheet, to hear the President's address, to
elect the Council and officers for the ensuing year, and to transact any other
business.
33. Any two ordinary members may nominate candidates for the Council or
for office not later than one week prior to the day of election, and the names
of candidates so nominated shall be at once put up in the rooms of the Society.
The election of the Council and officers shall be by ballot
SPECIAL GENERAL MEETINGS.
34. The Council may call a Special General Meeting of the Society when-
ever they shall consider it necessary, and they shall do so if required by 20
ordinary members.
35. A week's notice of the time and object of every Special Meeting shall
be sent to all members. No other business shall be entertained than that of
which notice has been thus given.
36. Twenty ordinary members shall form a quorum.
VI. COUNCIL AND OFFICERS.
THE COUNCIL.
37. The government of the Society shall be entrusted to the Council, sub-
ject to the rules of the Society.
38. The Council shall annually elect a Chairman and Vice- Chairman.
39. The President or the Chairman, or any three members of the Council,
may at any time call a meeting thereof, to which every member of the Council
shall be summoned.
40. Seven shall form a quorum.
41. In order to secure the most efficient study and treatment of the various
subjects which constitute the chief work of the Society, the Council may
appoint Committees for special purposes. These Committees, with the appro-
bation of the Council, may associate with themselves any persons — whether
members of the Society or not — ^from whom they may desire to obtain special
assistance or information. The Committees shall report to the Council the
results of their proceedings.
42. The President, Chairman, Vice-Chairman of the Council, and the
Honorary Secretaries, shall, by virtue of their offices, be members of all Com-
mittees appointed by the Council.
PRESIDENT AND VICE-PRESIDENTS.
43. The President, is, by virtue of his office, the chairman of all the
meetings of the Society. In the absence of the President, one of the Vice-
Presidents may preside.
CHAIRMAN OF THE COUNCIL.
44. It is the duty of the Chairman of the Council to see that the rules are
128 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society
properly observed, to call for reports and accounts from Committees and
Officers, and to summon, when necessary, special meetings of the Council and
of Committees.
TBJEASUBER.
45. The Treasurer has the charge of all accounts ; he shall pay all accounts
due by the Society after they have been examined and approved by the
Council.
46. He shall see that all moneys due to the Society are collected, and shall
have power, with the approval of the Council, to appoint a Collector. All
moneys received shall be immediately paid to the bankers of the Society.
47. The bank passbook and the book of accounts shall be laid upon the
table at every ordinary meeting of the Council.
48. The accounts shall be audited annually by two members, who shall be
elected at an ordinary meeting at least one month before the Annual Meeting.
SECRETARIES.
49. The duties of the Honorary Secretaries shall be : —
(a) To conduct the correspondence of the Society and of the Council.
(b) To attend the meetings of the members and of the Council, and
minute their proceedings.
(c) At the ordinary meetings, to announce gifts presented to the Society
since their last meeting; to read the names of all new members and
of candidates for admission, and the papers communicated to the
Society, which have been directed by the Council to be read.
(d) To have immediate superintendence of all persons employed, to make
arrangements for the meetings of the Society, and to take charge of
all maps, books, furniture and other effects.
50. It shall be the more especial duty of one of the Honorary Secretaries to
conduct, as may be directed by the Council, correspondence with Foreign
Societies, and with persons resident abroad.
51. In addition to the Honorary Secretaries, there shall be a paid Secretary
appointed by the Council, whose duties shall be to assist the Honorary Secre-
taries, to issue the notices of the Council and of the Society, and to act under
the instructions of the Council.
The foregoing Eules, as now amended, were approved and adopted at a
meeting of the members of the Society, of which due notice had been given to
the members, held in the Town Hall, Manchester, Wednesday, October 3rd,
1894. (Signed) GEORGE, President.
S. ALFRED STEINTHAL, Chairman
F ZIMMERN, Honorary Secretary.
JAS. D. WILDE, M.A., Honorary Secretary.
ELI SOWERBUTTS, Secretary.
[Copy.]
It is hereby certified that this Society is entitled to the benefit of the Act 6
and 7 Vict., Cap. 36, intituled "An Act to exempt from County, Borough,
Parochial, and other Local Rates, Lands and Buildings, occupied by Scientific
or Literary Societies." Seal of Registry of
Friendly Societies.
Thia 15th day of January, 1895. E. W. B.
p
G
7
M3
V. 29-31
Manchester Geographical
Society, Manchester, Eng
Journal
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