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STANFORD \3N\\¥.^^Y\X

RUDIMENTARY TREATISE.

TUBULAR

AND OTHEB

EON GIEDER BKIDGES,

PAXXICXTLABLT SESCBIBINa THE

BRITANNIA AND CONWAY TUBULAR
BRIDGES;

»^ a mt\ flf Iron irftgts,

ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE APPLICATION OF MALLEABLE IKON
TO THE ART OF BRIDaE-BUILDING.

BY G. DRYSDALE KEMPSEY, C.E.,

Atithor of the " Practical BaUway Engineer,*' "Rudimentary Treatise on the Drainage

of Distiicts and Laiids,'^ and on the " Drainage and Sewage

of TowHs and Buildings," &c.

THIRD

EDITION.

LONDON:
VIRTUE BROTHERS AND CO., 1, AMEN COB.^^^,

PATERNOSTER "RO^ .

1866.

LIBRARY S

OF THE

iEI

.AND STANFORD JUNIOR

K.-

UNIVERSITY. ^

R.-^i

CONTENTS.

SECTION I.

Page
Sketch of the History of lion Bridges — Oast-Iron Arched Bridges
— Oast-Iron Gii-der Bridges — Cast-Iron Conipoand Girder
Bridges, trussed with Malleable-Iron Bai-s 1 — 10

SECTION n.

Malleable Iron — its Manufacture into Plates and Bars of different
Sections — The application of Iron Tlates in the foimation of
Steam Boilers — and of Plates and Bars in building Ships,
Caissons, &c. 11 — ^21

SECTION HI.

Firet Constructions of Wrought-Iron Plate Girders — Mr. Fair-
bairn's Patent Wrought-Iron Tubular Girders — Their applica-
tion to Bridges-building — ^Bridge on the line of the Blackburn
and Bolton Railway — Bridges of the Liverpool Landing Stage
— Great Bridge erected by Messrs. Fairbairn and Sons, on the
line of the Manchester, Sheffield and Lincolnshire Railway at
Gainsborough 21 — 23

SECTION IV.

Malleable-Iron Bridges of different Constructions — ^Lattice Bridges
— Tubular Bow-Bridge — Tubular Girder Bridge, with inter-
vening Arches of Brick-work-^Compound Wrought-Iron and
Concrete Girders—Combinations of Malleable and Cast Iron in
Framed Bridges— Comigated Wrought-Iron Girders . . ^^3 — 46

SECTION V.

Cheater and Holyhead Railway— General Sketch oC V3cv«ek\:\vw'$^-
Telford's Holyhead Road — The Me\va\ axvi Cotv^^-^ ^\3ay^w^'^'c»w
Bridges— Railway Tunnel, SearwaW, »adN\aAuQX.»«X >^«vxw>a.^vx

VI CONTENTS.

Pa^e
Mawr — Parliamentan' Proceedings, and Engineers' Reports upon
the Communication between Londion and Dublin — Iron Bridges
proiwsed by Mr. Rennie in 1802— Mr. Robert Stephenson's
Deuign for Cast-iron Arched Bridges, and selection of Site over
theBritannia Rock — Admii-alty Opposition, and Mr. Stephenson's
consequent Design of the Tube 46 — G2

SECTION VI.

General Principles which distinguish Girder Bridges from Arched
Bridges — Mr. Fairbairn's Experiments and Repoit on Tubular
Girders — Mr. Hodgkinson's Experiments and Repoit — Mr.
Stephenson's Report 62—92

SECTION VII.

Daecription. of the Britannia BRineE — The Masonry— Britannia
Tower — Anglesea and CarnaiTon Towers and Abutments —
Arrangements for constructing the Tubes — Main Tubes and
Land Tubes — Description of their Construction — Scaffold ingaiid
Staging — Arrangements for ffoating tiie Tubes — The Pontoons
— ^Raising the Main Tubes — The Hydraulic Press — Connecting
the Tubes in the Towera— The ConwAY Bridge .... 92—132

E\*GiKisERiso Works hf^hig iiaiially of a public cliaracter,
Tiatnrftlly excite a general intereat tiirougliout the community,
the extent of wliich feeling h commonly commena urate with
the novelty^ the magnitude, and the utility of the perform-
ance. Thus, a railway, a harbour, a lighthouse, a dock, or
a bridge, regarded as subservient to public couYenience, ia
watched with public anxiety, and iti completion becomes afi
occasion of public gratulatlon. Such a work is therefore a
pecuUarly suitable subject for one of a eeriea of Budlmentary
Volumes, dedicated, in their several features of etyle^ si^se,
and price, to the use of a largely -extended circle of readers
and stadents. And it must be admitted by all that the works
which form the main subjects of the following pages have
claims of nearly unprecedented amount upon our attention,

■ being new, greats and useful in a pre-eminent degree.
The application of wrought iron to the purpose of bridge -
building truly constitutes a new brancb of the art, and ia,
as already proved^ susceptible of modifications of form and
construction, far more efficient than tlio&e of tbe east metal .
A perfectly horizontal and rigid roadway or railway, 4 GO feet
in length, and having only 3 feet of depth below it, could not
be obtained by any other known arrangement of parts thau
that herein illustrated ; and with these suceepsful examples
before us, the task of future designing is facilitated to an
incalculable extent. For smaller spans the depth of construc-
tion may be still further reduced, as shown in the splendid
bridge over the Trent, describtd in this volume ; and for the
larticulars of which we take the pleasure o£ «:!jj^^^'Ki\\\% 'cjwt
obligation to Messrs, Fa\t\>aira a.u<\ ^vi^a, \nV^ V-k^^ ^^^

Vlll INTRODUCTION.

rendered ns mnch other valuable aid throughout this little
work, and thus furnished another proof of their known
liberality in acquainting others with the useful and often
costly results of their own extended experience.

It is seldom that the invention of works of new design and
skilful mechanical arrangement is due entirely to one mind,
any more than their construction is due to one pair of hands :
hence great difficulty arises in assigning to each contributor
his fair share of merit in their production. It must, however,
"be admitted, that to Mr. Robert Stephenson alone we are in
this instance indebted for the original suggestion ; and, with
this admission, we have endeavoured to avoid any attempt to
judge of the precise claims of the two eminent men whose joint
labours have produced the Conway and the Britannia Tubular
Bridges. That these great works owe their design and con-
struction to these joint labours is clearly evident, and, we
respectfully submit, amply sufficient to justify the record of the
two names of ROBERT STEPHENSON and WILLIAM
FAIRBAIRN in an honourable and enduring association.

In order to give a glimpse at the experience which had been
had in Iron Bridge-building prior to the use of the malleable
material, and to show the defects which this was designed to
obviate, a brief sketch of the history of Iron Bridges is pre-
fixed. This is followed by a notice of former applications of
malleable iron, with the view of bringing up the sketch to the
period at which tubular girders were first used. The descrip-
tion of the works of Telford upon the Holyhead Road is
introduced on account of the generally interesting character
of those works, and the absence of any account of them within
the reach of ordinary readers. While exalting the names and
works of our own time, wo can readily afford to acknowledge
the claims of those of a preceding age.

JUBULAK, GIEBEE, AND OTHER
IKON BRIDGES.

SEOTION L

Shetch of the History of Iran Bri!3p:e9^CaatJron Arched Britlgcii —
UaMl^lmn GiitJer ISiiflgeii — CEi^t'lroii CiJiu pound (iirdiir BriJgeB,
tfutiHijd with MiillL-able-lmu Dsub,

I employmant of iron as a material in the conBtmctioik at
Igea ia of comparatively modern date* Se%'enty yeare hava
Bcarcely dapaed einco the first iron bridge was constructed ia
iln gland over the river Severn, and near to Coalbrook Da1d„ '
^\ii\iA bridge waa built by Darby, and consiefced of five ribs of
Ciist iron, tupportlng perpendicular epandril pieces of th^i
ejtne material, and upon which the roadway id earned, Tha
arched ribs are nearly aemicircular, having a ajmn of ICK) feet,
a;td a rise or versed sine of 45 feet* The arches spring at a
height of 10 feet above low -water level, and the clear height
n]» to the so6Bt of the archea is therefore ^5 feet. At ibe
tiiue of Its constrnction this bridge mast have been duly
regarded as a hold and eucceasfnl work^ and its form is well
a^lapted to the high banks of the Severn at tho |ilaoe ^\hcrQ
it crosses, Tiie design appears to have or ig hi a ted with
Mr. Pritchard, an architect, of Eyton Turret, in Bbropahire,

»i\ ho, in the year 1773, enggested the practicahihty of con-
it ructing large iron arches, capable of admitting navigation
fceiieatli them.
I In the ypar 1787, Thoraaa Paine, tke ^o\\^.\(i^ ^^Hv^'^ ^^s^*^
rented to the Academv of Seioncea &l l*4vt\& »- wv^A^ ^>^ *=^

2 SUNDERLAND BRIDGE.

iron bridge which he had inyented ; and during the greater
part of the following year he resided at Rotherham, in York-
ehire, where a bridge, said to have been chiefly of wrought iron,
was constructed nnder his direction by Messrs. Walker, the
celebrated iron -founders of that place. This pattern bridge was
exhibited in London, «nd intended for erection in America^
but it was subsequently taken to pieces at Rotherham.

In 1790, Mr. Rowland Burdon designed a cast-iron arch
for the river Weir at Sunderland, and, in 1792, obtained
an Act of Parliament for erecting such a structure. Mr.
Burdon's peculiar plan of construction, for which he obtained
a patent, September 18, 1795, consisted in "a certain mode
or manner of making, uniting, and applying cast-iron blocks,
to be substituted in lieu of keystones, in the construction of
arches." In this way the patentee proposed to retain the
common form and principles of the old stone arch. The
Sunderland bridge, as constructed according to this inven-
tion, consists of six ribs, 200 feet in span, and having a rise
of 30 feet. The total height from low-water level to the
soffit of the arch is nearly 100 feet, and the whole structure
18 distinguished by peculiar elegance and boldness of design.
The six ribs forming the arch are placed parallel to each
other, and at a distance of 6 feet apart. Each rib consists
<jf 105 separate blocks or castings, 5 feet in depth, connected
together with bars and cotters of malleable iron. The ribs
Are braced together with cast-iron tubular braces and struts.
The spandrils are filled in with cast-iron circles, meeting at
their peripheries, and supporting the roadway, which is
formed npon a strong timber frame, planked over, and
covered with a mixture of chalk and tar, npon which a layer
of marl-limestone and gravel is laid. The width of the
bridge is 30 feet, and the abutments are of stone, founded
6ta rock, and are 24 feet thick, and from 37 to 42 feet wide.
The iron-work was executed at the foundry of Messrs.
Walker, at Rotherham, and consists of 214 tons of cast aiul
"*• of malleaWe iron. Mr. Thomas Wikon, of Bishi.p

TELFOBB'e BRTDaB AT BXULDWAS.

Wearraouth, deaigiied the arcliitecinral features of tlie bridge,
and Bu per intended its erection, which was completed within
a I'ieriod of three years, and at a total coat of j£2 6,000, of
which Mr* Bartlon, tlie preyector, subicribed jS22^OO0, In
October, 1811), the bridge was disposed of for a Binn of
i£30,000 in a lottery, wherein there were 6^000 tickets and
150 prizes, varying in amount from j£lOO to -£5,000 each.
The confined eitaation of the site rendered it necessary to
erec! the bridge withont interrupting the passage of ehips
with their rigging standing, and this w^as effected by a per-
pendicular seaffold uig or framing resting upon piles in the
middle of the river, and leaving a anfficient passage on each
aide for the vessek. The centre or transverse framing for eup-
r>ort[ng the arch was fixed on this ficaffolding, and answered
its purpose satisfactorily. Some time after the centre was
removed, the arch was found to have moved in a horizontal
direction eaatw^artl, forming a curve of 12 to IS inches versed
sine* This nn expected ci re nm stance, which, if unremedied^
would doubtless have led to the destruction of the bridge
was very skilfully counteracted by introdoeing transverse and
diagonal tie 'bars and braces, aided by screws and wedges, hy
hich the whole was ultimately restored to its original poai-
tion, and permanently retained in a substantial state. On
^M^nly 23j 1802, a patent was granted jointly to Thomas
^Kmson and Rowland Bnrdon, of Durham, for " methods of
^Bonnecting the metallic patent blocks of the said IL Burdon
^Tf>r constructing arches," "

Several iron bridges were subsequently erected by Telford,
the first of which was that across the river Severn at
Buildwas, in Shropshire, conaisting of a single arch, 130 feet
in span, and having a versed sine or riae of 27 feet The
arch consists of three ribs, placed at a distance of 9 feet
apart, or 18 feet wide from out to out* These ribs are 3 feel
10 inches in depth, and connected transversely by tie-bara.
The spandrils for supporting the TotKd^a.>j -bx^ ^^t'rcv^^ ^^
ettical bars of cast iron, and t\na &\)V^lvc^e^\^ ^^^ '^'^ ^\ss^*

4 SOUTHWARK BRIDGE.

** The two outer ribs consist of two segments of circles, eacb
struck from different centres, the crown of one terminating
immediately below the roadway, the other at the top of the
parapet, so that the platform forming the roadway is both
suspended and insistent ; the object of this being, it is pre*
sumed, to increase the depth of the truss supporting the
roadway, and thus add to the strength of the bridge : but it
was unnecessary, and does not appear to have been adopted
iu any of Telford's subsequent designs, which are niime-
rv)us."* Rennie constructed an iron bridge over the Witham,
at Boston, in Lincolnshire, which is remarkable for boldness
of design and flatness, the rise being only 4 feet, and the
span 100 feet. In construction, this bridge resembles the
Sunderland bridge, but has an improved arrangement of
transverse and diagonal braces, and vertical spaudril pieces,
instead of circular ones.

The largest iron -arch bridge yet constructed is that over
the river Thames at London, and known as the Southwark
bridge, which was designed and erected by the eminent
Ilennie, This splendid bridge, which was opened on March
25, 1819 (the first casting for it having been run on January
1, 1815), consists of three arches, all segments of the same
circle, the centre arch being 240 feet in span, wuth.a rise of
24 feet, and the two side arches being each 210 feet in span,
w ith a rise of 18 feet 10 inches. The piers are 24 feet thick ;
the width of the roadway over the bridge is 28 feet ; and the
footways on either side are each 7- feet in width. Each arch
consists of eight ribs, and each rib is formed of fifteen pieces,
which are of such depth that the rib is 6 feet deep at the
crown and 8 feet deep at the springing. The metal is 2^
inches thick in the middle, and 4^ inches at the top and
10 of the ribs. The ribs are connected transversely by
ron tie-braces of the same depth as the ribs, but open in
mire of each, and in the diagonal direction the ribs are

^ Beim!e*s Address to tlie Institution of Civil Engineera,

SOUTH WARK BRIDGE. D

<5onnected by another series of ribs, so that each arch consisfa
of a series of hollow masses or voussoirs, similar to those of
stone bridges : the whole of the segmental castings forming
each archy as well as the transverse and diagonal tie-braces,
are kept in their places by dovetailed sockets and long cast*
iron wedges, by which the necessity for bolts is obviated.
The spandrils are composed of cast-iron diagonal framing,
and the roadway is formed upon cast-iron plates, resting np^^ii
the spandrils, and joined with iron cement.* The abutment.)
and piers of the bridge are of stone, bailt upon platforms of
timber, which rest upon piles, and are siirroanded by guard
or sheathing piles driven into the bed of the river. In the
erection of the bridge, the ribs were commenced in the centre
of the span, and continued regularly on both sides towards
the piers and abutments. Upon these connecting and bed*
plates were secured in the masonry, and when the last seg*
ment of each rib was fixed, three wedges of cast iron, each
9 feet long and 9 inches wide, were introduced behind each
rib, and nicely fitted and adjusted to them. These wedgon
are formed with a very slight taper, and were driven simul-
taneously with heavy hammers-, so that the arches were
nearly lifted from the centres, which were thus readily re-
moved ; and the whole of the iron-work had been so carefully
prepared by Messrs. Walker, of Rotherham, and the masonry
by Messrs. Jolliffe and Banks, the contractors, that when the
work was completed, scarcely any sinking of the arches couM
be detected. By experiments made during (he progress of the
works, it was found that the average effect of the expansion
caused by the summer increase of temperature was a rise of
the arches to the extent of about 1^ inch at the crown, being

^ Iron cement, much used in connecting th« cast^fmn pU(«« of whV'h
large tanks or cisterns are often firmed, eofumi* of clean iron Un'mf/^ m
turnings of cast iron, 16 partg; sal-ammoniac, 2 i«rtf; and fl//fjr ti
Bulphar, 1 pait. When used, 1 part of this mixture is arMed to *lf) Vf^*^
of clean borings, and sufficient watCT to redooa \Saft ^\w^ N*^ >^>^ ^^^v*
giatence of a paste. This cement dnea m Va«A m ^^»» V^**^ \Vl»^y^%*»^
ioTUiB a Joint qaite impenriomi to water.

C RAILWAY IRON BRIDGES.

fixed at the abutments. The weight of metal is recorded i6
follows: in the centre arch, 1,665 tons; in the two side
arches, 2,920 tons ; total, 4,585 tons.

The principle of all these iron -arch bridges is identical with
that of arch bridges of stone and other materials, which derive
their strength and stability by transferring the effect of the
loads placed upon them to the abutments. Two require-
ments are therefore, common and indispensable to all of
them, viz. that abutments are obtained of sufficient weight
and solidity to withstand the pressure conveyed by the arch,
and that sufficient height exists for such an arch -like form to
be given to the structure, that the pressure shall be always
safely received at the abutments, and the strength of the arch
not be in any case wholly dependent upon its depth and
section at that part immediately acted upon by the saperin-
cnmbent load.

When the peculiar properties of cast iron had been studied
with a view to its extended application in buildings, and the
proportions had been correctly determined for beams of this
material, intended to supersede horizontal beams of wood,
their employment in the formation of bridges of limited span
soon followed ; and in the railway works executed during the
last twenty years, we have numberless examples of cast-iron
girder bridges, as we have also of cast-iron arch bridges, of
considerable dimensions and great ingenuity of design and
arrangement. TJie cast-iron girder bridge, depending for its
strength upon the sectional area otthe girder at that point in
its length over which the weight or load acts, requires abut-
ments to resist vertical pressure only, while the abutments of
arch bridges have to resist the lateral thrust of the arch. In
'^wt-iroQ girder bridge, moreover, the depth of the struc-
Mdnced to that of the section of material due to the
nn load ; and hence the peculiar applicability of this
f railway bridges, in which it is desirable to preserve a
4» dlstMno* from the under side, or soffit of the girder,
of the roadway above. But the Uni\t&.t\oT\ o{ ^^«ixi

fur which girders are fiafely applicallo lias fthvays reHfricteJ
their euiploynieDt in bridgea, and 4<> feet hm camnionly heen
conmdered the maximum length of beanog to which single
east-iroa girders can he eftfely applied^ liabl& to be leaded
with railvray trains or other heavy weiglits.

The deeire to retain ^hia conve^iient form of atructiire,
howeTer, and to extend its use to birger spans, induced
attempts to combine wrought iron with cast metal in euch a
manner aa should impart to the compoumi structure tlie
superior power to resist extension, which w^rought iron is well
known to posse as. Ma lie able -iron bars or rods were, for this
pnrpose, fitted to cast-iron girders, and thus a kind of metal
trussing was formed, the depth of the truss being limited to
that of the girUeif. Many railway bridges were erected with
these additions, and were considered safely con str noted when
each girder w*aa cast in tw^o or more separate pieces, making
iip^ when united, the total width of span, and the pieces being

Iiecured together by bollB passing through holes in flaut|es or
iprojecting plates cast on the ends of each piece. One of t)iese
^ast-iron compound girder bridges, trussed with mallcable-
iron bars, erected several yeara since, to carry the Northern
and Eastern railway over the river Lea, is formed with
girders each 70 feet in length, and composed of two caatingB,
joined at the centre by bolts parsing through vertical flangea.
An additional security of oonnection is attained by oaating
dovetailt?d projections or bosses n^ion the meeting ends of the
two castings, and by fixing wrought-iron clips over these
boasea. Each girder, thus formed of two castings, is perfectly
horizontal from end to end, and the top and bottom lines
parallel, the uniform depth being 3f> inches ; the bearings
^kpon the abutments are 2 feet long at each end, and the ch^ar
^^span between hearings is thus reduced to 6G feet. The section
of the castings is of the approved form, viz. with vertical rib,
and projecting flanges at top and bottom. The truss-hars
are arranged in sets, one on eacV\ %\^?;. q»1 t\\ft ^v?i.^t^V^>s2K^^
ohUquely downward from l\\fc lo^ ot t\ift ^vt?w^^ ^^^^ "^^"^

8 0U8E BRIDGE.

bearing at either end, to the under side of the girder, at a
distance oi about 11 feet short of the centre. This inter-
mediate space of 22 feet has horizontal truss-bars passing
beneath, and the horizontal and oblique bars are secured l)y
bolts or pins 3 inches in diameter, passing through projectin.cf
saddles beneath the lower flange .of the girder. At their
upper extremities, these bars pass through sockets cast upon
the girders, and are keyed through them. Each set of trusd-
bars consists of four bars 6 inches wide and 1 inch in thickness.
Another bridge of similar construction and dimensions is
constructed to carry the York and Scarborough railway over
the river Ouse at York.

It is worth while to refer to the great defect of these com/-
pound constructions, as it points directly to the superiority
of homogeneous fabrics, and, moreover, involves an error in
principle which should always be borne in mind in designing
works of the kind here referred to. This defect consists in
the difficulty, or rather impossibility, of making the two kinds
of iron — cast and wrought — act fully together in bearing the
load. The strength of cast iron depends upon its rigidity •
for although it possesses the property of elasticity, this cannot
be tasked with safety, and it is well known that repeated
deflections will often destroy a casting which has withstood
previous pressures with apparent impunity. Malleable iron,
on the other hand, applied in the form of truss-bars to cast-
iron girders, is intended to act by the application of its tensile
strength, but the effect of this can only be secured when it
becomes active before the cast girder has suffered any dan-
gerous deflection. It is, therefore, indispensable that the
adjustment of the length of the bars during all changes of
temperature shall be strictly preserved — a condition which is
physically impracticable by any known form of construction
or arrangement of parts.

This defect was submitted to a lamentably fatal proof in

the failure of the largest bridge of this kind, erected over the

^ee, near Chester, and on the line of the Chester and

HuIjIiGad railway. This bridge, which crosses tbe Bee at
an angle (if 48"", consista of three epane or hayn, each 98 feet
wiJe in the dear, tlic three series of girders forming the
bridge being eupported on two abutments of masonry, one at
either end, and two intermediate piers. The width of the
bridge ia formed by four of these girders, placed parallel tt*
each other^ in two pairs, one roadway or railway being enp-
ported between each pair of girders^ and formed of 4 -inch
planking laid upon transverse balks of timber, which rest
uj)OQ the bottom flange of the girders. The girdera are
secured tranfiversely from moving outward or away from each
other by tension-bars, fitted at tlie enda to dovetailed eocketa,
caet upon the girdera. The entire bridge thus compriees
twelve girders, each having a clear span of 98 feet, and a
total length of 109 feet; that is, inclnding a bearing at each
end of 5 feet 6 inches in length. Each of these girders,
109 feet long, is composed of three castinga, or lengths,
kaving an uniform vertical depth of 3 feet 9 inches. The
dimensions of tha section are as follow : vertical rib, or web,
21- inches thick ; top flange, 7| inches wide and IJ inch
thiok; bottom flange, 2 feet wide and 2^ inches thick, Tbe
Bectinnal area of the top flange, including the moulding, is
nal to 14 aqnare inches j of the bottom flange, including
the moulding, 66 square iiicbes; and of the rib, 80 square
inches; making a total uniform sectional area of 160 sq^uaro
inches. The joints of the three castings in each girder,
secured by wrought-iron bolts parsing through flanges, are
strengthened by additional cast-iron joint plates, 3 feet deep
at tbe centre, over the joint, and 13 feet irv length, bolted to
ind scarped over tbe top flangce of the castings, over a length
I iy feet 6 inches upon each: dovetailed boaaes, cast upon the
wer flanges, are also secured with clips of wrought iron.
The total depth of the girders, at each joint, is thus increased
to 6 feet 9 inches. Similar plates, of half the ku%lK ^l "^^^^
over the jointa, are also bo\ted ovgt t\tei qvl^^ q^ ^^^ ^^\&~
mimd girder ; and the venieai u\c\.\i\&tvorL til V^^ \]txia3&- "^^

10 FAILURE OF DEE BRIDGE.

from the top of die girder at each end to the bottom of it it
the joints, is thus increased to aboat 6 feet The nialleaUe-
iron troM-bars are arranged in sets of four each, one set on
each side of the girder, each bar being 6 inches wide and
1^ inch thick, pat together in lengths or long links, similar
to those used for suspension bridges, and secured by bolts at
the joints of the girders, passing through the cast-iron girder
and the eight wronght-iron barsi. The upper ends of the
bars are secured with wrought-iron keys, driven through the
bars and the casting, so as to tighten them well up in their
position. By the great length of the girders, and the com-
paratively small depth thus afforded for the trussing, the action
of the bars is reduced to nearly a horizontal direction, and
their power to avert deflection in the girders is thus much
diminished. Besides this, it must be remarked that the sec-
tional area of the bars is much less when compared with the
total length of each girder than in all smaller structures on-
this principle ; and the relative effect of any increase of tem-
perature in extending their length, and ^hus reducing the
effectiveness of their assistance, is similarly augmented. The
cause of the failure of one of these girders, which occurred on
the 24th of May, 1847, was variously ascribed to a passing
train having got off the rails, and to an undue loading of the
bridge with additional ballasting ; but the inherent weakness
of all such combinations of wrought and cast iron in bridges,
subjected not only to the action of a dead or merely insistent
weight, but to the va9tly increased momentum of a rapidly
passing and vibrating load, is too apparent to allow of any
constant safety i{i such structures.

We may therefore conclude, that in this last bold experi-
ment, the principle of compound cast-iron girders, trussed
vdth malleable -iron bars, was fully tested to its utmost limits :
and the great necessity oi seeking a safer construction for
bridges, in which the minimum, of depth should be equally
* 'fid, opened a field for gr^a,t experiments in engineering
otion^

ROLLING MALLEABLE IRON. II

SECTION II.

Ma11eal)lQ Iron — ^its Manufacture into Plates and Bars of difTerent Seo-
tions — The application of Iron l^lates in the formation of Steam Boilers
— and of Hates and Bars in building Ships, Caisisons, &c. '

The dutiea of the engineer, as imposed in the highest ser-
vices of his profession, are admitted to involve a constant
encounter of diificulties, in order, on the one hand, to sui--
mount natural obstructions of the most formidable character,
and, on the other, to i^dapt such materials of construction as
are within his command with economy and success. But the
exercise of his genius, thus demanded in bold and discreet
design and the skilful application of means, becomes yet more
severe when required in the devisal of remedies for failure,
by which energy and invention are so liable to have been
chilled and prostrated. On this account the name of Robert
Stephenson, in its association with the daring experiment
described in the first section, and the gigantic design so
successfully realised at Conway and the Menai Straits, stands
forth as that of one of the greatest among the illustrious of
English engineers.

Before proceeding to the description of Tubular Bridges
and Tubular Girder Bridges, as composed of malleable -irou
plates and frames, we shall find it interesting to refer to other
structures formed of these materials, and the previous use of
which will help us to understand the history of their appli-
cation to the purpose of bridge-building.

The manufacture of iron into the forma of plates, and of
bars of varied section, is effected by a process of rolling be-
tween pairs of rollers, by which any required degree of lami-
nation may be effected in the production of plates, and an
infinite variety of sectional forms given to bars of the ductile
metal. This invention, in its modern applications, is due to
Mr. Henry Cort, of Southampton, who obtained two patents
for his improvements in the iron maiiixv{a>.e.\^\x^. ^V'i. "wx^^x* ^
thee^ patents k dated January VI > 11^^, w^^ ^^\wv-^'

12 CORTES PATENT.

entitled " a method and process of preparing, welding and
working various sorts of iron, and of reducing the same into
uses by machinery, a furnace, and other apparatus." The
second patent is dated February 13, 1784, and is entitled "a
new mode and art of shingling, welding, and manufacturing
iron and steel into bars, plates, &c., of purer quality, in
large quantities, by a more effectual application of fire and
machinery, and with greater yield than by any method before
attained and put in practice." These inventions are described
in the 3rd vol. of the " Repertory of Arts " for the year 1795,
and from which the following extract from the patentee's
speciiication is quoted. After describing his process of pud-
dling, Mr. Cort states, — " The whole of the above part of my
method and process of preparing, manufacturing, and working
of iron, is substituted instead of the use of the finery, and is
»ny invention, and was never before used or put in practice by
any other person or persons. The iron so prepared and made
may be afterwards stamped into plates, and piled or broke,
or worked in an air furnace, either by. means of pots or by
piling such pieces, in any of the methods ever used in the
manufacture of iron from coke fineries without pots. But the
method and process invented and brought to perfection by
me is to continue the loops in the same furnace, or to put
them into another air furnace or furnaces, and to heat them
to a white or welding heat, and then to shingle them under
a forge-hammer, or by other machinery, into half-blooms,
slabe, or other forms ; and these may be heated in the chafery,
according to the old practice ; but my new invention is to put
them again into the same or other air furnaces, from which I
take the half-blooms, and draw them under the forge -hammer,
or otherwise, as last aforesaid, into anconies, bars, half-flats,
small square -tilted rods for wire, or such uses as may bo
required. And the slabe, having been shingled in the fore-
going part of the process to the sizes of the grooves in my
rnllers, through which it is intended to be passed, is worked
^ through the grooved rollers, in the manner in which

IRON FLATES AND BAUS. 13

T use hnr or wrought iron, fagoted And heated to a weltled
heat for that purpose ; which manner of workings any sort nf
iron, in a white or welding heat, tli rough grooved rollers, ia
entirely my otnti invention/' Subsequent improvements liave
been applied in the rolling and shaping of plates^ and the size
ami power of the machinery employed for these purposes
have likewise heen considerably extended. As au instance
of the great size of which plates are now rolled, we may
mention some recently made by the Coal brook Dale Iron
Company, for the bottom plates of steam generatorsj the
dimensions of wliJcb were 10 feet 7 inches by 5 feet 1 inch,
and ^^ intili thick*

Eararon ia prodticed by pasainisf hara or strips of the metnl
between rollers, on the peripheries of which correspond in;^^
grooves are cut, so that the space left between ilie two rollers
wdien brought into contact, or nearly so, is of the form in-
tended for the section of the finished bar. The several forms
in which bar iron is thus manufactured are^ — the circular
flection, or round or rod iron ; the rectangular section, being
^uare or flat iron ; the L -section » or angle iron, which is
rolled variously, with sides of efxual and unequal lengthy and
with surfaces parallel or tapering towards each other at the
edges; the T-section, or tee^irou, having the web and rib of
equal or unequal width, and the surfaces parallel or tapering;
the double T or K'^^^^^i^^'j with similar varieties of form.*
Beeidea these general Bections^ one or more of which ie

* The introthiction f^t the *TonMe T or tt-peotian appparn to belong to
Me**^)**^. Kennesiy and Vernon, of Liverpool, who ubtaiiitjU a [intent, d alec I
April 15, 1^44, '* for certaiii iniprovenieutfl in the Imikiingoi uouBtiucnon
of iron aTiil cs^ther vessels for navigation oo wati?r." Tim palontec<» t^tale,
tliat wliile hei-^jtofoiTo iron vessela have uwiially been fiamed with L-iron,
T-iron, or bar iron, or some modificfltion of these, they claim the inlro-
ductjon of iron ml led In one piesje, haviiig a flange ou one edge, piiojectiiig
on orm or tioth eidea^ for the purpojie of titrenglhenfng the iron, to he used
for the beams of dtscka and bulk-head^S} and J'or the ribs or frames of tbo

Iaiilea of vessels. They also elaUu the inlroduction of rolled iitiw wi
rill or flange on one ecJga, projecting otv iitxta ot\«(\>i«\^s:*,^ia^^Tg'*
plvi^'B of angh iron or T-iro u i iviat<wi i\viivu\Ai,

14 IRON BOATS.

applied in most framed etructures of plate iron, there are
many other sections prepared for particular purposes, in-
cluding small bar iron for forming sashes, and the extended
variety of sections of larger dimensions, rolled for rails, and
used in the formation of railways.

Besides their employment in the manufacture of steam
engine boilers, one of the earliest of the modern applicationa
of malleable-iron plates was in the construction of ships, —
an art which even yet is still in its infancy, and probably
susceptible of improvements that will aid in obviating the
objections which have been preferred against it by ignorance
and prejudice.

The first iron boat appears to have been constructed by
the late Mr. Aaron Manby, in 1820-21, at the Horseley Iron
Works, Tipton, near Birmingham. This boat, which was
named the ' Aaron Manby,* measured 120 feet in length and
18 feet beam, and when laden drew 3 feet 6 inches water. It
was propelled by Oldham's feathering paddle-wheels, worked
by an engine of SO-horse power, and, when completed, was
navigated across the English Channel by Sir Charles Napier,
and continued plying between Paris and Havre for several
years. About ten years afterwards four iron vessels were
built for the East India Company, by Messrs. Maudslay and
Field : these vessels were designed for navigating the Ganges,
and each was fitted with oscillating engines of 60 -horse
power: their dimensions were, 120 feet long, 24 feet beam,
and each drew 2 feet water. "VWought-iron boats, besides
possessing superior strength and lightness as compared with
wooden vessels, are well fitted for the formation of water-
tight bulk -heads, which are admitted to give great security
in case of accident.

The method according to which iron vessels are now con-

struoted will be best exhibited by describing the construction

of one ; and for this purpose we select H. M. steam frigate

«BJeg«ra/ just built, and propelled by the screw, for the

nt service, by Messrs- W. Fairbairn and Son«

TUB ' ubomua/ 15

The dimenBtoUfi af this vessel are && followi : — ^Lenglli be-
tween perpendiculars, 196 feet; extreme breadtli, ST feet 6
inches; depth from tmder side of deck tc» top of ersgine-bearerB,
24 feet J tonnage (old measure), 1298 tons; horses* power,
300; (engines by Messrs- Rcnnie). The keel in 8| inches
deep, and reces«ed for a depth of 7 inches on each side for
the garhoard strake. It is 3| inches thick below and 2
Inches thick above. The stem b formed by a continuation
of the keel, and of the same dimenBionB as high as the load
water-line, above which it ia rednced to an uniform bar, 6
inches by 1 J inch. The frames are 12 inches apart midsliipe,
reduced to 18 inches apart fore and afl. In midships they
are formed of angle iroijL 5 inches x 3 iticlies x /^ inch;
and fore and aft 5 inches X ^ hiebes x f inch. The floors
are formed of plate iron H inches deep and -^ inch thick,
attached to each of the framee. The centre keelson ia IS

^^ attached to each of the framei* The centre keelson ia 18 m

I inches deej) and } inch thick, and the eister keelsons on ^aeh I

^p side are 14 inches deep and ^ lacb thick. The sheathing I
^^ or covering plates are as follows : — Two on each side of the

or covering plates are as follows : — Two on each side of the
keel are \^ inch thick midships, and f inch fore and aft ;
bottom plates -^ inch and -^^ inch, reduced to -j^ inch at the
load water-liae. The wells aire formed of two strakes of
f -inch plate* The sides, above the load water-line, are of
^Q inch plate, and of l^inoh plate midships; and |-inch fore
and aft. The riveting is double throughout; the longitn-
dinal joints overlap as high as the load water-line, and ahovc
this are w^orked flash. In the sheathing or covering plates
of iron vesaels, which are necessarily weakened at the edges
by the close rivet-holes, improvements have been designed ■
to compensate for this weakening, by giving an additional
thickness to the plates at the edges. Mr. J. G. Bodmer, of
Manchester, some years ago patented a mode of doing thia^
and detiigned a reversed covering plate to embrace the
thickened edges of the two meeting plates, and thus relieve
the rivets of part of the lateral straiu v> n^\\\?^\ <^<e:^ \b^^
^^ exposed. In the * Grappletj' Mt. ^a!vtb«5LT\^ a^crw^*^ •

^ I

16 TniCK-EDOED PLATES.

ing plates rolled with thickened edges, which meet over the
centre of the T-iron ribs, and are riveted to them. The
importance of these thickened edges may be inferred from
the results of experiments on this subject, which showed that
the strength of a joint to resist a direct tearing strain is, if
single-riveted, only 60 per cent, of the strength of the plate ;
and, if double -riveted, 75 per cent. In the plates of the
* Grappler/ the edges are thickened in the proportion of
about 5 to 3 of the body of the plate ; so that the sectional
area through the rivet-holes may be nearly equal to that
through the body of the plate. This thickening also afifords ^
a great advantage in the external evenness of the sheathing,
by admitting the heads of the rivets to be countersunk, that
is, formed conically, and inserted so as to preserve a flush
surface. The sheathing of the * Grappler ' is formed as
follows: — In the garboard strake, common plates J inch
thick, in the longest possible lengths, 15 inches broad, and
double-riveted to the keel ; the rest of the sheathing of Mr.
Fairbaim's thick -edged plates, and of the following thick-
nesses : bottom plates, y®g inch at edges and f inch at centre ;
lower side plates, ^ inch at edges and -^^ inch at centre;
upper side plates, -^ inch at edges and J inch at centre.
The rivets are of the best Low Moor iron, and of the follow-
ing diameters and distance apart between centres of rivets :—
for garboard strake, 1 inch, and 9 rivets per lineal foot,
double-riveted; for bottom plates, J inch, and 6 per foot;
lower side plates, f inch, and 6 per foot ; and for upper side
plates, f inch, and 7 per foot, all single-riveted.

Up to the end of the year 1845, upwards of one hundred
British vessels are reported to have been constructed of iron,
with frames or ribs and sheathing plates; and since that
period, many additions have been made in this application
of malleable -iron plates and frames.

Another similar purpose for which these materials have

been successfully adopted, is the construction of caissons or

Kg gates for the entrances to wet docks, or basins of largo

C AISSO N a— B I V E T I NO . 17

Bs^tetit. The longitudinal prolile of these eniaaoTia is that of
» trnncated pyramid reversed, the bottom horizontal line mud
the two inclined suIq lines of the figure forming a continuous
keel, which J when the caisson is weighted by the admiaaioa
of water within it, regnlated by slnices, fits into a groove in
the sidea and bed of the masonry of the entrance^ and closes
the coramimication between the onter and inner waters* The
ejection of the water within the caisson at the time of low
rater, and the shntting of the sluices dnring the rising of
the tide, canafla the caisson to rise, and become capable '"f
floating out of the groove, so as to open the passage. The
central or midship vertical section of the caisson closely
resembles that of a ship^ and its construe tion of frames and
sheathing plates is also precisely similar to that of iron
vessels*

The e^ctended nae of plate iron for these and similar pnr-

poses has indue ed eeveral improvements in tlie machinery for

punching and rivetingj a few of which are deserving of a brief

notice in this place^ in order that we may comprehend tlie

itate of the art, and the facilities by which its last application

*to the great objects of bridge -building was promoted.

The operation of connecting iron plates to the ribs or frame-
work of the structure comprises three distinct proceasea ; via.
the making of the rivet, the pnnching of the holes in the two
parts to be connected^ and tlie fixing of the rivet in its place
through the two pieces. Iron rivets are now manjifactured in
large quantities^ by improved machinery, by wbich the proper
length of iroB is cut off from a rod, and the head accurately
formed in a die. Punching the holes was for many years per-
formed \vith a maehiue called a " lever-fly/' from its construc-
tion, one of its principal members being an iron lever of great
lengtli and weight, — the raising of the long arm of which hud
the effect of depressing the shorter arm, and thus forcing
down the punch fitted to it with aui table straps, and made to

twork truly vertically over the boaa aud W\%x.«^, qx^ ^\\\^\ ^^-^
plate to be punched is laid ^OTmmtsaXX^ . YcK^x^^iN^^siSOTia n&-

18 PUNCHINO^ RIVETING^ AND SHEARING.

niecbanical engineering have, however, produced Bevera)
Buperior machinee for punching, by which the work is exe-
cuted with great rapidity and precision. *

In the course of our description of the manufacture of the
Conway and Britannia Bridges we shall have to refeic to a mosj;
ingenious combination of mechanism invented for punclung
the plates of those bridges by Mr. Roberts, of Manchester;
but, in the mean time, we may refer to a clever application
of the principle of the hydrostatic press for the purposes of
])U aching, riveting, and shearing metal plates, invented and
j)atented by Mr. Charles May, of Ipswich. The patent is
dated April 16,1846, and entitled, for "improvements U\
machinery for punching, riveting, and shearing metal plates.'*
The mechanism for the purpose of punching holes in metals
consists of a strong frame of iron, shaped like a horse-shoe,
one arm of which is fitted to contain a die, having a hole in it
of the size of those intended to be punched in the plate. This
die is secured in its position in the frame by means of a pinch-
ing screw, which also admits of its removal, and the substitu-
tion of other dies, according to the size of the intended holes.
The extremity of the other arm is cast hollow, and Etted with
a ram or solid piston, similar to that of an hydraulic press, and
which, in this machine, carries the punch. The ram is truly
turned on its cylindrical surface, ajad fitted to an annular casing
bored on its inside to fit the ram, and turned on its outside, tf>
fit the hollow space which is oast in the arm of the frame.
Both the casing and the ram have an annular groove cut in
their external surfaces, and fitted with cap-leathers, to pre-
vent the escape of the water when the pressure is applied.
Attached to the hinder end of the ram is a rod, which passes
through a stufiing-box in the frame, and is attached at the
other end to a spiral spring, by the action of which the ram
and the punch upon it are withdrawn when the pressure
ceases. The water is admitted from the pumps to act upon
the ram through an aperture in the iron frame of the naaohine,
tJie form of which admits its suspension from a traversing

crane, and th\ia being moved about at pleasure. In Una case
tlie plates to be punched will be applied ta the niachine ver-
tically, while the action of the punch will be iu a horizontal
direction. The water is farced in behind the ram by meani

• of two pumps, one of which should be considerably larger than
the other, to bring the moving parts to the plates by a rapid
action J succeeded by the small pump, which produces the
pressure required to force the punch through the metal, and
admits only of a slaw movement.

»The other parts of the invention comprise suitable means
fop riveting and shearing respectively by rams and puujps.
The patentee defineB his claim to be, firat^ the application of
the pressure of a fluid, eau&ed by means of pumps, for tke
punching of metals ; secondly, the application of the pressure

»of a fluid, caused by means of a pump or pumps^ for the rivet-
ing together plates of metal ; and thirdly , the arrangement of
a series of hydraulic rams, for the pnrposes of shearing metal
plates. The slowness of movement of this machinery would,
it muat be feared, neutralise the economy of the power, and
render it altogether inapplicable for extended adoption.

The third process involved in the joining of plates or bars
of iron* via* the riveting, is effected by heating the rivet, on
which the head is a] ready formed, passing it through the cor-

P responding holes in the two parts to be united, and hammering
the projecting end of the rivet into a head of Increased dia-
meter. While this is done by one workman, another strikes a
hammer firmly against the original head of the rivet. As the
^ki'ivet cools, its length becomes contracted, and thus tends to
bring the two joined parts cloeely together. The greatest
iroprovementa yet effected in the process of and machinery
^for riveting is that patented by Mr. W. Fairbairn in 1 833, by
^ which invention steam is applied in a most effective manner,
and the operation made susceptible at once of unexampled
rapidity and effectiveness. Subsequent modifications of the
npimratue invented by Mr. Fairbairn have been, fe^^^'tr^v^^\s>i
other persons, among w^bich may \je la^atvGiift^, ^^fe\f^^^<s«»*?

MACttl!fl« 1*0H RIVETING AND SHEAHTNOp

Schneider and Co., of Crenaot, in France ; also a later invention
patented by Mr. James GarfoHh, of Dukinfield, Cheater^ fcr
the direct application of the expanflive force of steam to the
diea for riveting. Mr. Garforth^a patent is dated December
10, 1845, and granted for " certain improvementa in mfiehi-
Bery, or apparatus for connecting of boilerSj and other pur-
poses »" The patentee " does not confine himself to the iieo
of steam pressure, as the direct action, of water, air, or any
other elastic medium may be similarly employed without
departing from the principle of hie invention. He does not
claim as his invention the exclusive use of the several parts of
the machine he deficribes, except it be employed for the
purposes of his invention, which consists in riveting metal
plates by dies driven by the elastic force of steam, water, or
other elastic medinm."

The catting or shearing of iron plates, in order to trim the
edges or fit tliem for the space they are to occupy, is another
important operation, for which several forma of apparatus havo
h een prod need. Form erly th e le v er -fly, al re ady r efe rr ed to aa
an instrument for punching' holes, was adapted also to act aa
shears ; the long arm of the lever being made to paaa close to
a fixed arm J and each of them fitted with a long cutter of steeL
Machines of far greater power and efficiency are, however,
now employed for this purpose. To prevent the curling or
budding which long platea are liable to suffer while being
sheared, Mr* W. Y. Wennington, of Staffordshire, patented a
combination of machinery, on Jidy 20, 1S4B, under the title
of *' improvementa in, or improved methods of cutting plate
and sheet iron." This invention, consists in the combination
of a rotary and continuous horizontal niovetnent. The rotary
Diovement comprises a circular cntrer, set in motion by gear-
ing j and the horizontal movement consists of another cutter t
attaclied to a traversing table, on which the iron plate is laid*
The circular cutter is fixed on one end of a shaft which re-
volvee in bearings fixed between vertical standards, the bear- ,.
'ngH being provided with regulating screws. The other end 1

TfKOTJGHT-lRON PLATE GIRDERS.

of the all aft haa a Levelled wheel, which may he alternRtely
geared with each of two he veiled wheels Bliding upon keys on
the main shaft of an engine worked by steam or other power*
V*y this nieanu an alternate rotary motion is given to the cir-
cular cutter, while the table, moving on A rails, receives r
I traversing motion hy meamj of a rack fixed to it^ working
into a cog-wheel keyed op on the shaft of the circular cutter^
and immediately behind it. Each of the bevelled wlieek
(sliding on tke main shaft is thrown in and out of gear with
the wheel on the cutter-shaft by a forked lever acting on a
clutch, wliich lever is actuated by tappeta fixed on the under
aide of the table, and thus an altoruate backward and forward
movement is given to the revolving cutter, and the traversing
table and cutter.

BECTlO^ir III,

First ConHtriictifins of Wronght^ron Plate Girden^-Mr, Fa^rbaini'a

pjiU^nt Wruiight-IiOJi Tubular Gjitlers — Their application to Bridge*

I J«iilding — Bridge on the line of the Blackburn and Bolton lUilway —

f Brhlgm of I he Liverj^ool Landing SUge— GreAt Bridge er^cl^^d hy

Mcr^rs, Fali'liairaL and Sone^ on thu line of th^ Majjch eater, Stit^Hltildf

and LineohiaJvire lUilwaj at Gaiaiiboiioiigh.

IThs first attempts to substitute wrought iron for cast iron,
in the construction of girders, were made by Joining plates
vertically with rivets^ and attaching a strip of angle iron on
each dde, both at top and bottom, so aa to form artificial
flanges to give the required strength at these parts. Girders
thus formed, have been used aa ileck-beama in ships for fifteen
yeara ; indeed, Messrs. Fairbaira applied them in constructing
floora in the year 1832. Some of these were constrncted to
be used in a building erected in lSi7, at Portsmouth Dock-
yard, and were 41 feet 3 incljes long, 2 feet deep in the
centre, and reduced by a parabolic curve on the upper ed^a
to n depth of 1 foot at the eivdt. "W^ \^^ ^\ ^^ ^^?i.%x^»a.

WROnaHT-TftON PLATE GIRDERS.

composed of a double thickness of plates, each f inch thick.
Fig. 1. Fig. 2.

Csnlfr

j^'V'^^— W

l''4

These plates were each about 6 feet 9
inches long, and so arranged as that their
joints alternated with ea(^ other. An
angle-iron was riveted on either side at the
top, making the breadth of the girder over
the top 9 inches ; an angle iron was also
riveted on either side at the bottom, bnt of
larger dimensions, making the breadth over
the bottom 16 inches ; the rivets were f
inch diameter. Fig. 1 shows the elevation
of one of these girders, and Fig. 2 is a
section through the centre to an enlarge<l
'Bcale. These girders were evidently formed
in imitation of the proportions which have
been found desirable in those of cast iron,
the less teneile power of which requires
.additional material at the lower ])art of the
section. Later inquiries, as will be men-
tioned hereafter, have shown the non-applic-

l!^

FATO^iUBN^a" PATENT. 23

alpility of this Inwto wrouglit iron when used in ihh manner,
Experimenta tried with these girderSj before erection, showed
that & load of 15 tons, applied &t the centre of each girder
with the hydraulic presB, — the distance between the bearin'^^a
being 40 feet 5 inchei, — produced a deflectioa of from 1 inch
to 1 J inch ; hut on the removal of the preB&ure, the girdera
nearly regained their original form, the perraaneut set or
deflection being only ^ of an inch. These girders were,

wever, found deficient in lateral stifiness^ and liable to yield
by twisting or bending laterally, before any eymptom of
vertical fracture or injury w^as observed.

To obviate this defect, and to obtain tlie great atrengtli and
rigidity required in the employment of wrought -iron gird era
for railway constructions, the tubular form was designed, and

• T-iron used in forming vertical ribs, so that the side plates
might be arranged vertically. Experimenta having also
proved that wrought iron thus applied has less power to reeist

■ compression than extension, it became desirable to increase
the strength of the upper part of girders constructed of this
material, and the formation of a separate compartment or cell
was adopted to obtain this superior strength.

For these several improvements we are indebted to Mr,

PW, Fairbairnj who obtained a patent, October 8^ 1846, for
** improvementg in the construction of iron beams for the
erection of bridges and other structure p.*' These im prove -

• ments are described to relate to tiie construction of iron
teams or girders for bridges and other structures, by using
platea of metal united by rivets and ribs of rolled iron. The
tide plates are put together with but-joiuU covered on the
outside with stiles or covering platea, and on the inside with
vertical ribs of angle or T-iron, the side plates, stiles, antl
ribs being riveted together* The top of this hollow beam is
formed with two or more rectangular cells, composed Lf plates
arranged vertically, and connected by strips of angle iron and
rivpts with the top and sida plates* The bottom is Coicm^vV^>^
iron pktes connected togetVier h"^ c^jxcrot.^ '^^xa*. tiN^-t Sx^ri.

BLACkBrKN BKIDGB.

Fig. 8.

cross-joints, and attached to the side plates by angle iron and
rivets. The top may be constructed either of cast or of
ujujlcable iron, and cellular-rectangnlar, or of an elliptical or
any other suitable form, to prevent
the top puckering from compression;
or other methods may be employed,
such as thick metallic castings, or
lighter iron plates, arranged so as to
form hollow cells. The bottom may
also be constructed of a series of
plates,either of single or double thick-
ness, riveted together. The joints of
the plates alternate or break with each
other, and are riveted by a peculiar
method, which the inventor caUs
** chain-riveting," as it forms a chain
of plates throughout ; and the struc-
ture so unites the covering plates as
not to weaken the plates by rows of
transverse rivet-holes, but to form a
connecting link to each joint by a
series of longitudinal rivets or pins.

This useful invention, which com-
))ri8es the best methods yet devised
for uniting the several parts of struc-
tures of plate and bar iron, contains
also the essential principles upon
Yv'hich tubular girders may be, and
luxve been, constructed, of a size ade-
quate to form bridges within them-
selves, and admit the interior passage
of railway trains or other trafl&c.
The first wrought-iron tubular
girder bridge built according to the patent of Mr. Fairbairn
was constructed and erected by that gentleman for Mr. Vig-
•58, for the purpose of carrying the Blackburn and Bolton

BLAGKBFRM BmiBGE,

I?ailwiiy over the Leeds and Liverpool CanuL Tfiia bridge is
represented in Piga- 3 to 6, Fig. 3 is mi elevation of tlio

Fig. 6,

Fig- 6.

bridge; Pig» 4, a transverse eectian of tbe bridge to an
enlarged scale : Ftg. 5 is an enlarged trana verse iection of one
of the outer girders ; and Fig. 6^ an enlarged loiigitudiBal
view of part of one of the girders, showing a section of one of
the crosa-timbers on %vhich the railway is supported. The
span of thii bridge is (50 feet, and eaeh girder is 66 feet in
total length, the hearings in the magonry being each 3 feet
long. The two lines of rails are carried between three
parallel girdere. Each, girder consists of a rectangular top
compartment cona posed of plates | inch thick, and riveted
at the iriternal corners to angle iron ; of side plates, ^^ iucb
thick, joined vertically by rivets to T-iron ribs, and also
riveted to the bottom plate of the top compartment and ita
iiittrnal nu^le-iroua through longitudinal riba of augle u^'a.
placed externally; and of double \)oltom \^ii.teE, ^i>?^V^^^

26 BLACKBURN BRIDGE.

tliicky joined by rivets to external logitudinal strips of angle
iron * The rails are laid upon longitudinal timbers, which,
with intermediate planking, are supported upon transverse
beams of wood suspended by double straps of wrought iron,
which pass upward through the bottom plates of the girders,
and are secured by screwed nuts. A vertical bolt of wrought
iron also passes through a cast-iron socket in the top compart-
ment of the girder, and downward through each cross-beam,
below which it is fixed with a washer plate and screwed nut
Before opened for traffic, this structure was tried by severe
tests, and found fully equal to any weight to which it could be
subjected. Three locomotive engines, each weighing 20 ton%
occupying the entire span of 60 feet, were run together as
a train, at rates varying from 5 to 25 miles per hour, and
produced a deflection in the centre of the bridge of only 025
of a foot. Two w^edges of the height of 1 inch were then placed
on the rails in the middle of the span, and the dropping of the
engines from this height, when at a speed of 8 to 10 miles per
hour, caused a deflection of only -035 of a foot, which was
increased to '045 of a foot, or nearly half an inch only, when
wedges 1^^ inch in thickness were substituted. The compa-
rative weight and cost of a bridge of this construction, with
those of a cast-iron girder bridge trussed with malleable -iron
bars, have been thus deduced from actual examples : —

OAST-IBON TRUSSED GIRDER BRIDGE, 60 FEET SPAN.

£ 9. d.

Cagt iron, 76 tons weight, at £12 per ton . . 912
Wrought iron, 14 tons, at £37 4a. „ . . 620 16

1432 16

WROUanT-IRON TUBULAR GIRDERED BBIDOB, 60 FEET SPAN

£ 9. d.
30 tons weight, at £30 per toa 900

showing a saving of £532 16<. in the cost of the iron -work,
and insuring far greater strength and security,

* The centre girder, having double duty to perform, is made inopor
Monally stronger.

LIVERFODL LANDING STAGS

Anntlior Instance of the ap-
plication of the wrought- iron
tubular girder bridge, and upon
a much extendml scale, is that
of the two btid^es by which
the great landing* stage at
Liverpocil is connected with
the wharf of the docks. This
atage^ conatnicted according to
the generftl design of Mr. Cn*
Littp the ent^ineer, consigts of a
wooden frame 500 feet long
a ad 80 feet wide, floated upon
WTOUgbt-iron pontoons fixed
beneath and across the plat-*
form, Bud each 80 feet long,
10 feet wide, and B feet deep.
The communication between
the etaga and the wharf ia
afforded by two bridges con-
Btrncted upon Mr, Fairb aim's
pate 1st plan. Each bridge ia
about 150 feet In length, and
ia so connected with the shore
at one end, and with the stage
at the other, as to admit of
motion both vertically and hori-
zontally, and thus accommodate
itself to the rising, falling, ebb-
ing, and flowing of the tide,
and also constantly maintain a
paflsage for carriages and per-
ions. The details of these
tridgea are represented in
Figs. 7, 8, and 0. Fig, 7 is an
elevation of one of the bridges ;

LrVERPOOL LANDING STAGE.

Fig. 8, a cross section through the middle of the girdei
central road or carriage-way, and two side-ways or galleri

: I

LIYEUFOUL LANDtNa STAGE,

[tot foot paaseiigers ; and Fig, 9 ii an elevalioE of the end of
one of the girders, drawn to the same scale as Fig. 8. The

1 constniction of the ginlers and mode of siispending the Irans-p
verse timbers that carry the road and footways are^ it will be
Been, similar to the bridge oonstructed by Mr* Fairbairn over

F5g. 9.

the Leeds and Liverpool Canal^ and already deaeribed. The
extreme length of each bridge ia 152 feet 4 inches, or 143 feet
clear of the cast-iron end casings. The height or depth of the
girdei*9 ia 5 feet 6 inehee at the ende, and B feet 6 inehcs in ttie
middle. The upper compartment is 2 feet 6 Inches wide, and
1 foot 1 inch deep, and is divided into two cells by a central
partition plate, riveted to the top and bottom plates with angle-
iron ribs. The body of the girder Is 2 feet w^ide ontside, and
is composed of plates 2 feet wide, arranged vertically, and the
joints covered with joint^plates 4^ inches wide, and fastened
with rivets 2f inches apart from centre to centre. The plates
forming the npper compartment are in B-C^^t \&\v^^^%,^\^i^
4:ov*jring -plates over the joiiiU owtaido, 'IlVa \Aa\s&.^^^ ^

u^'

DIIIDGE AT GAINSBOROUGH.

1 1 foet wide between the girders, and ea<i

of the footways 6 feel wide. The girden
ore tied together at the middle of their
length by an arched tuLnkr stay of a rect-
luigular section, composed of top, bottom,
and side plates, united by riveta and ex-
ternal angle-irons. The dimenefona of the
Bcction are, 1 foot 9 inches in depth, and
1 foot 6 inches width, from out to' out
'i'he cross-beams of timber which carry the
road and footways are, 10 x 8 inches at
the middle, and 8 x 8 inches at the ends,
and are suspended from the girders by
wrought-iron straps. Each eide gallery or
footway is guarded on the outside by a
light railing of cast-iron standards and
wrought-iron rods.

The largest bridge yet constructed wilh
tubular girders in this form, is represented
in Figs. 10, 11, 12, and 13. This excellent
sj)Ocimon of wrought iron -work has been
lately erected by Mesars. Fairbairn and
Sons, of Manchester, to carry the Man-
chester, Sheffield, and Lincolushir^ Hail^
way, of which Mr. Fowler m the engineer
over the river Trent at GaioBborough, and
consists of two spans, each 154 feet wide,
with a central pier of masonry and two
abutments, each with au end arch of 40 feet
span. The courses of the river and af the
railway are oblique to each other, and the
abutmenta are therefore placed at an angle
of 60° with the longitudinal direction of the
girders. The girders are of uniform depth
throughout, and nre two in number ; the
entire width of the double line of railway.

BRIDGE AT GAINSBOROUGH.

20 feet in the clear, being carried
between them. Fig. 10 is an ele-
vation, and Fig. 11 a plan, of the
entire strncture ; Fig. 12 is a trans-
verse section of half of the bridge
taken through the middle, and
showing the construction of one of
the girders, which are 12 feet in
total depth. The top compart-
ment measures 3 feet i inch in
width, and 1 foot 3 inches in
depth, and is divided by a central
partition into two cells. The body
of the girder is 2 feet 6 inches
wide, and 3 feet wide over the
bottom plates, which are double.
The side plates are 2 feet wide,
and jointed with outside covering
plates and internal ribs,' as in the
former bridges. A strip of iron
plate 1 foot wide, and two rims or
edges of angle iron, are fixed on
the outside of each of the girders,
in the form of an arch, which re-
lieves the flatness of the horizontal
lines of the girders, and improves
the general appearance of the
bridge, but without adding in any
material or required degree to its
strength or stiffness. The rails
are laid in chairs on longitudinal
beams of wood, which are supported
upon transverse beams of iron
plate, put together on the tubular
}>rinciple, and resting upon the
bottom plates of ike girderB, W-

82 BllIDGE AT GAINSBOROUGH.

sides being riveted through their ends to the side plates of
the girders. These transverse beams, which are placed 4 feet
apart between their centres and at right angles to the longi-

Fig. 12.

tudinal direction of the girders, are composed of top, bottom

and side plates, riveted with external angle-irons at th<

comers. The section of them. Fig. 13, is uniform throiighont

d measures 16 inches in depth, and 10 incVi^a Va ^\dt\i o\ei

»!L T!ic rail -Limbers are notched down slightly over these
uroBs b*iams, aud the intcTmerliate spaces between the timbers
are filled in with 3 -Inch flauking laid longitudinally.

SECTION ly.

MalleAbIfi-Ii-Qn Biidgaa of diffeteiit Gon»trHction« — ^Lattice BridgeB —
Tubular Bo W'B ridge — TubuUr Girdtjr Bridge, witlv mter\'t3iihig Arches
of Bi'lck'WOik^ — Coin put jd Wiio light- lion and CotK^iete Gfirilers—
Corubin<itionB of MaUesiblfl and Cant Iron in Framed Bridije^—
Cori-ug?vted Wrought Iron Uirdtns.

BlALLaABLE irou liaving been applied in several forms of
combination — besidea that of the tubular girder and tube —
to the construction of bridges, we propose, in order to make
our historical sketch complete^ to devote thia section to a
succinct description of the principal designs which have been
executed or propoied.

To arrive at the earliest of these, we have to go back to the
year 1824, when the ingenious Mr George Smart suggested
a combination of wrought- iron bars arranged iu a diagonal
form, under the title of a " Patent Iron Bridge J' This designp
wliicli ia tlie parent of the extensi^ve family now known aa
*' lattice bridges," of which our American brethren have
erected some gigantic examplca, exhibits a vertical framing^
perfectly horizontal on, its upper and lower linesj nnd com-
posed of iron bars crossing each other in a diagonal direction,
[" and forming angles of about 13° with the hori^ion. The
■^framing alao comprises vertical or *' hanging bars," and " base
^■"bara/' forming the lower horizontal lines of the framing, and
HeaIso passing horizontally over each alteniate row of inter-
H iectiona of the diagonal bars. The number and dimensions
" of the aeveral parts are, of course^ regulated according to the
extent of the eiructurc, and service for which it is destined;
but each bar is intended to he forged of enlarged width at
the points of intersection^ and through wbich^holtK ax^ fctsy^
to connect the whole together. *iI^o qI ^^^ i^^wb^^Vx^^asj**,

84 AMERICAN BRIDGES.

erected vertically and parallel to each other, wonkl form tba
supports of the roadway to be formed between them, the two
frames being tied together by transverse connecting-rodB, the
roadway or flooring being situated near the top of the frames,
and never on the lower bars, which Mr. Smart considered t
common but very erroneous practice in wooden bridges.*
Between the frames, cross-braces, consisting of two ^ight ban,
are to be fixed, bolted together, and fitted to the connecting-
rods. In recommendation of this design, it was urged that
it possessed extraordinary simplicity and economy ; that the
several bars employed being all of different lengths, and the
holes all drilled or punched in one uniform manner, none ol
the parts could be misplaced in erection ; and therefore the
whole might be put together with great expedition^ while,
consisting of many small parts, and none of great weight, the
bridge might be considered portable, easy of transportation
by an army, and put up, when required, in a few days.
Mr. Smart proposed to construct the piers of a bridge of t
diagonal framing of wrought-iron bars, similar to that adopted
in the bridge itself, and he showed the applicability of the
same system to the formation of wooden bridges, in which he
remarked there would be no necessity to limit the length of
the pieces forming the framing, as no expansion or contrac-
tion takes place in that direction in wood.

Of the numerous examples in which this diagonal form of
construction has been adopted in American wooden bridges,
it does not belong to this sketch of iron structures to give
any lengthened account, although their remarkable simplicity
and strength render them highly interesting studies to the
engineer, and will justify a brief notice here, by way of illus-
trating the value of the principle first suggested as appHcaUe

* To this principle, and ita practical value and effects, further inqniiy

should be devoted ; we have here only to record the view enteitainMl

by the inventor of the lattice bridge, at a date so long before thoie

experimental inquiries into the forces acting upon loaded beams which

"^ developed the position of the neutral axis and the agency of

enve and ezteoeive forces.

AMERICAN BRIDGES^

to iron and wooden bridgeB^ by BTr* Smart, twenty-five years
ago.

Some of the principal examples of the lattice brklge^ in
America^ are built over the rivers^ aiippOTting roads and rail"
ways. One of theee, arected over the Susquehannah at
Columbia, consistH of twenty -nine spans or openings, each (wo
hundred feei wide^ the entire bridge being about a mile and
a quarter in length. The principle on which this bridge is
construeted boa been more properly referred to that of the
common roof; the two centre and opposite diagonal bars being
considered ae two rafters meeting at tbc centre of the bridge,
and abutting at their other end on a tie-beam, which is ex-
tended longitudinally on each dde to the opposite abutmenta.
A aeries of rafters, parallel with the centre one, is extended oo
either aide, throughout the whole length of the bridge, being
secured at their feet^ and also connected at the head with a
horizontal upper beam, placed vertically over and parallel with
the continuous tie-beam. These rafters are placed at BUeh an
angle of obliquity, and at such a distance from each other,
that vertical posta or ties between them will unite the head oi
one rafter with the foot of tile contiguons onOj towards the
centre of the bridge. These ties, which, the bridge being
loaded on the lower chord, are subject to a tensile strain,
have been recently formed of malleable-iron rods, instead of
timber, which rods, fitted with screwed nuts, admit of being
regulated in length, so that the whole structure may bt;
brought to a perfect degree of tension^ and each joint and each
Triember made to bear its due share of the load : they more-
over remedy the mischief of shrinkage of the timber, or other
derangement, as tlie equilibrium and perfect form of the struc*
tnre can by their means be readily restored and maintained.
By screwing up these ties, the bridge tends to assume an
arched form, rising with a camber in the midtUe ; this is pre^
vented by the introduction of the counter-braces, which eon-

Inect tin? h^ad of one rafter with the foot of tK^t c>^^^\%^«^»^
i>fle, from the centre toward tke e]tl\«itQiu^'& t>i ^^\ire\^«j-

86 IVROUOIIT-IRON LATTICE BRIDGE.

In tho American bridges of 200 feet span, the following are
the dimensions of the members : span, 200 feet ; depth of
frame throughout, 20 feet ; top and bottom chord timbers^
10 X 25 inches ; braces, in pairs, 7^ inches square ; tie-rod^
in pairs, 2^ inches diameter ; counter-braces, eingle, each 7J
inches square. One of these frames is placed on each side of
the bridge, connected at tho bottom by cross-beams, on which
the planking of the roadway is laid.

One distinguishing advantage of this mode of constmctioQ
is its simplicity ; the braces and counter-braces being all cut
exactly to the same length, and square on the ends, whidi
simply rest in blocks attached to the top and bottom chordB,
and are without mortising or jointing in the members : tiie
tie -rods pass through these blocks, and the whole structure it
so simple, that it may be readily taken down, removed to an-
other site, and re-erected with the utmost facility and precisioD.

A lattice bridge of wrought iron, erected across the line of
the Dublin and Drogheda Railway, is 84 feet in clear spio,
and built over an excavation 86 feet in depth. The two lattice
beams, set parallel to each other, and resting at each end ci
plain stone abutments built in the slope, are 10 feet deep, and
formed of a series of flat bars of iron 2^ inches wide and
f inch thick, crossing at an angle of 45®. At a height of
5 feet 6 inches above the bottom edge, transverse bearen of
angle iron are fixed, and upon these the planking for the road-
way is fixed. To provide for deflection, the beams were con-
structed with a camber or curve upwards, from the ends to tbe
centre, of 12 inches ; but it has been found that the passage
of heavy weights does not produce any sensible deflectiotti
The total cost of this structure is said to have been £510.

An important distinction between the simple lattice or dia-
gonal framing and the roof framing must, however, be carefuD^
borne in mind. In the former, the strength is obtained by thfl
connection of the bars at each intersection, while the abut-
ting principle of the roof, which equally belongs to the roof-
darned bridges before described, is disregarded. The stnii

FKEXCH EXPERIMENTS ON LATTICH U1R1>EKS.

UB therefore borne wholly by tbe rivets or pins which pass
kh rough the crosBing harsj and the effect of tiiis b train la
Exhibited in the gradual loosening of the pins. The bars, too,
nt must be observed, are couBiderably weakened by the biilea
pbrough the middle of them ; and in wooden lattice bridges,
practure and failing of the material have often residted* By
Kvay of reiuedying these defects, consequent upon tlie simple
Pattice principle, many of the large lattice bridges in use in
Li.merica have been strengthened by the introduction of strong
Bnissed frames wjtlun the lattiee frames^ or of strong arcbea
lof timber»work.

I The lattice principle has been considerably improved upon
tin some bridges designed and built by Mr, IL B. Usborne^O.E.,
pvliieli conaiat of a top and bottom chord of malleable iron,
[•with intermediate braces o^ cast iron in the form of rectangular
[tubes. This form of const ruction w*as introduced into the
I United States of America in the year 1844, since which time
[about a dozen have been constructed, varying in span from
130 to UO feet* Girders^ formed of diagonal bara of wrought
[iron, ahuttiivg against each otker, with cast-iron transoms to
|Bupport the pressure, while the wrought-iron bars are intended
[to furnish the tensile power, appear to have been introduced
[into France before the year 1844. By order of the Minister
■ of Public Works, experiments were tried at Paris npon four
Igirders constructed in this manner, and placed side by side,
l-with a bearing of 74 feet 8 inches* With a load of 62 tons,
Ithe deflection of these girders was 1 J inch ; and on the re-
moval of the load, after remaining on them for a month, they
fcreeumed their original position without permanent deflection.
I'To try the effect of a sudden shockj a cart loaded with 4 J
[ tons of iron was caused to break down suddenly in the middle
I of the bridge, without producing any injury, except crushing
I the flooring plauks. The weight of these girders was stated
[to be 20i tons,

I A similar combination of cast and malleable ito^ \sx 'SJ&a
I construction of girders for bndgea la t\vfe ^\iV\*i^i\. ^sl ^ -^■a^^s'si^

88 TRUSSED GIRDER BRIDGES.

granted in the year 1846 to Mr. 8. MouHon, the invention
heiug. claimed as dxie to Mr. Bidet, of New York. In this
combination, the npper chord is described as formed of single
T-iron, or two angle-irons connected together, the interme-
diate framing betweei^ the chords being formed of malleable -
iron bars arranged diagonaMy, but not connected with the
chords. Oast*iron vertical bars are fixed to the chords, but
independent of the diagonal framing. A bridge erected upon
this principle for the New York and Haarlem railway, 70 feet
in spim, and having a double line of rails upon it, is said to
contain only 13 tons of metal, and to have cost less than £500.
Combinations of cast and wrought iron in trussed girders
for bridges have already been referred to, and illustrated by
the railway bridge over the river Dee at Chester * In the
officiai report upon Ih© iron bridges on the Trent Valley
Railway, which was prepared by Captain Coddiiigton, it
appeaors that, on that Ine of railway, there are fifteen simple
east-iron girder bridges, the span of which does not exceed
30 feet; four others varyfeig in span between 35 feet and
37 feet & inches ; and six bridges composed of cast-iron
girders, each in th^ee castings, belted together at the' flanges,
clipped tmdemeath, and strengthened with rods of wrought
iron. Of these six bridges, there are two over the Trent and
Mersey Canal, span 54 feet 3 inches ; one over the turnpike-
road, span 57 feet; one over the Coventry Canal, span 60 feet;
one over the Oxford Canal, span 44 feet ; and one over the
river Tame, of 70 feet span, for wMch a double row of piles
has been: driven into the bed of the river, under each of the
joining flanges of the girders, and connected at the heads by
eapsills extending under the girders. Captain Coddington
remarked : — '* In the same manner that I consider experience
to have proved the sufficiency of a simple girder up to 40 feet
(span), I consider it has' also proved the sufficiency of the
compound girders up to 70 feet."

♦ A tubular girder bridge was suggested for this work by Mr. Fairbainii
Hi Januaiy, 1846.

^K OOUVOVnU CAST AND WKOUOHT IRON GIRDERS, 3S

j^ Mr. Gibbons, of Oorbyn's Hall Iron Works, obtained a

patent in 1847 for improveinentfi in Iron girders for bridges^

the object of which was to provide the required eoastant

adjiistment of the length of the crosB-hars corresponding with

changes of temperature, by the iutrodnction of intermediate

springe. Mr, Gibbonfl proposed to apply his improvcTneut to

gird era of ciist iron^ in three caatingB, bolted together throngh

flanges at the end of each, as before employed- Beneath the

middle casting, howeverj a powerful spring or set of epringB lA^M

^■Ld l)e introduced, made exactly Bimilar to the bearing springs

^Kjf railway carriagea, witli the convex side pressing npwardfl

^Kngainst the under side of the girder, the wrought-iron truss-

rods being fastened to each end of thia spring, and bolted up

tight to flanges cast upon the extreme ends of the outer cast-

inge forming the girder, if the girders are of considendde

width, several springs are to be used, ranged side by aide, or

smaller springs may be applied in pairs, with their concave

ijices inwards, one under each joint of the castings, and one in

^^the centre, tightly trusaed with wrought -iron rods.

^B A novel combination of wrought with cast iron formed part

of a patent granted in 1S47 to Mr, Fielder, in conjunction

II \\4th Messrs. Baker. The wrought -iron plates proposed to

^■Aie iiBed by the patentees for the purpose of strengtbening

^^cast-iron girders were to he fixed with bolta in any of a great

variety of positions; thus, on the sides of the rib of the

girder to the bottom flange, <fee* I'he value of aome of theae

■ addiuons in augmenting the strength of the girders was
proved by decisive experiments. Thus a strip of wrought
iron, 8 inches by f inch, riveted to the bottom flange of a
^^^ast-iron girder which had been broken in the middle, enabled
^^pt to withstand a proof of 20;^ tons without injury to Its elas*
^^ ticity, tlie bearing being 20 feet, and the depth of the broken
girder 2iJ inches. With another piece of wrought iron, 3 feet
in length, and 8 inches by | inch, added in the centre only,
the girder withstood a pressuro of S2^ tons. Another ex^ti-
meiit was tried upon a caiit*iroi\ g\r4t.t^Q^ ^^^'kfJcL >0&^\ixei^«OTv'?j

40 CORRUGATED IRON GIRDERS.

weight would, by the ordinary rule, be 20^^ tons. This was
proved to 15 tons, without loss of elasticity ; 3 J tons were then
added, and produced a deflection of -5^ inch, and a permanent
set or deflection of -^ inch after the load was removed. It
may be therefore supposed that the metal was in some degree
injured. A wrought-iron bottom flange, 6 inches by J inch,
was then attached to it, and this compound girder was proved
to 30 tons without injury to its elasticity.

Another design for the strengthening of iron beams or
girders proposes to employ corrugated sheet iron in their
construction. This is the subject of a patent granted Decem-
ber 2nd, 1848, to Mr. J. H. Porter, for an " improved mode
of applying corrugated iron in the formation of fire-proof
floors, roofs, and other like structures." The value of this
invention was tested by experiments upon beams constructed
in accordance with it. The. following is an account of one of
these experiments. Two of the patent beams, each 18 inches
in depth, and 22 feet long, were placed at a distance of 9 feet
apart, and upon bearers, so that the clear length of each
girder between the bearings was 20 feet 6 inches. Each of
these beams was formed with top and bottom frames of
4x4 inches T-iron, the base being J inch thick, and the rib
of the girder formed of corrugated sheet iron, No. 16 gauge,
with bands 1 J X J inch thick. The weight of each girder
was 8i cwt. Across the two girders, two large oak blocks,
weighing 1 ton 3 cwt., were laid to support the further load.
One of these blocks was 24 inches wide, and the other 13
inches, and they were laid at a distance of 4 feet 3 inches
apart from centre to centre ; the centre lines of these blocks
being equidistant on either side from the middle of the length
of the iron girders. The whole of the load was thus confined
to a length of 6 feet i inch in the centre of each girder, being
less than one -third of its length between the bearings. Upon
these two timber blocks a weight of 6 tons 17 cwt, in cast-
iron blocks, was laid, and remained three days without
causing any deflection. An additional load of 7 tons 3 cwt.

TVBUUUL BOW-BRIDGE. 41

16 lbs. (in 121 bundles of plate iron) was then applied, and
produced a deflection of -^^ inch. This load, remaiuing
twenty-one hoars, increased the deflection ^ inch. An<.iher
load of 51 bundles of plate iron, weighing 3 tons 9 cint. 1 qr.
211)8., was added, and increased the deflection to barely 1 inch.
32 more bundles of plate iron, weighing 1 ton IS cwt. 12 lbs.,
were applied, and the deflection became 1} inch of one girder
and 1-^ inch of the other, the difference appearing to be tH.'ea-
sioned by a settling of the piers, which threw an excess of the
load upon one of the girders. A further load of 2 tons 8 cwt.
3 qrs. brought the deflection to If inch and If inch. After
this load had remained a short time, a partial dividing of the
bottom flange of T-iron in the beam, which hitlierto showed
least deflection, occurred from a defective *• shut,** or welding
of the bar. This caused a further deflection of -^^ inch. An
additional load of 2 tons 6 cwt. 2 qrs. 22 lbs. made tlie
deflection 2 inches and If inch ; and a flnal addition of 7 cwt.
produced a rapid deflection of the already weakened beam,
the corrugated iron giving way at the same time to the longi-
tudinal strain upon the rivets. The other beam was also found
to have yielded in several places at the rivets, principally in
the lower part of the beam. The breaking weight is there-
fore considered to be about 25 tons, exclusive of the weight
of the beams. The patentee estimates the strength of his
patent beams at about double that of cast-iron beams of equal
weight, and that they may be supplied for £21 per ton.

Mr. W. C. Harrison appears to have first suggested that
application of malleable iron which has obtained the name
of the " wrought-iron tubular bow-bridge." The framing of
thLj form of bridge consists of an arched or bow tube, with a
horizontal stringer tube or chord carrying the roadway, and
deriving its strength from the arched tube, rising above it,
through the medium of suspending bars and braces. In a
design made by Mr. Harrison for a bridge of this kind, to
carry a railway over the river Ouse, the span is 170 feet, and
the versed sine, or rise of the arched tube above the chord or

TUBULAR BOW-BRIDGE.

liorizontal tube, about 15 feet. The arch or bow to be con-
structed of wrought-iron plates ^ inch thick, and its section

throughout to be
Fig. 15. 4 feet in deptli and

3 feet in width ;
the tie-beam^ or
stringer tube, 2
feet 6 inches deep
and 3 feet wide.
For a double line
of railway three of
these bow-frames
are to be used,
erected parallel to
each other, and
at such distance
apart that one Hne
ofrails maybe laid
in each of the two
spacea included
between them. At
the extreme enda
of the tie-beam
and bow, pliHee of
wrought iron are
to be firmly ri«
veted over their
meeting, and the
whole of the taba<«
lar work in bot^ of
them to be pro-
perly put togeihef
with rivets. Figa,
14, 15, and 16 re-
present this design
for a wrought-iron tubular bow-bridge; Fig. 14 showing n

TDBOLAR BOW-BBIDOES.

ilevfttion of hftlf the bridg© ; Fig. 15, a transverse section
til rough the bow tube above, aad Bt ringer or chord to lie
below ; and Fig. ir>, a partial iection througli two of the
croes-beama winch carry the limgitudinal limbers and railB.

Several bridges of similar design to the one last described have
been since eon-
fitructed. Cap-
tain Bimmouds
thna describes
two erected np-
, on the extension

^^ UU lUCCAl-CliHlUll I— II „. ii '-| °^ ^^n^t^

^Bline of the Black w^all Railway from Stepney to Bow: **Tbese
two bridges are of a peculiar form, and the first of their class
erected for railway purposes. The roadway upon them is
supported on wrought- iron girders, placed transversely
between two arches, or rihs, formed entirely of wrought iron.
The clear span of one is 120 feetj of the other 116 feet 8 itiehe^^
Each arch or rib of the latter bridge, ■which carries the rail-
way over the Regent*s Canal, is formed of a box built ^-ith
iroB boiler plates \^ inch in thickness, and angle iron, firmly
riveted together, its breadth being 2 feet 10 inches, its depth
abont 2 feet^ and sectional area SI square inches^ and is con*
weeted at the base by a wrought -iron tie -bar, which receives
the horizontal thrust of the arch, and is formed of links having
a total sectional area of 61* square inches, bolted together with
h*)\tB 2f inches in diameter, aided by eight others at each
joint i inch in diameter* EetvFeen tbe tie-bars and the arch
a system of vertical and diagonal bracing has been introduced,
^L BO as in a manner to distribute the weight of passing loads
^r equally over the whole arch. These ribs, so formed, are laid
in cast-iron plates, fixed at one end^ and free to move at the
other over rollers, so as to allow scope for the expansion and
contraction of tbe metal The clear interval between the
^B bearings is 116 feet S inches, aud the rise of the arch is 8 feet
^^ to the under eide of the box of which it is formed, the road-
way boing beneath the arch^ and abo^\»'li^^\*^E^^i^iX'^*^'eJW^^5ti^^^

44 TCBCXAR BOW-BRIDGES.

of the tie-bar. The etructare is exceedingly light, bnt appean,
uevertbeleiis, sufficiently strung to carry the weights which
may come opon it in practice, so far as the areas of the arch
and bow-string, or tie, are concerned, and has stood the test
of a dead weight of 240 tons, in addition to its own weight
of 50 tons, diiitribated in weights of 3-1:^ tons at equal dis*
tances over its length, with a deflection of 3^^ inches, and
recovered entirely its original position upon the remoyal of
the load. As this proof exceeds considerably any weight
that can be brought upon it in practice, I am of opinion that
it may be used with safety for the passage of trains ; but as
it is of so novel and light a construction, and the action of the
cross-bracing and connection of the tie-bars has not been
ascertained by continued experiments of moving weights, I
should recommend that it be examined from time to time, so
that any defect, if it should exist, might be ascertained, more
particularly as the weight of the whole bridge, including the
double line of roadway and covering, only amounts to 194
tons, and is very easily set in vibratory motion by any moving
power."

Upon a limited scale, tubular girders of wrought iron appear
to have been applied to the purpose of bridge building nine
years ago, although in a very different manner from their im-
proved construction, as invented by Mr. W. Fairbaim. The
instance here alluded to is a bridge which carries the Oarmun-
iiock road over the Polloc and Go van railway, near Glasgow.
This bridge, which crosses the railway obliquely, was erected
by Mr. A. Thompson, and is 31 feet 6 inches in span on the
face, or 30 feet square with the railway. The width of the
bridge, from outside to outside of parapet, is 25 feet 6 inches,
and the roadway is supported upon six girders, each 35 feet
3 inches long, resting upon stone abutments, and at a distance
of 5 foot IJ inch apart between their centres. Each girder
stands upon a wrought-iron plate at each end, and is con-
^ructed of the best boiler-plate | inch thick, in the manner
'>wu in Figs. 17 and 18, of which Fig. 17 is a sectional view

TUBPLAR OIEDEK BRIUOES.

fhron gh two of tlie girders, and Fig. 18 a partial plan of tbo
game. The girders are IS inches deep, 3 J inches wide iu the

Fig. 17.

^S^W^^^^M^^^^^^^^^^

Fig. 18,

clear at the top and 6 inches at bottom. The npper and
lower plates are it iiiclica wider than the beam, the projection
of 3 inches on each Bide being provided to receive the angle -
ironSj 3x^x1 inches^ which are riveted to the side plates
and npper and lower platea respectively with ^-inch rivets
placed li inch apart from centre to centre. These girders
are filled with concrete, with the view of increasing tlieir re-
Bietance against a preesnre from the outside, and they are tied
together with tranavcrBB bars of Low Moor ir-^n, 3 inches by
I inch, attached by bolts to T-irona Hveted to the eide plates
of the girdera* The spaces between the beams were filled in
with two courses of 9-inch aTched brick-work, the rise of the
arches being 1^ inch. The crown of these arches was payed
over with hot tar, and n layer of clay pnddle well rammed
down over the tar. Over the puddle a metalling of whinstone

twas laid to form the roadway, covered with a binding conrta^
2 inches thick, of engine ashes, 'r\\6 ioc^t ^^v'iTsvct^l *3^ ^'a.^^

46 CHESTER AND HOLYHEAD RAILWAY.

side of the bridge is 4 feet wide, with a gutter lud between ft
and the roadway. Tbie bridge was built for W. Dixon, Esq^
of the Govan Iron Works, at Glasgow. The communication
between the furnaces of these works is by platforms carried
upon tubular beams 33 feet in length. The transverse sec-
tional form of these beams is rectangular, instead of having
the sides inclined, as described of the bridge girders, and
their dimensions are as follows : depth in the clear, 19 inches;
width in the clear, 7 inches ; plates, f inch thick. The side
and bottom plates are connected by inner angle-irons, with
i-inch rivets, placed 2^ inches apart between their centres.
The side plates rise 2^ inches above the top plate, and are
connected with it by external angle -irons placed upon the
top plate and between the side plates, riveted as the bottom
plate is to the sides.

It is scarcely necessary to point out here the many differ-
ences between the tubular beams used in this bridge and the
patented tubular girders ; but the former are probably the
earliest-application of a tubular plate -iron girder in any form
to bridge building, and are therefore historically interesting.

SECTION V.

Chester and Holyhead Railway— General Sketch of the Line — Telfonrs
Holyhead Road — The Menai and Conway Saspension Bridges — Kail-
way Tunnel, Sea-wall, and Viaduct, at Penmaen Mawr — Parliamentary
Proceedings, and Engineers* Reports upon the Communioation between
London and Dublin — ^Iron Bridges proposed by Mr. Rennie in 1802 —
Mr. Robert Stephenson's Design for Cast-iron Arched Bridges, and
selection of bite over the Britannia Rock — Admiralty Opposition, and
Ml*. Stephenson's consequent Design of the Tube.

The railway from Chester to Holyhead, forming an important

iiait of the shortest line of communication between London and

^, is highly interesting in its general features, as it m

Uffly so in comprising the two fine structures known as

CHESTER ANB HtH-YHEAD RAILWAY,

be Conway ami Britannia brulges. The length of tlita rail-
pay is 84|^ miles; and ita several stations^ ataHing fnmi
i^heater, and their respective diatancea from that flnci4^ut city,
are aa follows : —

Qtifou's Ferry
Flint , .
Bftgilt . .
Holywell ,
Mosh n
Pres^tatyn .
Isyhl . .

Colwyn ,

Conway ,

Abet' , .
Bangor

LLuifafr ,

GaerwEii ,

Bodoi^n *

Ty Cro«a .

Valley, ,
Bolybcftd

Fllni^liiie ,

ditto.

ditto. ,

ditto.

di(to,
Detiliighu^liire

ditto,
GamarvoriHhire

ditto.

ditto.
I«le of Angle'^ea

ditto.

ditto,

ditto.

ditto.
HolylieAd Island

7 miles,

121 ,.

IH »

2G^ .,
30

341 -.

45i ..

The journey between Cheater and Holyhead is now uatially
performed by the mail trains in 3 houra and 5 mmutes, of
which 35 minutes are occupied between Bangor and Liatifair^
a diatance of 4 miles, by road carriagea. Abont 25 minutes
of this time will be saved when the Britannia Bridge^ eittaatetl
between these two stations^ le completed ; and the total time
of the journey will be thus reduced to abont 2 hours and 40
minutes. The royal assent waa given to the Bill for this
railway on July 4, 1644, and the works have been conducted
with constderable vigour since their commencement The
general direction of the line ia nearly east and weat, but ita
cotirat is in several parte extremely tortnons, which is tea*
dered neceseary by the mountainous character of the country
traversed* On this accoutjt nearly the whole of the line la con-
structed on or near to the cc>ttat, the lirst 25 miles from Chester
pursuing a d^Tcction nearly n,w. At thia distance the conrfta
IE turned towards the south, m tW OCvs^ic.'CvQkTJi. ^,^.^.^ ^^^^

48 teltord's holthead soad.

proceeds thus towards Bangor, from ichich station the direo-
tion is nearly w., rising to w.x.w., and s.w. on nearing the
terminus at Holyhead; being in some parta of its comise
nearly parallel with the celebrated Holyhead road, which
was eo much improved by Tel:\"rd. Of the Beveral impor-
tant works executed by that eminent engineer npon this line
of road, it would be beyond onr province to attempt any
detailed description in this place. Xevertheless, since they
comprise the two susj'ension bridges at Conway and over
the Strait of Menai, wLich may ni>w boast of the honourable
companionship of the two tubular structures we have to
describe, some brief notice of them vrili serve as a fitting
introduction to the details of those modem railway works.

The Commissioners under whose jurisdiction the works for
the improvement of the Holyhead road were conducted, were
appointed in the year l&lo, and in a statement made by their
engineer, Telford, to a Select Committee nominated in 1830,
" to inquire into the amount of all sums of money received,
expended, and repaid" by the Commissioners, these works
are classed under eight heads, viz. : 1. Roads made in North
Wales, on the London and Holyhead mail line. 2. Roads
made in North Wales, on the Chester and Holyhead mail
line. 3. Embankments on the Stanley Sands, and at Conway.
4. Bridges over the Menai Straits, and over the river Con-
way. 5. Roads made between London and North Wales, on
the London and Holyhead mail line. 6. The harbours of
Holyhead and Howth. 7. The road from Howth to Dublin.
8. The widening and deepening the channel through the
Swilly Rockp, in the IMenai Straits. Under the first of these
heads, Telford describes the reforming of pieces of old road
and making new ones, tantamount to the making of a new
road from Holyhead pier to Chirk bridge, a point on the river
Deo (which here divides Shropshire from Montgomeryshire),
and about G miles n.w. of Ellesmere. The length of this road
'* 83 miles and 1320 yards. "The whole of this roadway was
istructcd with a substantial rubble-stone pavement, care-

Telford's uolyijead uoad. 4^

fnlly hnnfl-aet and Cf>vered with a G-inch coating of properly

. broken Btone. There are, in all caaes where found necessary,

^m breast and retaining walla of atone, with nnmerous side and

^^ cross drains, all constructed in the moat perfect manner. The

whale ia protected with stone walls ; those npon precipices

bnilt with lime mortar, moat of tbe otliers pointed with it. The

■ breast walla on aome parta of this road are 9 feet in depth
below the surface of the roadway, and 4 feet in height above it,
making a total elevation of 13 feet ; they are 3 feet 6 inches
thick at the base, and 15 inches at top, having a hatter or
retiring on the outer face of 22^ inches, and on the inner face
of 4 j inches* The retaining walls on the other side of the
road are 9 feet high, 2 feet thick at the base, and 14 inchea at
top/ having a batter from the road of 18 inchea. The clear
width of road between the walle ia 22 feet" Resuming Tel-
ford's acconnt,— ** There are several conaiderable bridgea,
alao numerons cnttings and embankments, in that monntainona
country ; one, particularly, at the village of Chirk, ia 50 feet
in height Four miles of branch -roads have been made."
^L Under the second head, Telford describes roads formed and
^r improved at Tally Pont Hill^ Penmaen Mawr, Penmaen Back,
and Rhyalt Hill, of a total length of 9 miles and 1177 yards ;
and the embankments in North Wales, forming the third
divison of the worka, are thua particulariaed : '* Near Holy-
head there is an inlet of the aea, tnoTrVn by the name of tho
I Stanley Sands: over this estuary an embankment, 1144 yards
in length J has been made t the height above the undisturbed
iiirface of the sanda, in the middle, is 29 feet ; the breadth at
the top, including the parapet walls and outer facings is 34
feet ; the slopes on each side are faced with nibble-atone, two
feet in thickness j on each side of the road there is a parapet^
4 feet in height, coped with cut stone. The roadway ia 24
feet in width ; it has & paved bottom, and a coating of broken
etono. In order to admit the tide to flow into the space on
the west aide of the embankment, there ia a bridge l\vil<
upon the only piece of natnral rock iouTv^i m ^^V ^^^^^ ^^ '^'^

so MENAI SUSPENSION BRIIM2B.

estuary. This work was executed in two years: 156,271
cubic yards of earth, and 25,754 cubic yards of rabble-stoue,
were deposited in forming it. It has been completed 7
(now 26) years, and is now in a perfect state.

" The eastern approach to Conway bridge is formed by an
embankment upon the sands, over which the tide asnally
flowed, and rendered it a very difficult and dangerous passage.
The distance from the eastern shore to the island is 672
yards : the height of the embankment, on account of the sand
being swept away by the violence of the tides during the
execution of the work, is 54 feet ; its breadth at the base is
300 feet, and 30 feet at the roadway ; the side slopes are
faced with rubble-stone. 2G1,381 cubic yards of earth, and
51,066 cubic yards of rubble-stone, were employed in forming
it. The whole has been finished 3 (now 22) years, and Is
now in a perfect state."

The following description of the greatest of his works,
classed under the fourth head of his statement, from the pen
of Telford, is equally too interesting to admit, and too brief
to require, curtailment.

" Besides several stone bridges, three of a novel description
were required : over the Menai Straits, which separate the
Isle of Anglesea from Carnarvonshire, in order to supersede
au inconvenient ferry. It was found, after many years' investi-
gation and discussion, that in a navigable and rapid tide-way
a l>ridge upon the principle of suspension was the most prac-
ticable and economical : a bridge of that description, therefore,
was begun in 1819, and successfully completed and opened
on the 30th of January, 1826. This structure being of very
unprecedented novelty and magnitude, considerable apprehen-
sions were entertained concerning its stability: the engineer,
therefore, by the advice of his friend, the President of the
Royal Society (one of the Commissioners), considerably in-
creased the height of the piers and the dimensions of the
masonry and iron -work, beyond the original design ; and this

avoidably led to considerable increase of cxpenee ; but as

BRTllGtJ.

all the works were paid for at th€ prices previously fixed la
making tlie first estimate^ and as the quantities Lave beea
ascertained by mea&nrem&nts and weig^hts correctly made by
tbe resideiit engineer, tbe public Las only paid for what wa3
actually fonnd in the work, and tbe edifice was thereby ren-
dered more substantial. The contractor for the iron -works
having made ad aim on tbe Com miss ioners for alleged lo^a
sustained by him in consequence of tbe unprecedented rise in
tbe price of iron, the CoinmiseionerB felt tbemselvee justified,
on inquiry j in representing to tbe Treasury that the difference
between the price paid by him for 2(K:0 tone of iron^ employed
on this and tbe Conway bridges, and the price at which tlie
contract bad been made, exceeded £5,500; but this claim w*as
not admitted- The distance between tbe points of uuspensioiij
for the middle opening, is 580 feet, and between the pyramids
and toll -bouses about half as much : to which is to be added
what passes down the galleries to the places of fixture in tbe
rocksi making the whole length of each main chain 1750 feet,
or one -third of a mile. Tbe height from low ^ water to the top
of tbe saddles oii the pyraraida is 181 feet, and between tbe
saddles and tbe roadway^ CO feet, Ths breadth of the plat-
form is 30 feet, and consists of two driving -ways and a foot^
path between them. There are four storie arches on tbe
Angle a ea Bide, and three on the Carnarvonshire side, each
52 feet 6 inches span.

"At the town of Conway, between the before -mentioned
iflland and tlie rocks in front of tbe old castle, there is a space
through which tbe tide flows with very considerable velocity :
over this space there has been made a bridge on tbe same
principle as the Menai j it is 327 feet between the points of
suspension* In this there is only a single roadway. The
main chains are fixed in racks at each extremity ; tbe westent
approach is by a gateway formed in tbe oM town wall, and by
an embrasured terrace around the liasement of one of the
towers. The masonry of tbe etvp porting pyramida, DA\d 'akeiak '
the toll -house, is made to correapou^ ^v\Xv tkte ^<^ ^b^n^^V

D 2

52 CHESTER AND HOLYHEAD RAILWAY.

Telford also de.-»cribo8 a britlge of one iron arcb, 105 feet
span, built at the point where the Shrewsbury road crosses the
river Conway, above Llanrwst Under the fifth head, the
works comprise new and re-made roads to the extent of 31
miles and 1420 yards; and the Report finally shows the
improvements effected in the harbours of Holyhead and
Howth since the year 1823 (when they were placed under
the management of the Holyhead Road Commissioners), and
the improvements of the navigation of the Menai Straits by
removing parts of the S willy Rocks. The total sum expended
on these several works during the fifteen years ending at
the date of the Report (1830) was £697,637 10». 6<?., besides
£28,460 4«. 1^., for management; £4,583 4». 7d. for parlia-
mentary fees in passing Acts, and Exchequer fees, and
£2,821 8«. 5d, for solicitors' bills in passing Acts and other
general business.

It has been stated, at the commencement of this section,
that the railway now in course of completion between Chester
and Holyhead is highly interesting in its general features,
apart from the peculiarly novel and striking character of the
two great bridges erected, like those designed and just
described by Telford, to complete an important highway
over the river Conway and the Straits of Menai.

On leaving Chester, itself one of the most ancient, and in
history richly associated, of our English cities, the railway is
carried over the river Dee, upon the cast-iron girder bridge
which has been before described. For some few miles the
traveller passes through an agricultural district, the Welsh
mountains forming the back-ground on the left hand ; but
before arriving at Flint, the broad expanse of the Dee becomes
visible on the right, and continues so, with little interruption,
till its distant shore recedes from sight, and the river is found
to have merged in the open Channel. From Colwj^n the
line pursues a nearly direct course to Conway, while the land
stretches out into the Channel, and terminates in the point
known as the Great Orme's Head, which in the distance is

WDEKgr AT P£NMA£H HAWK,

Ba&ily recognised by its appearance as a loug level baixk or
L»w headland-
Some of the works involved in the construction of tke rafl-
^vay at the intermediate points known as Penman or Peumaeu
Mawr are of a bold and cofitJy concitruction* The precipitoua
face of this mountain degcenda to the water's edge, forming a
cliff of steep and rugged outline ; and Telford^s work in form-
ing his road at ttls point consisted of rock* cutting, over a
length of 1 mile and 231 yards, and, in some parts, 30 feet iu
height. Thia i& protected witk bigh breast and retaining
walla, having stone parapets laid in lime mortar. The road-
way is formed of pavement bottoming and a coating of broken
tfitone ; " bo that this formerly frightful precipice is now a safe
trotting road " (Telford's Report, 18 SO,) The CkeBter and
Holyhead 11 ail way now pasaea beneath the foot of the moun-
tain, and about 250 feet below the rood thus carved out of
its surface by Telford,
The works consist of a aea-wall of masonry, IJ mile in
length, and in some parts 60 feet high ; a viaduct, consisting
of vertical piers of masonry, 4:1 feet high from the founda-
tions^ 7 feet thick, 15 feet above Trinity high water on their
top surface, and supporting longitudinal girders, 42 feet in
span, upon which the rails ara carried. This viaduct was
BubiJtituted for a similar length of sea-wall whiuh was destroyed
by a storm in October, 1846- The coffer-dams for the
foundations of the piers were commenced iu May, 18i7, the
masonry on the Ist of June following, and the line opened
for traffic on the lat of May, 1848. Through a projecting
foot of the hard basaltic rock, the line is carried in a tunnel
235 yards in lengthy at the east end of which one -half the
width of the line is formed by ecarfing out the rock, and the
other half by an embankment retained by a sea* wall ; it is

t covered Avith an avalanche roof, of Avhule timbers, spanning
the railway, to prevent injury from loose pieces of rock falling
c^n to it.
The crossing by the railway oC t\i& t\yt^\ (iotwia.^ xt^^^^*^

54 ADMIRALTY REPORT.

the first of the tabular bridges ; and at about 18 miles further
on, the separation of the Island of Anglesea from the mun
land of CamarvonBhire by the Straits of Menai gives oeca-
sion for a bolder structure, of which the central pier is skil-
fully based on a rock named the Britannia Rock, and which
thus derives its title of the Britannia Bridge.

The national importance of securing the most direct and
rapid communication between London and Dublin, and of
selecting, as conducive to this purpose, Buch a port on the
Welsh coast as would reduce the sea voyage to the minimum
of time and uncertainty, commanded the anxious attention of
Parliameut in 1836, a select committee of whicb, in October
of that year, recommended an address to the Crown to pro-
cure a "survey of the harbours on the line of coast best
calculated for a direct communication between London and
Dublin, with a view of ascertaining whether the existing
ports of Holyhead and Liverpool, or any other ports on that
part of the coast of Great Britain, would, in the judgment of
experienced naval surveyors, furnish the greatest facilities for
steam communication by packet across the ChanneL" Thii
recommendation, having been duly adopted by the Lords of
the Treasury, was referred by them to the Admiralty autl^o*
rities, whose hydrographer (Admiral P. Beaufort) reported
accordingly on November 4, 1836, in which Report the two
following sentences occur. " As long as the Dublin maib
are carried by coaches on common roads, the best place cf
embarkation in every respect will be Holyhead, whicb is oolf
()2 statute miles from Kingston harbour, and wbicb calf
requires a little elongation of the pier, in order to admit i
larger class of steam vessels at low water. But if a railroii
should be constructed for that purpose, it would be probab^
led to another port, because it is not likely that a stMl
carriage with a loaded train would be allowed to traverse tkl
present chain bridge at Bangor ; and a new bridge there, «•
arches, would add enormously to the expense of the undaf*
Miug; besides the objection that would bo raised to sni

a bridge, from tlie obstruction it would give to the navi^;ation
of tiie strait."

A bold conception of engineering deeign, ai<led by iiii-
proved skill in metallic construction, is, however, n^'W rearing
a new bridge, on which loaded trains of any fK^seiMe weight
may be safely allowed to traverse, and which preseijts neirher
arches nor other obstruction to the '' navi;^ation of the
strait" The dictum of the Admiralty hydrographer aj*fK;arii
to have been accepted as conclusive, i^-ithout further siirvey,
in favour of Holyhead, supposing the bridge difficMlty g'/t
over, or of Port Dynllaen, on the south -we»i tern coaat of
Carnarvonshire, in order to obviate this difficulty. 'J 'he
communication between this place and Jjondon, however^
would reqidre a longer line than Holyhead, and wait, more-
over, at that time associated with a project of equivocal feani-
bility, for carrying a line of railway through the Merioneth
mountains.

Subsequently (June 9, 1843;, Captains Back and Fair,
in obedience to the commands of the Admiralty, reported
on the capabilities of the two ports, Holyhead and iJynllaen,
and expressed their ''unqualified opinion, that both as to
capability and position, Holyhead is unquestionably the
most eligible harbour on the coast as a port of commu-
nication with Dublin." In the same year, and following
one. Sir John Rennie, Mr. James Walker, and Mr. Page,
severally reported on the engineering improvements of
these harbours as harbours of refuge, and as snscep'iblc of
ready communication \iith the English metropolis by means
of a railway.

These Reports of course expressed professional views and
opinions upon the several topics of a somewhat conflicting
nature, but the practical results of the proceedings then and
previously taken have been, as now well known, the adoption
of Holyhead as a packet station, and of Mr. Stephenson's
line of railway between that port and Chester; while the
iuiprovemeut of the harbour has been intrusted to Mr. Ueudel.

56 engineers' reports..

Each of the three engineers named as reporters found it
incumbent on him to offer some remarks on the best manner
of getting over the Menai Straits. A few of these may be
properly quoted here. Mr. J. Walker, after expressing his
decided opinion of the railway as of the harbour, that " the
best line should be selected," and further, that " the railway
should be made in a good manner as a great public work,"
objects to the proposal which had been made of using the
suspension bridge for railway purposes, by drawing the trains
by horses or a fixed engine up the slope of the present
bridge (of which the inclination is at the rate of 1 in 25),
and recommends that the line of railway " should be con-
tinued direct to the straits, and the straits crossed by an
arched bridge built for the railway," which bridge ** may
cross at the S willy or Gorred Goch Rocks." Both of these
groups of rocks are between the suspension bridge and the
Britannia bridge.

Mr. Page observed, with regard to the effect of the passage
of railway trains over the Menai suspension bridge, that "the
sectional area of the main chains being 260 square inches,
and the weight of the bridge (including 130 tons additional
weight due to the repairs in 1839 and 1840) 774: tons, the
strain upon the main chains, on the principle used by Sir
F. Smith and Professor Barlow, amounts to rather more
than 5 tons per square inch, supposing the weight to he borne
equally by all the chains, and without any allowance for the
moTnentum produced by undulation, the effects of which upon
the bridge by the gale in January, 1839, are well known.
This weight is nearly 1 ton 16 cwt. per square inch more
than was calculated upon in the evidence of Mr. Telford and
Mr. Kennie, given before a select committee of the House of
Commons (April 29, 1819) ; and as their calculations were
made with reference to iron unimpaired in its elastic force,
which, after the severe trials to which this structure has been
exposed, cannot be said of the chams avi^ toAs oi l\v^ bridge
Upreseut, it foJIows that the limits in.teii^^^\i'3 \V» ^\i^\\i<itT

aiii JOHN hennie's eepoht. 57

ave been (perhaps unavoidably) conBiderably exceeded." —
" The weight ol railway carriages would be limited tu one
aide of the otker, and therefore the iitrala would be bronght
upon half tliG chaiuji and sua pending rods ; and if a train
jmt>aes without the engine, takings ten carriage a at 5 tons
each, the extra ti train upon the chains woidd he 85 tous,
which on 130 square incheSj being equal to 13 cwt, per
square iuoh, would make the total strain 5 tous 13 ewt. per
square inch," Coaseqneiitly, ** the paBsoge of conneeled raiU
way traiua would be injurious to the general stability of the
bridge."

The following extract from the Report made by Sir John
Ilennie will show that nearly balf a century ago iron was;
referred to as tlie preferable material fur eoUBtructing a fi^ed
bridg-e over the lilenai Straits ;

** In order to conduct the railway traffic in a proper
manner, a fixed bridge U absolntely neccHaary, and ought
to be adopted. The late Mr, Hennie was always of opinion,
that a permanent fixed bridge was the only fit means of
communication across the Menai ; and in his Report of the
Idth of February, 1S02, to the Right Hon. Charles Abbot,
'jie enters into the whole subject with great detail and ability,
For the reasons stated in the Heport, lie says that there are
only two eitufttiona properly adapted for the construction of
B bridge across the straits ; via. the Ynys y Moch and the
S willy Rocks, 800 yards above it ; and in this view the late
Mr. Telford concarred (eee his Report). Upon tlni former
site Mr* Rennie proposed to construct a fixed bridge, having
one cast-iron arch of 450 feet opening, so as to span the
entire width of the straits at low water, and to spring UJU
feet above the high-water mark ; and from this main arch he
proposed to construct smaller arches of stone, to the extent
of 156 yards on the Carnarvonshire side, and similar arches
on the Angleaea side, to the extent of 28 i yards, making a
total length of 640 yards, exoUifiWe ot tini V\w^-^^'*>% "^"^
design he ejstimated at £260.140. Awd l\\^ ^^V^"^ ii^^v-tv,\>^

^ ' -J

58 81TB OP BRITANNIA BRIDGE.

cr(j66 the SwiUy Rocks, he proposed to conust of three cast-
iron arches, 350 feet span each, and 150 at the crown, ahove
an ordinary spring-tide, and to connect these arches on the
Carnarvon side hy smaller stone arches to the extent of 200
yards, and on the Anglesea side by land arches to the
extent of 434: yards, besides embankments, thos making a
total length of 1076 yards : the expense of this design
(which he strongly recommeuded to be adopted in preference
tj the other) he estimated at £2iK),4:17. It is mnch to be
regretted that neither of these designs was adopted, which
the ex[>en8e aloue, however, prevented, aud the present chain
or suspension bridge, by Mr. Telford, was adopted instead,
as it was supposed that it could have been completed for
£70,000 ; but if the ultimate costs could have been foreseen,
it is more than probable that the fixed cast-iron bridge
would have been carried into effect. With reference, how-
ever, to carrying the railway across the straits, some similar
])lan of a bridge ought to be adopted ; and, taking into con-
sideration the magnitude of the work and the difficulties of
the situation, I do not think that it would be prudent to
estimate the cost at a less sum than stated by Mr. Renuie,
viz. £290,417. The time also for completing such a work,
considering its extent and difficulty, aud the numerous con-
tingencies to which it would necessarily be exposed, could
not be taken at less than from five to seven years ; indeed,
the present suspension bridge occupied above seven years,
and the late Mr. Telford considered that the site of the
6 willy Rocks would be attended with greater difficulties."

In his designs for carrying the Chester and liolyhead
Railway over the straits, Mr. Robert Stephenson had thus to
determine the two fundamental points of site and construction
of his proposed work. The site which, after careful exami-
nation, he selected, although not one which had received the
apj)roval of former engineers, offers one peculiar advantage,
which Mr. Stephenson duly remarked, and determined to
avail himself of in the situation of his bridge. This consists

VR. Stephenson's repoet. 59

in a mass of rock, occupying the centre of the stream, of
suitable dimensions to serve as the foundation of a central
pier, and standing considerably above the level of low water.
The distance of this rock, and of the bridge now being built
over it, from the suspension bridge of Telford, is one mile
lower down the straits, or in a southern direction. Upon the
other great question, viz. the construction of the bridge, Mr.
Stephenson brought some of his own experience to bear,
which proved far more conclusively than any theoretical in-
quiries, that the suspension principle is utterly inapplicable
for sustaining railway trafl&c. The following extract from
his Report, presented to the Directors of the Railway, in
February, 1846, gives the results of this experience :

"The injurious consequences attending the ordinary mode
of employing chains in suspension bridges were brought
under my observation in a very striking manner, on the
Stockton and Darlington Railway, where 1 was called uj^on
to erect a new bridge for carrying the railway across tlie
river Tees, in lieu of an ordinary suspension bridge, which
had proved an entire failure. Immediately on opening the
suspension bridge for railway trafl&c, the undulations into
which the roadway was thrown, by the inevitable unequal
distribution of the weights of the train upon it, were such as
to threaten the instant downfall of the whole structure. Tlicse
dangerous undulations were most materially aggravated by
the chain itself, for this obvious reason, — that the platform or
roadway, which was constructed with ordinary trussing, for
the purpose of rendering it comparatively rigid, was eus-
pended to the chain, which was perfectly flexible, all the
parts of the latter being in equilibrium. The structure was,
therefore, composed of two parts, the stability of the one
being totally incompatible with that of the other ; for example,
the moment an unequal distribution of weights upon tiie
roadway took place, by the passage of a train, the curve of
the chain altered, one portion descending at the point imme-
diately aboT^e the greatest weights, and consecyaeutl^ a«w^^s^^^?^

60 NECESSITY FOR RIGIDITY OF STRUCTURE.

some other portion to ascend in a corresponding degree, which
necessarily raised the platform with it, and augmented the
undulation. So seriously was this defect found to operate,
that immediate steps were taken to support the platform
underneath by ordinary trussing ; in short, by the erection of
a complete wooden bridge, which took off a large portion of
the strain upon the chains. If the chains had been wholly
removed, the substructure would have been more effective ;
but as they were allowed to remain, with the view of assisting,
they gtill partake of those changes in the form of the curve
consequent upon the unequal distribution of the weight, and
eventually destroyed all the connections of the wooden frame-
work underneath the platform, and even loosened and sus-
pended many of the piles upon which the frame-work rested,
and to which it was attached. The study of these and other
circumstances connected with the Stockton bridge leads me
to reject all idea of deriving aid from chains employed in the
ordinary manner." A fixed and rigid structure being thus
indispensable to sustain railway traffic, Mr. Stephenson pro-
posed to cross the straits with a cast-iron arched bridge in two
spans of 450 feet each, and prepared his designs accordingly,
the height of the arches being 100 feet from the level of the
water to the crown of the arch, and the springing 50 feet
from the same level. As it was necessary that the water-
way should not be interrupted by scaffolding or centering,
such as is usually employed in erecting arched bridges,
Mr. Stephenson designed to fix the half-arches on each side
of the central pier in portions simultaneously, and connect
them with tie-rods, so that the weight on either side should
balance that on the other.

The Commissioners of the Admiralty, however, who con-
stitute the final authority in these matters, insisted upon one
condition which rendered this design inapplicable ; viz., that
the clear height of water-way under the lowest part of the
archee or their springing Bho\i\d not \ift \fte»«» l\iwi 100 feet
2^o have retained the samo general d(iai^ii/\t\qo\iJA^«t<5klvs»

HKi TAIRBAtllN'd ££FBJI.IICeKT8. 61

bave become necesisary to elevate the whole structure 50 feet
above tlie proposed po^iition, an alteration iiivolvriug immenae
additional cost in the piers and abutments of tlie bridge,
besides being irreconeileable witli the adjoiidug levek of the
railway. Under these aire umfita need the indomitable eiigiiieer

I daternmied to abandon the arched form altogether^ and to
seek a horizontal forai of construction which ahuuld poflsess
all the strength and inSexibility reqiiirud for the support vf

I its destined loads over spaces of 450 feet, and be at the same
time euaeeptible of erection without ubatructiuL^ the navii^a-
tion of the straits »

Here was a problem of nearly unexampled difficulty, de-
manding for its solution the union of original bold conception,

I careful acientilic experiment, and practical art and akill^ rarely
required and rarely to be commanded even on the most
momentouH occasions of engineering expedient- The first of
these essentials w^as early supplied by Mr. Stephenson^ who,
in the mouth of February, 1845, announced bis suggestion of
wrought iron as the best material for the bridge over the
straits, and the form of a hollow girder or tube as the 6liai>e

f in which this material should be combined for the purpose.

I To obviate the difficulty respecting scaffolding, it was deter-
mined ttiat each of the tubes should be constructed at some
unoccupied place contiguous to its permanent position, and
raised and deposited in that position en maue^ These deci-
sions, which coniprised the leading outlines of the plan, were
wisely followed up by an elaborate series of experiments to

I determine, fir^t, the pecuHar sectional form w^hich should be
given to the tubes, and secondly, the distribution and dimen-
sions of the material which would ensure the ret^^uired strength
and stiffness of the entire structure.

for these detail purposes, it was determined that a high
authority in the theoretical and practical departments con^
ntcted with the strength of the proposed material, and the
best methods of its combination, bUo^^I \i*i^ ^\^\?=X.^^ "a»- ^i^^sv-
pktmg the design; and the autlioTil^ B<i\kiG\Aii.^^'^S^^'^^^'*^

62 BERNOUILLl's DEDUCTIONS.

Fairbairn, wlio, after couducting a scries of ezperiments to
ascertain the strongest form for the tube, called in the aid of
]VIr. Eaton Hodgkinson in reducing the results and evolving
practical formulsa for determining the details of the worL
These gentlemen proceeded with their inquiries, and presented
Keports embodying the results to Mr. Stephenson, who ap-
pended them to his own Report, presented to the Directors of
the Railway Company at their meeting in February, 1846. The
importance of these summary Reports renders it necessary to
quote the results which they exhibit : this we propose to do in
the following Section, after stating the general principles which
distinguish all beam or girder bridges, whether tubular or solid,
from those whose strength depends upon their arched form.

SECTION VI.

General Principles which distinguish Girder Bridges from Arched Bridges
— ]Mr. Fairl»airn'H Experiments and Report on Tubular Girders — ^Mr.
llodgkinson's Experiments and Report — Mr. Stephenson's Reportb

The earliest philosophers who essayed to develop the laws
which regulate the resistance of bodies to transverse strains,
viz. Galileo and Leibnitz, assumed a fundamental principle
which the celebrated James Bernouilli seems to have been the
first to expose. This radical error was, that all the particles
of a beam submitted to an excessive transverse pressure are
in a state of tension, and that the separation of them by the
overcoming of their tensile power is the only action exerted by
tlie weight which breaks the beam. James Bernouilli, how-
ever, detected the fallacy of this assumption, and showed that
the particles of which a beam so loaded is composed, exert a
different kind of force on that side which receives the pressure
of the load from that which they exert on the opposite side.
The sensible indication of this fact is afforded by the form
which the beam assumes, the loaded side or surface becoming
concave, while the opposite side becomes convex. On the
oncave side the particles are thus compressed towards each

THE " NEUTRAL UNB.'* 63

other^ while on the convex side they are distended or drawn
from each other. From this observatioD, Bernouilli deduced
the theoretical existence of a longitudinal line, or rather
plane, throughout the beam, which defines the limits equally
of the compressive and extensive action ; and to this line or
limit, which, it follows, is neither reduced nor lengthened by
the deflection of the beam, Bernouilli gave the name of the
neutral line. Now this mutually opposing tendency of the
action excited amongst the particles of a beam or girder by
a load acting upon it transversely to its length, reduces the
pressure which the beam exerts upon its abutments to a
simple vertical one, no lateral or oblique force being exerted
upon them, unless the form of the girder become so altered
that its ends assume an oblique instead of a horizontal direc-
tion. An arch, on the contrary, is known to transfer its load
to a lateral or an oblique thrust against the abutments, the
total material of the arch being in a state of compression, and
the abutments receiving the sum of this compression, — minus
the elasticity of the material, — in a force which tends to push
them outwards or away from each. A suspended structure
may be instanced as an ilhistration of the opposite tendency,
the resistance of the fabric to the load being exerted by the
tension of the materials, which, transferred to the towers or
points of suspension, tends to draw them inwards, or towards
each other. The former, thrusting or pushing forces, may be
called diverging or opposing forces ; and the latter, pulling
forces, may be called converging or compressing forces.

In order to produce their maximum strength and stability,
the action of an arched, of a suspended, and of a girder
bridge, as ultimately transferred to the abutments, is cer-
tainly required to be identically the same in direction^ viz.
vertical. Thus the maximum strength of the arched form
is realised in the semicircular form, which springs vertically
from the abutments ; and in proportion as this direction of
thrust varies from the vertical towards the horizontal through
the angles of obliquity, — that is, as the arch becQXx\ft»» ^-a.^.-
tened and ita height reduced, — bo, itv. a. ^<L\.erDKv\\s^^ x^<2»>

64 STRENGTH OP GIRDERS.

IB the strength of the structure diminished. And, in the
suspension bridge, the chains would act the most efficiently
in carrying a load, if they could be employed in a true ver-
tical direction, while their power is sacrificed the more they
are made to diverge from this towards the horizontal direc-
tion. The common object of the arrangement of parts in an
arch, and of the saddles over which the chains in a suspen-
sion bridge pass, is therefore to produce a resulting vertical
action upon the abutments and towers.

But in a simple arch with abutments, or a chain with
towers, it is necessary, in order to insure the equilibrium
of the structure, to introduce other parts, which shall exert
counteracting forces. Thus the arch requires an extra weight
of materials above it in the spandrils, and the chain requires
a counter-chain on either side of each tower, and the precise
adjustment of these forces constitutes a problem of great
practical importance in designing bridges of either class.
Girders or beams, on the contrary, are required to resist
their loads by the compound or counteractive power of the
tensile and compressing forces exerted by their particles
mutually against each other on the opposite sides of the
neutral plane or line ; so that the pressure imposed by the
beam with its load upon the end supports or abutments shall
act in a vertical direction only, or as a simply insistent
weight. Now, in order to realise this condition of equili-
brium of the girder, its dimensions and proportions through-
out have to be determined with reference to the amount of
force which the material is capable of exerting in resisting
the extending and compressing action of the load. This
force varies, — 1st, according to the vertical distance of the
upper and lower sides from the neutral plane, or axis; —
and 2ndly, according to the nature of the material employed.
Thus, the greater the vertical distance between the upper
and lower sides respectively and the neutral plane, the greater
will be the resistance exerted by the beam against the power
^^ the load to compretia and to extend it. Tl^i^ sXx^w^^ <A
girder in hence in proportion to its de^Oa.'. ^\i^V\\<i t\\v^

STRENGTH OF DIFFERENT MATERIALS. 65

for ascertaining the power of bodies of rectangular section to
resist the transverse fracture is based upon the principle th&t
this power varies directly with the breadth and square of the
depth of the girder, and inversely with its length. To apply
one general formula for ascertaining this strength to various
materials, it is necessary to introduce one element into the
calculation, the value of which varies according to the mate-
rial, and must be determined by experiments. Using S to
denote this variable number ; 6, the breadth in inches ; d, the
depth, also in inches ; I, the length in feet ; and w, the weight
in pounds, the general formula is

The value of S has been determined for several materials
as applicable to beams or girders, supported at each end and
loaded in the middle.

Cast iron 2548

Malleable iiou 2050

Teak 820

Aah 675

Canadian oak 588

Pitch pine 644

Red pine 447

MarForeutdr 415

Englibhoak 400

Riga fir 376

Laich 280

This also represents the order of the strength of the
eleven materials enumerated to resist transverse loads. The
strengths thus found are the ultimate or extreme strengths,
only one-third of which can be safely permitted for a prac-
tical load which shall not injure the texture of the beam.
On the other hand, the load is here supposed to be collected
in one point or line on the centre of the length of the beam ;
whereas, practically, the maximum load to be provided for
will be distributed over its whole length, and the load thiid
sustained wiJJ be double that wliic\i coa. \>^ \iQit\:v<i q»^ ^
centrtd point or line across tlio beam. 'IXi^ iax^a^x^^ Vit

66 EXPERIMENTS ON CAST-IRON BARt.

finding the maximum safe load, equally distribatedy will
therefore be

or the same result may be found by using 1699 instead of
2548, for the value of S in cast iron.

Subsequent experiments by Mr. Fairbairn and Mr. Hodg-
kinson have shown that in cast iron the power found by this
formula is somewhat too high. These experiments were
made upon fifty-two dififerent kinds of cast iron, both hot and
cold blast, from the principal Iron Works in the United
Kingdom, and also including samples from Elba, and Sama-
koff in Turkey. The bars upon which the loads were placed
in the middle were of various dimensions as to length,
breadth, and depth ; but the results will be much simplified
and rendered more readily applicable by reducing them all
to one uniform section and length, and deducing an average
from the whole of the varying results. Thus reducing the
bars to an uniform breadth and depth of 1 inch, and length
of 4 feet 6 inches, or 54 inches, the mean breaking weight
of all the trials made upon each kind of iron varied from
581 lbs. to 357 lbs., the average of the fifty-two kinds of iron
being 449*36 lbs. To reduce this breaking weight for bars
4 feet 6 inches long to a strength per inch of length, in order
to arrive at a rule of general applicability, we may multiply
the weight found of 449*36 lbs. by the number (54) of inches
in the length of the bars experimented upon, the product of
which is 10 tons 16*6 cwt., which we may call 11 tons. This
being the strength per inch, the strength of any beam of rec-
tangular figure may be found by multiplying this average
unit of 11 tons by the transverse sectional area of the beam
and by its de})th, and dividing the product by the length.
All of these dimensions being taken in inches, the quotient
will be in tons, representing the weight which will just break
finch a beam. To take an example, let it be required to
Jisi'.ei'tain the breaking weight of a caat-itoiv \>ea.\xi ol «iiV^x«i^<^

BISST FORM OF BEAMS. 67

quality of metal and rectangular section, of which the breadth
is 2 inches, the depth 5 inches, and the length between the
bearings 5 feet, or 60 inches.

11X10X6^

60 '

or about 9 tons 3 cwts. 1 qr. ; whereas by the rule before
quoted (S h d ^ = I w), S being for cast iron 2548, the
weight would be

2548 X 2 X 25 ^ ^5480 lbs., or 11 tons 7 cwts. 2 qrs.
5

The rectangular form of transverse section is, however,
the strongest for a loaded beam only upon the assumption
that the forces by which it resists compression and extension
are equal to each other, whereas it has been found by expe-
riment that this is not the case in some (if indeed it is in
any) of the materials of which beams are composed. Thus,
cast iron has been found capable of resisting compression
with six times the force that it exerts in resisting extension ;
from which it follows, that in order to derive the greatest
Btrength from any given quantity of that material in a beam,
that side of it which acts against extension, or the under side
— the load being on the top — should have six times as much
iron as is necessary in the upper part of it, which resists
compression.

Again, as the maximum compressive force acts at the upper
limit of the beam, and the maximum extending force acts on
its lower limit, both of these forces being reduced to zero at
tlie neutral plane, the distribution of the material should be
regulated with a corresponding greater bulk at the limits of
the section, and diminished towards the neutral plane.

The form of section determinable by these conditions \iill
therefore assume a resemblance to the outline of two vertical
cones, whereof one is inverted over the other so that their
apicis meet, and the lower one containing six times the bulk
of the upper and inverted one. A xsioTe ^w»SX\«»iX \^^«. ^^ ^^^

68 BEST FOKM OP BEAMS.

outline may be derived by comparing it to tbat of a sand or
hour glass, with the difference only of the ineqaality of the
two compartmeuts-

The form uf section which has been suggested and prac-
tically adopted in the manufacture of cast-iron girders as
approaching tliis theoretical figure, is that of an upper and
lower horizontal flange, of which the areas are in the propor-
tion of 1 to G, with a thin vertical web, or rib, between and
connecting them. The selection of this form has been sanc-
tioned by tlie assumption, which we submit is erroneous, that
tiie greatest strength of the girder is obtained only when the
entire material is collected at those points where the com-
pressing and extending forces are acting with the greatest
power. Ueuce it has been inferred that the theoretical, but
impracticable, form of section of maximum strength requires
that *' the material of the extended side and the material
of the compressed side be respectively collected into two
geometrical lines parallel to the vertical axis ; — a distribution
manifestly impossible, since it would produce an entire sepa-
ration of the two sides of the beam.*' * Now this condition
is manifestly as unnecessary, at least, as it is impossible. The
equilibrium of the beam simply requires that at the moment
when the load begins to surpass its strength, and rupture is
about to commence, every particle of the material shall be
performing its full duty in resisting this tendency. The
assumed occasion for collecting the total material in those
limits of the beam at which rupture is commencing, could
arise only if the rupture >vere instantaneous throughout the
entire depth of the beam, an " if '^ which is utterly inconsistent
with the existence of compressing and extending forces.

The accession of strength obtained by adopting a sectional
form, designed with reference to the action of the compressive
and extending forces at diflferent distances from the neutral
jilane, has been shown by experiment to be four-elevenths :
tUnt. 15^ the unit of strength or cast-iron beams, which, if of
Miiluuikal Priuuiplfw of Eogineeiing," by Pi-ofessor Moseley.

BEST FORM OF BEAMS. G9

a rectangular section, is, as we have shown, 11 tons, is in-
creased to 15 tons when the top and hottom of the beam are
formed ¥dth greater material in the form of projecting flanges
than the middle portion of it, in the section known as the
eqnal flanged or I-section. Bnt by arranging the material
of the section with reference to its comparative power of
resisting the two forces of compression and extension, which,
in cast iron, as we have stated, is as 6 to 1, a still greater
strength is derived ; and the nnit of 11 of the rectangular
beam, increased to 15 in the eqnal-flanged beam, is now in-
creased to 19 in the beam whose section consists of an tipper
flange and a lower flange of 6 times the area of the upper
one, the two being united by a central vertical rib. Using
these units respectively instead of 11, the rule given for
rectangular sections is equally applicable to those of equal
and unequal flanges.

Theory and experiment concur in showing that the uniform
transverse strength of a beam throughout its length between
the supports or abutments does not require an equality of
sectional area in all parts, the strength of the beam being
inversely as its length, and the effect of a given load diminish,
ing towards the supports. Hence the area of the section
may be reduced from the middle of the beam, at which the
greatest strength is required, towards the supports, at which
the least is sufficient The diminution of sectional area thus
allowable, should, according to the law by which the load
operates, be made so that the outline of the longitudinal
figure of the beam is an elliptical curve for a passing load,
and a parabolic curve for a fixed load.

Being possessed of these few elementary notions of the
action of arched, suspension, and girder bridges, and of the
principles which determine the form of the latter when con-
structed of cast iron, we will now turn our attention to the
malleable form of the metal, and, from the results of experi-
ments upon it, deduce a comparison of the properties of the
two forms of the metal.

70 STRENGTH OF MALLEABLE IRON.

In structure, malleable iron is essentially different from cast
iron, the one being Jihrou% and the other crystalline. In
cohesive power, or that power by which materials resist forces
applied to tear them asunder, malleable iron is far superior to
cast iron. The results of experiments show that the ultimate
cohesive power of English bar iron equals 25 tons per square
inch of the cross section of the bar. The power of Russian
bar iron is stated at 26*7 tons, and of Swedish bar iron at
29*2 tons ; the average of the three kinds is thus 26*96 tons,
which may be called 27 tons ; while the cohesive power of
cast iron is only 7*87 tons ; the proportion of the one to the
other being thus as 27 to 8. This being the ultimate cohesive
power, or representing that force which the bar is just able to
resist, must be divided by at least three, to show the maximum
strain to which the bar should be exposed. The elastic power
of the metal, however, or the power which it has, on the
removal of the load, to return its particles to their former
condition, is of course much less than the total cohesive power
which it is capable of exerting in resisting a force equal to
their absolute separation. Thus, while the cohesive force of
wrought iron is, as stated, equal to 27 tons per square inch,
its elastic power, according to the experiments conducted by
Mr. P. Barlow, is about 10 tons per square inch in good iron,
and as low as 8 tons in inferior qualities. Taking the average,
or 9 tons, we may consider that its elastic power is one-third
of its cohesive power.

Upon the transverse strength of bars of malleable iron of
rectangular section, as far as their elastic force is preserved,
we may quote from Mr. Barlow's experiments, which were
very carefully conducted, in the course of his inquiry into the
best form for malleable-iron rails. These experiments were
made upon bars IJ inch in breadth, 3 inches in depth, and
33 inches in length between the bearings, the pressure being
applied in the middle of them. The deflections produced in
two of these bars, and the average, "weie «a ioWo^ \ —

STRENGTH OF MALLEABLE IRON.

EXPERIMENTS ON BARS OF MALLEABLE IRON.

Weights.

Deflections.

Bar,No.l.

Bar, No. 2.

Average of the
two Bars.

Tons.

Inch.

•5

•059

•017

•038

•074

•037 (?)

•055 (?)

1-5

•083

•052

•067

•095

•061

•078

2-5

•101

•064

•082

•109

•078

•093

3-5

•120

•089

•104

•131

•102

•117

4-5

•148

•124

•136

The elasticity of these bars was preserved at a pressure of
about 4J tons, but injured at 4| tons. The average maximuni
deflection which the bars suffered without injury to their
elasticity would therefore be between •117 and -136 inch.
Adopting the medium, or •126 inch, we may infer that this
represents the maximum deflection which such bars can bear
within their ^hwtic power. The elastic force of cast iron is
less than half of this, being, according to the rule* generally
employed and derived from experimental results, '0504 of an
inch for a beam of the same dimensions as these malleable
bars. From the experiments conducted upon malleable bars
of the double-flanged or I-form, a complicated rule has been
derived, which it is not necessary to give in this place,
although, by way of showing the increased strength given
to the bar by disposing the material in this double-flanged
form, we will apply this rule to a bar having the same quan-
tity of material, and length and depth of section, as the two
rectangular bars upon which Mr. Barlow's experiments were
tried, but with part of the material removed from the sides,
and disposed as flanges on both sides of the central rib, in
such a manner that the width over the top Mid. ViQ\.\53vsv^'a.\s%^^

* This rule w, " Multiply the square of iYvft\et\^V>^ Vcvlw\.\s^ -v^.tc^^
the product, divided by the depth in mc\\«», n\ vW «^>3^^ ^"^^ ewvt-^^RNxvscv.

72 STRENGTH OF MALLEABLE IROK.

is 2 J inches, and their depth } inch, the vertical rib being
thus reduced to J inch in thickness. Such a beam or bar
will support 6*18 tons without injury to its elasticity, while
the rectangular bars of equal sectional area supported only
4-25 tons. The gain in strength is thus 1 93 tons, or nearly
45 per cent.

In the remaining property of resistance to compressive
force we shall find that wrought iron is similarly superior to
cast iron. The formulae which have been deduced from
experiments upon the resistance exerted by solid cylinders of
the two metals to a compressing force, are as follows :

6662 d*

For cast iron W =

For malleable iron W

4 d* + -18 Z*'
11125 rf*

■4rf» + -16Z2»

in which formulsB W is the weight which the cylinder will
support in pounds ; Z, the length in feet ; and d, the diameter
in inches. Let us apply these to two cylinders 5 inches in
diameter and 2 feet in length. In the cast-iron cylinder,

9662 X 626 ^ j 14913 lbs., or 6 tons
100 4- -18 X 4 I 13 cwta. 17 lbs.

In the malleable -iron cylinder,

11126 X 625 __ j 17365 lbs., or 7 tons 14 cwts.
100 -h -16 X 4 I 3 qre. 23 Iba.

The resistance to compression in the two metals is, there-
fore, as 14,918 to 17,355, or very nearly as 6 to 7. The
properties of the two materials may be thus compared, and
the amount possessed by each expressed in figures.

Cast iron. Malleable iron.

Cohesive power as 8 to 27

Elastic power „ 2 „ 6

llesiNtance to compression . . „ 6 „ 7

Tn these three properties, which compose the practical
e of these materials in construction, the malleable metal is
ibown to be gre&tly superior to tiae cast m^v^^^ «Jkflj\wv^

PROPEETIES OF MALLEABLE AND CAST lEON« 73

tMa fmperiority ia by no means of stmilat amoimt or extent
throiighont. But knowing the ratio in^vhich either muterial
poseesaea two of ttto properties, that of the other material may
be readily deduced. Thue we know that east iron resiatfl
corapreasion with eix times the power it exerts in reaisting
extenaion, that ia, its restfitance to compression ia 6 timea
greater than its cokeaive power. Hence repreaenting the
coheaive power hy 8^ the resiating power will be 8 x 6 or 48.
In malleable iron the coheaive power will be expressed in
trne ratio to 8 of the oast iron hy the number 27, But its
resistance to compresaion being only one-aixth more than that
of cast iron, the ratio of this power will be 48 to + 8j or 56.
It follows from this, that while the coheaive power of cast
ron is to its resistance againat compreaaion as 8 to 48, or as
1 to 6, these properties exiat in wrought iron in the propor-
tion of 27 to 56, or nearly 1 to 3* Tliia simple compariaonp
dednced from data which have been long before the public,
enables ua to nnderatand that the strongest form for a wrought-
iron girder will not have a similar proportion of parts to that
for a cast-iron girder, and that while the lower flange of the
latter should contain six times as much metal aa the npper
flange, the lower flange of the wrought-iron beam should
have only twice as much as the upper one.

These proportions refer to solid girders^ and of course are
applicnhle only witMn certain limits; hut these hmits are
sufficiently comprehensive for all practical pnrpoaes, and thus
the proportions are in effect nuiverfially applicable to such
girders.

If it came witHn onr pnrpoae to attempt t<j account for
this difference of ratio of powers in the two kinds of iron, we
would suggest that it might be traced to the difference of
their structural condition, A cryatalline and non- fibrous
material, such as caat iron, may readily be snppoaed deficient
in that strength to resist pulling asunder, which we find to
ffeside in all fibrous materials wbatsQeveT,i\&\^OktVife fA^\\^<^T
beyond their aimply molecular &triLctftte, Bt^'peKt ^\i% ^^^w^^a^

74 BXPBRIMENTS ON THE FOBM OF THE TUBE.

of exerting a power of holding each other together by a kind
of interlaciug in the longitudinal direction. But although
devoid of this power, the simply granular formation of cast
iron and similar materials requires a total motion of the par-
ticles hefore yielding to compression, which is not so impera-
tive in the fibrous material ; and by way of illustrating this,
the tendency of fibrous n^aterials, when compressed beyond
endurance, to laminate, or separate into thin sheets or scales,
might perhaps be adduced.

That these rules will not equally apply to hollow or tubular
girders might be readily anticipated, and has been proved by
the experiments undertaken by Mr. Fairbairn in determining
the dimensions and proportions for the Britannia Bridge.

The first point to be determined was the form of the tube,
and with this view experimental tubes were constructed of
several sectional forms, viz. circular, elliptical, and rectan-
gular. The first series of experiments were tried on the first
of these, viz. the cylindrical tubes, or those of circular trans-
verse section. The lengths of these, or distance between the
supports, varied from 15 feet 7 J inches to 31 feet 8^ inches;
their diameters varied from 12 inches to 24*3 inches; the
thickness of the plates of which they were constructed varied
from '037, or about ^ of an inch, to 'IS^, or about ^ of an
inch ; and the breaking weight varied from 2,704 lbs. to
14,240 lbs. The two amallest, thinnest, and weakest of these
tubes failed by being crushed on the top, thus showing a
deficiency in their power to resist compression as compared
with their power to resist tension. The seven other tubes
failed by being torn asunder at the bottom through the line
of the rivet-holes, thus showing that neither the ultimate
cohesive power of the metal, nor its power to resist cpm- ,
pression, was exhausted by the weight which sufficed to
break through the parts weakened with the holes for the
rivets. These, therefore, were proofs of construction rather
than material* The series of nine experiments and their
resalta may he tabulated thus : —

CTLINURICAL TUBES.

*?? ■

a. a ffl

"^ fcc

+* ,

■35

odd

-1-^ -M 4^
-fJi -«J -iJ

^3B '
^ Xi +j 1

■r3^^

^ ^ ^

5P-i

^ o

o o o

-^-^

, O tH

o o ^

m OCj -**<■

ISP

,3*^.'=t

^ -^ D(

!>■ 00 !M

a! <D

^<M eo

1—1

«j to ^

01 O TP

1—*

1—1

^ 1— t

oj Fi

-t: s

^ 01

<D ^ 0>

rt -^ »o

, CD so

.a ' *

cp t^ C5

1 ^

O 30

t^ T-* O

^ ^ o

s:, *•

f^ ^

■^^

CO ?2 Oi

lO »Jti lO

|°:a

CO ^

W3 ^ 1-H

a; '—J CO

t3 O O

1—1

? 9^ T

(^ O 1-1

J (k

'7* ^

*^ tb

.^ r— ■ I— 1

O^ tC o

i^ lb tb

T P '?
c^ o ?a

op -^ to

kQ CS Q£i

T^ 1— i

CI c^ c^

■•^ ^ Tji

O 00

(£1 GO OO

o o o

O 1-1

CT <p T-H

O (M CO

.22 2

00 t^ ^

■^ '^ ^

^-1 1— 1 1— 1

C^ c^ c?l

a .

^ £ S

^ fr a

•a o

"-w

l-«t

_d u ^

1-*

*<^

u-sg-

J|I

T— 1

H **

^—

..^^ ^

■g

^ W

■^ «3 to

I>* QD G5

v.^>.^— ^

---^^~— '

In none of these trials are we to suppose tVv«l l\!k& ^jk^V

applied reached the ultimate powexa oi Wie TCiaXfeTva^- ^'csvo^

paring Claaaea A and B together, we Bee VXiaX, Vsv erc^wasKv**

s 2

76 CYLINBHICAr TUBES. ^^H

No. 3 a tube of nearly tlie same length and dmmeter as tliat ■
used in tlie first experiment, but with 3^ times the thlckneafi^ I
required 4J times the breaking weight, and then jnelded f
through the lower rivet-holes, while the top efifectuflJly
resisted the crnehing tendency of the weight* Whence we
may infer that the greater comparative weakness of the first
tube arose from a positive deficiency of material, by which
it was prevented from maintaining its form long before the
stmutural strength of the raetal was brought into action,

AesiiTOing that the weakness occasioned in experimeiits i
to 9, by the holea cut in the plates for the rivets, was in the
same ratio as the actual weakness of the material, we may
compare the results of these six experiments^ as if the tubes
had in all eases yielded by the destruction of the full cohesive
power due to the thickness of their plates, and we shall find
the results vary nearly in the same ratio as the conditions of
the several trials. Thus, in experiments 4 and 5, the tubes
being the same length, and of nearly equal diameter, the
thickiiesfl of the plates varying also only in a shght degree
(a3 58 to 63), the breaking w^eight was found to he preciselj
the same ; while comparing these with the tube used in the
sixth experiment, which was of the same length and similar
diameter, hut of plates about double the thickness of those
used in experiments 4 and 5, the breaking weight was found
to be also about double that in those experiments. Again, in
Class D, the tubes used being of equal length and nearly equal
diameter, the breaking weights are found to vary similarly
with the thickness of plates : in the two tubes (experiments
7 and 8) of equal thickness," "0954, or less than -5^ of an inch,
the breaking weight varied only from 1*,7G0 to 10,880 lbs,, or
about 1 1 per cent. The tube used in the ninth experiment,
being of the same length and nearly the same diameter as
those used in Noa. 7 and S, had plates of about 50 per cent*
greater thickness, and, accordingly, sustained a weight greater
m nearly the same proportion.
In ail tlie seven last experimenta we tem^TV ^^ %x5i^

itr^igth of theae tubea^ whicli, from their smaH dimcnsionaj
could Bcarcely iiave been anticipated. Thus, iu experiment
No, 3, we have a tube nearly 16 feet long and 1 foot in
diameter^ only "131, or about ^ of an inch in thickneaa,
requiring 11,440 lbs., or 5 1 tona, to break it; and the frac-
ture then occurring in a line where the greatest tensile power
wad required, and the greatest weakness produced by the
holes for the rivets. With such dimeDsions, we should have
expected a total distortion of the tube would have been pro-
duced with much leee weight. The iame may be said of the
remaining experimenta generally, but between Nob* 3 and 8,
and Nos, 3 and 9^ an interesting comparison may be dra\^Ti.
Thus, in the eighth experiment^ we have a tube double the
length of that used in the third^ and of double the dia-
meter, that ia, four times the aeetiooal area, and eight times
the capacity, formed of plates thinner in the proportion of
95 to 131, and yet requiring very nearly an equal weight
to break it, the proportion being as 18 to 19. And in
the third and ninth experimenta, we have results yet more
striking. In the latter case the tube waa of double the
length and diameter, or, aa in the 8th, four times the sec-
tional area, aud eight times the capacity, — the thickness equal
or varying only as 135 to 131,^yet the breaking weight of
the longer tube was consider ablt/ more than that of tho
ehoiter tnbe^ being in the proportion of 14,240 to 11,440 lbs.,
or G*3 to 51 tons. As both tubes yielded at length by
the weakness caused by the rivet -holes, without Buffering
previouB crushing on the top, we may euppose that neither
the power to resiat crushing, nor the cohtiEive power of thia
small quantity of material thus disposed, was eathausted even
by this great weight. Let those who did not witness the
experiments imagine a tube 31 feet in length, 2 feet In
diameter, and only -J of an inch in thickness, loaded with
G tona and 7 cwt. before it can be made to yield ; and to
form a notion of the amount of this weight, we ehoiild try
that of a single half-hundred weight by lifting it, Bind tha^

£LU?TICAL TUB]

"/^v an 4m7 A VA of diese, reunired ta s

i ^lAt ^t *> !i,nij Ami 7 cwt.

An. jxjzT ^,rjA ti exp^rimenlB were tzied «pa&

;yLr::u : .m. Tlie r<^uit0 jf chtte ire iiuwii 2& a

91k

:? -L ^•

15 - «

-■? I J --1 X. -I ^

S^ I '^ cf -c* t^ *>^

.5 i

2 S

fig?

'^ 93

« O 00 O

— « GO «

-p 'T* ;c ra

O ^ O ipi

- « -^ 10 ca

-SO •-• ea «

F^ ^ o* «

'H'O 0»0 •C2<l 00 00

•S-rCi tbca .^-^ -^w Dl^•

Ft 1-1 d I— • Cl I— • !-♦

1 *• **

CO
00

o ^

COM^ARtSOlf OF &BSULTS. 79

These experimente are gronped together in three dasees,
and numbered conBecutively from the last, the numbers
having no reference whatever to the order in which the ex-
periments were conducted.

Upon these results Mr. Fairbaim remarks, ''It will be
observed that the whole of these experiments indicated weak-
ness on the top side of Uie tube, which, in almost every case,
was greatly distorted by the force of compression acting in
that direction. It is probable that those of the cylindrical
form would have yielded in like manner^ had the riveting at
the joints bieen equally perfect on the lower side of the tube.
This was not, however, the case, and hence arise the causes
oi rupture at that part."

The results of the two experiments in Class E are somewhat
striking : the tubes were of nearly equal length, diameters,
and area ; the thickness of plates in the proportion of about
1 to 3*5, while the relative strengths were found to be as 21
to 150, or nearly 1 to 7*5. As the thinner of these tubes
yielded by being crushed on the top, it would appear that
the extreme thinness of the plates (about ^ of an inch)
caused the distortion of the tube before the virtual strength
of the metal was called into action. In Class F we have
two experiments which fairly show the value of the increased
thickness of the plates. The tubes used were of equal length,
and of similar diameter and sectional area, but of different
thicknesses ; and the increased thickness, in the proportion of
182 to 69, augmented the strength in the proportion of 171
to 73, and caused the tube to yield by extension instead of
compression. The tube used in the single experiment in
Class G was 1 foot more in length than that in No. 11, of
much less sectional area, — in the proportion of 70 to 114, —
about half the thickness of metal, and bore less than half the
weight. Although this tube had a fin on the top, it yielded
by compression, while that in the eleventh experiment was
ruptured on both sides. This result seems to favour the
supposition already suggested, that the -jieWiw^ Vj ^«ax^T<i»»-

80 BECTANOULAR TUBES.

sion is, in all cases, the result of the extreme thinness of the
material, by which distortion ensues long before the virtual
powers of the material are put in action. To take a fajniliar
illustration of this, we would compare the metal sheets thus
tried with a sheet of paper, which we all know has con-
siderable cohesive power, and, in the mass, considerable power
also to resist compression, while a single sheet instantly loses
its form by bending when slightly pressed at the edges.

The third series of experiments were made with rectan-
gular tubes, and afforded results of far greater importance
than those tried upon cylindrical and elliptical tabes. Mr.
Fairbairn immediately remarked the superiority of the rectan-
gular form for the tubes, and pointed it out as the most
promising for the Britannia Bridge in his Report of February,
1846, in these words : — ** The next experiments, and probably
the more important, were those of the rectangular kind;
they indicate a considerably increased strength when com-
pared with the cylindrical and elliptical forms ; and con-
sidering the many advantages which they possess over every
other yet experimented upon, I am inclined to think them
not only the strongest, but the best adapted (either as regards
lightness or security) for the proposed bridge." These
experiments may be arranged as follows : —

TABLB or BE8VLTS.

. o

3 ^

1 "^

•1

♦ 1

i oi|

J p<

8 '-3

1 ^

1 -1

^ -p;

•'^ s

►»

►» ►»

►»

.'S

m pq

pqp^

CO 00

C4 00

C^ Oi

t^ 00

»-i 00

rH CO

M t^

»^

00 i-i

00 '^

*« •«

00 CO

*>.

CO C<4

OQ (N

l-H

r-<

C7 d

tS'rt

OO rj<

CO eo

O) o>

f-H

1- o>

Oi t^

rH WO

rH O

O rH

rH rH

P«

WO <N

Oi a>

CO O

:§

t^ '^

^ wo

CO 00

O rH

rH O

o .-•

00 00

§^

C^ WO

Oi Oi

CO O

^-.

t^ t-

WO '^

CO OO

C^ o

O rH

O <N

-ed

;

-"T^^

• o S g

O W5

^^'B

O 00

s s §

C<l

^ Oi

^1-

O rH

O W5

CO
6i

»fO

O 1^
00 t^

o o

O Tt<

CO wo

1-*

T— • T— •

gthof
ibes

een the
ports.

CO o

Hi «ifi

00 a>

1-4 r-l

^\^

a> o

CO Tt*

CO t^

1
1

J25

1-H

i-H i-H

i-H

^ 0^

(N (N

V«-

.-J

. J

1-4

.§8

eS eS

« 00

■«-• ■**

.S .3

12 la

8S RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS.

The four experiments in Class H were with square tubes —
the remainder were performed upon tubes whose depth more
or less exceeded their width, and the strength of which varied
generally with the depth. The value of the increase of depth
is evident by comparing No. 18 with No. 20. These tubes
were of equal length, and similar width and thickness of
plates; the former having the advantage, however, in the
bottom plates, in the proportion of 75 to 59, and a very slight
inferiority in the top plates, viz. as 142 to 149. But the
tube in experiment No. 20, being nearly twice the depth of
that in No. 18, required nearly double the weight to make
it yield, the proportion being 12,188 to 7,148, or nearly as
29 to 17. The difiference in the manner of yielding must be
also remarked, as the deeper tube yielded by compression,
showing that its tensile power was not exhausted, while the
square tube gave way by extension.

The striking and highly important fact to be deduced from
these four experiments in Class H, however, is the great
accession of strength obtained by increasing the thickness
of the top plate only, the other parts remaining the same.
Thus the tube used in experiment No. 15 had its strength
more than doubled by giving an additional thickness of '197,
or about ^ of an inch, to its top plate ; and while, in its
former state, the tube yielded by compression, its power of
resistance was so much increased by the thickened top plate
that it then yielded by extension. Comparing Nos. 15 and 17
together, it is seen that no additional power was derived from
doubling the bottom plate ; the tube still yielded by compres-
sion to about the same weight. But when reversed so-that
the thickened plate was at the top, the tube being identically
the same in all respects, its strength was doubled, and yielded
at length by extension.

These results, as Mr. Stephenson has remarked, show
** that in such tubes the power of wrought iron to resist com-
pression is much less than its power to resist tension," it
having "invariably been observed," as Mr. Fairbaim states.

CONSTRUCTION, NOT MATERIAL. 83

** tbat in inmost eyerjr experiment the tubes gave evidence of
weakness in their powers of resistance, on the top side, to the
forces tending to crush them." But we are not to accept these
reealts, true as they undoubtedly are, of wrought-iron fabrics
of limited dimensions, as proofs of the ultimate strength of
wrought iron. We have already shown (page 72) that upon
the best and admitted data, the cohesive powers of cast and
wrought iron are as 8 to 27, and that their resistance to com-
pression is as 6 to 7. Now, adopting these proportions, and
the equally acknowledged fact that the cohesive power of
cast iron is to its resistance to compression as 1 to 6, or as 8
to 48, it follows indubitably that the resistance to compres-
sion exerted by malleable iron (being to that of cast iron as
7 to 6, or as 56 to 48) must, compared with its cohesive
power, be as 56 to 27 ; or, in other words, if a cubic inch of
wrought iron may be broken by extension with a force of
27 tons, it will not yield to a compressing or crushing force
of less than 56 tons.

Practically, however, the results of these experiments are
of the highest value, as bearing upon the limits of strength
of girders of wrought iron built up or constructed of plates
in the manner proposed and adopted for the tubular bridges.
In cast-iron girders, formed, as they are, solid throughout, the
ultimate strength of the material may be applied ; but in those
formed of wrought-iron plates connected with rivets, ribs, cfec,
the constructive strength of the work, rather than the absolute
strength of the material, is the point of practical importance
in the design. In these cases the term '' compression " is
scarcely properly applied ; the effect produced being really,
as described by Mr. Fairbaim, a " crippling or doubling up."
The power to resist compression thus becomes a power to
resist bending, and this is, of course, comparatively small in
thin sheets or plates even of wrought iron. In like manner,
the cohesive or tensile power is practically reduced to that of
the rivets, to withstand the strain upon them, or of the platea
at the longitudinal joints.

84 THICK TOP PLATES,

Tlie effects produced by thickening the tops of the tuWa,
and re versing them in positioii, are thus described by Mr.
Fairbairo : " With tubes of a rectangnlar ehape, having the
top iide nbout double the thickneea of the bottom, and the
sides only half the thickness of the bottom, or one -fourth
the thickness of the top, nearly double the etrength was
obtained. In experiment 15, a tube of the rectangular form^
y| inchea Bqnare, with top and bottom plates of equal thick-
ness, the breaking weight was 3738 lbs.

Riveting a stronger plat« on the top aide,
(experiment !No, IGJ, the strength wae in-
creased to ... * 8273 Iha*

The difference being 4535 lbs* ;
conaiderahly more than donhle the strength sustained by the
tube when the top and bottom sides were equal. The experi-
ments given in Nos, 17 and 18 are of the same eharactefj
where the top plate is as near as poeaihle double the thick-
ness of the bottom. In these experiments the ttibe was first
crippled hf/ doubling up the thin plate on the top side, which
was done with a weight of 3788 lbs*

It was then reversed with the thick side tip-
wards (experiment ITo, 18), and by this
change the breaking weight was inereased to 714:8 lbs.

I
I

Making a difference of 33G0 lbs.;
or an increase of nearly double the strength, by the simple
operation of reversing the tube, and turning it upside down,
'* The same degree of importance is attached to a simOar
form, when the depth m the middle is double the width of
tube. From the experiments (Kob. 19 and 20) we deduce
the same reaults in a tube where the depth is 18j, and the
breadth 9 J inches. Loading this tube v^4th 6,812 lbs, (the
thin plate beiug uppermost), it follows precisely the same law
as before, and becomes wrinkled with a hummock rising on
the top Bide, so as to render it no \o\\g(iT &a,l^ to feu%\5C\t\^*i
W* Tuke, however, the aame t\ibe, au^S. T^i^^it&fe Vv vav\J& "C^iSi

MR. fairbairm's remarks* 85

thick plate upwards, and you not only straigbten the part
previouBly injured, but yon increase the resisting powers from
6,812 lbs. to 12,181 Ihs. Let us now examine the tube in the
24th experimeiit, ivhere the top is composed of corrugated
iTon, forming two tubular cavities extending longitudinally
iilung its upper side. This, it will be observed, presents the
best form for reaisting the *' pucI&eTingp qt cruahing forcCj
which J ore almosi everg occasion, icas present in the preidous
txjiertments. Having loaded the tube with increasing weights,
it ultimately gave way by tearing the sides from the top and

tbottona plates, at nearly one and the same instant after the
last weight, 22,469 lbs., was laid on. The greatly increased
strength indicated by this form of tube is highly satisfactory ;
and provided these facts be duly appreciated in the con-
Btrnction of the bridge, Ihey wiU, I have no doubt, lead
to the balftQce of the two resisting forces of tension and
compression.*

P" The results here obtained arc so essential to this inquiry,
and to our knowledge of the strength of materials in general,
that I have deemed it essential, in this abridged statement, to
direct attention to facts of immense valne in the proper and
judicioua application^ as well aa distribution, of the material
in the proposed structure. Strength and lightness are desi-
derata of great importance, and the ci re am stances above
etated are well worthy the attention of the mathematician and
engineer.

** For the present we shall have to consider not only the
due and perfect proportion of the top and bottom sides of the
tabe, but also the stiffening of the sides with those parts, in
order to effect the required rigidity for retaining the whole in
fihape* These are considerations which require attention ; and
till further experiments are made^ and probably some of them
upon a larger scale, it would bo hazardous to pronounce any-

* Theso exiieriments on tobe^ with fins on iV\B Vi^».t\i.'«>Wtv^'t^KSPoa.*
^t&f topt fjii^t leii Mr. Fairbaim to propofitt iha ceUwiax d^^^Jf&J^^^wsvv^V^iaf{4
inaUirml on tha topa q( tb« gieai tubti^.

86 RESULTS OF BXPBBIHBNTS.

thing definite as to the ]H*oportion of the parts, and the equali-
sation of the forces tending to the derangement of the strnc-
tore. So far as onr knowledge extends, — and jndging from
the experiments already ccmipleted, — I would yentnre to state
that a tnhular hridge can he constructed, of such powers and
dimensions as will meet, with perfect security, the require-
ments of railway traffic across the straits/' — ''and although
suspension chains may he useful in the construction in the
first instance, they would neyertheless he highly improper to
depend upon as the principal support of the hridge. Under
every circumstance, I am of opinion that the tuhes should he
made sufficiently strong to sustain not only their own weight,
hut, in addition to that load, 2000 tons, equally distributed
over the surface of the platform, — a load ten times greater
than they will ever be called upon to support. In fact, it
should be a huge^ sheet-iron^ hollow girder, of sufficient
strength and stififness to sustain those weights ; and provided
the parts are well-proportioned, and the plates properly riyeted,
you may strip ofif the chains, and leave it as a useful monu-
ment of the enterprise and energy of the age in which it was
constructed."

It would thus appear, that at that early period Mr. Fair-
bairn had already determined that the proposed auxiliary
chains should be dispensed with.

In the following Table the results of some of the experi-
ments upon each of the three forms of tubes, viz. cylindrical,
elliptical, and rectangular, are selected from the preceding
Tables, and arranged in corresponding columns, for the pur-
pose of showing the proportion between the transverse sec-
tional area, the quantity of metal or material, and the break-
ing weight of each tube. The tubes are selected on account
of their similarity of length ; those tried in experiments 1, 2,
and 10, being each 17 feet in length, and the remainder 17
feet 6 inches. The relative quantity of metal ia obtained by
simply multiplying the perimeter of each sectional area by the
thickneas ofplatea used, both in inches and decwxiftX ^«i.TVA.

OKNEKAI. COMPARISON.

«M -4

1^1

ua'^t*

o o>

C^ F-<

l-H

O CO 00 00

CO t^ o o

1-J 1-1 f-H C<

CO o^

s =

o o

30 CO 00 00
CO t^ 00 T»<

^^^•^

00 00 CO t^

(M 00

1-1 00

00 r-*

r-4 00

1^ »b

00 ^-. CM e<i

00 ^^ »o »o

1-1 T-H

. (N CO

H I— « 1-H

CO '^
O i-»

00
CO

O 00
O f-1

tH tH 1-H r-i

C<l ^o o »o
^ cq o X;*

TjH 6i »0 6i

40
<M

»o CO t^ 00

lis.

05 O
1-1 <M

(D •

&>!

Mr. Fairbairn's experiments were thus reduced by Mr.
Hodgkinson : —

Cylindrical Tubes, — The strength of a cylindrical tube
supported at the ends, and loaded in the middle, is expressed
by the formula

a i

88 REDUCTION OF EXPERIMENTS.

where I is the distance between the supports, a a the externa!
and internal radii, to the breaking weight,/ the strain upon a
unity of section as a square inch at the top and bottom of
the tube in consequence of the weight «?, tt = 3*14:159.
From this formula we obtain

^ iff I a

^ Mean 29887 lbs. = 13*34 tons.

As it will be convenient to know the strain / per square
inch which the metal at the top and bottom of the tube is
bearing when rupture takes place, this value will be obtained
from each of Mr. Fairbaim's experiments ; the value w being
made to include, besides the weight laid on at the time of
fracture, the pressure from the weight of the tube between
the supports, this last being equal to half that weight. Com-
puting the results, we have, from

Expeiiment 1. / = 33426

2. / = 33456

3. / = 35462

4. / = 32415
6. / = 30078

6. / = 33869

7. / = 22628

8. / = 25095

9. / = 22666J

Fracture in all cases took place either by the tube failing
at the top, or tearing across at the rivet holes : this happened
on the average, as appears from above, when the metai was
strained 13^ tons per square inch, or little more than half its
full tensile strength.

Elliptical Tubes, — The value of / in an elliptical tube
broken as before (the transverse axis being vertical), is ex-
pressed by the formula

^ iff I a

•^ "~ IT (6 a^— 6' a' 3/

where a a are the semi-transvexae . exieTiial and internal
dlametera, b b' the semi -conjugate exteTusX. wA \\i\et:iMJ5L

REDUCTION OF EXPERIMENTS. 89

diametera, and tlie rest as before, ro incItiJing in all cases the
preifiure from the weight of the beam. Computing the
resnltfl from Mr, Fairbairn's experiments, we have, from

E^peritnent 13, / = 56938 J

„ 12. / == 2D144 } Mean 37089 lU. = 1C'5D tons.

17. / = i&im \

H Eeclangalar Tubei. — If in a rectangular tube employed
ms a beam, the thickw^sa of the top and bottom be equal, and
the sides are of auy thickness at pleasure, then we have

I. ...

L which d d' are tEe external and later a al depths respectively,
' b' the external and internal breadths, and the rest as before.
[r. Eairbairn*s experiment No, 15 gives by redaction

/ == 184SJ5 lbs, = 8'2G66 tons.

This is, however, much below the Talne which some of my
ow^n experiments give, as will be seen fnrtlier on.

• The value of /, which represents the etraia upon the top
or bottom of the tube when it gives way^ is the quantity per
square inch which the material will bear either before it

I becomes crushed at the top side, or torn asunder at the
bottom. But thin sheets of iron take a coTtugated form with
a much less presfiure than would be required to tear them
asunder ; and therefore the value of /, as obtained from the
preceding experiments, is generally the resistance of the
material to crusbiag, and would have been so in every in-
Btance if the plates on the bottom side (subject to tension)
bad not been rendered weaker by riveting. The experiments
made by myself were directed principally to two objucts : —
H 1. To ascertain how far this value of/ would be affected
^ by changing the thickness of the metal, the other dimension a
of the tube being the same.

2. To ohtain the strength of tabes, pteeisely similar to
other tubes fixed on^^but propOTtiansAfiV'^ V^ xXiasv "^^
^fc/efizoer in rII their dimenslona, aa \eugl\i,\yt«^^Oa^^fe'^^v"*^SL^

REDUCTION OP EXPERIMENTS.

thickness, — in order to enaUe tis to reason as to strength
from one size to another, with more certainty than hitherto.

{25
O

O rj g
^1

o 9 ®

J 6i Tt< l>

CO O

-^ CO

-»5 »0

»0 00

05 CO

BJ CO CO
g CO 6

CO t>.

Tj< CO

"^ o
CO CO

. W 00 o

g o »C) e^

"^ CO 1^ fH

CO c^

CO CO

WD O

90 CO

. »0 C4 r»«

ri c^ t^ c^

CO CO CO ^

T*< T*< O
5 Tt< (M »H

fcq CO 1-H
O 1-H 1—1

j-5 00 00
P5^^ CO

OB ^ O

III

d o o o

5 o o o

> CO CO co

QD CO CO a> a>

t^ t*«. t*«. CO 00

a* CO CO CO
»«H rH 1-H

<M (M M

CO CO CO

,g CO CO CO

^ CO CO CO

M d d

CO CO cid

EEDUCTTOK OF EXPERIMENTS. 91

Another ohje ct, not far piireaed, was to seek for the proper
proportion of metal in the top and bottom of tlie tube.
Muck more ie required in this direction. In the three series
of ejcperimeiits made, the tubes were rectan^ulart and the
dimensioBB and other yaluea are given in the preceding page,

" The tube placed first in each series is intended to he
proportional in every leading dimension^ as distance between
anppoi-ts, breadth, depth, and thicknese of metal, — and any
variations are allowed for in the compntation* Thne the
three first tubes of each series are intended to he simitar, and
in the same manner of the other tubea, &c.

"Looking at the breaking weight of the tubes varying
only in thickness, we find a great falling off in the etrength
of the thinner onea ; and the values of / show that in these —
the thickness of the plates being '525, '272^ '121: inch — the
resistance, per square inch, w*ill be 1917j 14:47, and 7*74
tuns respectively* The breaking weights here employed do
not include the pressure from the weight of the beam,

*i ijiij^ value of / ie usually constant in questions on the
Btrength of bodies of the same nature, and represents the
tensile strength of the material ; but it appears from these
experiments that it is variable in tubes, and represents their
power tu resist crippling. It depends upon the thickness of
the matter in the tubes when the depth or diameter is the
same ; or upon the thickness divided by the depth when that
varies. The determination of the v^alue of /, which can
only be obtained by experiments, forme the chief ohstacle to
obtaining a formula for the strength of tubes of every form,

" In the lost Tabic of experiments the tubes were devised
to lessen or avoid the anomaliea which riveting introduces, in
order to tender the properties sought for more obviousp
Hence the results are somewhat higher than those which
would be obtained by riveting as generally applied,
[ " The tube 31 feet 6 inches long, 24 cw*ts, 1 qr. weight, and
•272 inch In thicknesa of plates^ was "brok^i^ \i^ ^t^'^wvs^ -aS.
£iie top with 22-75 tuns, Thla tulic Nvaa alt^-t^^ti^ x^-^^^^^

y;S THl BMTAWHTA BBrHQE.

itratglit, and had ita weak top replaced by one of a giTen
thickness, which I had obtained from computittion ; and tlie
result waa^ that by a small addition of metal, applied in ita
proper proportion to the weakest part, the tube was iiicrenaed
in strength from 23*75 tons to 32 '53 tons; and the top and
the bottom gave way together/*

For the details of these and the Bubsequent experiment*^
which are too extended to be introduced in this place, we
mtist refer to the elaborate work of Mr, Pair bairn upon the
'* Conway and Britannia Tubular Bridges/' where they ara
given with a mass of highly interesting correspondence, in

^ which the entire history of the proceedings is narrated, and
reductions of the experiments furnished.
Da
i

SECTION VII.

DflHcription of the BfiirANifiA BmuoK^The Mafloniy— Britannia Tower
Arjglesea and Canjai-von Towera and Abutmenta — Arnvng^meiiti
for oDJistmctiijg the Tube* — Mam Tubes and Land Tulies — Description
of their ConBtriiction — SuaRblding and Staging — AiTangeinenta for
fl'jattng tliG Tubea-^tbe t*on toons — Raising the Main TubtM — The
Hydmulic PreflB^Coauecting the Tubts in the Towers — The CkufWAT

Having in the preceding section given an abstract of the
preUminary experiments upon wrought -iron tubes, we have
now to describe the structures erected over the Oonway River
and the Menai Straits, and to show the admirable manner in
which the material has been disposed to obtain the neeeasary
atreiigth for rigidity for bridges of such vast extent, designed
to sustain the heavy weight and momentum of railway trains.

Of these bridges, that over the Conway was the first con-
structed, and was in ita elf an instance of triumphant success
in design and execution ^ but as the Britannia Bridge far
Bur passes it in dimensions^ and embraces similar works upon

\ axiended Bcale^ besides other& not tequuei m liXi^ Cii^wwwj

TO wens AND ABUTMENTS, 93

Bndg«, it will be advieable to devote our detailecl Tiotiee to
tlie former Btructiira, and thea poiBt out the difiFerencea
^^between it and the Bmalkr one.

^H The shores of the Menai Straits, opposite the Britannia
^HDcky and at the point w}iic1i Mr* Stephenson, selected for hie^
^^ynsBagej are somewhat different in their character and outline.
Ou the Carnarvon side the shore rises abruptly from the
water's edge, and shelves upward with a gentle inclination, sti
that a horizontal line which passes at an elevation of 100 feet
over the water is, when extended abont 400 feet inland from
^_ the water-line, only a few feet above the natural surfaee of
^vfche grounds Ou the Anglesea aide the rocky surface extends
" for a considerable dietauce, and at a length of about 2S0 feet
from the water-line the surface is from 80 to 90 feet below
auch a boTinontal line as that Just deaeribed. The conse-
quence is, that the embankment required to continue the
railway from the Angleeea end of the bridge ia much higher,
and more extendedj tban that needed at the Carnarvon end
^ of the bridge.

H The Britannia rock, which rises from the bed of the strait,

~ near the middle of its width, is at high water covered to a

^^. depth of 10 feet, and at anil a at low water about 10 feet above

^Kltj the tide commonly rising 20 feet. On this rock a noble

I tower of masonry is erected, and at the clear distance of 4G0

feet from it, at the limit of the water-way, another tower ia

built on either side of it. At the distance of 230 feet from

eaeli of these towers, a contimious abutment of masonry,

176 feet in length, ia erected, and the further extremities of

these abutraeuta constttute the two ends of the bridge^ The

I masonry of the edifice thus consists of —
The Tiie The The Tho

Anglesija AiJglueea BnrrAKSiA Cajnarvoa Caruar\*on
Almiment, Towt?r, Tow«;a. Tower* Abutment.

The sides of these tive stupendous maaaes of m^aaoTL^y ai:a
t&pered or formeii with a straight ba.UftT,\i^ vfl\i\Oa. ^<& «iaa
of the upper parts is redaced, and greater ^mi^ii^^*'^ ^xn^-^ Vi

94 BBITANNTA. TOWER.

the mass, widi a correeponding boldness in the character ^
the de«iga. The^e works are of the following general dim^ jci

siODB.

Britannia Tower-^^2 {t%i by 52 feet 5 inches at the bifcs^,
and reduced by the hatter to 55 feet by 45 feet 5 inches a,t
the height of 1 32 feet above high-water line, at which le^e/
the tabes pass throngh it. A plinth extends round the bas^
of this and the other towers ; and the height of this tower
above high-water level is 200 feety or nearly 230 feet from
the bottom of the foundation on the rock. The stone used
for the external parts of this, and the other towers and abut-
ments, is a limestone of hard and durable quality, known as
" Anglesea marble." It is quarried at Penmaen, on the shore
and near the north-eastern extremity of the island, and ia
" got*' in stones of great size, some of them weighing 10 to
14 tons. The interior of this and the other masonry is con-
structed of red sandstone, which is a soft stone, and therefore
. readily worked. It is quarried at Runcorn, in Cheshire, and
is durable for inside work. The solid contents of this tower,
if solid, would exceed 575,000 cubic feet, but it is constructed
with hollow spaces or chambers within it, and the quantity of
stone said to be actually used in it is 148,625 cubic feet of the
limestone, and 144,625 cubic feet of the sandstone. The
total weight of the masonry in this tower is about 20,000 tons,
and about 387 tons of cast iron in beams and girders are built
in it. The two views in Fig. 19 will give a good idea of its*
general proportions and appearance — the first of them being
an elevation transverse to the direction of the railway, and
showing the openings for the two tubes, while the other shows
the elevation on the face of the bridge, with a portion of the
tube projecting on each side.

The foundations were laid, and the work up to the level of

high-water was constructed, during the intervals of the tide,

no coffer-dam being employed, and thus some months were

occupied in laying the first course, w\i\ci\i -ww^ <^o\mxi&tLced ia

Majr, 1846. The scaffolding \:Lsed £ot i\i\a wi^ ^<^ ^^<st

ANGLESEA AND CARNARVON TOWERS.

Fig. 19.

parts of the work wa» of whole timbers or balks, put together
with iron straps and bolts where required, and braced with
diagonal half-balks connecting the apright posts. Parallel
timbers were laid horizontaUy on the tops of the posts, and
rails fixed upon them ; and upon these rails, travelling crabs
or " jennies ** were enabled to pass in both directions to pick
up the stones from the ships, raise them to the required
height, and deposit them exactly in their intended places.
The stones in the whole of the masonry are left with the
quarry or rough face, except at the angles, where they are
dressed to a square arris, and in the recesses and top entabla-
ture, where they are dressed to a fair face all over.

Anglesea and Carnarvon Towers, — The same dimensions
at the base as the Britannia tower, viz. — 62 feet by 52 feet 5
inches, reduced by the batter to 55 feet by 32 feet at the level
of the bottom of the tubes ; height from level of high water
190 feet, or 10 feet less than the Brita\wA«^ \«^«t. \\^«<S«s^
tecturdl design and general appeavau^i^ VSti^^ V«^«^^ <s*»r5^'

94 BRITANNIA. TOWER,

the maaa, witli a correapondiag boldness in the character of
the deaign. Them works are of the following general dinieu-

Rrtiannta Tower— Ci2 feet by ^2 feet 5 inches at the baie,
and reduced hy the batter to S5 feet by 45 feet 5 inches at
the height of 132 feet above bigh -water line, at which level
the tubes pass throng]i it* A plinth extends round the base
of this and the other towers ; and the height of thie tower
above high* water level is 200 feet, or nearly 230 feet from
the bottom of the foundation on the rock. The stone nsed
for tke external parts of this, and the other towera nud abut-
ments, ie a limetitone of hard aiid durable quality, known ae
"2\ng]eflea marble/* It la quarried at Penmaen, on. the ahora
and near the north -eastern extremity of the island^ and is
"got*' ill stones of great size, some of them weighing 10 to
14 tons. The interior of this and the other masonry is con-
Btructed of red sandstone, which is a soft stone, and therefore
readily worked. It is quarried at Runcorn, in Cheshire, and
is durable for inside work» The solid contents of this tower,
if solid, would exceed 575,000 cubic feet, hut it is constructed
with hollow spaces or chambers within it, and the quantity of
atone said to be actually need in it is 148,625 cubic feet of the
limestone, and 144,625 cubic feet of the sandstone* The
total weight of the masonry in this tower is about 20,000 tons,
and about 387 tons of east iron in beams and girders are built
in it. The two views in Fig. 19 will give a good idea of iu
general proportions and appearance — the first of them being
an elevation transversa to the direction of the railway, and
showing the openings for the two tubes, while the other shows
the elevation on the face of the bridge, with a portion of the
tube projecting on each aide.

The foundations were laid, and the work up to the level of

high-w^ater was constrneted, during the intervala of the tide,

no cciffer-dara being employed, and thus some months were

occupied in laying the first course, which was commenced in

Msf^ 1846^ The scaffolding used fox ttna wai %ft ^^v^

Ik i

ANGLESEA AND CARNARVON TOWERS. 95

parts of tlie work was of whole timbers or balks, put together
with iron straps and bolts where required, and braced with
diagonal half-balks connecting the apright posts. Parallel
timbers were laid horizontally on the tops of the posts, and
rails fixed upon them ; and upon these rails, travelling crabs
or " jennies ** were enabled to pass in both directions to pick
up the stones from the ships, raise them to the required
height, and deposit them exactly in their intended places.
The stones in the whole of the masonry are left with the
quarry or rough face, except at the angles, where they are
dressed to a square arris, and in the recesses and top entabla-
ture, where they are dressed to a fair face all over.

Anglesea and Carnarvon Towers. — The same dimensions
at the base as the Britannia tower, viz. — 62 feet by 52 feet 5
inches, reduced by the batter to 55 feet by 32 feet at the level
of the bottom of the tubes ; height from level of high water
190 feet, or 10 feet less than the Britannia tower. I\i. wtokv-
tectui'di deaiga and general appeavauci^i ^^^ \ft^^t^ ^-lasi^

SCAPPOLDINO.

STAGING AND PLATFORMS.

platfonn. The upright posts are connected at intervals with
horizontal beams of similar dimensions, from 12 to 15 inches
sqaare, and strengthened with inclined stmts, besides diagonal

Fig. 21.

braces and longitudinal ties of half-timber. Longitudinal
sills are laid on the posts with cross beams, and upon these
strong planking is lai«l, forming a continuous platform upon
which transverse balks are arranged, and carefully adjusted
as the bearings upon which the foundation plates of the tubes
are laid out, and the whole of the work erected.

Staging and Plafformt for huilding the Main Tuhes,
Workshopi, dfc, — The site selected for the construction of the
four main tubes, each of which is 472 feet m\exv^V>[v,\>^vDi^ wv
allowance of 6 feet at each end beyond l\vfe Tve\. ^v^"^ ^^ ^^^
feet, vraa on the margin of the slaoTe oTit\ieC»XTL«tNQ\^«Aft>

100

WORKSHOPS, ETC.

tvtrl

BM,

and to the south of the bridge. An
intennediate space was occupied with
offices and workshops; and on the
higher part of the ground, wooden
cottages, for about 500 workmen, were
built In order that the building of
the four tubes might proceed simul-
taneously, a series of four strong
stages were erected upon piles, and
a continuous platform laid from end
to end of the site. The staging was
also extended inland, so as to provide
space for several workshops, steam
engine, stores for cordage, &c. <fec.

In these workshops, machinery for
punching and shearing the plates, and
preparing the several parts of the
tubes, was erected, besides vices,
lathes, &c, &c., and all necessary
tools provided for the workmen.
Fig. 22 will convey an idea of the
kind of staging and platform for each
of the large tubes, consisting of tim-
ber-posts and struts, with top stringers
and beams, and covered with stout
planking. At each end a pier of
masonry was built, extending under
each end of the tube for a length of 6
feet. When each tube is completed,
the platform is removed, and the tnhe
is entirely supported upon these end
piers, by which means the deflection
of the tube, caused by its own weight,
can be immediately ascertained, and
its vanatioii ^\^ »''K^^> from day to
day, noted. ^w«XV^\ ^VCti ^<^^^

^t^.

THR TUBES.

t)f eacli tube, and just outtida its boundaries, two lines of
rails are laid, upon whicli a traversing- stage is moved witb
wninhes. This stage is sufficiently wide and liigh in tlie
transverse opening to stride the tubci and along the top of it
a litde crab, moving upon wheels^ may be made to traverse
the width of the work, and thus applied to raise the plates
mid materials in every part of it. Similar stages and gearing
& e also used in htiilding tke land tube a, and portable furnaces
company the men employed in Tiveting, as the building of
Se tubes progresaca.

The Tuhe^f — iheir dvmennons and con^fTUction, — ^The fon?
separate tubes, which make up each line of way th rough thd
bridge, will be, when the work is completed^ united together ;
6u that instead of eight separate tubes, there will then he only
two parallel tubes, each of the length of 1^513 feet, or about
|t])s of a mile. For this purpose short lengths of tube are
constructed within the towers^ and the ultimate union of these
with the main lengths will make up each complete and con-
tinuous tnhe of the length here stated. The portions of tube
which will eventually occupy the Anglesea and Carnarvoa
towers are constructed on the scaffolding at either end, and
after the main tubes are raised to tlievr places these portio»a
are launched forward to meet them, and properly connected
together. The spaces thns left vacant between the portions
thus advanced and the land tubee^ are then filled np by
building intermediate portions of tubing, and the whole con-
nected together. To provide for the changes iu length of
these extended lengths of iron-work, produced by variations of
temperature,* each tube is fixed in the middle of its length,
that is, in the centre of the Britannia tower, but left perfectly
free to contract or expand in its total length, by being simply
fiiipported upon rollers of cast iron, where it passes through

^11 appears fram the experfmenis of the lat« PtofEsmr Dan i ell, ai
reported iu the " i'biloapphical TransadkinB " for ISSVA^''^^^'^^'^^*^^^'^'^'^
76" Fjihr, pfiodticf^s a change in a bar of TOStlWdliV& won ^'laX \o ^i^^:^^
offts length.

103

TUB TUBES,

eanh of the towera and aliutments Wiih tlie orJinflry range
of the thermometer^ the change of length thus produced will
probably etiual 1 2 inchea, representing a move men t of 6 inehea ■
in each half of the tube. The transverse sectional form of the
tube is rectangular throughout, and its sides are perfectly
parallel, that is, its width is uniform from end to end, but the
height IB slightly varied. The height eJt tern ally ii 3iJ feet at
the centre in the Britannia tower, reduced to 22 feet 'J indie a
at the extremitieB in the abutments^ the bottom line being

horizontal, but the top

Fig. 23.

line forming a parabolio
cT^rve, the rise of which
thusequala thediJTBrence
in height, or 7 feet 3
inchea. The clear height
inside ia reduced by the
const ruction, as will bo
presenlly described, to
2G feet at the centre, and
18 feet 9 inches at the
ends. The width exter-
nally is 14 feet 8 inches,
reduced by the construc-
tion to 14 feet mfiide the
plates, and from tliiB
width another deduction
ia made by the ribs of
7 inches, leaving a clear
width of 13 feet 5 iuchea
for the railway inside.

Fig. 23, which repre-

seDts a cross section of

one of the tubes, shows

the general form of their

<?oustruo^on. The covering of the tabes consists of malleable-

/rou pliiies cmmccted tu^e tlior by nviit& \Nil\\ Tftja <i^ T v^vid

THB PLATES OF THE TUBES. 103

L iron, beudes strips of flat bar iron over the joints. The
top and bottom portions of the tubes are strengthened with
internal longitudinal tubes or cells, of which there are eight
in the upper part, and six in the lower. The greater number
of these cells, and correspondingly increased quantity of
metal in the top of the tube, gives greater stiffness and power
to resist the crippling or bending, which the experiments
showed the weight has a tendency to produce.

The plates are of various dimensions and thicknesses.
Those forming the sides are reduced in thickness from the
ends towards the middle of the tube, and those forming the
top and bottom are increased in the same direction according
to a scale carefully worked out for the several successive
portions of the length of the tube.* The side plates are
alternately 6 feet 6 inches and 8 feet 8 inches long, and all
2 feet wide. They are arranged vertically, so that the joints
occur at every 2 feet ; they are J inch thick in the middle of
the length of the tube, and f inch thick at the ends. The
top plates are all 6 feet in length, 1 foot 9 inches in width,
and in thickness varying from f inch at the ends of the tube
to i inch in the middle. The bottom plates are of much
larger dimensions, being 12 feet long, and 2 feet 4 inches
wide ; they are laid in two layers, and the plates in each are
-^g inch thick at the ends of the tube, and ^^ inch thick in
the middle of the main tubes. The difference in width of the
top and bottom plates is occasioned by the difference in the
number of cells in the top and bottom of the tube, 1 foot 9
inches being the width of each of the eight top cells, and 2 feet
4 inches the width of each of the six bottom cells. All the
joints of the plates are *' but-joints,** that is, they meet each
other at the edges, without overlapping. The horizontal
joints at the ends of the plates are covered with plates of iron

♦ For the particulars of this scale we must tcfw to Mx.¥^\\\».vc\\%
work already mentioned, " Conwav and Bvilauuva Tu\)u\ax ^tv^^^fc^ '^'S
Wnt, Fairburn, C.E. Weale, Ittio.

104

61DE9 AND TOP OF l^tTBISS*

on both eiilea, and firmly riveted through them, an^

mode of joining and atrengtliening i& adopted throughoi

Fig. 21 sliuWH a side elevation of part of the tube ani

Kg.

24,

-.-. -^-

•■'■i^^=i:;i ! ^

■H

: i

: ?

* \

■■- '..■ ,

; '(

; 1

•1

T
1

-— 4-

■ !■::■'

1 1

: 1

^ i

; :

. \

! }

>r5!

: :

\ j

; J

THT:

': •

'. '

;'.

: i

; i!

[ ^^~

1 ■

■

ll_ ;

i^-^

arrangement of tlie platee, with the covering platea ove
end or horizontal joints of the Bide platea, and the
covering plates over the joints of the npper and lower ]
forming the Hides of the cells.

Fig* 25 Bhowa a plan of part of the top of the tube
i^0 joints in the pl&teB alternatmg v*ii\i *iAf^ o^thwix

FRAMES OF TUBES.

106

strengthened with covering plates. The joints in the longi-
tudinal joint plates are
similarly strengthened
^th plates.

The internal verti-
cal/romc« npon which
the plates are fixed
are chiefly of T-iron.
These ribs are bent
St right angles at the
ends, and extend for
&bout 2 feet along the
top and bottom plates
of the principal com-
partments of the tube.
The plates forming
fte sides of the tnbe
Haeet with a "but-
joint" over the centre of the rib, and a similar rib being placed
outside in reversed position, the whole are firmly riveted
together. At those parts of the tube which pass through the
towers, its extreme width is reduced by substituting flat bar
iron for the outside T-iron ribs. The vertical joints of the
main tubes are strengthened for about 60 feet at each of the
ends by a strong plate 9 inches wide, which passes at right
angles between the edges of the plates, and the connection of
the plates is effected by rivets through four ribs of L-iron,
fitted into the angles. Every sixth rib throughout the entire
length is strengthened with an additional plate, inside, meet-
ing the edge of the T-iron rib, and firmly connected by means
of rivets and side plates, or flitches. Figs. 26 to 30 show the
sections of rib -iron employed, and the several modes of
forming the frames.

Y 3

106

FRAMES OF TUBES.

Fig. 26 represents the sectioDs of T-iron and L-iron used
for the ribs. The former, t, is 5 inches wide over the table,

and 3| inches deep; the latter, l, is 3^ inches wide each
way.

Fig. 27 shows the kind of joint used in connecting the side
plates within the towers ; s s are the side plates of the tube,
p is the outside covering plate ; and t, the inside rib of T-irou.

Fig. 28 shows the ordinary framing of the ribs and side

plates ; s s are the side plates of the tube ; o r, the outside,
and I R, the inside ribs of T-iron.

Fig. 29 represents the framing of 30 of the vertical joints

at each end of the main tubes, showing the central plate,

against which the ends of the side plates are fitted, "with the

foitr L'iron ribs in the angles, the Yf\io\e of 'wKlch are firmly

riveted together.

FRAMES^ GUSSETS^ AND CELLS.

107

Fig. 30 shows the framing adopted

at every sixth of the vertical ribs, or

every 12 feet distance throughout the

main tubes ; s s are the side plates of

the tube; t, the outside rib of T-iron ; _
^ s

A A, the flitches of plate iron ; and b,
the filling -in plate, riveted between
them.

Fig. 31 is a perspective sketch of
a part of one of the ordinary vertical
j(jints, showing a portion of two side
plates, meeting at the centre of the
inside and outside ribs. This figure
also shows the manner in which the
joints of the T-iron ribs are strength-
ened with side pieces of L-iron, and
riveted through them.

The angles of the principal com-
partmeTit of each tube are strength-
ened with triangular plates of iron,
technically called ** gussets,** riveted
through the ribs of T-iron, and shown
in Fig. 23. The gussets at every sixth
rib are of larger dimensions, being
about 5 feet in height and 1 foot 9
inches in width.

The Cells are formed with vertical
partitions of plate iron connected at
the angles with the upper and lower
plates by horizontal ribs of L-iron,
fitted to the angles, and firmly riveted.
The L-iron used for this purpose in
the top cells weighs 45 lbs. per yard,
and that in the bottom cells 27 lbs.
per yard. The top and bottom edgea
of the Bide plates of the tube arc in

like mannGt riveted to the horizontal jilates, forming tlie cella
tlirougli riba of L-iron in the angles-

The rails for the railway are eupported in chairs upon
continnaus longitudinal timbera/ which are etipported upon
pieces of L-iron, reversed so as to form brackets, and riveted
throngh plates of iron 9 inches wide. Bet on edge, and fixed
across the tube at intervals, and secured to the vertical T-iron
ribs, and the plates forming the top of the lower cells,

Rivetiuff.—ThQ rivets are a full inch in diameter, and
arranged in rows. The spaces he t ween the centres of the
rivets are 3 inches in the vertical joints, and 4 inches iJi the
horizontal joints. The rivets are heated in portable farnaees,
which are moved from place to place as the work proceeds ;
from these furnaces they are taken up ^vith tongs and placed
in the holes punched for them, and the ends firmly clenched
or riveted before cooling, with heavy hammers. The rivet-
head thus formed is then finished by hammering a steel cup-
shaped tool upon it, and the contraction of the length of the
rivet in cooling draws the plates closely together with a con-
siderable force. The number of rivets is said to be 327,000
in each of the main tubes, and about 2,000,000 in the entire
bridge. A very beautiful machine, upon the prin^ciple of the
Jacqnard loom, was invented by Mr, Boberts, for the purpose
of punching the holes in the plates. By this machine^ which
IS nearly se! reacting, the preeiee distances and intended posi-
tions for the holes are very truly observ^ed, and the deaign
displays a most skilful arrangement of parts, being in this
respect similar to many other contrivances which have
emanated from the same clever machinist.*

It is almost needless to observe that iu the preparation of
the plates, and execution of the whole work, judicious means
and practical contrivances have been adopted in facilitating
the construction, and rendering it uniform and correct in all
iU details. Thus, templates were prepared for the pktes and

* An elaltomte and well IHuRtrated actouni o^ iVv* TnasM-ofc Tria. \mi
J^w/W ia th& " Civil KiigiuQtii and Aruhltt^il^ii Jounwi" 1qi Vi^^

BEARTNG-ROLLERS^ ETC.

109

ribfi, Ac, and all the holes frnly marked with nnerring preci-
sion and certainty, so that all the parts, when presented to
their intended positions, should be found to "fit." Large
portions of the plating for the tubes were thus put together
partially on the platform, and being raised to their places
with the stages and tackling described, were speedily fixed
in their trne positions, and required the straightfoi*ward work
of riveting only to complete their connections.

Bearing Rollers and Frames, Bed-plates, dhc. — The tubes,
in passing through the towers and abutments, are, as we have
described, supported upon rollers. These rollers, with the
frames in which their axes revolve, and the cast-iron plates
between which they work, are shown in Figs. 32 and 33.

Fig. 32 is a plan of
one set of rollers with
their frame. One of
these frames is placed
under each side of each
end of each tube, so
that thirty-two sets of
rollers and frames are
employed altogether.
Each set comprises
twenty-two rollers, ar-
ranged in two parallel
rows, and 6 inches dia-
meter, turned over the
surface and formed with
axes projecting at the
ends. These axes re-
volve freely in holes
drilled in a parallel
frame of wrought iron,
formed in pieces bolted
together, aa shown in
the Sgure, and the

Fig. 82.

Y\g. ^a.

110 CAST-IRON FRAMES^ ETC.

depth of which is less than the diameter of the rollers, so that
it is perfectly free from the cast-iron plates with which the
rollers are in contact

Fig. 33 shows a front view of the cast-iron plates and of
the intermediate rollers and frame. In these figures, a a is
the wroaght-iron frame' for the cast-iron rollers ; b, a bed of
wood for the nnder roller-plate of cast-iron, c ; and d is the
upper roller -plate on which the tube simply stands, and is,
therefore, free to move according to the contraction or expan-
sion which it undergoes. The dimensions of these plates and
frames are varied, being somewhat less towards the ends of
the tubes than in the middle.

The ends of the tubes are also supported by an apparatus
of cast-iron girders and gun -metal balls, which are thus ap-
plied : longitudinal girders are fixed upon the projecting ends
of cross girders built in the walls of the towers j these lon-
gitudinal girders are formed with a groove or channel in the
upper surface, and in these grooves the gun -metal spheres,
6 inches in diameter, are free to move. Similar girders are
placed over these, having a corresponding groove on their
under side, and thus free to move over the spheres. Upon
these upper girders, transverse girders are fixed, which pass
over the tube and are fixed to it with strong bolts, 3 inches
in diameter, which stand up vertically above the tube, bolted
to its side, and, passing through holes cast in the transverse
girders, are secured to them with screwed nuts. These girders
and balls are shown in Figs. 40 and 41, and will be further
referred to in the subsequent description of those figures.

Cast-iron Frames, Girders, dec. — The ends of the tubes in
the towers are stiffened with cast-iron frames of considerable
dimensions. These frames, which are composed of horizontal
and vertical girders, strongly bolted together and notched
into each other at the joints, are represented in Figs. 38 and
39, which will be hereafter referred to. Three of these frames,
or sets of girders, are built in at eack eud o^ e».cL\v\.\33o^,\id\i^
placed in the spaces between the T-ixoivT\\>a, ax^^^o^^^^ot-

WEIGHT OF TUBES,

111

tioBfl of the tube which paas through the towers have these
eaet-iron frames throughout th^m.

Under each end of each of the four main tubes, tliree cast-
iron girders, or key -beams are provided, and whioii, as eoou
nu the tube reaches its intended elevation, are put into their
2>eriuanent places beneath it. Each of these beams ia 24 feet
in length and 4 feet in depth ^ and weighs 11 tona«

Fig. 34.

Fig* 34: represents a section of one set of these beams^ and
an elevation of the cast-iron frame or box built in the maaonry
within which they are placed. During the raising of the
tubes^ these beams are drawn back from tbeir final position,
and their projecting ends are supported upon seaflFolds borne
upon w^ooden struts, and held up with wrought -iron ties, as
ahown in the perspective sketch, Fig. 37, which will be pre-
sently desciibed,

Weiffht of the Tubes, — The weight of each of the main
tubes is said to he 1,600 tons, besides cast iron in the fixed
frames, probably 150 tons in weight- Of theae 1^600 tona of
msillenhle iron, 500 are calculated to \ib ^\s"^Cii^^^ V^ '^'^
Lvttuin, S0() in the top, and GOQ iu t\ic ^v^ea* '^Ve> ^^\^^ ^^

112 FLOATING THE TUBES THE PONTOONS.

each of the Bmall tubes, when quite complete, is 660 tons, so
that the total weight of iron in the two completed tubes, each
1,613 feet in length, will probably be about 9,640 tons. Now
it may be interesting to calculate the average thickness of
metal throughout the tube to which its weight is equal. For
this purpose we will take one of the main tubes, and consider
it as a rectangular body of the uniform width of 14 feet,
depth 29 feet, and length 472 feet, and excluding the cast
iron, we will take its weight at 1,600 tons. Then

29 X 2 = 68

14 X 2 = 28

86 X 472 = 40,692 superficial feet;
and dividing the number of pounds, 3,584,000, contained in
1,600 tons, we get a quotient of 88*3 lbs. as the average
weight per superficial foot ; and taking the weight of a super-
ficial foot of wrought iron, one inch thick, at 40 lbs., we have
a total weight of malleable iron in each of the main tubes
equal to an average thickness of 2*2 inches in the top,
^ bottom, and sides.

Floating the Main Tubes, The Pontoons, &c, — The
floating of the tubes from the biulding stage to the base of
the towers was a work involving considerable preparatory
arrangement. Each tube being completed was, as we have
said, left to bear upon the piers of masonry at its ends ; and
the intermediate length of the tube, 460 feet, is left free, the
staging below being wholly removed. For the purpose of
transporting the tube, eight floating vessels or pontoons were
provided. Six of these are of wood, and were used in
floating the Conway tubes ; the other two are of iron. They
are flat-bottomed, and the sides inclined outward towards the
top, like an ordinary washing trough, and are made of iron
plates and ribs, in the ordinary method of iron ship-building.
Each of these iron pontoons is 98 feet long, 25 feet wide, and
1 1 feet deep, and is capable of supporting 400 tons. When
bearing the tube, they draw 5 feet o£ vjalex. - In. the bottom
of each pontoon, large valves are filled, vi\ii<^> \i«aL^ V«^

TOWING THE TUBES. 118

usually open, ajmit the tidtj and thus prevsat Ihcm from
rising* Tlie firat operation for floating the tube is brmging
these pontoons under it, at low water, and arrangmg them in
two groups of four each, one group near each end of the tube.
The valves are then cloBed, and the rising of the pontooixs
with the tide lifts the tube from its bearings, and the whole
Ue comes a connected floating botly*

The next operation,^that of towing and guiding this mass,
472 feet in length and 98 in gretitest width, covering an area
three timei that of the leviathan * Great Britain/ — was one
which called for skill and experience in the highest degree, in
maturing all the required arrangements, calenlating the time
likely to be occupied in the reraoval, and '' bringing her up
along Bide," in handsome style, and with all the nicety, more-
over, needed for the eatact position in which alone the tube
could be ready for lifting. Calculating that the tcming would
occupy one hour a ad a lialf^ it was arranged that the start
should take place thus much before high water, and with a
current of three miles an hour. This towing into the middle
of the stream was performed with large capstans, each worked
by fifty men on the opposite shore, the hawaera being made
fast to the pontoons at each end. For the purpose of guiding
it, two large hawsers were laid down the stream, one on either
side, one end of them being secured to the towers between
which the tube was intended to be raised, and. the other to
fixed points upon the ahorCj about half a mile from the bridge.
These hawsera passed ovei" the pontoons, and through fixed
sockets, in an apparatus called a '* cable stopper,'* by which
either hawser could be instantly gripped, if neceasary, so as to
arreat the motion of the tube. The action of these *' cable
stoppers," tlie invention of Mr, 0. H. Wild, who was engaged
with Mr. E, Clarke, under Mr. Stephenson, in anperiuteudiog
the construction of the tubes, is simple and effective. The
socket through which the cable passes ia in two parts longi^
tiidinally, and the upper part, wK\e\v\?ot\^&N^t^\t^'*3'^^V^^^^
two strong cheeks or frameB, ia prGsaed ^qn^tx o\!t ^^ \.ti^ \s^ "^

l:4

LA-VDIXG THE miZ5.

i^"

7" -.Trrr'-i scr^w. -rimilar to rhiit .jf a
:-.i:;iii'_a icrew-oredd, "w.jrieit by
jirJLiLa jf liazLtispiked nited incj :Iu
-•atiian-iiead ji :ii.e icrew. By Gie=e
-iieaiia iny re^inireii lurce ian. be ap-
^Lle♦i in ^ppin^ die ^bii^. ami diaa
=Ci.'ppLiig die proipre=d it die do«ciii
•naj-ff. Beriides die:«e lowinz and
z'ddio;^ ^labiea, several anailer npia
^•ire iei-'Tirsd ::o die ponDicna. and
:aia:.ie jI bein^ takea iu i-r iiTcn
J lit by cap:icaziA ac various v^}aveIIidIkt
poinca ja die shore.

Tlie TiQ^ liavinjx arrived at the
feet jf die c-jwers ac iiLra water, tb*
a.-ii work, dian oi depjiiitiM it on
tiie projecdn:! plinrha or tiie towers.
wiiicxi lomi saeives, as it were, for
that purpose, iiad to be accomplisiied
diria^ tiie dfteen niiiiatea whilst the
tide ceases before tiie return. Figs-
3o, 3*7. and 37 will ;iiLow tiie manner
13. wiiicii the tubes were re^:eiTed
cpjn the towers, aad the latter
f.rmed for the p:irpoee- Of these
fi^Tirea, 35 represents the lower part
of the Anglesea and Britannia towers,
A and b; T is the tube supported
upon the eight pontoons, and ready
to be deposited upon the projecting
plinths of the towers. In this figure
the tube is shown in dotted lines as
inserted witlun the recess left in the
Britannia tower, and in the Anglesea
a portion of the masonry is left out,
forming ihe eivde ol \\ift T^^^aa^%s!AQ^
a heig\it aufficveul to a\\xii\V. xXjl^ VviXjfc.

RECESSES IN TOWERS.

115

fig, 3f> shows a eectioual
l^Xsn of the two towers, a and
^- The former has two re-
^^sses on one side for receiving
^lie main tubes, and the latter
similar recesses on both sides
^or the same purpose. One
tvibe, T, is shown as in its r-
place, and the side of the re- l
cess at E built up ; the other,
"T, is represented as still on
the pontoons, one end being in
the recess of the Britannia
tower, and the other end ap-
proaching its place in the
Anglesea tower, the side of
the recess in which, shown in
dotted lines, is still unbuilt to
receive it.

Fig. 37 is a perspective
sketch of the lower part of
the Anglesea tower after the
raising of one tube and during
the raising of the other. It is
now referred to in conjunction
with Figs. 35 and 36, as show-
ing distinctly the mode of get-
ting the tubes into the recesses
Ly leaving out the sides of
them at the lower part; but
the other points illustrated in
this figure will claim our notice
and proper description pre-
sently.

Of the two lines of railway
which will evenfuaUy be per-

[^I-^Ht::^

.rrzsskif.-^ jr ip^x^r .in-

fected throngh the bridge, one — the northern — will be first

completed, requiring the erection of two of the four main

"tB. And the first of these two tubes erected has been that

e west end of the bridge, or between the Anglesea and

wJa towers. At this time (Nov.l^4:^\l\v\& owe only

tabes has been erected and compVeleOi •, wcl^ \)ci^ W^sy«-

PLOATISO OP Tim FIRST TtTBES. 117

bb of the proceedings connected with the floating of
the tute on tbe 27th of June last, written by an eye-witnesa,
is anfficiently interesting and aiitheuttc to be quoted* After
the preliminary arrangomenta for letting go had been com-
pleted, Mr. Stephenson and other engineers got on the tube,
ae alao Captain Glaxton, R,N, famed for releasing the ' Great
Britain' from her dangerous imprisonment in Dundrum Bay,
to whom the management of the floating was intrusted.
" Captain Claxton was easily distinguished by bis apeaking-
tnimpet, and there were also men to hold the letters which
indicated the different capstans, bo that no mistake could occur
as to which capstan should be worked ; and ^ags, red, blue, or
white, 61^ nailed what particular movement should be made
with each. About half- past seven o'clock in the evenings the
fiifit perceptible motion, which indicated that the tide was
lifting the mass, waa observed, and, at Mr. Stephenson *s
desire, the depth of water was ascertained, and the exact tinje
noted. In a few minutes the motion was plainly visible, the
tube being fairly moved forwards some inches. This moment
w^as one of intense interest ■ the huge bulk gliding as gently
and easily forwards aa If she had been but a email boat. The
spectators seemed spell- bound ; for no shouts or exclamations
were heard, as all watched silently the silent course of the
heavily-freighted pontoons. The only sounds heard were the
shouts from Captain Claxton^ as he gave directions to Met go
ropes/ to * haul in faster/ dfcc, and * broadside on :' the tube
floated majestically into the centre of the stream. I theu
left my station and ran to the entrance of the worka, where I
got into a boat, and bade the men pull out as far as they
could into the middle of the straits* This was no easy taak«
the tide running strong ; but it aSorded me several splendid
views of the floating mass, and one was especially fine ; tho
tube coming direct on do\%Ti the stream,^ the dijitant hills
covered with trees, — two or three small vessels, and a steamer,
its smoke blending well with t\\e aceiie,— loxwixw-i^ -a. ^^v^\A
imekgrouitd; whilst on one side, Vu lon^ bIt^'u^vxw^ i^t*

118 LIPTING OF THB TITBES.

live stood the tliree unfinished tubes, destined ere long to fbra,
with tlie one then speeding on its journey, one grand ind
unique roadway. It was impossible to see this imposing aglit
and not feel its siuij^leness, if we may so speak. Anything w
mighty of its kind had nevtfr been be/ore ; again it wotiH
assuredly be ; but it was like the first voyage made by the
first steam vessel, — something till then unique. At twenty-
five minutes to nine o'clock the tube was nearing the Angleset
pier, and at this moment the expectation of the spectators wis
greatly increased, as the tube was so near its destination;
and soon all fears were dispelled as the Anglesea end of the
tube passed beyond the pier, and then the Britannia pier end
neared its appointed spot, and was instantlydrawn back dose
to the pier, so as to rest on the bearing intended for it
There was then a pause for a few minutes while waiting for
the tide to turn ; and when that took place the huge bnlk
floated gently into its place on the Anglesea pier, rested on
the bearing there, and was instantly made fast, so that it
could not move again. The cheering, till now subdued, was
loud and hearty, and some pieces of cannon on the shore gave
token, by their loud booming, that the great task of the day
was done.** * When in its position, the tube is made to settle
down upon a bed of timber on its bearings at the feet of the
towers, by opening the valves in the pontoons, and thus sink-
ing them sufficiently to free them from the tube.

Lifting the Tubes with the Hydraulic Presses, — If there is
one part in the design of these stupendous bridges which
evinces boldness greater than another, it is in the first idea
of raising a weight of 1,800 tons, through an elevation of
100 feet, over a rapid stream of 460 feet in width, and utterly
without scaffulding of any kind over the opening. The power
to be employed for this gigantic purpose, and the manner of
7ng that power, are two problems of startling novelty,
(h threatened to involve immense practical difficulty.

ponJent of the lllustraUd London Netos, ivm-a ^Q, V^^,

THE HYDRAULIC PRESSES. 119

"fhe happy adaptation of the buoyant power of water, bo snc-
cessfuUy realised in the floating of the tabes, promised no
Assistance in the raising of them ; yet with the aid of simple
machines, actuated by this same liquid, which by a law of its
Action multiplies to an almost unlimited degree the minimum
of power applied to it, these tubes are raised with the utmost
facility, and with all th'e regularity and safety of motion which
characterise mechanical operations upon a smaller scale.

These machines, known as Hydraulic^ or Hydrostatic
Presses, are adapted for gaining great power ; acting, how-
ever, through a limited space. The invention of the appa-
ratus belonged to the* late Mr. Joseph Bramah, who, on
March 31, 1796, obtained a patent for it, under the title of
"certain new methods of producing and applying a more
considerable degree of power to all kinds of mechanical appa-
ratus and other machinery requiring motion and force, than
by any means at present practised for that purpose." The
operation of this machine is founded upon the elementary
principle in hydrostatics, that " when a liquid mass is in
equilibrium, under the action of forces of any kind, every
molecule, or part of the mass, sustains an equal pressure in all
directions." The consequence of this principle is, that a pres-
sure exerted on any portion of the surface of a confined mass of
fluid is propagated throughout the mass, and transferred, undi-
minished, to the entire surface in contact with the water. In
the middle of the 17th century, Pascal suggested the applica-
tion of this principle to the operation of a press, but to Bramah
is due the credit of first realising this suggestion in a practical
form. The hydraulic press has been employed to a consider-
able extent in pressing goods for packing, expressing vegetable
oils, and other similar purposes. By its aid, moreover, the
performance of experiments upon the strength of various mate-
rials has been much facilitated. In the testing of iron girders,
anchors, and other similar productions intended to sustain
great weights and strains, this powerfvA ap^«t«X"w& \k»A \i^««L
usefully engaged for many yeara in t\i© E^xi^Ski^ ^q«:^k^«^

120 POWER OF THE PRESSES.

and the establisliments of iron-founders and manufactaring
engineers. But its most recent and distinguished employment
is in the elevation of the tubes for the railway bridges over
the river Conway and the straits of Menai.

Hydraulic presses consist of two essentially distinct parts,
viz. the press, or machine, in which the acquired force is
applied, and the pumping apparatus/hy which the water is
forced into the press ; these two parts, constituting the entire
apparatus being connected only by a pipe through which
the water passes from one to the other. The press consists
mainly of the cylinder, into which the water is admitted, and
which is solid at one end, and open at the other to receive
the ram, plunger, or piston, which is solid and cylindrical, and
turned to fit the bored opening in the cylinder. This opening
is enlarged at a few inches from the face, so that, although
the ram fits it closely along these few inches, an annular space
is left within, between the ram and the cylinder, and into this
space the water is forced by the pump. The pump needs
no detailed description here, being of the ordinary kind used
for forcing liquids, and is varied in its parts, form, and dimen-
sions, according to the particular applications of the apparatus.
The pump is usually worked by manual labour, with a lever-
handle, and the rule for finding the increase of power com-'
manded by the pump is derived, first, from the ratio of the
areas of cross section of plunger of pump and ram of press ;
and, secondly, from the ratio of the leverage of the pump-
handle. Thus, suppose the plunger to be J inch, and tbe
ram 10 inches in diameter, and the arms of the lever or
handle as 1 to 0, the power will be thus found :

Multiplied by J^ \_ ^

•5625 : 600;
that is, 1 : 1066-66 ;

and thus a power equal to 20 lbs. applied on the end of the
pump-handle will produce a pressure equal to 21,333*20 Ibn.
on tbe ram, or 9 tons 10 cwt. Z qra. V'i^Q \^^.

LIFTING WITH THE HYfUUITLTC FKESSES* 121

In order to apply the power of the prcsBes to the lifting of
the tube, and, ka already said, without scaffolding of any kind
niider it, it was neeeseary to act at the ends of the tnbe. Tbe
hydraulic preaa — well g elected as the instrument of elevation,
on account of the great power it affords^ is, aa already stated,
adapted to move only through limited spacea, Tbe pre&aei
employed at the tubular hridges, although of unexampled si^e
and power, were fitted only for b. motion of 6 feet ; that is, the
ram was susceptible of only 6 feet vertical from the cylinder
Hence the whole elevation through which the tubes for the
Britannia Bridge were required to be raised (about 100 feet)
mid not he effected in one continuone movement, but required
Buccesaion of ** lifts," each of 6 feet, and sufficient in number
complete the total raising. Now, in order to bring tlie
ama into action for this purpose, they were required either to
re a a upward against the bottom of the tube, and thus push
it J or, being placed above the tube, to be made to act upon
ihaiuB so aa to draw them upwards, and with them the tube,
IX ed to their lower ends* The latter alternative was adopted,
d the presses accordingly were firmly located in the upper
part of the towers^ immediately over the ends of the tube,
and at such height as allowed for the total elevation of the
tnbes, without disturbing the position of the presses* In thin
manner the tubes for the Conway Bridge were raised by
means of two press ee, ono at each end of the tube. The
Tama of these presses are 18| inches in diameter, and the
cylinders 20 inches internally, so that an annular space a| of
aa inch wide remains between them, for the action of the
water. The cylinders are 37 J inches in diameter exteroally,
the metal being thus 8| inches in thickness. For the raising
of the tubee of the Britannia Britlge these two presses are
used iu combination at one end, viz. in the Britannia tower ;
and at the other end a single press of larger dimensions ie
employed. Of this press, the ram is 20 inches in diameter,
And the metal of the cylinder 11 iuclieft l^ck.
For the purpose of forcing the vrateT mio ^^ ^sfta^Sw^x^ ^

122 POWER OF THE PRESSES.

these presses, two steam engines, each of 40-horse power, are
employed. The cylinders of these enginea are arranged
horizontally, 17 inches in diameter, and 16 inches stroke.
The piston-rods work through stuffing -boxes in both ends of
the cylinder, and, being continued, form the pistons of the
forcing-pumps. These pumps are l^^^ inch in diameter,
and 16 inches stroke. The pipe for conveying the water
into the cylinder is | inch bore, and ^ inch thick, so that its
external diameter is 1 inch, made of wrought iron. The
power applied to the pump is thus increased in the ratio of
the areas of 1-^ to 20 inches, or as 1 to 355. If the full
power of the engine, equal to that of 40 horses, were exerted,
the available power thus produced in the press would equal
the product of 355 and 40, or that of 14,200 horses. The
actual work done by the one large press at one end of the
tube, or the two smaller ones at the other, is of course equal
to raising half the tube, or 900 tons. The power exerted by
the head of the ram, 20 inches diameter, is thus equal to
2*25 tons, or 5,040 lbs., per circular inch.

An accident which occurred to the large press in the
Anglesea tower during the lifting of the first of the Britannia
tubes deserves notice, because we may thence deduce an
useful lesson for future guidance in simikr cases, and more-
over it accounts for a considerable delay in the raising of the
tube, which might otherwise appear inexplicable in the history
of the bridge. On Friday the 1 7th of August, 1849, after three
of the 6 -feet lifts had been successfully accomplished on pre-
vious, days, the lifting was proceeding, and ^^ of a lift, or 2 feet
6 inches, attained, when, between 1 1 and 1 2 o'clock in the
morning, the bottom of the cylinder '* burst out," and being
entirely separated from the remainder of the casting, it feU with •
terrific force — weighing about 1 J ton— on to the top of the tube
below, a depth of from 70 to 80 feet. The resistance to the
weight being thus suddenly destroyed, the ram of course de-
scended the part of the lift accompliahed, and the tube would
'^ve also fallen through a similar &pa(i% oi ^i^vi\. ^ YCi.Ocv^^,\ksA

PACKING UNDER THE TUBES. 123

not a most wise precaution been adopted by Mr. StephenRon,
viz. following up tbe ascending tube witb packings of wood
1 inch thick, which are introduced within the recess as rapidly
as the tube rises. These packings are then carefully removed,
piece by piece, and the spaces fiUed in with brick-work in
cement, so as to be nearly flush with the outer lines of the tower.
As it was, the total falling of the tube was about only one inch.
The falling part of the cylinder produced a deep indentation
in the top of the tube below, and, unfortunately fatally struck
a poor sailor enaployed on the works, who was ascending a rope-
ladder from the tube to the press. We may now again refer to
Fig. 87, which is a perspective sketch of the Anglesea tower,
and shows one of the tubes as elevated to its place, and its
fellow tube as partly raised. It also shows the three cast-iron
key -beams already described as drawn out and supported on
a bracket platform. When the tube is lifted to its full height,
these beams are driven into t^eir permanent places in the
boxes which are built into the towers, and thus serve to sup-
port the ends of the tube while the chains and lifting frames
are detached. The rising tube is also shown as accompanied
with a stage, slung in the scale fashion with chains from the
tube, and upon which the workmen are supported for the pur-
pose of packing the wooden slabs under the tube as it rises,
and building up the recess with brick -work in cement.

As to the cause of the bursting of the cylinder, it has been
explained with reference to the peculiar form of the casting at
the place of fracture, and to the known liability of cast iron to
cool irregularly, and contract unequally, a liability which is
dangerously increased in the case of such an immense mass of
cast metal as this cylinder necessarily is. The bottom of the
cylinder appears to have been nearly if not quite flat internally
and externally, and thus not only are continuous angles formed
by the meeting of the inner and outer cylindrical and piano
surfaces respectively, which always operate against an uni-
formity of preBBure and consequent deT\€\\.^ ox e,crrcc^^^V\^^"«».
tbrougbout the metal, but the thickneaa oi m^xA \>oxQT^\g5t

these angles being greater — as tlie diagonal to tlie square —
than elflewterej this part is the last to cool^ and conaequently
the J east able to obey its tendency to contract. Hence, as m
often observed in eimilar forma of casting, tbeae parta are
comparatively much more open in the ultimate grain of tba
metal than tbe other parts, and correspondingly weaker^

At the late meeting of the BritiBh ABBOciation for the
advancement of Science, held at Birmingham in September
liat, Mr, Stephenson, at the request of the members of the
Mechanical Section, explained tbe nature of the accident,
and the precautionary meaaures he bad fortunately, ad op ted,
and from tbe report* of hia explanation we quote tbe follow-
ing interesting extract: — "Mr. Stephenson explained the
machinery adopted for raising the tnbesj and stated that tbe
plan originally proposed was hj lifting the tube to the height
of 6 feet at a time, and then allowing it to be suapended by
chains to the crofla-head during the time the masonry below
was carried up ; but this plan was abandoned, fearing that if
an accident should take place, either by the bursting of the
press or tbe breaking of a link of the chain, the tube would
be totally destroyed if it fell through aucb a height as 6 feet,
or even to 6 inches* He then considered that the only way to
proceed was by packing in timbers^ inch by inch, under the
tubCj as it was being lifted ; so that, in case an accident did
take place, the tube would not have to fall through a greater
space than an inch ; and this was the plan adoi>ted at tbe time
of the accident. To show how neeesaary it was to proceed
thus, Mr. Stephenson explained, that although tlie tube fell
through the space of only an inch, it broke down iron beams,
each sufficient to bear 500 tons weight. It will be seen that
by this process the tube was never allowed to be suspended
in the air; and as a further precaution, he intended in future,
when the raising was again in progress, to pack in underneath
the cross -he ad of the press, by driving in iron wedges aa the

* Pablished m the ** Civil Engineer and Architect's Journal *' for

MB. STEPHENSON^S REMARKS. 125

tabe is raised, as wsU as under the tube : thus, if the press
were to break down, neither the cross-head nor the tube could
fall through a greater space than an inch. He described the
nature of the fracture which occurred through the angle of the
bottom, and when it fell out the piece formed the frustrum of
a cone. At the time the presses were at work, there was not
1 ton pressure to the square inch, the area of the fracture
being 1,316 square inches, and the weight suspended on the
press 1,000 tons. The press was calculated to bear 3J tons,
a pressure to which hydraulic presses are frequently subjected
for manufacturing purposes. When lifting the Conway tubes,
they commenced by lifting both ends simultaneously ; but
when the engines had been at work for a short period, it was
observed the tube had got into a tremulous motion, like a
wave. In consequence, this operation was stopped, and a
consultation held, when it was considered that it was occa-
sioned by working the pumps at each end of the tube simul-
taneously, and it was decided to work the engines at each end
alternately. By adopting this mode the motion was got rid
of. Mr. Stephenson believed the fracture took place in conse-
quence of the unequal cooling of the iron at the angle of the
cylinder ; he has therefore decided upon having two cylinders
cast in some other form, — one with a hemispherical bottom of
the same thickness as the cylindrical part ; and the other with
an open bottom or neck formed through it, having an internal
shoulder on which a plate may be laid to close the opening."
A new cylinder, formed in the first of these improved shapes,
has subsequently been applied, and has successfully raised the
tube to its final elevation.

Cast'iron FrameSy/or itrengthening the Ends of the Tubes,
and for attaching the Li/ting Chains. — It has been already
stated that the ends of the tubes are strengthened with
massive frames of cast iron fitted to the interior, and bolted
to the plates of the tube, and also to each other, at t)^
joints.

126

*=^"-«o.v ,^,,

^^SB. 38 and ,
jepresent the Ihn.

A are vertical ad,

f/'^'i^tothei^Merf
*„f/«f«''.*ndboI(«d
*°the«n;BBareBori.

^^"^ frame, eim.-.

^^ secured, fi„dj

fed to the rerdd

^''"»«';o show, tie
'»«»nerin^hi,i„^„

connected ^u th. ,
"«" Pa«. overl •^'*""« very thil . ^^ ^"y of pn.

Z"i ^-' «w ,?n '"' ^' ^'cz "'^ '-'S:

**« «de« of the let,!; °^ ^^^^^^^d u, ehe flj ^"°"' *«»» «

LIFTING THE CONWAY TUBES. 127

thick cast-iron cheeks, or flitches, of the same width as the
plates, 1 foot 9 inches ; one of these cheeks being placed on
each side of each of the vertical plates, and firmly bolted
through. Fig. 39 shows a transverse section of one of the
strengthening frames (a a, Fig. 38), which are 12 inches
deep, 15 inches wide over the face, 3 inches thick in the outer
flange, and 2 inches in the inner one.

Figs. 40 and 41 show the combined arrangements for lift-
ing the tubes of the Conway Bridge, with the hydraulic press,
chains, &c., and the cast-iron lifting -frames. Fig. 40 is a
transverse section through the tube and front elevation of the
press. Fig. 41 is a longitudinal section of the end of the tube
and section through the middle of the press. Referring to
these figures, we will describe first the parts which perma-
nently belong to the construction of the tube and its connec-
tion with the tower, and afterwards the temporary apparatus
employed for the purpose of lifting the tube.

A A are the two side and top and bottom beams of cast
iron, forming one of the sets of castings used to strengthen
these parts of the tube, as already described.

B B are the cast-iron flitches or cheeks bolted against the
vertical plates forming the partitions of the lower cells.

c 0, the lower bed-plates of cast iron, resting upon bearings

of wood, D D.

E E, cast-iron rollers, upon which p p, the bed -plates of the
tube, rest, and are capable of longitudinal motion in either
direction.

The top of the tube is connected by strong wrought-iroL
bolts, G G, with a series of transverse cast-iron girders, h h
These girders are connected by sockets in their lower flanges
with two longitudinal girders, 1 1, which are capable of longi-
tudinal motion, as they rest upon spheres of gun-metal, as
before mentioned, working in a groove on the upper surface
of the bearing plates, j j, which are fixed upon the projecting
ends of transverse girders of cast iron, kr.

The temporary parts introduced for the p\xTi^oft^ ol ^"C\^^\^'^

LIPTIKO CHAINS.

Ilie ends of the tube
during the raising
and also of connect-
ing the lifting chains
are as follows : —

L L, two pairs of
cast-iron girders or
lifting frames, fixed
horizontally across
each end of the tnbe,
and bolted within re-
cesses formed in the
vertical cast - iron
frames, a a. In the
Britannia tubes, three
pairs of these girders
were used, the upper
and under ones for the
purpose of attaching
the lifting chains, and
the intermediate one
to^assist in supporting
the sides of the tube.
The lifting chains,
MM, are formed in
links with notches at
one end of each alter-
nate link, as shown at
NN, Pig. 41. These
notches fit into corre-
sponding ones on the
lower flanges of the
cross girders, l l ; and
when these are bolted
in their places the
links are, as shown in
Fig. 41, held firmly
between them.

Fig. 41,

180 LIFTING APPARATUS.

The press by which these chains are drawn up, and tho
tube thus raised, is shown above the tube in the place in
which it is first fixed, and which it occupies during the whole
operation. In lifting the Conway tubes, each of the presses
was supported upon a pair of double girders of cast iron,
marked o o in the figures, resting at the ends upon longitudinal
girders, p p, built in the masonry. In lifting the Britannia
tubes, however, wrought-iron girders are judiciously substi-
tuted for those of cast iron. Each of these wrought-iron
girders is composed of 12 plates of best iron, 2 feet in width
and a full inch in thickness, firmly fastened together, so that
the girder consists of a well-connected mass of wrought iron,
having a transverse section 24 inches in depth, and 12 inches
in width. At the ends, these wrought-iron girders are sup-
ported upon cast-iron transverse girders, fixed upon benches
formed in the masonry of the towers.

The press consists principally of four parts, via. the cylinder,
Q, the ram or piston, r, the pipe, s, by which the water is in-
troduced from the pumps, and the cross-head, t. The cylinder
rests within a cast-iron jacket or casing, u u, supported upoa
the transverse girders, o o, already described. The forcing of
the water into the cylinder causes the ram to rise, forcing up
with it the cross-head, t. Upon the cross -head two pairs of
clamps, V V, are fixed, which embrace the notched ends of the
chain links, and are screwed up tightly against them with
screws, x x. These screws have cogged wheels, y, fitted to
their ends, and an intermediate pinion turned by a winch, z,
gives motion to the wheels of the two screws. A similar
arrangement of clamps and gearing is fixed below at w w.
The action of the press is preserved in a true vertical direc-
tion by fixed guide-rods, 1 1, secured above to a cross-girder,
Q, and upon these rods the cross-head slides upward, as the
action of the press continues.

The chains here represented are evidently highly impor-

tant mem bora of tho apparatus, as any failure in them would

of coarse, involve the falling oi t\ie Iu\>q. ISj^Ocl ^^\. q!1 >1x^

HOWARD S PATENT LrNKS

T81

ccmsifttB of eiglit and nine alternately, the eiglit being mode
mewliat tliicter tliflii the nino, so as to contain an equal
^tal strengtli. Each, link is T inchea widei about 1 inch
tMck^ and exactly 6 feet in length between the centres of the
eyea at the ends* They are manufactared by a procesa, for
which a patent waa granted, October <>, 1845, to Mr. Thomaa
Howard, of the King- and Qtieen Iron Worka^ Rotherbithe,
and entitled '* improvemonta in rtjUing iron bars for snapen-
HI on brldgea and other purposes/* By theae improvements
iftToiigbt4ron bars are rolled witli tbo end a or beada of in-
eaaed breadth in one entiie piecOj and ehaioa thna manu*
turcd are worthy of much greater confidence than those
of which the links are made in Beparate bare and heads, and
nnited by the nncertain process of welding. Beaidea the
i,ppIicatioii of theae chains to the lifting of the Oonway and
Eritaiinia Bridges, they are employed in the permanent con-
itriicdon of the large anspension bndge erected by Mr. W« T.
Clarke over the D ami be, at Peeth, and of the R nasi an bridge
At Kieff, now in course of erection by Mr. Vignolea.
I In concluding this deacription of the Britannia Tubular
Bridge, it should be mentioned that the masonry of the cen-
tral, or Britaimia tower, was commenced in May, ISifj ; that
the first rivet for the tubes was pnt in on August 10, 1847,
It ia now expected that one line of railway will be completed
through the bridge in March, 1650. If ao, or even allowing
two month a later, four years only will have been occupied
since the commencement of the tower ; a period remarkably
short, when all the nncertaintiea and poaaible casualtiea bo-
loiiging to so novel and extended a work are coneidered-
The contractors for the ma.^onry and scaffolding are Measra.
Nowellt Hemmingw^ay, and Pearson. One of the large tnbea
was conetrncted by Messrst Garforth, of Dukinfield, Man-
chester; the remainder of the tubes by Mr. 0. Mare, of
Black walk The hydraulic presses were coustrujit&i Vs?^
MesHTs* Kaston and Amos, of &out\\vvft.Tk.
Tbs €u.swa¥ Bridge, which, ba a.lre&^\^ aiaX^^* ^\fe.«ia^

132 THE CONWAY BRIDGE.

the Britannia, is erected within a few feet of Telford's sus-
pension bridge, and close beneath the ancient walls of Conway
Castle. It consists of one span only of 400 feet, clear width,
and two abutments of masonry, of which the design is in har-
mony with that of its venerable neighbour, the castle. The
height of the tubes above the level of high water is incon-
siderable when compared with that of the Britannia tubes,
being only 18 feet. Each tube, as fitted with the castings
for lifting, weighed 1,300 tons. The bridge thus consists of
two tubes only, which were built on the adjoining shore, one
after the other, and upon the same platform, and floated and
raised in a manner similar to the Britannia tubes. The first
stone was laid on the 15th of June, 1846 : the first tube com-
menced in March, 1847, floated 6th of March, 1848, raised
16th of April following, and opened for the passage of the
trains on the 1st of May, 1848. The second tube was floated
on the 12th of October, 1848, and raised on the 30th of the
same month. Mr. Evans was contractor for the whole of
the work.

The first of the tubes was tested with a weight of 300 tons
of iron, and its deflection at the centre with this load was
3 inches. On the removal of the load, the tube resumed its
original position. In the testing of the second tube, it was
ascertained before loading that the deflection was 1'86 inch.
The weight of ballast applied was 235 tons 14 cwt. and
2 qrs., and which caused an additional deflection of 1*56
inch, which ceased on the removal of the load. The passage
of the ordinary train is said to cause a deflection of only -^ of
an inch.

INDEX.

• Aaron Manby,' description of the, 14.

Abutments, Auglesea and Carnarvon, de-
scribed, 96 ; &nensions, 96.

Admiralty rep<»t on the means of com-
mmiication between London and DuUin,
54.

American bridges, construction of, de-
scribed; bridge at Columbia described,
35 ; dimensions of, 36.

Anglesea tower of the Britannia Bridge
described, 95; dimensions, 95; design,
96 ; weight of iron, 96

Arched bridges, princ^>le8 of, 63, 64 ; cast
iron bridjge, description otf 2 ; principles
of, explained, 6.

Bars, iron manufacture of, described, 13 ;
forms of, 13 ; patents for, 13 ; uses of, 14 ;
experiments on the transverse strength of
wrought-iron bars, 70 ; table of results, 71.

Beams, cast-iron, best form of, 67 ; action
of pressure upon, 62; Bemouilli's theory
of beams, 62.

BemouiUi^s theory of the action of pressure
upon beams and girders, 62 ; neutral line
defined, 63.

Blackburn bridge, Fairbaim's, 25 ; dimen-
sions, 25 ; plan of construclion, 28.

Boat, first iron, described, 14.

Boats, construction of iron, illustrated by
the 'Megaera,' 15; riveting de:foribed,
15 ; sheaming described, 15.

Bodmer*B patent for riveting iron plates,
15.

Brick, tubular, girder, and iron bridge de-
scribed, 44.

Bridge,Blackbum,construction of, described,
25 ; Buildwas, Telford's, 3 ; Burden's cast-
iron arched described, 2 ; compaiison of
the cost of a cast-iron trussed girder
tiridge, with a wrought-iron tubular
girdered bridge, 26 ; compound wrought
and cast iron trussed girder described,
38 ; Conway suspension bridge described,
51 ; Con wajr tubular bridge described, 131 ;
tlie Dee bridge, description of, 9 ; Fair-
baim's, at (Gainsborough, construction de-
scribed, 30 ; first iron bridge described, 1 ;
iron and brick tubular, near Glasgow, 44 ;
lattice bridge deacribed, 33 ; wooden lat-
tice, 35 ; wrought-iron lattice, 36 ; Osborne's
improved lattice, 37 ; Menai suspension
described, 50; Rennie*a iron, at Boston,
dencribed, 4; Smart's jjatent iron, 33;
South wark, 4; Stephenson's, proposed for

crossing the Menai Straits, 59. Tubiibir
bow-bridge described, 41 ; over ihe Ou»e,
description of, 41 ; over the Regent's
Canal described,43 ; Walker's, proposed for
crossing the Menai Straits, described, 66 ;
wrought-iron at Sunderland described, 2.

Bridge building, application of wrought-
iron plate gimers to, 24.

Bridges, American, construction of, de- •
scribed, 34; arched principle of, 63, 64;
cast-iron girder principle of, 6; girder,
principle of, 63, 64 ; iron arched de-
scribed, 6; suspension, principle of, 83,
64; Stephenson's suspension, report on,
59 ; trussed girder described, 7.

Britannia Bridge; Anglesea and Carnar-
von towers described, 95; ditto abut-
ments, construction described, 96; Bri-
tannia tower described ; 94. Fairbaim's
experiments to determine the form of
tube, 74 ; cylindrical tubes, table of the
tests applied to, 75 ; results described, 76 ;
elliptical tubes, table of the results of
experiments on, 78; results explained,
79 ; rectangular tubes, results of experi-
ments on, table of, 81 ; results described,
80. Hodgkinson's reduction of Fair-
bairn's experiments, 87 ; cylindrical tubes,
87 ; elliptical tubes, 88 ; rectangular, 89.
Hodgkinson's experiments, 89; table of
results, 90; results explained. 0b6erva-
tions of Mr. Fairbaim on the effects of
the experiments on the tubes, 84 ; tabular
comparison of the results of the experi-
ments on the different shaped tubes, 87 ;
remarks on the construction of the tubes,
82. Tubes,'dimensions of, 96 ; scaffolding
for building the land described, 97 ; con-
struction of, see tubes of the Britannia
Bridge ; floating the tubes, 112; pontoons
for, 112; towing described, 113; deposit-
ing in the towers, 114 ; preparations at
the towers for receiving the tubes, 116;
floating the first tube, 117; lifting the
tubes, 118; hydraulic presses for, de-
scribed, 122; application of the power,
121 ; accident to, 122 ; packing under the
tubes, 123 ; frames for strenguiening the
ends of the tubes, 125 ; connertii\g the
tubes in the towers, 127.

Britannia rock described, 93. Britannia
towet deacribofli, ^•, ftiflM!c«tfSQ», ^^^
solid contenl,^ \ ; -wev^V «{l TB»JMs«rj ^^K-.
weigYvi ol Vioti, ^\ <»t«Sx>m:!<^«^ ^
scribed, 94.

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INDEX.

135

purpose of punching, sheaiing, and rivet-
ing metal plateo, 18.

Iron, first employment of, in the construc-
tion of bridges, 1.

Iron bar, manufacture of, 13 ; forms of, 18 ;
patents for, 13; uses of, 14.

Iron boat, the first, described, 14; boats,
manufacture of, illustrated by the
* Megeera,* 15.

Iron bridge, the first, described, 1 ; lattice,
described, 33 ; Smart's patent, 33.

Iron, cast, bars of, experiments on the
strength of, 6<5 ; girders, defects of, 8.

Iron cement, 6. Note.

Iron, compound cast and wrought, girdera,
39.

Iron, malleable, manufacture of, described,
11 ; puddling, 12.

Iron plates, improvements in the manufac-
ture of, 13; process of rolling, 11 ; uses
of, 14; use of, in the, manufacture of
caiBsons, 16; Fairbaim*s machine for
rivetinff, 19; Fairbaims thick edged
plates described, 15 ; Garforth's riveting
apparatus described, 20; application of
the hydrostatic press to the purposes of
lynching, riveting and shearing, 18;
Bliearing described, 20.

Iron rivets, manufactiu^ of, 17 ; use of, with
brick, in bridge building, 44.

Iron, wrought, its use with cast, in the ^or-
maticm m bridges, 7 : error of using with
cast explained, 8 ; bars of, experiments
to test the strengtii of, 70 ; wrought plate
girders described, 21.

Kemiedy and Vernon's patent for improve-
ments in the manufacture of bar iron, 13.

fiOttico bridges, construction of, 33; wooden,
deecription of, 35; wrought -iron, dc-
scribea, 36; Osborne's impmved, 37.

Lattice girders, French experiments on, 37;
Hoolton's, described, 38.

Links, Howard's i>atent, described, 131.

livcrpool landing stage, construction of,
deecribed, 27.

*Meg»ra,' construction of, 15.

ICaUeable iron, manufacture of, described,
11.

]iay*B application of the hydrostatic pres^s
to the purposes of punching, riveting, and
■hearing metal plates, 18.

IfenaiStraita, first jdans for crossing tlie, 56 ;
Bennie's inopoeed bridge described, 57 ;
ihoieB described where the Britannia
Bridge ia erected, 93; Stephenson's plan,
68 ; described, 60; Telford's suspension
bridj^ described, 50 ; dimensions, 51.

Moulton's wrought-iron lattice girders de-
scribed, 38.

Nential line defined, 63.

Osborne's improved lattice bridges, 37.
Ou^, tubular hovf-hridge over the, de-
acribect^i.

Auw^ wrougbt'iroa briiige, 2,

Patenbs relating to the manufacture of iron
plates, girders, &o. : — Bodmer's for thick
edged plates, 15; Cort's, for the manu-
facture of malleable iron, 11 ; Fairbaim's,
for WTOught-iron plate girders, 23 ; ditto,
for riveting metal {dates, 19; Fielders,
for compound cast and wrought iron
girders, 39 ; Garforth s, for riveting metal
plates, 20; Gibbon's, for iron bridge
girders, 39; Howard's, for patent links.
131; Kennedy and Vernon's, for manu-
facture of iron plates, 13; May's hydro-
static press for riveting, punching, and
shearing metal plates, 18; Moulton's, for
WTought-iron lattice girders, 38 ; Porter's,
for corrugated iron girders, 40; Smart's
patent iron briilge, 33; Wennington's, f or
sheaiing metal plates, 20; Wilson and
Burden's, for " connecting metallic blocks
for constructing arches," 3.

Penmaen Mawr, railway works at, de-
scribed, 53.

Pritchard, his first suggestion for the use of
ii'on for bridges, 1.

Pressure, tlie action of, upon beams and
girders considered, 62 ; Bemouilli's theory
of, 62.

Puddling, Cort's process of, described, 12.

Punching, application of the hj'drostatio
press to, 18 ; machine for, 17 ; process of,
described, 17.

Railway, Chester and Holyhead, described,
46 ; length, 47 ; stations, 47.

Eectangulur tubes, table of, Fairbaim's ex-
periments on, 81 ; i-esults exi)luined, 80.
Ho(lgkin:K)n's reduction of the above ex-
periments, 89; table of results, 90; re-
sults exi^laiued, 91.

Bennie's iron briilge at Boston described,
4 ; bridge at Southwark, described, 4 ;
projHtied bridge for crossing the Menai
Stniits described, 67.

Ki'ports on the means of conununicalion
between London and Dublin, Admiralty,
54 ; engineers', 55.

Riveting, ai>plication of the hydrostatic
press to, 18 ; chain, described, 24 ; ii'on
plates, described, 15 ; Fairbaim's plan,
16; ditto, machinery for, 19; Garforth's
miichinery, described, 20 ; the tubes of
the Britannia Bridge, described, 108.

Rivets, iron, manufacture of, 17 ; number
of, used in the Britannia Bridge, 108.

Rolling malleable iron described, 11.

Shearing iron plates described, 20; appli-
cation of the hyilrostatic press to, 18;
patent machine for, 20.

Sheathing of iron vessels described, 15.

Smart's patent iron bridge described, 33.

Soutliwaik Bridge, description of, 4.

Stephenson's plan for crossing the Menai
Straits, 58 ; described, 60 ; report on sus-
pension bridges, 59 ; ^to\jv5&«i^ \jfv^^ \vit
crossing tVve Metvai. ^VtvCvX?., %R»\ Kdsc^-
ralty opposiUotv to, ^'^ \»wvo*»^ «*
tubular bridge, ftV\ evv^eAmvivW^ Q.^
form of tube to \ie emj^o^^A, ^av ^ i
his account oi t«adixvfe\X\e, \.i^

136

INDEX.

SiiMiiriiHion lhi<lK<*. Monai, d<»j«i"ribed by
'IVIfiinl, r>0; (Vmwiiy, UciKTiption of, bj^
TflfnnI, fil. SusiK'n^ion britUrort, prini'i-
plvi» of, ^',i, ttl ; Sloiiheiisoiri} report on, 69.

Tuldo of the roitiilts of cxiicrimcntB on the
Htn'ngtii of i-ylin<lri('al tal)e8, 75; ellip-
lii'iil ttilKiii, 7^*: n'L'tanpilar tubce, bl;
of Iltxl^kinHon'H oxiH'riniontu on rectan-
irular tubod, H7 ; of tiu" results of tlie dif-
fi>n>nt t'xiH'rinuMita tinniiHrwl, y7 ; of the
I>ro)if'rticit of cast and wn)U^!it iron, 73 ;
of llu' KtnMi^li of bars of wrouf?ht iron,
71 ; of th»' Mn»njftli of the different ma-
terinlii m»ed for beiiins and Kir<ler», t>5.

Ti'lfordV inni bridge at Hiiildwa:^ dericribed,
3; Conway SuniHMwioii Urhlfrc, description
of. fil ; Holyhead lioad described, 49 ;
lU'count of the work execured, as engi-
neer to the connnissionera, 48.

TlioiniKKMi's iron and brick tubular bridge,
near (}la(<gow, description of, 44.

TiiLsse*! gilder bridges described, 7; defects
of, H.

TriLssod cast and vrrought iron girder
bridges descrilKMl, ys.

Tubes of the Britauuia Bridge; bearing
ix»ller«. I(i9; bed plates, 110: cells de-
wrilH'd, 107 ; c'onstruclion of, 101; depo-
piting them in the. towers, 114 ; dimen-
sions, W, 102. Floating the main tubes,
112; floating the first tube, description of,
117; fnunes of the tul>e, 107; ditto for
strengthening the cmls of the tube, 125 ;
gaisetri described, 107. Land tubes, scaf-
foldhig for building the, 97; weight of
tlitto, 97 ; length, 101 ; lifting the land
tubes, 118: liydraulic presses f«*r, de-
hcribod, 122; application of the power,
121 ; ai'cidont to the (iresses, 122. Main
tubes, platforms and staging for building
the. W; length. 99; method'of supiH)rting
the ends, 1 10 ; method of supiiorting the
tubes in the towers, 110; packing under
the tulMM, 123. I»lates described, 108;
dimousiuns, 103; joints, 103; pontoons,

112 ; preparationa for receiving the !*»
at the lowers, 115 ; iMiDching, 106; iA
108; ribs, 105; rioting, 106; mk,
numberof, usedflOS; I " —- =-

of, 104; top, constructioii

towing ditto, 113 ; weight of dttto, ilL

Tubes of the Conway Bridge de0ciilnd,Uli
chains for xaising the, 181 ; caanm$
the tubes ia the towers, 127 ; floating As
tubes, 112; lifting ditto, UH; mm-
ments for, described, 197; presses lor
raising the tvbes, 130 ; pantoons for float-
ing ditto, 112.

Tubes, table of the strength of cylindcicil,
75.

Tubular bow-bridge described, 41; am
the Ouse, 41 ; over the Begent's Csoal,
described, 43.

Tubular girder and brick bridge near GHas-
gow, described, 44.

Walker's plan for crossing the MendStrrili.
66.

Wennington's machinery for shearing metal
]>lates, 20.

Wild's " cable stoppers " described, 113.

Wooden lattice bridges, 34.

Wrought iron, cohesive power of, 70 ; expe-
riments on the transverse strength of l«n
of, 70 ; table of results, 71 ; resistsni-c to
compression, 72 ; stnioture of, 70 ; tsWe
of the properties of, compared with cut,
72; use with cast in the focmatioii of
bridges, 7.

Wrought-iron boats, advantages of, 14;
ditto bridges, described, 3; ditto tatties
bridge, desc-ribed,-36.

Wronght-iron plate girders, first mettiod of
constructing, 21 : first use of, 21 ; iK
form of, 21 ; tubular, described, 23 ; a^ili-
cation of to bridge building, 24.

Wrought-iron tubular girdered bridge, cost
of, 26.

Wrought and cast iron tmsucd girdw
bridges, 88 ; compoimd girders, described,
38.

THE END.

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5-12, Homer, The Works of. According to the Text of BAEUMLEtN.

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4* Lucian's Select dialogues. The Text carefully revised, wi^

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the Pbiedo. From the TcTtt of C. F. Hbbma?jn. Edited with Notes, Cdtic

and Eipianatory, by the Rev. James Da visa, M,A. isf.
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20. Sophocles: Antigoiie. From the Text of BrNi>oa.F, Not«,

Critical and Explanatory ^ by the Rev. John M^-^'ER, B.A, as.

41. Thucydidos: History of the Peloponnesian War. Notes by ^1

YOLKC. Book t* JS. ^

2^ J, Xen option's Anabasis ; or, The Retreat of the Ten Thousand.

Notes And a Geoffraphicai Kcfiister, by H* Young. Part i. Books i. to Ui„
js. Fart a. JUooks iv. to ^nl*^ is.
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Flumber^s New Work on Water-Supply.

A COMPREHENSIVE TREATISEon the WATER-SUPPLY
of CITIES and TOWNS, By Wiloam Humber, Assoc. Inst.
C.E,, and M, Inst. M.E, Author of "Cast and Wrought Iron
Bridge ConstructioTi," &c* &c. This work, it is expected j will con-
tain about 50 Double Plates, and upwards of 300 pages of Text.
Imp^ 4to, half bound in morocco. [/« ike press.

*** In acatnwhtht^ infoi'mation for this volume^ the Author has
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mads; this departmait 0/ erigi fleering tketr special study. lie has thus
been in a position to prepare a work which ^ within the limits of a
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neeted with water supply^ Through the kindness of Messrs. Ander-
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Milne^ Quick, I^aiolinson, Simpson, and others, seperal works, con-
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r/tcUf will he fully illustrated and described^

AMOT7CST OTHS;:^ IWPOKTAtrr St^BJPCTS THK FOLLOWING WILL BE T^KhtV-St
IN THE text:— '
HtEtoncal Sketch of die mtiaiis that have been pToposed and adopted for the Supipfy
of Water* — Wattr and the Foreign Matter usually asiurjciatcd wjui It.— Rainfall and
I £vaporaiiDn, — Springs and SiibLerranean Lake!^ — HydmulicsK-^The St^lectLon of
\ Sites for Water Wt>rks. — Wells, — Re-NetYcifS-. — Filtration and Filter Beds. — Rcjfcrvoir
I and Filter Med Appendage-ii, — Pumps and AppcndajeN.— Pumpire Macbincrv^—
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Humbef^s Modern Engineering, First Series.

A RECORD Pf tlie PROGRESS of MODERN ENGINEER- ,
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Railway, Bridge, and other Engineering Work^, Ac. By William
HuMBERf Assoc. ItisL C.E,, &c Imp* 410, with 36 Double i
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Hawkshaw, C.E., F,K<S., &c« Price 3/, 3 J. half morocco,

Lisi 0/ ikr Pl€U£s,

NAMK ANC DESCBlp-riOW. PLATES, SfAWH OF ENGlHEER,

Victoria Station and Roof— L.B.&S. C RaiL j to S Mr. R. JaeoraT? Hood, CK* j

Sdulh^rt Pier . ^ „..*..,........ g smd 10 Mr. Jaities Brunle^s, C-E.

Victor;! Sution and Roof— L. C. & D. & G. W,

Raflways .*..,**..,„...„..*♦..„ utotjii. Mr. Toliri Fowler, CE.

Roof of Cremorne Muiic I^U .............. j6 Mr, William Hujiiltr, C. E.

Bridge over G. N. Railway ..... ^ „„...,. . 17 Mr, Tawph CubitE» C. E.

Roofof Statio^ir—Diiilch Rheni^ Railway .. iBand^ig Mr. Euachedi, C.E. ■
Brid£« over the Thames— West London Ex- ■

tension RaUway ,....».» so to ^ Mr. WlUiajn Baker* C,B. f

ArmOLir PbLcs , ...,..,.,,.....*.. »5 Mf. J^™^^ Chaliners, C-E,

S uspejjsion Bridge, Thames .....,,*...*-.., afi to 29 Mr. Peter W, Barlow. C. E,

The Allen Engine 33 Mr. G. T. Porter, M,E.

Suspensioti BndEC, Avon .......... . ,. 31 1033 Mr. John Hawkshaw, C.E.

and W. H. Barlow. C.E.

Underground Railway . . . 34 to 36 Mr. John Fowler. C.E.

With copious Descriptive Letterpress, Specifications, &c. M

" Handsomely lithographed and printed. It wttl find favour with many who desire
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guidance of tbe contractors for many irnportant engineering work^.'^— '£«^>«wr. _

Humier^s Modern Engineering, Second Series^

A RECORD of the PROGRESS of MODERN ENGINEER-
ING, 1864 ; with Photographic Portrait nf Robert Stepheoson^ h
C. E. , M. P- J F. R. S. , &C. Price 3/. 3J. half morocco. ■

IMt iif t?te Piaks. '

NAME Aprp PESCHTPTION. FtATfiS. NAME OF ENGlN^EK.

Btrkcuhead Doek.^, Low Water Basir ...... 1 to 15 Mr. G. F. Lyster, CE. n

Ckarini; Cross Staticm Roof— C. C, Railway. 16 to 18 Mr. Hawkshaw, QM, ■[

Bigswell Viaduct— Great Northern Railway. 19 Mr. I. Cubitt, C.E- ■

RoTih»ry "Wood Viaduct— Crertt N- Railway. ao Mr, J. Cubitt, C.E. ■

Iron Permanent Way *. ** WQ& — ^ ^H

Clydach Viaduct — Merthyr, Tredegar, ai«l H

Abergavenny Railway „..,.,, ..,. bi Mr. Gardner^^ C.E. ^

Ebhw Vinduct ditto ditto ditto sa Mr, Gardner, C.E.

Coll e|;e Wood Viaduct — Cornwall Railway .. 33 Mr, BmneL

Duhliii, Winter Pala.ce Roof. . , , ?4 to 36 Messrs. Ordish & Le Feavno, 1

Bridge over the Thame*— L, C. S D. Railm s? to 32 Mr. J, Cubitt, C.E.

Albert Harbour, Greenock 33 to 56 Messrs. BcU & Miller.

With copious Descriptive Letterpress, Spedfications, &c.

'* A resume ci'aS\ the more interesting and Important works lateily contpletcd in Gn .
Britain ; find containiog, as it does^ carefully executed drawings, with fuU \worku|
detJiilf, it will be found a valuable accessory to the professioi^ at Urge." — Mngitt
"Mr. Hainbo' lias done the profession pood aiid true service, by the fine colk
of examples he has here brought before tbe pio(t^y.OTi iM '(iMs \i\bfciv:," — Pn

WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD Sc CO.

Hnmbe/s Modem Engineering. Third Series.

A RECORD of the PROGRESS of MODERN ENGINEER-
ING, 1865. Imp. 4to, wltli 40 Double Plates, drawn to a large
£ca1e, and Pholo^phic Portrait of J, R, M^Clean, Esq., late Pre-
sident of the Iniititution of Civil Engineers. Price 3/. 3^* lialf
I morocco*

Z/j'/ &/ Plaies and Z)iagraniSt

MAIN DRAINAGE, METROPOLIS.

KoHTH Side.
Map s-hAwifig InterQCpdon of Sewers.
Middle Ltvel Sewer* Sewer under Re-

l^ent's CanaL
Middle Level Stwcr. JimctiOD ^ifa Fleet
Ditch.

Bridge over River Lea^

Outfell Sewer*
EltvatioD.

Outfall Stwer,
DetAiis.

Oatfall Sewcrn
DETtaiLfi,

Otitlall Sewer.

Bddge qfvcr River Lea,
bridge over River L^.

Bndge uver Marsh Lane
North Woolwich Hallway, and Bow and
BarkfuR Railwav' Junction*

Outfall iicwcr. feridfie iJVpr Bow and
B^LTklDg RailiAray. Klevation.

OuUaU Scwcr. Bridge over Bow and
Barking Railway- Deuibw

Outihll Sewer. Bridge over Bow and
Barking Railway. Details.
11 1 fall ScwtT. Bridge over Ea^t London
WaicrworJci' Feedeir. Elevation*
Ltfall Sewer Bridge over Elft&t London
Wfckierworlcs' Feeder. Details.

Outfall Sewer, RcKrvoir. Plaw*

Outfall Sewer. Reservoir* Secdon.

Oat&U Sewer* Tumbling Bay and Outlet.

OlU&lI Sewer, femtocks.

South Sjde*
Oulfall SewcT. Berntotid.sey Branch.
Dutfall Sewer. Bennondsey Branch*
Outlatl Sewer. Re^ervQk aitd Outlet
Plan.

MAIN DRArNAGE. METROPOLIS,
Reservoir and Outlet.

Re^rvotr and Outlet.

Resetvoir and Outkt.

Fdth Hoist.

(North aod South

Outfall Sewer.

Details.
Outfall Sewer.

Details,
Outfall Scwef,

Detail.';.
Outfall Sewer.
Sections of Sewers

Sid(»)*

THAMES EMBANKMENT,

Section of River W*i 11*

Steam-hoat Pier, Westminster, Etevatigp.

Steam-boat Pier, Westminster. Deta.lt&.

Xjandinff Stairs between Chaiin^ Cros^^
and Waterloo Bridges.

York Gate. Front Elevation,

York Gale. Side Elevation and Details.

QvedlowandOudet at Savoy St^-oet Sewer.
Details.

Overftow and Outlet at Savoy Street Sewer*
Penstock.

Overrto w and Outlet at Savoy Street S ewer.
Penjitock.

Steam-boat Pier, Waterloo Bridge* Eleva-
tion.

Steam-boat Pier,. Waterloo Bridge. Dc*
tails*

Steam-boat Pier, Waterloo Bridge, De-
tails.

Junction of Sewers. Plans and Sections,

Gullies. Plaits and Sectioios,

Rolling Stock.

Granite and Iron Forts*

Witli copious Descriptive Letterpres-Sj Specifications, &c*
OpbzwTis of the Press,

^^ *' Mr. Humber'sv works — especially his annual * Record/ with whsch 50 many of our

j teaders are now familiar — BU a void occupied hy no other branch of literature. ....

The drawings have a constantly increasuijj value, and whoevci: desires to possess clear

representations of the two ertat warks carried mit by our Metropolitaa Board will

j omain Mr. Humber's last volume."— £flji«flfria^.

I " Bfo engineer, architect, qr contractor should fail to preserve these records of works

which, for magnitude, have not their parallel In the present day, no student Ln the
ptnf&§s]Qn but should carefully study the details itf these great works, which he may be
Qflc day called upon to lia'iXai^^^-M'ecAajtiCf' Mxga-zmn.

* A work highly creditable to the industry of its riuihor, * . . , The volume is quiu*
[^tb encyclopsedja for the study of the student who desires to maste*; tke BiaVNv.t, ^t
^itieipal drainage on its Kiale of gr^atfiit^ dcvdwpmenc"— f ''^^^"^*^^ Methaittt*

^^"^ Mni^^~^^^^^ .^i^f* Fourth Series.

.,1 ^'iS/^^^^^i^Tneers* Price 3/, jj, half- morocco. h
/'/iiFhiss and I}ia'jrams^ H

^^^jrTlO?'* PLATES, NAME OF CNGINKER, ■

'''JLp^ - ' ...... .... 1 to 4 Mr, Ba/3l«[ tc. C. E .

jfj0i»'*7!7 ' ;;i , s to 9 Messrs. M^CIcan & Stillmin,

*K^^5tf* to, II Mr. W. Loyd, CE. M

^S^- ' v" S£.Hclai'sCanalRatIw. 12,13 Mr. H, Cross, CE. ■

^ ^A!J>^ri«i K^f. Chflirbig Cross ■

Ji'^^**' "'■■ 14 to ifi Mr. J. Hawkiltaw, C.E. ■

^■fi^T ' ^ ^ '^* -^^^ Moka ...... 1 7 , i 8 Mr. H, Wakefield, C. E. fl

^— -^Hfiff^^inQajatusrorMewpotamia . ... 19 Mr. Siemens^ C.E, ■

K ^^^^Sthe^i^'^'" Wye, Midland RaiJw. so to J3 Mr. W. H. Barlow, C.E, ■

^B ri^*^ « Vi*^^'^*^ '"''^'^^^^^ ^=^^l^'*'^y ■■ ' =3f =4 Mr. Bnmet, C.E. H

■^ cA'^TfOii Cylinder for Diving Bell 35 Mr, J, Coodc, C. EL. ■

fl^'^'^^fiocks ...*..... 261031 Messrs. J. Fowler, C.E., and

MJJ*^ ^'^ Williain Wilson, C. E,

tg patedt Excavator ..*..„..* 3a Mr. Milroy, C E.

'\^ I^NTflliuu* District Railway < ...... ^ ..<. .. 33 to 38 Mr. J. Fowler, Engineer^ii)'

^^^*^ CHief, and Mr. T. M.

g^bour!t| Forts, and Breakwaters- .*..,..** A to c • ^|

A concluding article on Harbours, Ports^ and Breakwaters, willi^l
Ilhistraiions and detailed descriptions of the Breakwater at Cher-^
bourg, and other important modern works ; an article on the
^^ Telegraph Lines of Mesopotamia ; a full description of the Wronght-
^^ iron Diving Cylinder for Ceylon, the circumstances under whidb it
^H was u,sed, and the nieans of working it ; full description of the
^V Mill wall Docks } &€., fi:c., &c, ^H

Opinions 9/ the Press. H

"'Mr, Hummer's ' Record of Modem Engineerinj * is a work of peculiar value, as ^^
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working drawings of all the most recetnt and noteworthy engineering worki. The
plates iirc excellently lithographedj and the present volume of the * Record' is mot a
whit behind its predecessors."— ^/fi:,%^w*K'.F' Magnzitt^,

*' We gladly welcome amother ^f ear's issue of this vaiunble piTblication from the able
pea of Mr. Munibcr. I'he accuracy aad general excel Icncc of tbis work are welt
lenowtij while its usefulness in giving tbe measiirernenits and detaik of &ome of the
latest examples of engineering, as carried out by the most eminent men id the profef!-^
bion, cannot be too highly pxhtd."'--Arfi£aft^

*'The volumi; forms a valuable ccnipianion to those which have preceded rt, aad
cannot fail to prove a most important addition to cvciy engineering library.'"^ — Mining

** No One of Mr. Hiin]lscr''s volumes was had \ all were worth their cost, from the .
mass J plates from well-executed drawings which they contained. In thLi respect, |
perhsp!<if thh lajt volume if the most valuable that the author has pnxluced.^ — J^rai^^m

H WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO. 5 I

Humdef^s Great Work on Bridge Constrtution,

A COMPLETE and PRACTICAL TREATLSE on CAST and
WROUGHT-IRON BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION, including
Iron Foundations, In Three Parts — Theoretical, Practical, and
Descriptive. By WiLUAM Humber, Assoc. Inst C. E., and M, Inst
M.E. Third Edition, revised and much improved, ^dth 115 Double
Plates {20 of wbich now first appeaj^ in this edition), and^numerous
additions to the Text, In 2 vols. imp. 4to», price 6/, l6s* td. half
bound in morocco.
■*A very valoablt ccmlriTjutit* to the sUndard literature of civil cnK'nemnr. In
addition to elevations, plans, and sections, lar^e scale details are given^ which very
much cohjiiicc the instructive worth of thcs^c niii.>ilrsLtioti^. No cugiuccr would wif-
lingty be withoul so valuable a fimd of inrormatioa." — Civii ERginefr and A txhiieci's

** The FtrsE or Theoretic^ Part contains mathematical tnvc^ttgaticns of thcjprin-

iti^ation^ are CJeceedingly complete^ havmg evidently been very carefully con-
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ciples involved in the various forms now adopted in bridge construction,
investigations are CJeceedinely complete^ having evidently been very carefully

The tables are of a very useful character, containing the re^ult-si of the most recent
expcriittents, and amongst them are Eomc valuable tables of the weight and cost of
cast and wroujjht-iron structures actually erected. The volume of text is amply illuR-
triitcd by numerous woodcut's, plates^ and diagrams ; and the plates in the second
volume do great credit to boih arunglUfjcncn and engravers. In coticltifttonj we have
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" Mr. H umber's stately volumes lately issued— in which the most important bridges
erected duiing the last five yearSj under the direction of the late Mr. Brunei, Sir W.
Cwbitt,, Mr. HawkshaWt Mr. Page, Mr. Fowlcri,Mr. Hemans, and others among our
most eminent engineers, are drawn and ^ecified in great dctaiU^'^^^M/jrW^r'.

IVealis Engineers^ Pockei-Book,

THE ENGINEERS', ARCHITECT.^, and CONTRACTORS'
POCKET-BOOK (Lock wood & CoJs; formerly Wkale's).
Published Annually, In roan tuck, gilt edges, with 10 Copper-
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or less intimately connected with their profession." — Cillery Guardiau,

** Every branch of engineering is treated of, and facts, figures, and data of every
kind^tbound." — MrcAamci* Mng,

* ' It contaiits a Large amount of information peculiarly valuable to tha'je for who.se
use It is compiled. We cordially commend it to the engineering and architectural
prafe^ions generally*'* — Mining Jtmrfini*

^^mlron Bridges, Girders^ Roo/s, &£.

^m A TREATISE on the APPLICATION of IRON to the COK-

^K STRUCTION of BRIDGES, GIRDERS, ROOFS, and OTHER

^^H WORKS ^ showing the Principles upon which such Stnictures are

^^B Designed, and their Practical AppUcivtion. Especially ajnranged for

^H the use of Students and Practical Mechanics, all Mathematical For-

^H mdre and Symbols being excluded. By Francis Campin, C.E.

^H With numerous Diagrams. t2nio., cloth boards, 3/.
^^P •* For numljers of young engineers the book is Just the cheapo handy, first gu'dc

''^liivalualjle to those who have not been educated m mathematka.'*— C«)///f'rjr
CtiordiaK.

' Remarkably af Curate and well written.^' — ArtizaiU

I
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WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO.

Barlow on the Strengik of Materials^ enlarged.

A TREATISE ON THE STRENGTH OF MATERIALS,
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Power of Locomotive Engines, and the effect of Inclined Planes
and Gfidients. By Peter Barlow, F.R.S. A New Edition,
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produced by passing Weights over Elastic Bars, by the KeVij
Robert Willis, ^L A., r.R,S* And Formal se for Calculatii^
GiiderSj kc. The whole arranged and edited by W. HUMBFJ
Assoc Inst. C.E.J Author of ** A Complete and Practical Treat!
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8vo, 400 PP-, with 19 large Plates, and numerous woodcuts, pri
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" Alt^dugh i^aued as th& sixth edilioo, the vol unit und'er consideration is worth:^ of
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is undoubtedly worthy of the highest comtnenrtatioii.'* — MiTtmg^ y^urfuti-

^ An iacreased value Kas been given to this very valuable work hy the addition rC

' ' ' an high'

and editing
aidEs of information has been undertaken by Mr. HumbcTj who has most ably fulElIeda

a large amount of iitfurmation, which cannot pinvc otherwise than highly u^efitl i!t

thoi^e who require to consult it. ^ , * . The arrsngenient and editing of this
■ - ^ ^ -^ -- - . ^ sblyfL"'" ■

r^ Ma
We]

ta?ic fequaing special care ftnd ability to render it a Pieces?;,"— AfffAaBirj' MAgtaim
**l"he best book on the subject which has yet appeared. * . » , We kaowo
no work that so completely fiifjila its ^^au. —£»g/h/i Mtchnnic.

** Tliere is not a pupil jn an enginceriug school j an apprentsce in an engineer's or
architect's office, &r a competent clerk of works, who wilt not recognise in the scicndfio

volume newly given to ciiJCulateon» an old and vahied friend.'^ — BuiMittg- I^tt
" Tbc standand trcjiti^e UfKin this particular suhjecti."— ^w^Vre^fr.

' Strains, Fomitil^ & Diagrams for Caktilation q

A HANDY BOOK for the CALCULATION of STRAIN!
in GIRDERS and SIMILAR STRUCTURES, and their
STRENGTH ;consi5tinu of Formulccand Corresponding Diograttis,
\A\\\ numerous Details for Practical Applicationj &c. By WnxiAii
IlUMBER, Assoc. Inst* C^E,, &c» Fcap. Svo, witli nearly^ lOO
Woodcuts and 3 Plates^ price 7x, td. dola.

^The ^rrangemexit of the matter in this little volume is as c<inir«iiient as it well
could be, . . * , The system of ern ploying diagrams .t,s a subftitute for coinj '
computations is one Justly coming into great favour, and in that relpKct Mr. Hi
Volume is fully itp to the times. ^ — Enj^mtefhis^,

**The formulae are neatly expresed, and the di^grains goDd>^^^^i4/-Artf«MtP«*
" Wc heartily commend this redly kattdy book to our engineer and aid^l
Ittnders." — MnsHsk Mrckanh^

Mechanical Engineering.

A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON MECHANICAL ENGI-
NEERING : comprising Metallurgy, Moulding, Casting, Forging,
Tools, Worltshop Machinery, Mechanical Mfli^ipuJation, Manufac*
tnre of the Steam Engine, &c. &c. With an Appendix on tb«
Analysis of Iron and Iron Ore, and Glossary of Terms* By FRANCIS
CampiNi C.K lUustrated with 91 Woodcuts and 28 Plates of
Slotting, Shaping, Drilling, Punching, Shearing, and Rlvettng
M^chin^ — Blast, Refining, and Reverb€ratory Furnaces^— Steam
M^gia^ GoyemoTBj Boilers, Locoiao\i\cs, &c.. ^t^a^dat^ ikj, ~

!ieir

:aii
100

IS it well
coWiptoK

WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO.

Sirains.

Wk THE STRAIJSrS ON STRUCTURES OF IRONWORK;

^r with Practical Remarks on Iron Construction, By^F. W. Skmlds,
M* Inst, C, E* Second Edition, with 5 plates. Royal Svo, Jj, cloth,
CoNTE^fTS +"— Introductory Remarks ; Beams Loaded at Centre \ Bdmii Loaded at
unequa] diiitiuices between supports \ B^am% itnifonsaly Leaded : Girders with tri^ngw-
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portion metris of Material to Strain ; Compa.risnn of different Girders j Froportioa of
Licngih to Depth of Girders \ CharaiCtcr of tlie Work ; iron Roofs*

Construction of Iron Beams^ Pillars^ &c.

IRON AND HEATj Exhibiting the Principles concerned in the
^^ Construction of Iron Beams, Pillars, and Bridge Girders, and the
^H Action of Heat in the Smelting Furnace, By Jamks Armour,
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^^" *' No ironworker who wishes to acquaint hiiiL'ielf with the principles of his own
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,JPower in Motion,

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A TREATISE ON THE METALLURGY OF IRON : con-
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Aasay, and Analyses of Iron Ores, Processes of Manu&cttire of
Iron and Steel, &c. By H* BAtJERMAN, F.G,S., Associate of the
Royal School of Mines, With numerous Illustrations* Fourth
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\yiist piMshtd.
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, Trigonometrical Surveying.

AN OUTLINE OF THE METHOD OF CONDUCTING A
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their Calculation, By Lteut-Gkneral Frome, R.E., lat^ tTfc>
spector-General of Fortifications^ &C. FourlU EAiticncsM, ^xiai^p^
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Drawing far Engineers^ &c

THE WORKMAN^S MANUAL OF ENGINEERING
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*' Aii indispensable book for teachers of engineering drawing." — M^hmi,

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A TREATISE on the PRINCIPLES and PRACTICE
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and Civil Engineering, in the Construction of Roads ; with Mr.
Telford's Rules for the same. By Frederick W. Si&ims,
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the addition of Mr, Law's Practical Examples for Setting out
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'* The icxt-book on levelliia^ in most of our engineenng schools and colleges^""

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*' Ptnctjcal Ulustrations of the tabulated quantities arc given, which make the
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, "Two additionSi one subtraction^ and fcjur imiU\ii>Vi«kt.ions, with the use of
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A PRACTICAL ESSAY on the STRENGTH of CAST IRON
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The High-Pressure Steam Engine,

THE HIGH'PRESSURE STEAM ENGINE ; an Exposition

^H of its Comparative Merits, and an Essay towards an Improved

^H System of Construction, adapted especially to secure Safety and

^V Economy, By Dr. Ernst Alb an, Practical Machine Maker,

^H Plan, MeckleQl^eig. Translated from the German, with Notes, by

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A TREATISE ON STEAM BOILERS : tbe!r Strength, Con-
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^mTaSles of Curves.

H TABLES OF TANGENTIAL ANGLES and MULTIPLES

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" Very handy * a man may know that all his day's work mu^t fall on two of the^e
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Laying Out Curves.

THE FIELD PRACTICE of LAYTOG 0\3t e\^i:Xi\.K^

I CURVES for ilAILROADS. By Tort* C, T^Mi"^^va^v.?£*.
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Surveying (Land and Marine).

LAND AND MARINE SURVEYING, in Reference to the
Preparation of Plan^ for Roads and Railways, Canals, Rivers,
Towns' Water Supplies, Docks and Flarbours ; witli Description
and Use of Surveying Instniiiietits. By W. DAVIS Haskoltl, C. E.,
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office," — Cifiiiefy CuArduifi^

" A volume which cannot fail to prove of tile utmoLst practical utility, , . , ,

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we I

Engineering Fieldwork.

THE PRACTICE OF ENGINEERING PIELDWORK,
applied to Land and Hydraulic, Hydrographic, and Submarine
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Mining, Surveying and Valuing.

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proved Instruments ; also an Exposition of the Connect Principles
of Laying out and Valuing Home and Foreign Iron and Goal
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the Credit Mobilier, Paris) TREATISE oti COMPOUND IN-
TEREST and ANNUITIES, with LOGARITHMIC TABLES.
By William Lintern, Mining and Civil Engineer. i2mo,
strongly bound in cloth boards^ with four Plates of Dia^ams, J
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^^ Contains much vn/nable Information givKi in a ^tca^ cnn^jpaj^ and wWcli, ai Hirl
^'\^S/*^^'^ festetJ it, is tharpugMy trust vrorthy."—/r4J« ciwi Coal Tr»<i«s Rre^ciM.
^*'^ Matter, arrangcniGnl, and illvistratioti of iVixs -wotV. att ^l t^i^tWoA^ 'a;B^Tiiis^>i&
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Fire Engineering.

FIRES, FIRE-ENGINES, AND FIRE BRIGADES. With
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^H Life from Fire % Statistics of the Fire Appliances in EIngUsh
^H Towns ; Foreign Fire Systems ; Hints on Fire Brigades, &c., &c
^H By Charles F. T. YounCi, C.E, With numerous Illustrations,
^F handsotnfly printed, 544 pp^. , demy Svo, price \L 4s. clotk
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rfanual of Mining Tools.
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** A very valiiable work, which will tetid materially to improve our minmg Uteiia»

EGas and Gasworks.
I A TREATISE on GASWORKS and the PRACTICE of
I MANUFACTURING and DISTRIBUTING COAL GAS,
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COAL AND COAL MINING t a Rudimentary Treatise on. By
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THE ENGINEER'S. MINING SURVEYOR'S, and CON^
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of Tables, with RuleSf Explanations of Systems, and Use of Theor^
dohte for Traverse Surveying and Plotting the Work with minute^
accuracy by means of Straight Edge and Set Square only ; Levelling
with the Theodolite, Casting out and Reducing Levels to Datum,
and Plotting Sections in the ordinary manner; Setting out Curves
with the Theodolite by Tangential Angles and Multiples wth Right
and Left-hand Readings of the Instrument; Setting out Curves
without Theodolite on the S3fStem of Tangential Angles by Sets of
Tangents and Offsets ; and Earthwork Tables to So feet deep, cal*
culated for every 6 inches in depth. With numerous wood-cuts,
lamoj price I2J* cloth.

Etoy person
J of such a. work

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cables prepared with the accuracy and fulneiis of those given in this Totutne," — Ritil-

''The bcKik is ver>' handy^ and the author mig^ht have a^tded that the scpaji^te tables
of sines and tangeints to every minute will make it useful for many athcr ptirposc^F (He j
geauine traverse tabks existing; all the sa-mc."— ^^A^'rttfww.

*' The work forms a handsome pocket volume, and cannot fail, from its pOrtsibnit'_
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** We strongly recommend this sccotid edition of Mr. HaskolFs ' Field Book* t
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Earthworky Measurement and Calculation of,

A MANUAL on EARTHWORK. By Alex, J, S. Graham,
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THE DESIGN and CONSTRUCTION of HARBOURS % A
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Jifailimiaiical and Drawing Instruments,

A TREATISE OK THE PUl^iClPAl. MATHEMATICAL
AI^D URAWING IKSTKUMET^TS tmp\o^ei\)-j fet¥.T^Tk^r,
Archltt^ct, and Surveyor. By Fr^Tiy.WVCK \^S . %>ywlm^^ >»L \t&\..
C.K, Author of " Practical TumeUltY^" ^^^ Tbiv4¥^^\<iw,^'&t
^el■ous Cuts, ramo, price 3^- ^d. a^\x.

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} illustrated with 6 pages of Diagrams, Imp. 4t0j price 2/, I2J* hd^

Ualf-morocco.

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I Mathematical Instruments^ their Construction, &c.
MATHEMATICAL INSTRUMENTS : tieeir CONSTRUC-
TION, ADJUSTMENT, TESTING, AND USE^ con^prismg
Dravrii^g, Measuring, Optica!, Sun'eying, and Astronomical Instru-
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^eales Dictionary of Terms,

A DICTIONARY of TERMS used m ARCmT^CT^i^^
BUILDING, ENGINEERING, MINING, IsViLit KUkJG^^N. ^
ARCHMOLOCY, thQ FINE ARTS, Sec. B-f ^o\\t^ V'^S.*
Fointh Edition, enJarged and revised by Koimlwv \V\i^'ii^ ^^ v-rtii"
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t. Hollow and Bar Ketb, Stem and

Stem Posts. [Paeffis*

a. Sidti Fjrameiii^ FJcoritif^^ and Bilge

3. Floonngs ccnimufii — Keelsons,Deck

Beams, GLinwales^ and Stringers.

4, Gunwal &, coittimt^d— Lowe r Decks j

ajid Orlop Beara.^,
4^, Cunw2.Ie5 and Deck Beam Trod.
S- Awglc-lron, T Iron, Z Iron, Bulh

Iron, as Rolled for Build cng,
& Rivets, shoiAii Ln section, natUTAl si jte ;

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£Hd in Section, and End Vieir,

with Stem Post, Cmtchea, &c»
1 3, Large f^cjjif/jshowing Detailis — After

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Stem Frame for Screw, and Rudder,
t^. £ rt r^^i Vissti, she} wing Details— ,A/iif-

s^hij^ SectiffttAiinXX breadth.
t5, Afachiurs for PnnchinK iuid Sheanng

Plates and Angle- Iron^ and fof

Balding Plates ; Rivet Health.
15a, Beam- Bending Machine, Ifldepen-

dent Shearing, Punching and Angle-
Iron Machine.

35*. DouLle Lever Ptinching and Shearing
MachinCi arrflnged. for cuttunfii
Angle and T Iron, with Divxdinjj
T^fcble and Engine.

tS, Ma^Mn^s. --<jarforth^s Riveting Ma-
chine, Drilluig ajad CouiHer-iSiiikln,^
Machine.

x6a. Plate Plaiutig Ma.chiu«.

17. Air Furtive for Hciting Platfis afirl
Angle- Iron : Various Topk u^d in
RiviiEinE and Plating.

iS. Guivwiilf I Keel and Flfioring^; Plan
for Sheathing with Copper*

(8fl. Grantham'^InipryvedP^ of Sheath-
ing Iron Ships with Copper.

ig. Illustrations of the Mai^nctic Condi-
tion of varton^^ [ran Ships.

ao* Gray's Floating Coni|»sfi and Bin-
nade, with Adjusting Magnetite fitc.

31, Corroded Iron Bolt in Frame of
Woodrn Ship ; Jt^nting Plates.

33*4, Great i^oj^/frv— LongitudiiiaJ Sec-
tions and Half-breadth Planj} — Mid-
ship Section, with Detaiki — Sectwm
in Engine Room j and Pi»ddIeBo*e>.

aS-*^ Paddle Steam Vessel of St*el,

37. S£ar^roug/t-^Pa.6dle Vessel of SteeL

sS-g^ Fropo^ Passenger Steamer.

30. /'^^j/jjAi— Iron Screw Steamer^

31. Midship Sectitin of M.,M* Steam

Frigmte, IVatf'wr,
32» Midahip Section of H.M. Steam

Frigatej Hercules.
33. Stem, Sterii, and Rodder of M.M*

Steatn Frigate, Bfllere/^ffft^
54^ lil id&hip Section of H, M. Trodp^ Shipp

Serahly. ^
35. Iron Floaling Dock.

Y A thorouchly practical work, and every question of the many in relation ta iron
shipping whicl'i admit of diversity of opimant or have various and conflicting, persoi^
intere^t^ attached to them, is treated with solurr and impartial wisdom and go^ sesse.
» * . , A& good a volume for the instruction of the pupil or student of iron nawi
architecture a£ can he found in any language."— /*nK:^ii:ii/ Mtrhanki* y^HrnaL

** A very elaborate work, * * . It forms a most valuable addition m> the historv'
of iron «hipbLiilding, while its having been pre|iared by one who has mnde the subject <
Kis study far many years* and whose qualifJcations have been rcpeaieiily recogwt-Wci,
will recommend it as one of practical utility to all interested in ihipbuiiding.'^-^.^r7f/y
mtd JVovy Gazette^.

Steam.

THE SAFE USE OF STEAM : containing R^les for Unpro-
JessionaJ Steam Users. By an Eng\^E¥,?..

M B, — Tkis Utile tmrk should Ih hi thi hand^ «>/ €vtry ftr^n '
^^'fig- /& iiti^i im'ik aSieam Engine t^f any kind,

^in- tigers wnuJd but Icam this \itt\e \jOcV. b^r ^e»n. m*4 Ote^ \uKftA toji

^ tG do liiesatnc, a«d see tliat the Utter do tt, >^™i^ mM^\w.vsD&'mt!^^

mtioas by thclt rarily."— ^^t^^iiA Mtchamc,

WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO.

ARCHITECTURE, &c.

Canstruction.

^L THE SCIENCE of BUILDING i An Elementary Treatise m

^H the Principles of ConstTTaclion. By E. Wyndham Tarn, M.A.,

^H Afchitect, Illustrated with. 47 Wood Eagmvings- Demy Svo,

^H price &/, td. doth. [Recefiiiy puMlih^d^

^V " A very TataaWe boot, ivfikh wc strongly recommend to all students,^— ^w/Z^/Ci*^.

I "While Mt. Tarn's valoablfr little volume is quite sufficii^ritly scientific to answer

the purposes mEeacIcd, it is irriltcn in a iityle that wUl deservedly make it populAr,

The ttiag r atHfi atie niunerous and exceedjxijgiy well executed, and the tresiti.'iC di>e5

crcditaiDte to the author and the publisher. '^jE'flSfftwwn

"No architectural student should be without this hand-b<H3k of GOnstmctioiial

**The ijook ii very far (rom being a mere compilation ; it is an able digest af
infortnation which is only to be faiind. scattered throu.^h various works^ and contains
more FeaLly original writing th;ui nixuiy piittmg forth Jkr stronger daims to originAliiy/'

Beaton's Pocket Estimator.

THE POCKET ESTIMATOR FOR THE BUILDING
TRADES, bemg an easy method of estimating the various parts
of a Building collecLively, mote especially apjHied to Carpenters'
and Joiners' work^ priced according to the present value of material
and labour. By A, C. Beatok, Author of * Quantities and
Measuremeuts. * 33 Woodcuts, Leather. Waistcoat -pocket size, ZJ*

Beaton sBMilders^ and Surv^ors Technical Guide.

I THE POCKET TECHNICAL GUIDE AND MEASURER
FOR BUILDERS AND SURVEYORS: contauiing a Complete
Explanation of the Terms used in Building Constmction, Memo-
raDda for Reference, Technical Directions for Measuring Work ia
all the Building Trades, with a Treatise on the Measurement oi
TimbeiSj and Complete Specifications for Houses, Roads;, and
Drains. By A. C, Beaton, Author of * Quantities and Measure-
ments/ With ig Woodcuts* Leather- Waistcoat pocket si^e, 2i,
Villa Architecture,

»A HANDY BOOK of VILLA ARCHITECTURE ; being a
Series of Designs for Villa Residences in various Styles. With
Detailed Specifications and Estimates* By C* WiCKES, Architect,
Author of ** The Spires and Towers of the Mediae val Churches of
England,'' Sec, First Series, consisting of 30 Plates j Second
Senes, 31 Plates. Complete in i voh 4to, price 2/, lof, half
morocco. Either Series separate, price i/. ys. each, half morocco.
" ^e whole of the dedans bear evidence of their bein^ the work of an artistic
^fchiiect, and they will prove very valuable and suggestivt to ardutnts, studeols,^ aiul

I The Architecfs Guide.

THE ARCHITECTS GUIDE j or, Office and Pocket Com-
panion for Engineers^ Architects, L^nd and Building Surveyors,,
Contractors, Builders, Clerks of Works^ fitc. B^ Vf, B>w^t\^
Haskoli, CE., R. W, Billings, Atchiifctii ¥. Uwi^^% ^kc^
P. Thomfson, With numerous ETcpervmeTLls \f^ Gt. "^JE-T^^I^e^
C.£., Jfea Woodcuts, r^mo, clotK, pric^ V* tui.

Arekiiecttirey AncietU and Modern.

RUDIMENTARY ARCHITECTURE, Ancient aiul Modem.
Consisting ot VlTRUVlUS, translated by Joseph GwUhT,
r.S.A., &C-, with 23 fine copper plates j GRECIAN Archi-
tecture, by tlie Earl of Auerdeen ; tlie ORDERS of
Architecture, by W. H, Leeds, Eiiq.; The STYLES of Archi-
ll tecture of Various Counlries^ by T. Talbot Buryj The
V PRINCIPLES of DESIGN in Architecture, by E. L. Garbett.
In one handsome volnnie, lialf-bonnd (pp. I,i0o), copiously Ulus-
tmted, price r2j,

*^* Sold separaidy\ in two voh.^ asfdImvSy prke 6jr. each, h/.-hd,
ANCIENT ARCHITECTURE, Coiuaining GwiU's Vitnivins
and Abertleeu^s Grecian Architectnre*

N . B.— Thh h the mtly idiiion of VITRUVIUS pr<^€Urabk ai a
modirati pricc^
MODERN ARCFITTECTURE, Containing tlie Orders, by Leeds ;
The Styles, by Bury ; and Principles of Desigri, by Garbett,

The Young Architect's Book.

HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS. By George Wight-
wick, Archited;, Author of *' The Palace of Architecture," &c. Stc
New Edition, revised and enlarged. By G. HtiSKlSSON GuiL-
LAUME, Architect. With numerous illustrations. izmo. cloth
boards, 4J* \y^isi PubU$h€ti,

Drawing for Builders and Students,

PRACTICAL RULES ON DRAWING for the OPERATIVE

BUILDER and YOUNG STUDENT in ARCHITECTURE,

By George Pyne, Author of a '* Rudimentary Treatise on Per*

spective for Beginners*" With 1 4 Plates, 4to, 7^. 6//., boards.

Contents^ — I. Practical Rules on Drawing— Outlines, II. Ditto — the Qrecian

and Rcrraan Orders. Ill, Pratiticvil Rules on Drawicig— Perspeciivt lY. Prac ttiiit

RulcE an Light and Shade^ V« Practical Kulcs an Coltiur, &o &&

Cottages, Villas, and Cotintry Houses,

DESIGNS and EXAMPLES of COTTAGES, VILLAS, and
COUNTRY HOUSES ; being the Studies of several eminent
Arcliitects and Builders ; consisting of Plans, Elevations, and Per-
spective Views J with approximate Estimates of the Cost of each. ,
In 4to, witli 67 plates, price l/. I J,, clyth* ■

Builder s Price Book. V

LOCKWOt:>D & COJS BUILDER*S AND CONTRACTOR'S
PRICE BOOK — with which is incorporated AtchLEV'Bj and por-
tions of the laLe G. R. Burn ell's Builders* Price Books— for 1875^
containing the latest prices of all kinds of Builders' Materials and
Labour^ and of all Trades connected with Building; with many
nsefiil and important Memoranda and Tables ; Lists of the Meni-
liers of the Metropolitan Board of Works, of Districts, District
Officers, and District Surveyors^ and the MeiropoHtan Bye-laws*
The whole revised and edited by Francis T. W. Miller, Archi*
led stnd Surveyor. Fcap. Svo^ stroRg\if \iaVt-\i^iyLM| ^ce ^r.

I WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO. 17

\lTanddook of Specifications.

I THE HANDBOOK OF SPECIFICATIONS ; or, Practical
I Guide to the Architect, Engineer, Surveyor, and Builder, in drawing
I op Specifications and Contracts for Works and Constructions.
I lUustrated by Precederits of Buildings actually executed by eminent
i Arckitects and Engineers. Preceded by a Preliminary Essay ^ and
i Skeletons of Spec in cat ions and Contracts, &c.| &Cj and e^splained

^^^ by numerous Lithograph Plates and Woodcuts* By Professor
^^fc Thomas L. Donaldson, President of the Royal Institute of British
^^BArchitects, Professor of Architecture and Construction, University
^^BCoUege, LondoHt MpLB^A*, Member of the various European
^^B Academies of the Fine Arts, With A Review of the Law of
^^" CoNTRACis, and of the Respotasibilities of Architects, Engineers,
I ajid Builders. By W, CtlNNmoHAM Glen, Barrister- at- Law, of
I the Middle Temple. 2 yo1s», Svo, with upwards of tioopp. of

I text, and 33 Lithographic Plates, cloth, zL 2J. (Published at 4/. )
*' In these two yolufflies of i^ loo pajg^es (together), fort|f-foiir specifications of exr exited
wrflrks are given, induding the specificaiions for parts of the neiiv Houfiefl of Partiament,
by Sif Diarfes Barry, jiiid for the riew Rcsyal Ejfchati^c, by Mr. Tile, M,F.

1'^ Amongst ihe other known! buildings, the Epeqificatjons of which are eiverii are
Oie Wiltiihife LLinaEic A.sylum (Wyatt and Brandon) ; Tothill Fields Pri&cin {R, Abra-
ham) ; the City Prison,, Hollowav^JJuiiniiie) : the High School, Edinbiii^h (Hamilton) :
ClothwifrltcrR" Hall, London (Angel) ; Wellrngtoft College, Sandhiinst O, Shawj %
Uouties LD Grosivenor Square, and elsewhere : St. George's Churchy Doncaster
(Scott)^ several works of smaller stae by the Auihor^ including Messrs. Shaw's Ware-
iiousc in Fetter Lane, a very successful elevation ; the Newcastle-opun-Tyne R^ulway
Station (J. Dolir^ou) ; new Westminj^ter Bridge (Page) ; the High Level Bridge, New-
<^£tLe {iL Stephenson) \ various works on the Great Northern Railway {Brydone) \
and one Frenth specification for Houses in the kuc de Rivolij P;aLrilii (MM* Armand,
HUtDrffj, FcUtxhet,. and Rohault de Fleury^ architects). The majority of the specifi-
cations have ilhistiations in the shapir of elevations and plans*

'* About 140 pages of the secf>nd volume are appropriated to an exposition of the
law In relatif^n to the legal liabilities of engineers, architects, contractors^ and buUden^
by Mr. W. Cunrtmgh;itii Olefin Barristcr-at-laVf* Donal<Uon's Handbook of Spe-
cificacions must be bought by all architects*" — Buildtr,

Specifications for Practical Architecture,

I, SPECIFICATIONS FOR PRACTICAL ARCHITECTURE r
I A Guide to the Architect, Engineerj, Surveyor, and Builder; with
I an Essay on the Structure and Science of liodern Bui Id i tigs. By
I Fredkkjck: KoGEKfj, Architect* With numerous Illustrations.
I Demy Svo, price i^s,^ clolb, {rublished at \L ioj.)
[ * ^* A volume of specifications of a practical character l>eing jgreatly required, and the
prid :standard work of Alfred Bartholomew bcuig out of print, the author, on the bastfi
•i&f that work, has produced the above. Sotue of the specifications he has so altered
as to bring iji the now Liniversal use of concrete^ the improventents in drainage, the
use of iron* gUsn, ;^sphake, and other tnatcrtal. He has also inserted specifications
of ivorks that have been erected in his o'^v'n practice*

The House-Owner* s Estimator

THE HOUSE-OWNER'S ESTIMATOR; or. What will it
Cost to Build, Alter, or Repair? A Price- Book adapted to the
Use of Unprofessional People as well as for the Architectural
Surveyor and Builder. By the late James D. Simom, A.K.I B*A.
Edited and Revised by Francis T. W. Miller, SuTrveyor* Wltl\
nu merotis lUmiv^iions. Second Ed\tvon, V\t\v XVit -^inES.^ vvMLtfi^s^^
revised to }Sj$. Cro^im Svo. clotli, pt\cc :JJ* twi.

|8 WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD &. CO.

CARPENT RY, ^ TI MBER, &C.

Tredgold's Carpentry^ new^ enlarged^ a?id cheaper
Editimi.

THE ELEItffiNTAIlT PRINCIPLES OF CARPENTRY :

^L a Treatise on the Pressure and Equilibrium of Timber ErsumDgt the

^B Resistimce of Timber, and the Coustruction of Flogrs, Arclie^j

^p Bridges, Roofe, Uniting Iron and S tone with Timber^ &c* To which

^1 is added an Essay on the N^dure iuid Properties of Timber^ &c*,

^L willi Descriptions of tbe Kinds of Wood used in Building ; also

^^baititierous TabLes of the Scantlings of Timber for dUTexetit purpose^^

^^t "^c Specific Gravities of Materials, &c. By Thomas Tjredgold,

C.E. Edited hj Peter Baelow, F,RS* Fifth Editkii, cor*

rected and enlaiEed» With 64 Plates {n of which now first appear

in this edition), Portrait of tlie Author, and several Woodeuts. Iii

I vol. 3 4to, published at 2/. 2^,, reduced to lA %s.^ clotlL

** 'TiPed^ld*s Carpentry' ctJght ta be in every architect's »od evieify builder's

library, aiaxl those wao do not already possess k ought to a.vail them^ielves of thcxiew

'*A work whose aianumeiilial excellence must commend it wherever aktlfiil car-
penny » concerned. TKe Author's principles are ratber confirmed than impaired by
tiHc, eutdf ^ now presented, combin? the Purest base with the most Lntcrestmg dispky
of progre^ive science. The additional plates are of great intnxLag value." — EmiMin^

Grandys Timber Tables.

THE TIMBER IMPORTER'S, TIMBER MERCHANTS,

ajid BUILDER'S STANDARD GUIDE. By RICHARD E-

GltANDY» Comprising :— An Analysis of Deal Standards, Home

and Foreign J with comparative Values and Tabular Arrangements

for Fixing Nett Landed Cost on Baltic and North American Deals,

including all intermediate Expenses, Freight, Insurance, Duty, ike,

&c. ; together with Copious Information for the Retailer and

Builder. lamo, price 7/, 6t/, doth,

'* Every thing it pretends to be: bitilt up gradaaJ^y, it leads onefrorn a forefst to a

treenail; and thrown in, as a makeweight, a host of material ccnceming bricks, columns,

eLttern!., &c-^^I ihat die class to whom it appeals reijulrcs,"'— i^A^/^A AlethaHie.

•^ The only difficuhy We have is as to w]mt i-S. not iii it? pages. What we have iiested
fir the coutejits^takeii at ranrJomj i.s, Lii variably correct,'' — lUustraied Buittief^syQumAi.

Tables for PacMng-Case Makers,

PACKING-CASE TABLES ; showing tlie number of Superficial
Feet in Boxes or Packing- Cases, from six inches square and
upwards. Compiled by William RiciiaxusoNj Accountant,
Oblong 4to, cloth, price 31. 6*/*
" Will save much bbouT and cakulatian to pactinrgncase maltera a.iid tlioee who ilSv
packinc^jases." — Grpc^, "Invabable iabounsaving tables." — £ri?fimim£rr.

NichohofCs Carpenter^ s Quide*

THE CARPENTER'S NEW GUIDE ; or, BOOK of LINES

for CARPENTERS i comprising all tlie Elementary Principles

easendnl for acquiring a kneiwledge of Carpentry* Founded on the

late Pkter NicuohSon\ standard iwotk, A ™£^ Edition, revisedj

by Arthvr As nm tel, F . S - A * , togelVv^t ^a^L \>x^\ca^ B^^

J^navi-ing, 5/ GEORGE Fyne. Wit\v l^^VV^S ^^^i ^l' '^^

WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO. 19

Dowsing s Timber Merchant's Companion.

THE TIMBER MERCHANTS AND BUILDER'S COM-
PANION ; containing New and Copious Tables of the Reduced
Weight and Measurement of Deals and Battens, of all sizes, from
One to a Thousand Pieces, and the relative Price that each size
bears per Lineal Foot to any given Price per Petersburgh Standard
Hundred ; the Price per Cube Foot of Square Timber to any given
Price per Load of 50 Feet ; the proportionate Value of Deals and
Battens by the Standard, to Square Timber by the Load of 50 Feet ;
the readiest mode of ascertaining the Price of Scantling per Lineal
Foot of any size, to any given Figure per Cube Foot. Also a
variety of other valuable information. By William Dowsing,
Timber Merchant Second Edition. Crown 8vo, 3^. cloth.
'* Earerytiiing is as concise and clear as it can possibly be made. There can be no
dUmbttkat every timber merchant and builder ought to possess it" — Hull Advertiser.

Timber Freight Book.

THE TIMBER IMPORTERS' AND SHIPOWNERS'
FREIGHT BOOK : Being a Comprehensive Series of Tables for
the Use of Timber Importers, Captains of Ships, Shipbrokers,
Builders, and all Dealers in Wood whatsoever. By William
Richardson, Timber Broker, autlior of ** Packing Case Tables,"
&c. Crown 8vo, cloth, price (>s,

MEC HANIC S, &c.

HortonHs Measurer,

THE COMPLETE MEASURER ; setting forth the Measure-
ment of Boards, Glass, &c., &c. ; Unequal-sided, Square-sided,
Octagonal-sided, Round Timber and Stone, and Standing Timber.
With just allowances for the bark in the respective species of
trees, and proper deductions for the waste in hewing the trees,
&a ; also a Table showing the solidity of hewn or eight-sided
timber, or of any octagonal-sided column. Compiled for the
accommodation of Timber-growers, Merchants, and Surveyors,
Stonemasons, Architects, and others. By Richard Horton.
Second edition, with considerable and valuable additions, i2mo,
strongly bound in leather, Jj.
'*The of&e of the architect, engineer, "building surveyor, or land agent that is
without this excellent and useful work cannot truly be considered perfect in its
furnishing." — Irish Builder.

"We have used the improved and other tables in this volume, and have not
observed any unfairness or maccuracy." — Builder,

"The tables we have tested are accurate To the builder and estate

agents this work will be most acceptable."— -Sr/VwA Architect.

"Not only are the best methods of measurement shown, and in some instances
illnstiated by means of woodcuts, but the erroneous systems pursued by dishonest
dealers are folly oposed The work must be c(xisidered to be a valuable addi-
tion to every gardener's Vihxzxy.— Garden.

Superficial Measurement.

THE TRADESMAN'S GUIDE TO S\J Y^^^\C,\K^ ^«S.K-
SUREMENT, Tables calculated from 1 lo 2O0*Yw3t^^ \s^\«bs
by I to loS inches in breadth. For tlie \xse oi KrcItvVcecXs, ^van«
Engineers, Timber Merchants, Bmldets, &c, ^^ ^>c«>^^ ^
KINGS. Fcp. ss. 6d. cloth.

30 WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO,

Engi

IT]
n
T.
M

Meckantcs Workshop Companion.

THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC'S WORKSHOP COM-

rPANION, ami THE SCIENTIFIC GENTLEMAN'S PRAC^
TICAL ASSISTANT ; comprising a great variety of the most
^m useful Rules In Mechanical Science; with numerous Tables of Prac-
H ticaJ Data and Calculated Restdts. By W. Templeton, Author
^" of *^The Engineer's, MiJlwright's, and Machinist's Practical As-
sistant." E1e\t!ntb Edition, with Mechanical Tables for Operative
Smiths, Millwrtglits, Engineers, &c, ; together with several Useful
and Practical Rules in Hjrdrauiics and Hydrodynaniics, a variety
of Experimental Results, and an Extensive Table of Powers and
Roots. II Plates, i2mo, ^s. bound.
'* As a text-book t>r reference, in whii:h mechanical and comm^fdal demands are
j u dicio usly met, Te w klcton^s Com fan i o w stands unrivalled. ''-—/ifecMnics'^fag&zinr.
" Admirably adapted to the wants of a very lar^e class, tt has met with great
3uci:e!^<^ in the engineering workshop, as wc can tftstify ; and there arc a great many
mea who, in a great mcH^urc, owe tiieir rise in life to thi-S little worL ''^BuiMmg JV«vj.

jineers Assistant

THE ENGINEER^S, MILLWRIGHT'S, and MACHIOTSTS
PRACTICAL ASSISTANT ; comprising a CoUection of Useful
Tables, Rules, and Data* Compiled and Arranged, with Original
Matter, by W, Templeton. 5th Edition. l3mo» %s. 6d. cloth,

Sn (i>iich varied infarmation com^re^ed into 30 srnall a space, and pnMlslied at a
price which places it within the reach of the humblest mechanic, cannot fail to com-
mand the sale which it deserves. With the utmost confidence we commend this book
to the attention of oxxt readers —j/«:^rt«fc:'j' Mugdzifn^,

" Every mechanic shouJd become the posses^r of the volume, and a more suitable
present to an apprentice to any of the mechanical tmdes could not possibly be made,.'*

Dedgning^ Measuring, and Valuing.

THE STUDENT'S GUIDE to the PRACTICE of MEA-
SURING, and VALUING ARTIFICERS' WORKS; containing
Directions for taking Dimensions, Abstracting the same, and brining
the Quantities into BtUi with Tables of Constants, and copious
Memoranda for the Valuation of Labour and Materials lu the re-
spective Trades of Bricklayer and Slate r» Carpenter and Joiner,
Painter and Gl[izier, Paperhanger, &c. With 43 Plates and Wood*
cuts. Originally edited by Edward Dobson, Architect. New
Edition, re-written, ssitb Additions on Mensuration and Construe-
tion, and useful Tables for faciti Eating Calculations and Measure-
ments, By E. WyndhAm Tarn, M.A., 8vo, iqj. hd. cloth,

** This useful book should be in every architect's and builder's office. It contains
a vaat amount of information ahiolutcly nedeisarj' to be 'k.^'^^mx*"— The Irish Bmhitw.
*' We have failed to disoovear anyihjnef conneclcd with the buildinjg trade, from ex-
cavating foundations to bell-hani^ng, Uiat is not fully treated itpoa In this vaJuable
worit/^— T}i£ Artizan,

"Mr. Tarn has well perforracd the task imposed upon him, find baa mnde manj'
farther 3ttd r^JtaabJe additions, embodying a large amount of Infurtnation rdiating to
ihe tcr€rhnii^iitl^ ancf mod^^ of construction employed m tlvtBKVcrai branches qJT the
i>uihlms ^^^ "—CffNUfy Gtmrdmn,
"Altc^stber the book k one which well fulfils the promiEfi of Via CvvW-v^ip, uAvtis
Qin thoroughly rcct>n\Tntnd it to the class for whose use \\ hsi^ Veu comv%V:4. "yit,
^^ s addjtiajiE nnd reviaions have much mcrca^ed t^e iiStfu\T^esa o^ iLtit ^«^rti^t, «&&
_ ^'^>^H:3i^Uy Ausmcmcd its value to siudcais."— ^w^*"""'*^'

WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CC

MATHEMATICS, &c.

Gregory^ s Practical Mathematics.

MATHEMATICS for PRACTICAL MEN; being a Common-
place Book of Pure and Mixed Mathematics. Designed chiefly
for the Use of Ci^dl Engineer^, Architects and Surveyors. Fart I.
Pure Mathematics— comprising Arithmetic, Algebra, Geometry,
Mensuration, Trigonometry, Conic Sections, Properties of Curves,
Part II, Mixed Mathematics— comprising Mechanics in genetal,
rStatics^ DynamicSj Hydrostatics, Hydrodynamics, Pneumatics,
f^edianical Agents, Strength of Materials, With an Appendix of
copious Logarithmic and other Tables. By O LIN THUS Gregory,
L L. D. , F. R. A. S . Enlarged by H en r y Law , C . E. 4th Edition,
carefully revised and corrected by J. R, Young, formerly Profes-
sor of Mathematics, Belfast College ; Author of * * A Course of
Mathematics," &a With 13 Plates. Medium 8vo, i/. is, doth.
** As a standard work on inathenLatics it has not been eitccliedr"— j4r/fsafl.
" The cn^neur or architect will here find ready to hi& hand, niles for salving pearly
evay inatheniatical dii^culty that may arise in his practice. As a moderate acquaint-
ance with anthmciic, aTgcbraj and elementaTy geometry is absolutnily necessary to the
proper understanding of the most useful portions of this book, the author very wisely
has devoted the first three chapters to those subjects^ so that the mos-t ignorant may be
«Qab[ed to master the whole of the book, without aid frtjin sny othcr^ The tules are in
aU cases eKplaincd by means of examplc^j ia which every step of the process 15 clearly
worked out." — Bmlmr.

* ' Qne of the moat serviceable books to the practical mechanics of the country, .
The editioa of 1847 was fortunately entnisted to the able hands of Mr, Law, who
revised it thoroughly, re- wrote many chapters, and added several sections to those
which had been rendered imperfect by advanced knowledge. Qn eKamining the various
JUid many impro^icinents which he intraducud into the work, they seem almost like a
new structure on an old plan^ or rather like the restoration of an old ruin, not only to
its former substance, but to an extent which meets the lareer requirements of modem
times, . . . , In the edition just brought oi!t, the wort has again been revised by
Professor Young, He has modernised the noUEion throughout, uitroducctl a few

Kragraphs here and there, and corrected the numerous typogtaphical errors which
ve eiaC^ped the eyes of the former Editor, The book is now as complete as it is
pOfisible to make it. * . , . We have c-\rricd our notice of this book to a sweater
Isigdi than the space allowed us justified, but the eKpenments it contains are so
interesdn^, and the method of describing them so clear, that we may be excused for
OTcrsteppmg our limit. It is an instnictive book for the student, and a Text-
book for him who having once mastered the subjects it treats of, needs occasional^ to
rc&esh bis memory upon ^^\t\'*^— Building AWri.

The Metric System.

A SERIES OF METRIC TABLES, in which the British
Standard Measures and Weights are com pared with those of the
Metric System at present in use on the Continent By C, H.
DowLiNG, C, K Second Edition, revised and enlarged. Svo,
lOf , 6d. strongly bound,

" Mr. D^wlmg's Tat!es» which are well put together, come lust in tim« a^-a^xti^-i
reckoner for the conversion of one sj'stem tnto the other J*^j4£h«tt«MWi>

*' Their accuracy has been certi£ed hy Professor Aity^itht KsitcciiWKtv«i-"^«T^ -^ '

''Resolution S,^Th:it advantage will he derived from the ^^*^V^^™ciSw^'^
M^nc T^U<:s, by C. iL Dowiing, CK^^Kt^ri o/Secticn F, BrUt^tt j^s ^

I
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l^fy^

^ WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO. ^

/mvood's Tables^ greatly barged mid ifttproved. \

TABLES FOR THE PURCHASING of ESTATES, Fre^boM,
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Interest, and aji Extension of tlie same to Lower and Intennediate
Rates. By William In Wood, Architect, The 19th edition, with
considerable additions, and new and valuable Tables of Logarithms
for the more Difficult Compnt4xtlons of the Inter^t of Money, Dis-
count, Annuities, &c., by M. F^DOR Tkoman, of the Sodete
Credit Mobilier of Paris. l2mo, &» cloth,

%* This fdithn {tkf 19M) differs in many imporiant p€trtkulars
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and systentatk arrangmuni ^t/tearigituti Tables ^ and in tkt r^a^ml
&f cirimn numerital errt^rs wkieh a very careful reifisian of the 'U>koh
has enabled the present editor to diseover j and secondly, w ike
extension ofprattical niility conferred on ike nvrk by the tnir^dueiion
of Tables hc^q inserted for the first time. Tkis new and important
flatter is ail so mu€h actually added to INWOOD^S Tablks ; jwthing
has been abstmct^i from the eri^nal colleetian! so thai those wh& hatie
benrn long in the habit of consulting Inwooi> for any specif profes-
sional purpose -will^ as heretofore^ find the infarmutwu sought still in
its pages.

^^ Those ialerestcd in die purchase and sale of estate.^i and in th^ sidiastnient of
Cdmpenaatian ca^est as well a^ ia tr?ms;ictioDS in anDuitic&j life uisaf^ace£|, ^.^ ^ilE
'End ihti preEcat cditioa QrcEniueni; service," — Mngineering.

Geometry for the Architect, Engineer, &c. ■

PRACTICAL GEOMETRY, for the Architect, Engineer, and
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various Geometrical Lines, Figures and Curves, By E. W, TAitN,
M.Ak, Architectt Author of " The Science of Building,'* &c.
With 164 lUustraiion^. Denciy 8vo. 12s. 6d.

*' No hook with the s^aine otijocis m view has «'«" been published in which the
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Compound Interest and Annuities.

I THEORY of COMPOUND INTEREST and ANNUITTES ;

with Tables of Lt^arithms for the more Difficult Computations of
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dtiction. By Fbdor Tjioman, of the Societe Credit Mobilier,
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*«A/il ^'^J^*'"^^"J work, and the Aud^ot has i ^cr^ itmiTWAe ^mswMftA eft >«(

*^^ reoommrnd it lo the notice of actnarlfcs wid*ccwif\toaW— AiU«i«iiiii

^^h

1 •ri
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A1DE-M£:M0IRE to tlie MILITARY SCIENCES. Framed
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the highest dlsdnctioii in thiSCTvicts/*^i^Wim/ferSen^ke Ga&riie.

Field Fortification,

^A TREATISE on FIELD FORTIFICATION, the ATTACK
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WooLLEY, M.A., LL.D., F.R.A.S, Copiously illustrated.

■ ^' en (

Price 2J. ^tL Now ready, Vols. II. & II L, eacn containing 4 Noe.
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ivaLtical as well as valuaWe."— CA^jwijr/ and Dr^^ist*

Electricity.

A MANUAL of ELECTRICITY; including Galvanism, Mag-
netism, Diamagnetism, Electro-Dynamics, Magno- Electricity, and
the Electric Telegr^Lph. By Henry M. Noad, Ph.D., FX.S-,
Lecturer on Chemistry at $t« George's Hospital* Fourth Edition^
entirely rewritten. Illustrated by 500 Yf oodcat^* Svo.^ vl. h^. ^a^.
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WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO.

^ Text-Book of Ekctricity,
THE STUDENT'S TEXT- BOOK OF ELECTRICITY: in-
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Telegraphy, Being a Condensed Resume of the Theory ajid Ap-
K plication of Electrical Science, including its latest Practical Deve*
^ lopments, pailicnlarly as relating to Aerial and Submarine Tele-
graphy. By Henry M. Noad^ Ph,D,, Lecturer on Chemistry at
St. George's Hospital, Post 8vo, 400 lllnstrations, izj?. bd. cloth.

We qan rccoitlmend Dr, Noad^s bpok for clear style, great range of Subject, a good
{ad«x, add a plethora of wiKidcut^/'—^^/lr/jat^m.

'* A most elaborate ci^rapiktion of the facts of electricity and magnetiscn^ aod dfthfi
tlieories which have been advanctd concerniiig theiD." — Popuiur Science Reutnif^

*' Clear, compendiouj!^ compact, "w&W illustitatedj and well printed.'^ — Laftc^i.

'^ Wc can strongly recommend the work, as aii^admijable text-book, to every student
»— beginnej" or advanced — of electricity." — Ejigiiiitrmg^

'* Nothing of value ha.^ been passed ovcrj and nothing; given but what will lead to &
correct, and even an exact, knowledge of the present state of electrical science." —
Meckamc^ Magazine.

^* We know of no book on electricity ccmtainitiig so much inrormatjon an exptri*
mental faciei a5 thiiS does, for the size of itt and no book of any sue that cODtams so
complete a ranj^e of lacts,"— £«^^,* MicJumk.

Rudimentary Magnetism,

RUDIMENTARY MAGNETISM i being a concke expodtion
of the general principles of Magtietical Science, and the purposes
to which it has been applied. By Sir W. SNOW Harris, F.R.S.
New and enlarged Edition, with considerable additions by Dr,
NOAB, Ph,D, With 165 Woodcuts. i2mo, cloth, 4J. td.

" Tlierc is a good index, and this volume of 43s pages may be cotistdered the test
pOif^iUc manual on the subject of magnetism." — Mechanic/ Magnsine.

"As concise and lucid an exposjtion of the phijnomena. of m.agncti5in as we believe
it is possible to write. "—EKgO^h Mec/uttiic,

" Not only will the scieiitific stndetiit find this volume an invaluable book of refcr-
ente^ but the general reader will find in it as much to interest as to inform his mind.
Though a strictly scientific work, its subject ts handled in a simple and readable
style;— /^i^j/rtf/i-i^ Jirvietif.

Chemical Analysis.

THE COMMERCIAL HANDBOOK of CHEMICAL AKA-
LYSIS ; or Practical Instructions for the detennination of the In-
trinsic or Commercial Value of Substances used in Manufactures,
in Trades, and in the Arts. By A, Norm ANDY, Author of ** Prac-
tical Introduction to Rosens Chemistry,'* and Editor of Rose's
** Treatise of Chemical Analysis." Ntrit} Edition. Enlarged, and
to a great extent re*written, by Henry M. NoaJ, Ph, D., F.R.S,
With numerous II lustration H. Croun Svo^ I2,r. hd, cloth.

\yttst re&dy^

^' We reconunead this book to the careful perysal of every one ; it may be truly

nMrmed to be of universal inter&^t, ^nd wc stronfrly recommend it to our readers as a

^iifefs, ^tkc /ndispensablc to the housewife n-S to tne phannaceutical practiltaoer."— *^

" ^f ^^ry if^it: work on the subject the EncU^h pwsa "has -^tt ^rraAucftd,"— Jf#^

I
I

Clocks, WaUhes^ and Bells.

I RUDIMENTARY TREATISE on CLOCKS, WATCPIES,
aiid BELLS. By Sir Edmuj^d Beckett, Bart, (late E. B.
Denison), LL.D., Q.C, F.R.A.S., Author of *^ Astronomy with-
out Mathematics," &c. Sixth edition, thoroughly revised and
enlarged, with niimerous Illustrations* Limp cloth (No. 67,
We ale's Seiies), 4J. 6«/.; doth boards, 5^. ^tt
^' As a papular t And, at die same time, practical trufatisc on clocksi and bells, it i^
imappron ch^ . ' '—EN^ifh Mft-A/iftk^

'* The best work on the subject probably extajit ... So far as \Vc knaw it has
nn compciitot irvorthy of the name. The tticatise on helJs is undoubtedly the best In
the language. It shows that the author has coxiEnbuted very much to iJieir modem
Tmprovemcnt, if indeed he ha.^ not revired this artj which was decaying here . . .
To call It a rudlKientary treatise 19 a mliiiiomeT, at least as respects cIckJcj. and bells.
It h Somethipg more. It is the moat impK^it^uit work of its kind in English."—

■^The Qn]y modem treatise on clock-maklug/'— //oWp^Vn/ ymimai.

^* Without having any special interest ia the &uhjeci, and even without possessing:
any general aptitude for mechanical studie^s, a reader must be very uninteUJgent who
qnnnot find matter to engage hi^ attention In this wsrk. The little book now
app&iTS revised and enlarged, being one of the most praiseworthy volumes m
Weak' 5 admirable scientific and educatiotial ^^tifi."— Daily T^t^grnfik.

"Wc do not know whether to wonder most at the extraondlnaTy cheapness of this
a dminible treatise on cl&cks, by the most able authority on such a subject, or the
thorough completeness ofhis work even to the minutest de La IIsh The chapter on bells is
s.ingular and amusing, and will be a real treat even to the uninitiated general reader.
The illustrations, note^ and indices, make the work ct>mpletcly perfect of its kind." —

*' There is probably no book in the Eng^lisb language qn a technical subject so
easy to read, and to read throngh^ as the treatise on clocks^ watches, and bells^
written bylhe eminent Farliamentary Counsel, ^!^. E. B. Denison— now Sir Edmund
Beckett, %ktt.'*—ArihiUcL

Sdenre and Scripture,

SCIENCE ELUCIDATIVE OF SCRIPTURE, AND NOT
ANTAGONISTIC TO IT j being a Series of Essays on— r.
Alleged Discrepancies j 2* The Theory of the Geolo^sts and
Figure of the Larth ; 3, The Mosaic Cosmogony \ 4. Miracles in
general— Views of Hume and Powell ; 5. The Miracle of Joshaa —
Views of Dr, Colenso ; The Supematu rally Impossible ; 6* The
Age of the Fixed Stars— their Distances and Masses, By Professor
J, R. Young, Author of ** A Course of Elementaoy Mathematics,
&c, &c, Fcap. Svo, price Jj. cloth lettered.

" Prtfeisor Young's CJcamination of the_ea.r]y verses of Genesis, in connection with
modem sclent iiic hypotheses, is cji^cellent.^' — Mn^ltsk CAurckmAtt,

" Distinguished by the true spirit of sdentific tnquiry, by great knowledge, by keen
cal ability, and by a style peculiarly clear, easy, and energetic." — N&ncmtfym,
No one can rise from its perusal withont being imptessed with a sense of the siu^
ness of modem scepticiBm." — Baptist Maeazini.

logical ability, and by a style peculiarly clear, easy, and energetic." — Nmtcmtfyrmist,
'* No one can rise from its perusal withont being imptes; ^ -^i- - - ^ -■

Efular weakness of modem scepticiBm." — Baptist Magazini,

*' A valuable contribution to controversial theological Uieralure," — City Prvsj.

Practical Philosophy,

A SYNOPSIS of PRACTICAL PHILOSOPHY. B^^i&.t^^-
John Carr, M. A, late FcUow of Trin, CqII.^ CwnWv^t. ^ts^i^^
EdkJQiu iBmo, 5/, doth.

Dr, Lardners Museum of ScimcB and Art

THE MUSEUM OF SCIENCE AND ART, Edited by
DiONYSlUS Lardnek, D.C.L., formerly Professor of Natural Phi-
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Longitudes — Lunar Influences— Meteoric Stones and Shooting
Stars — Railway Accidents — Light^Cornmon Things : — Air —
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The Surface of the Earth, or First Notions of Geographji" Science
and Poetry — Tlie Bee — Steam Navigation ^ Electro-Motive
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*' Whether we consider ihe liljemlity and beauty of ihe itlustratii^txs, tht chuna of
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THE HANDBOOK OF ASTRONOMY. By BiONYSius
* Lardner, D, C.L,, fannerly Professor of Naluml Philosophy and
Astronomy in University CoUcge, London^ Third Edition, Re-
vised and Edited by EDWrN Dun KEN, F.R. A.S.I Supenntendent
of the AUazimnth Department^ Royal Observatory, Green^wich,
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Optks.

THE HANDBOOK OF OPTICS* New Edition. Edited by
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llectriciiyK

THE HANDBOOK of ELECTRICITY, MAGNETISM^ and

ACOUSTICS. New Edition, Edited by Geo. Carey Foster,

B.A., FX.S. With 400 lUustrations. Small Svo, doth, price 5s.

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Techanics.

THE HANDBOOK OF MECHANICS* {Reprinting.

Hydroslatics.

THE HANDBOOK of HYDROSTATICS and PNEUMATICS.
, New Edition^ Revised and Enlarged by Benjamin Loewy,
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Heat

THE HANDBOOK OF HEAT. New Edition, Re-written atid
Enlarged. By Eenjamin Loewy, F.R,A.S» {Preparing*

\ Animal Physics.

THE HANDBOOK OF ANIMAL PHYSICS, With 520
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\ymi p*iflisked.

^^Miectric Telegraph.

H THE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. New,* Edition. Revised

^H and Re-written by E. B. BRIGHT, F.R.A.S. 140 Illustrations-

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^B **OReoftbemostreadablebookscxtaiitoiithe Electric Tskfiraph. '^^Eng. Meckank.

I NA'

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY FOR SCHOOLS. By Dr. Laruner.
328 Illustrations. Fifth Edition, i voL 3/. 6i/. cloth.
^A vety cotiveitient class-book for junior students in private schools^ ft is in^
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ANIMAL PHYStOLOGY FOR SCHOOLS. B^ \i^, \.kb,^-^tl^^
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Geology and Genesis Harmonised,

THE TWIN RECORDS of CREATION; or, Geology an.
Genesis, their Perfect Harmony and Wonderful Concord. By
George W, Victor Le Vaux, With numerous Illuslratiqns.
Fcap. Svo, price 5j. cloth.
'^ ^Ve can Tecomniend Mr. Le Yaux sg an able and iiiterestiD^ guid@ to a populate
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^*The authDF combiiies an unl^ound-ed audmir^ticn of ^science w:th an unbounded
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the euiisoquence L^, tbnt dLf&culties, whiqk to mind^ \^3& evenly paised^ would be
s^riouG^ find immediate solutions of tlac happiest kinds,' '-^XiJ^ff^tw Kn^iew.

*' Vigorously wHiten, reverent in .spirit, stored with instructive geological facts, and
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■* Nsj real dlBiculty is shirked, and no sophistry is left unexposed." — JJ4* Rock.

Geology, P/iysiml f

PHYSICAL GEOLOGY, (Partly based on Major-Geaiend
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Geology^ Historical

HISTORICAL GEOLOGY. (Partly based oti Major^Geueral
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*,j* Or Physical and Historical Geology, hound in Om\
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Wood- Carving,

INSTRUCTIONS in WDQD^CARVING, for Amatevirsj witli^
Hints on Design, By A Lady, In emblematic wrapper, Lajid<
somely p rioted, with Tea large Plates, price 3j. 6d.
" The b.indicTaft of the wood-carver^ so well as a. book can impart it, may be lenmt
from ^A IjadyVi ' publication.''— -^Mf^^^^H^MT.

" A jreal pracii^ai guiiif. It is very complete. **-^.i?Vf«a'^ C^Knr&tH/iH^
'* The directions given are plain and easily understood, and it rorms a veiy good
J n trod action to the pmctica.1 part of th^ carver^s ^xi^—Engiisk Mfchaiiia,

Popular Work on Painting,

PAINTING POPULARLY EXPLAINED; with Hbtorical
Sketches of the Process of the Art, By Thomas John GuLLicK,
Painterj and John: TiMtiS, F. S.A. Second Edition, revised and
enlarged. With Frontispiece and Vignette. In small 8vo, 6j. doth,
%* Ulis Work has Ittvti cdopkd a^ a jPriz^-ifOi^k m ifi^ Schools cf
Art at S&uih Kensington,

" A work that may be advantageously consulted. Much may be learned, even by
those who fancy they do not require to be tau^t^ from the c[uvfiil perusal of this
unpretending but comprehensive treatise.'' — ArijcurTtttL

A valuable book, which supplies a want. It contains a large amount of origmal

matter, agreeably conveyed, and wilt be: found of value, as w;elT by the young rniist

seeking information a& by the genemi reader We give a cordial w^come to the bouk^

und mipjr for it im inareasiiig lejiutation,"— ^Mf'/^<fr.

" 7'hjs volume is one that we can heartily recommend to all who arc desiroas ol

iin^fersLuid'mg what I hey admire in a good pamting,*'— Dm7y Nnm. J

WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO. 29

Delamottis Works on Illumination ^Alpkabets,

A PRIMER OF THE ART OF ILLUMINATION; for the
use of Beginners : with a Rudimentary Treatise; on the Art, Prac-
tical Directions for its Exercise, and numerous Examples t^ken
from Illuminated MSS., printed in Gold andCoIoufs^ By F, Dela-
MOTTE. Small 4to, price 9J, Klegantly bound, doth antique.

A handjr bcjok, bcatitifully ilSustrated ; the text c*f which L-s well ^^Titten^ ajad cal-
culated to be u^efUiL ■ . - l^e examples of ^iicieDt MBS, recaiDmended tDthe studi^ritj
vhichj with much good scit^e, the aiuhor chooser from collections accessible to aJ], are
selected wltli Judgment and knowledge, as wetl ^^s x^^x.^.^'^^^AihensuiH^

[-^^T^AMENTAL ALPHABETS, ANCIENT and MEDIAEVAL;
from the Eighth Century, wkh Numerals ; including Gothic,
Church-Text, large and snmll, German, Italian, Arabesque, Initials
for Illumination, Monograms;, Crosses, &c, &c., for the use of
Architectural and Engineering Draughtsmen, Missal Painters,
Masons, Decorative Painters, Lithographers, Engravers, Carvers,
&C. &c, &c. Collected and engraved by F, Delamotte, and
printed in Colours, Royal Svo^ oblong, price 4J. cloth.
t welUcnowm engraver and draughtsmaan has enrolled in this useful book the
t of many years' study and research* For diDsc who Insert Enamelled sentences
njuml ^Ided chalices, who blazon shop legends over shop-duore, who letter church
walb with pithy sentences from the Decalogue^ this book will be tiseftiL" — Athefmum.

EXAMPLES OF MODERN ALPHABETS, PLAIN and ORNA-
MENTAL ; including German, Old English, Saxon, Italic, Per-
spective, Greek, Hebrew, Court Hand, Engrossing, Tuscan,
Riband, Gothic, Rustic, and Arabesque ; with several Original
Designs, and an Analysis of the Roman and Old English Alpha-
bets^ large and small, and Nvuuerals, for the use of Draughtsmen,
Surrey ors, Masons, Decorative Painters, Lithographers, Engravers,
Carvers, &c Collected atid engraved by F. DelamottEj antl
printed in Colom^s, Royal 8vo, oblong, price 4J, cloth,

' To arttsti of all classes^ hut more especially to architects and engravers, this very
handsome book witl be Inv^iluirible. There ia comprised in it ei'ery possible "ibape into
which the letters of die alphabet ^d numerals can be formejl and the talent whidi
has been expended tn the conception of tbe various plsiin and ornamental letters \&
wonderf Lit, " — Standard.

MEDIEVAL ALPHABETS AND INITIALS FOR ILLUMI-
NATORS- By F. Delamotte, IDummator, Designer, and
Engraver on Wood, Containing 21 Plates, and Illuminated Title,
printed in Gold and Colours, With an Introduction by J, WlLLIS
Brooks, Small 4to, 6s. cloth gilt,

** A volume ui ivhich the letters of the alphabet come forth glorified In gilding and
all the colours of the prism interwoven arid intertwined and intermingled, sometune?
"With, It sort of rainbow arabesque. A poem etrtblo^oned in thei« characteTsi would be
cmly comparable to one of those deliciotas love lettem synibolsied in a bunch of flowcfs
f^fl selected And cleverly arranged. " — ^utu

THE EMBROlDERER^S BOOK OF DESIGN ; containing Initials,
Emblems;, Cyphers, Monograms, Ornamental Borders, Ecclesias-
tical Devices, Mediae vaJ and Modern Alphabets, and National
Emblems. Collected and engraved by F. D^\*KmcfTY^ ^c^^
printed in Colou-rs. Oblong royal Syo, li, 64, W G»^:^^3ICL^Il^Ja!L\i01Kt*a*

WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO.

AGRICULTURE, &c.

Youatt and Burn's Complete Grazier.

THE COMPLETE GRAZIER, and FARMER'S and CATTLl
BREEDER'S ASSISTANT. A Compendiuio of Husbandry.]
By William Youatt, Esq., V.S. nth Edition, etdai^ed byj
Robert Scott Burn^ Author of *'The Lessons of My Farn>,"&^r
One large Svo volume, 7S4 pp. with 215 IllusLrations. \L U. balf^bd.i
*' Hic standard and text-book^ with the famocr and grarier. '^^FartPt^s Mtt^azifUr. I
" A valuable repertory of intelltgence for all who niake agriculturfl a fsaisuitj, and I
cspemUy for those who aim at keeping pace with tlic imijrovcitiients wf thtagt"—
Bill's Iveekfy M<^zsrti^cr.

*'A trcatl^ which \^ill remEtin a standard work on the subject as Icftig a£ British
agriculture endureSr"— ^T/^rr^' Lntif EA-^r^ss^

" One of the be:at books of rofeiencc that can be Cdntflined in the flErkmlturi-iit's
J!tbrar>'. The word ' coEBplcle ' ejcpresses its character ; since every detal! of the
subject finds a place^ treated upd-ni and explained, in a clear^ cooipreho^ive^ and
practical manlier. "—-J/(Tf7/j'^.

Spooner on Sheep,

SHEEP; THE HISTORY. STRUCTURE, ECONOMY, I
AND DISEASES OF. By W. C. SPOONf-iR, M.R.V.C, &c.J
Third Edition J considerably enlarjged ; with mime r oris fine engfti-
vlngs, including some specimens of New and Improved Bn
Fcp. 8vo^ 366 pp*» price 6j, clotlt, (yust pubihhcd.)
' ' The hook is decidedly the beat of the kind in our Language. '' — ScotsiititH^
*' A reliable text-book. —^iCiTm/Ivv/ J/rn/":^*

*' Mr^ Spoaner has cisnrerred upon the agricultural class a lasting benefit by ctu-

bodybg in thi?» work the traijrDvemen.t,'! made in ihecp jitock by such men ai

Humphreys, REiwJence, Howard, and others/*--//iJfN^sAirv Ai^TvHn-er^

■^^'Ihe work .should be in possession of every ftock-mastet/'— /^ii«^W!>7 Gxiardtatt.

*'\Vii can cantidently recommend the work as iiseTtil and reliable, and of much

practical utility to the class for vrhaaa it is intended.'' — ^aiid'ttty ami SVttte^ftUr

"Mr. Spooner has cotifert^ a boon on agricuknrists generally, and the fanner's
libnar)' will be incomplete which JoeK not include sc> flamirable a guide to a very
icnportant branch uf the bu&uicss/' — D&rs^t Coufity Chr^nicir.

Scott Burn's System of Modem Fanning.

OUTLINE OF MODERN FARMING. By R. Scott Burn,

Soils j Mantires, and Crops^Farminij and Farming Ecoiaamy,

Historical and Practical — Cattle, Sheep, and Horses — Manogenient

of the Dairy, Pigs, and Poultry, with Notes on the Diseases of

Stock "Utilisation of Town Sewage, Irrigation, and Reclaroation

of Waste Land. New Edition, In I vol 1 250 pp., half-bound,

profuaely Illustrated, price I2j.

** There Is suRicient i,taied within the limits of this treatise to prevent a f»rmc¥

from going far wrong in any of hi» operations^ . . , The author has had gicat

pergonal experience, and his opinioni arc entitled to every respect. "^ — Observer^

Morton's Underwood and Woodland Tables.

TABLES FOR PLANTING AND VALUING UNDEIl*
WOOD AND WOODLAND; also Lineal, Superficial, Cubical,
Wages, Marketing, and Decimal Tables. Together with Tables
for Converting Land-measure from one denomination to fliiothert
^^d inslntcthns for Measuring Round Timber. By RichaR-D
HoRlXfNt 72J110. 2/, strongly bound ui \fe;vl\vcv.

WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & OO,

of mi

Iwarfs Land Improver^ Pocket-Book.

THE LAND IMPROVERS' POCKET-BOOK OF FOR-
MULAE, TABLES, and MEMORANDA, required in any Com-
putation relating to tlie Permanent Improvement of Landed Pro-
perty, By John Ewart, Land Sur^'eyor and Agricultural Engineer.
Royal 32 mo, oblong, leather, gilt edges, with clastic band, 41*

** A compendium Itasg^ required by land sun'tyors, agricultural engineers, &c." —
Sttssejc Daiiy iVt^iuSu

** It h admimbly o^lctilAted to strvc ihc ptirposc for wblch it was intcoded."—

*' A compendious And handy lltdc volLinie » „ » admirably Eirran^ed, Rnd can
hardly fail to prove tJtcecdingly useful to tlie class of professional tnan for wl^om it
IS \ntctvdt!dr*'—S^iat0r.

** Cointmn<; in a condefiitd romi the e^i^oce of many a. treatise, and w iJI be found
of much service to the land agent and measurer,"— .■VftturTy^iV' pmiy yQupmL

** Is a marvel of Industrious cotnpilationj Containing Everything requisite for com'
utations rt^lsititig to the permanent improvetneiit of landed property ; it is a perfect

de-jTtecuiii for a surveyor."— yt^^^jr BulL

^H'itdsoTis Tables for Land Valuers.

I THE LAND VALUER'S BEST ASSISTANT: being Tables,
on a very much improved Plan, for Calculating the Value of
Estates. To which are added. Tables for reducing Scotcli, Iri&h,
and Provincial Customary Acres to Statute Measure \ sJso, Tables
of Square Measure, and of the various Dimensions of an Acre in
Perches and Yards, by v^fhich the Contents of any Plot of Ground
may be ascertained without the expense of a regular Survey ; &c.
By R. Hudson^ C.K New Edition, royal 32nio. oblong, leather,
1 gQt edges, with elastic band, 4/.

" TliiB Bew edidon Indudes tables for ascertainiDg the value of leases fof any term
of year?; and for showing how to lay out plots, of ground of certain acres in forms,
Kfoare, ttnmd, &c.j with valuable rules for asccrtainmff the proB;ib!e wfQrth of standing
tnn^er.tQ any amount ; and is of incalculably value lo the couDtiy gendcmau and pro-
fessional man.^ — Ff^rtntf^s y<tumiUr

Complete Agriciilhtral Surveyors^ Pocket^Book,

THE LAND VALUER'S AND LAND IMPROVER'S COM-
PLETE POCKET-BOOK ; consisting of the above two works
bound together, leather, gilt edges, >vith &trap, 7^. 6^/,

^^ The abffi>f forms an unequalled and mosi tomp^ttdi^us J^kei

Va-iii'-mt\-itm fm' ihi' Lattd A^cni and AgftJCttlttir'al Mnginger,

* We consider Hudson's book to be the best ready- reck oner on matters relaling io

be valu^^tioEi of land and crops we have ever sten, and its combination with Mr.

^wart's vrork greatly enhances ihe v^Iue and usefulness of the latter-mentioned . .

liis most useful as a manual for reference tn ibose for v^.^honi il as intendetj." —

\. 0_f England Fitrmer,

ScoU Burn's Introduction to Farnimg.

THE LESSONS of MY FARM : a Book for Amateur Agricul-
turisitsj being an Introduction to Farm Pmctice, in the Culture tit
Crops, the Feeding of Cattle, Managen^e^it q^ v\ieTi^vt^.,'^a^'^'^-
and Pigs, and in the Keeping of Farm wotWRjeJtCiTis^ ISpm^qtkbx
Scott Burn, With numerous UlustiatioT^s. I^cp. tis. cki^ax.
"A most complete tatroduclioa to the whole round of tarr&i^' ^e^i:^^^*^-

jz WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOCKWOOD & CO. ^

"A Complete Epitome of the Lazvs of this
Coimtry'' \

EVERY MAN'S OWN LAW^YER ; a Handy-Boole of the Prhta
ciplea of Law and EqutLy. By A Barrister, 12th EdUion^
carefully revised^ incluclmg a Summary of The Bnilding Societies
Actj The Infnnts' Relief Act, The Manied Women's Proj:>erty Act,
The Real Property Limitation Act, The Betting Act, The Hosiery
Mann fact me Act, a Summary of the Supreme Court of Judicature
Act J &c., &c. With Notes and References to the Authorities.
I2mo, price 6j. %d, (saved at every consultation), strongly bound.

CO MP RISING THE LAWS OF

Ban KitttpTcv— Bills op Exchange— Cos'TRAtTS akj> Acrekments— Copvright
— Dow¥R ANT> Divorce— Elbct ions and Registration— I nsu r a ncie—Lt pel
ANo Slander— Mortgages— Shttlhriebjts— Stock. Exchahgb Phacticis—
Trade Marks anp Patents — Trsskass, Nuisaj^ceSj etc- Tkansfbr op
LaNDj arc- WARJiASTY—WiLLS ANi3 Agkhemknts, etc. Also Law Tor

Landlord and Tenant— IM aster and Servant— Work moi and Apprentices^ He ira^
Devisees, and Lq^tees — Husb^ndand Wife— Executors and Trustees — Guanilian
and Ward— Married Women a.nd Infants— Partners and AEcrkt-s— Lender and
BofTower— Debtor and Creditor — Pnrchaser and Vendor — Companies and Asso^
c iatioos — Friendly Societies- Qef:^Tncn3 Churchvifn rd ens^M ed leal Practitioners,
fi:e, — Bankers — Farmers— Contractors — Stock and Share Brokers— Sportsmen
and Gamekeepers- Farriers antl Hor&e'Dca]crf>— Auctioneers, HoiLSc- Agents—
Innkeeper^j &c. — Pawnbrokers — Stirveyors— Railways and CarricTS^ ^c. «C.
'* No EnglUhmmt mtghl to be ivithnTti this b&ok.**~Engine€r.
** It is a complete code of English L^w^ written tn plain language which alt can

undsTstand * + . sViould be in the handi. of every hu^bcss man, and all who wish to

abolish lawyers' bills." — Wetkty Tint^s.
** A useful and concise epitome of the law." — La'Uf Magasinf.
" What it professes to be — a complete epttome of the lawi of thta country, thoron£hb|

bitelliijible to non-profensional readers." — Belts Life. ^J

Auctioneers Assistant. "

THE APPRAISER, AUCTIONEER, BROKER, HOUSE
AND ESTATE AGEHT» AND VALUER'S POCKET AS-
SISTANT, for the Valuation for Purchase, Sale, or Renewal of
Leases, Annuities, and Reversions, and of property generally J
with Prices for Inventories, &c. By JoMN WHEELER, Valuer, &C.
Third Edition, enlarged, by C. Norris, Royal 32nio, cloth, 5j,
** A neat And concise book of re fere!] ce, containing an admirable and clearly-

aitanged list of pnccs for inventories^ and a very practical guide to det^tEikie the

value of furniture, &.c.'^^^^fafidartft.

Pawnbrokers Legal Guide.

THE PAWNBROKERS^ FACTORS', and MERCHANTS'
GUIDE to the LAW of LOANS and PLEDGES. With the
Statutes and a Digest ol Cases on Rights and Liabilities, Civil and
Crimitialj as to Loans and Pledges of Goods, Debentures, Mercan-
tile^ ami other Securities. By H* C» Folkakd, Esq., of Lincoln's
Inn, Barrister- at- Law, Author of the ** L^w of Slander and LilieJ,"
&c, l^mo, cloth boards, price fs.

The Laws of Mines and Mining CoTnpanies.

A PRACTICAL TREATISE on the LAW RELATING U

MINES and MINING COMPANIES. By Whitton A&tJi
i>MLLf jlttoniey-al-Law, Ctcrwn Svo. ^. qIoI\i.»

inddbarj^A^nrvr, A Co,, rriniiTS ^Vliillctr^at%,■Lfl(^lJlw^

A&tJMj

A fiELECTION F&OU WEJJiE'S SEEIE3.

^ MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, &c.

^ MECHANICS ^ Eudimentarj^ Treatiae on ; beiBg a con-
^2 oise KjLpoeiHon of the GeDeral Prindples of Mechanical Science,
M^ and their Applicatione. Bj C. Touliksoit. lUuatrated* le. 6d.

rJ PNEUMATICS^ for the Use of Beginners. By Chakles
^ ToKLiKsoif, lUuBtrated. 1b. 6d.

W CRANES t tbB Constrnction of, and other Kachinery for

^^ Hflieing Heavy Bodies for the ^rectign of Build mgs, and for I
^ Hoisting Goods. Bj JosBrn Glvnn, F.R3.,&cJIlu^txated. 1b.6(L|

THE STEAM ENGINE, a Rtidimentary Treatise on.
Bj Dr. LARDNsti. Hlustratcd. Ii.

[^ THE STEAM ENGINE, & Treatise on the Mathe-
A matical Tbeoir of, with Eules at IfiTtefhj nnd Eiivmplefl for the 1100 |
^ of Pracbtcal Men. Bj T. Baker, CJS. Illiifltrated. 1b.

^ STEAM BOILEES: their ConstrnctioE and Manage- 1
^ ment Bj R. AfiMjaTaoifO, C.E. Illuetrated. 1b. 6d.

c4 AGEICULTUBAL ENGINEEEING : Farm Build-
*f^ ings, Moti™ Power, Field Machinesj Machinery » and rmplementa.
^ By G, H, Ajcdeews, CM. niu^trated. 3».

^ CLOCKS, WATCHES, AND BELLS. By Sm Edmukd I
SJ B:rckett (late E. B. Dentson, LTj^D.^ &c, &c.) A New Edition,
Jc^ revised, with several additional IlluaU^itionB, is. fid- [JFecrc?^* I

^ THS ECONOMY OF FUEL, particnlarly with refer-
M" enee to Revcrheratory Famacea for the Manuihctiire of Iron, |
^ und to Steam Boilers. By T* Stmes PBrnajLtrx. Is. 6di

^ MARINE ENGINES AND STEAM VESSELS, al
&I 1>eal iae on. Together with Practical RemarkB on the Screw and I
■^ Propelling Power, as used in tho Rt>yul and Merchant Navy. By I
RcijiEiiT MuKRAY, C.E., EngSnoer-Survevor to the Board of Trade.

^ Propelling Power, as used in the Rt>yul and Merchant Navy. By ]
Jl^ Rci jiEiiT mvnnxY, . E., En gi noer-Suireyor to the Board of Trad e
(% Fifth Fdition, revised and enlarged. llluBtrated- ds.

THE POWER OF WATER, as applied to drive Flout

Millfr and to give motion to Turbinei and other Hydrostatic |
Eng I n ca . By J. GlttjiTj F.R. S. , Ac. Ne w Ed i ti on » III iiatratcd . 2a. I

STATICS AND DYNAMICS, the Principles and PracJ
tied of ^ etabmcing & cics^r developincDt of Hvdrostatlos, Hydro- ]
dynamics, and PneumaticBj with Central Force* and Bapar«|
Elevation of Eiterior RaiL By T. Bauku, 0,E. 1b. 6d.

SWORDS, AND OTHER ARMS used for Cutting and!
Thfueting, Memoir on. By Colouel Maret* Translated b;
Colond H. H. Maxwell. With Notafl and Platea. 1b*

:!Dii.^'

Tft 390 0389 1865
^^wl? and Char iron grder

MECHANl

tific Priocipi
Sp^imens ol
on Tools, &o

MACHINE.

w^^^
^i±

mnv

3 6105

nil ^Mi

041 4-dO «o' Bemarks

^^u^^ aua Hiiementftry PrincipleJ
of tlie Cojistruction and oa ihe Woriicg of. By 0, D» Ahel,^
CE. iB. 6d.
TH^ COMBUSTIOX OF COAL AND THE PBE^
YMNTION OF SMOKE. Chemically flud Practicfllly ConBidered.
With an Appendix. By C, WrsWitiLUiSj A.I.CE!, Platefl. 3a-

THE ENGINKEkS GUIDE TO THE EOYAL

AND MERCANTILE NAVIES. By a PttAcriCAj, E^'oiniub.
CfircfuUv C3C;iTninr'(! nnd if^\ifiGd by D. F. JrCASTHY. 3s*

THE BRASS FOUNDERS MANUAL; Instnictioiis
for Modelling, Patteni-lilaking-, Moimting, Allnyingj Turning,
BumiBkLng, Bronzing, &c. With nnmeroufi Tallies and Notes
on Frimi) Oos^ and Estiinatas. By W. Obakam* XUnatiated.
2a. 6d,

MODERN WORKSHOP PBACTICE m applied to
Marine, Land, and Locomottve Engines, Floating Docks,
Bridges, Cmnes, Ship-bnilding, &c. By J. Q. Wimtum, IUup
tmt^d. 3fl.

IRON AND HEAT, exhibiting the Piinciples concr
in the Construction of Iron BeamSj Pillars, and Bridge '
and the Action of Heat in the Smelting Fumao^
Abmouil, C,E, With nunierous UlustraUone, 2s. fld/^

FO WER IN MOTION : Horse-power, Mo^
Wheel Giearing, Long and Short Dri^'ing Ban]^
By J. Armouk, C.E» With 73 Diagmms. Z'

THE APPLICATION OF

STRUCTION OF BRIDGES^

OTHER JFOMKS. By FuiNCis I

llhj St rations, 2»,
MINING TOOLS, For jK

Agenta, Students^ &c. By Z

of Mines* l'2mo. 2a. 6d*^

235 Illustrations. 4 to.
THE WORKMAN'}

BEAiVXNG. ByJy

South Kensingt<:)r
METALLUR/"

talnjng MeJ^

Bte^l, &c/^

vieed ajT

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